Modeling the Propagation of RF Signals

This example shows how to model several RF propagation effects. These include free space path loss,
atmospheric attenuation due to rain, fog and gas, and multipath propagation due to bounces on the
ground. This discussion is based on the International Telecommunication Union's ITU-R P series
recommendations. ITU-R is the organization's radio communication sector and the P series focuses on
radio wave propagation.

Introduction
To properly evaluate the performance of radar and wireless communication systems, it is critical to
understand the propagation environment. Using radar as an example, the received signal power of a
monostatic radar is given by the radar range equation:

where is the transmitted power, is the antenna gain, is the target radar cross section (RCS), is
the wavelength, and is the propagation distance. All propagation losses other than free space path loss
are included in the term. The rest of example shows how to estimate this term in different scenarios.

Free Space Path Loss

First, the free space path loss is computed as a function of propagation distance and frequency. In free
space, RF signals propagate at a constant speed of light in all directions. At a far enough distance, the
radiating source looks like a point in space and the wavefront forms a sphere whose radius is equal to .
The power density at the wavefront is inversely proportional to

where is the transmitted signal power. For a monostatic radar where the signal has to travel both
directions (from the source to the target and back), the dependency is actually inversely proportional
to , as shown previously in the radar equation. The loss related to this propagation mechanism is
referred to as free space path loss, sometimes also called the spreading loss. Quantitatively, free space
path loss is also a function of frequency, given by [5]

As a convention, propagation losses are often expressed in dB. This convention makes it much easier to
derive the two-way free space path loss by simply doubling the one-way free space loss.
The following figure plots how the free space path loss changes over the frequency between 10 to 1000
GHz for different ranges.
c = physconst('lightspeed');
R0 = [100 1e3 10e3];
freq = (10:1000).'*1e9;
apathloss = fspl(R0,c./freq);
loglog(freq/1e9,apathloss);
grid on; ylim([90 200])
legend('Range: 100 m', 'Range: 1 km', 'Range: 10 km')
xlabel('Frequency (GHz)');
ylabel('Path Loss (dB)')
title('Free Space Path Loss')
The figure illustrates that the propagation loss increases with range and frequency.

Propagation Loss Due to Rain

In reality, signals don't travel in a vacuum, so free space path loss describes only part of the signal
attenuation. Signals interact with particles in the air and lose energy along the propagation path. The loss
varies with different factors such as pressure, temperature, water density.
Rain can be a major limiting factor for a radar systems, especially when operating above 5 GHz. In the
ITU model in [2], rain is characterized by the rain rate (in mm/h). According to [6], the rain rate can range
from less than 0.25 mm/h for very light rain to over 50 mm/h for extreme rains. In addition, because of the
rain drop's shape and its relative size compared to the RF signal