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c Cambridge University Press 2010 22
doi:10.1017/S0016756810000312
(Received 7 May 2009; accepted 16 November 2009; first published online 4 May 2010)
Abstract – The morphology and structure of the 1999 lava flows at Mount Cameroon volcano
are documented and discussed in relation to local and source dynamics. Structures are analysed
qualitatively and more detailed arguments are developed on the processes of levee formation and
systematic links between flow dynamics and levee–channel interface geometry. The flows have clear
channels bordered by four main types of levees: initial, accretionary, rubble and overflow levees.
Thermally immature pahoehoe lava units with overflow drapes define the proximal zone, whereas
rubble and accretionary levees are common in the distal region bordering thermally mature aa
clinker or blocky aa flow channels. Pressure ridges, squeeze-ups and pahoehoe ropes are the prevalent
compressive structures. Standlines displayed on clinkery breccias are interpreted to represent levee–
channel interactions in response to changing flow levels. These data complement previous knowledge
on lava flow morphology, thus far dominated by Etnean and Hawaiian examples.
Keywords: Mount Cameroon volcano, lava flows, morphology.
Figure 1. (a) Sketch map of the Cameroon volcanic line (CVL) showing the location of Mount Cameroon along this SW–NE-trending
volcanic chain. (b) Contour map of Mount Cameroon displaying the 20th century lava flows (after Suh et al. 2003). Location of
Figure 2 at the distal end of the 1999 flow is indicated in the box outline.
cones can be identified, for example, on remote-sensing ∼ 4 × 107 m3 (Suh et al. 2003). An average effusion
imagery, at Mount Cameroon, defining a NE–SW rate of 40 m3 s−1 was determined for the duration of
trend along the Cameroon Line, a 1600 km long linear the eruption from site 2. At site 2, over a dozen
volcanic zone that stretches from maritime Pagalu in flow velocity measurements, ranging between 6.9 ×
the SW to Biu in NE Nigeria (Fig. 1a). 10−4 m s−1 and 5 m s−1 , were recorded from 5 to 15
The Cameroon Line (Déruelle, Ngounouno & April 1999 (Fig. 2).
Demaiffe, 2007 and references therein) is divided into The 1999 lavas are basanites (44–47 % SiO2 )
two provinces: oceanic (dominantly basaltic with minor with occasional hawaiites (Suh et al. 2003; Suh,
nephelinite, phonolite and trachyte lavas: Fitton, 1987; Luhr & Njome, 2008; Njome et al. 2008). The
Fitton et al. 1983; Fitton & Hughes, 1977; Halliday et lava is porphyritic with olivine (8 %), clinopyroxene
al. 1988) and continental (with a wider suite of rocks (5 %), plagioclase (3 %) and titanomagnetite (1 %)
and age range, including felsic and basaltic lavas, and phenocrysts set in a fine-grained, often partly glassy
more silicic and alkaline plugs: Nono et al. 1994; groundmass (83 %). Blocks of massive, non-vesicular
Marzoli et al. 2000; Ngounouno, Deruelle & Demaiffe, lava have a mean density of 2592 kg m−3 . Application
2000). The volcanic products are deposited on Tertiary of the olivine geothermometer (Roedder, 1974) infers
sediments overlying a Precambrian crystalline a pre-eruptive temperature of 1166 ◦ C (± 30 ◦ C). In
basement (Toteu, Penaye & Poudjom Djomani, 2004; contrast, residual hawaiite melt (Suh et al. 2003),
Ngako et al. 2006), or intrusive syenites and granites in equilibrium with more fayalitic microlites and
younger than 70 Ma. Magma ascent in the NE section phenocryst rims, gives an eruption temperature of
of the continental province was focused along a 1042 ◦ C (± 30 ◦ C), with measured temperatures of
fracture zone (Poudjom Djomani et al. 1997). hawaiite lavas on Etna of 1070–1090 ◦ C (Pinkerton &
Details of the 1999 eruption are presented in Suh Sparks, 1976). Suh et al. (2003) measured field
et al. (2003). Following precursory earthquake swarms temperatures of 950–975 ◦ C 40 cm into the stagnant
on 26–27 March 1999, the eruption occurred between site 1 flow fronts (4 April) and 1000 ◦ C at the site 2 lava
March 28 and April 22 from two collections of vents at fronts ∼ 10 km from the fissure (10 April), providing
different elevations. The first set of vents, named site lower bounds on the lava temperature. With these
1, opened at ∼ 2807 m on March 28, and erupted both temperatures and compositions, one can estimate lava
explosively and effusively. On March 30, a second set of viscosity. Using the empirical method of Shaw (1972),
vents, named site 2, opened at ∼ 1545 m elevation. Site a residual melt of hawaiite composition at between
1 lava flows have final dimensions of 3 km long, 30– 1012 ◦ C and 1072 ◦ C yields a viscosity of between 145
120 m wide and with flow fronts 15 m high; Suh et al. and 320 Pa s. Lava composed of 17 % phenocrysts and
(2003) estimated their volume as ∼ 2.7 × 106 m3 . The 83 % residual hawaiite has an estimated viscosity of
lava effusion rates varied in the course of the eruption ∼ 320–710 Pa s in the 1012 to 1072 ◦ C temperature
between 4.8 and 9.8 m3 s−1 . The main site 2 lava flow range, whereas the composition of matrix glass (Suh
front extended about 10 km with dimensions ∼ 400 m et al. 2003) yields viscosity for the residual melt of
wide by ∼ 10 m thick, indicating a lava volume of between 3.2 × 106 and 106 Pa s for the temperature
Figure 2. Map of the distal regions of the main site 2 flow-fields, near Bakingili, with flow velocities for different dates indicated.
North is top of the figure.
Figure 3. Typical large-scale features of the Mount Cameroon 1999 lava flows. (a) Proximal pahoehoe channel emerging from a
near-source bocca, by the site 2 vents. (b) Accretionary levees developed in a small, proximal bocca-fed lava channel, near the site 2
vents. The central pahoehoe is flanked by clinker. The levees also display evidence of overflow activity, indicating a more complex,
compound structure; hammer is ∼40 cm long. (c) Distal blocky aa flow channel, near Bakingili. The central flow depicted is ∼ 100 m
wide. (d) Sequence of stranded levees. Photo is taken looking up flow with figure standing on an interior levee, bounding the main
flow channel to the left. (e) Pahoehoe overflow levee with thin drape. (f) Thermally immature aa clinker features. The central region
of pahoehoe is 50 cm at its greatest extent, and grades from a ropy facies into slabby, fractured pahoehoe downstream. The change to
disaggregated aa clinker at the pahoehoe margins is abrupt.
(c) Steep inner wall of a rubble levee at the distal Bakingili flow
fronts. The material here consists of a fine, matrix-supported
welded breccia at the base, which grades upwards into a deposit
Figure 5. Main levee types of the 1999 lava flows at Mount of incipiently welded aa clinker and rubble. The clinkery breccia
Cameroon volcano. (a) Outer rubble levee wall displaying displays several ‘standlines’, typically 10 cm apart, interpreted
typically loose (unconsolidated) angle-of-rest talus. The level as levee–channel interactions in response to changing flow level.
of sorting in the marginal talus slopes varies considerably. The The welded clinker grades into a less consolidated breccia richer
person is ∼ 175 cm tall. (b) Accretionary levees developed in in fines, and ultimately into a clast-rich rubbly top. Hammer is
a small, bocca-fed lava channel. Hammer is ∼ 40 cm long. ∼ 40 cm long.
surface becomes sufficiently cooled to deform by semi- modified by an added lateral component supplied by
ductile or brittle mechanisms then smooth pahoehoe a typically convex-upwards surface, hot and plastic
surfaces are preserved. With further cooling and marginal clinkers are accreted together along the initial
crustal thickening, deformation can no longer be levee margins, further developing the levee structure.
accommodated in a ductile manner, and consequently Sparks, Pinkerton & Hulme (1976) argued that
lava surfaces tear, disaggregating first into slabs and accretionary levees form through a ‘steady, slow rise
rafts, then into clinker, and ultimately into angular of lava level’. Such an increase may arise from an
blocks. increase in the effusion rate, or from the cooling of more
With cooling, groundmass microlite content in- distal regions, especially the flow front. As already
creases and crystal–fluid and crystal–crystal interac- discussed, the slower-moving channel margins will
tions become more frequent. As this process continues, display the effects of cooling preferentially to the more
there is a gradual transition from ductile to brittle mobile interior. The two factors promoting accretion
behaviour. It is during this transitional process that are both greatest at the upper portions of the channel
aa lava surfaces form (Moore, 1987; Kilburn, 1990; sides: shear, aiding the smearing and consolidation of
Rowland & Walker, 1990; Jaggar, 1930, Peterson & clinkers, and cooling, which promotes the solidification
Tilling, 1980). In laminar flow the central region of and stabilization of the levee. Successive rises in flow
the channel moves faster than the flow margins where level will thus accrete material from the channel, and
shear is highest. Thus lava surfaces in the centre have build outwardly sloping inner walls unless a flow surge
experienced less cooling and less shearing than lava or blockage downstream causes a more rapid rise, in
surfaces at the channel margins (Flynn & Mouginis- which case overflows will likely occur (Harris et al.
Mark, 1994; Bailey et al. 2006). As a consequence, 2009). There is often considerable interplay between
the flow centre can remain as pahoehoe, whereas the initial, accretionary and overflow levee-building pro-
cooler and more sheared margins develop an aa clinker cesses. In the 1999 Mount Cameroon lava flows,
texture as illustrated in Figure 3a. pahoehoe overflows overlie much of the welded clinker,
As lava evolves further, and develops a cooler, indicating a later, possibly surge-fed genesis. Areas of
thicker crust, the tensile and shear stresses that build in welded material overlie more massive lava, suggesting
a flow are accommodated by brittle failure. As the lava the accretionary constructs post-date, or are contem-
becomes more thermally mature the depth of solid– poraneous with, the initial levee-forming lava.
ductile transition increases, and the most thermally Rubble levees begin to form in response to the back-
mature lavas are produced, with surface analogous pressure created by the rheologically stiffened flow
to the flows of Macdonald (1953). Although blocky front (Calavari & Pinkerton, 1998; Bailey et al. 2006).
flows are commonly associated with the more viscous As the front advances, the rheologically and texturally
lavas of andesite and rhyolite flows (Macdonald, 1953), zoned material is pushed aside by the caterpillar motion
primarily as a function of their slower emplacement of the cooled surface, aided by the mobile fluid interior
times (and hence opportunity to thermally mature), (Peterson & Tilling, 1980; Fig. 11a, b). This new
they are also witnessed at long-lived basaltic flows (e.g. flow front soon cools and brecciates, and is itself
Booth & Self, 1973; Keszthelyi & Self, 1998; Harris marginalized by more thermally immature material or,
et al. 2009 and references therein), as documented in more commonly, the thermally developed flow surface,
this study. The upper surface of the flow as well as an building marginal rubble levees which display a grad-
increasing fraction of the marginal flow interior deform ation from external rubble, through welded clasts into
more as a granular flow, with blocks milling, fracturing a sluggish visco-plastic interior. These structures are
and rearranging to accommodate channel movement. modified by the subsequent passage of warmer channel-
ized lava. Additional material is provided by the trans-
port of blocky material from the channel to the levee
5.c. Implications of levee structures: modes of formation
margins, and occasional ‘blocky overflows’ (similar to
Irrespective of their post-eruption propensity, initial fluid overflow levees, only using clastic material). For
levees form a protostructure that can be masked or the inner walls of the rubble levees, margin shear and
altered by subsequent levee-building processes (Harris lateral channel pressure will erode initially fractured
et al. 2009). Hulme (1974) argues that lateral spreading material so that it degrades in size, and sorts through to
is eventually inhibited by the development of non- the basal regions of the shear zone, forming an incip-
Newtonian properties in the marginal lava with the iently welded fine basal breccia. As downflow rheolo-
basal shear stress falling below the yield strength. gical changes cause a back-pressure to build up, result-
Following the development of initial levees, the focus ing in flow thickening, and local narrowing of the chan-
of flow down a channel produces high rates of shear nel as a function of cooling similarly occurs, the flow
at the levee–channel interface. The newly erupted channel will inflate, and flow level will rise. The upper
lava is sheared too quickly to form fluid pahoehoe, surface will accommodate this movement by blocky
and instead accommodates deformation in a plastic avalanching, further developing and thickening the
manner, forming small, irregular clinkers (Peterson angle of talus that develops on the levee outer slopes.
& Tilling, 1980; Keszthelyi & Self, 1998). With the Along the inner margin, the rise in level effectively
generally parabolic profile of the flow kinematics, raises the level of the hot, interior portion of the flow.
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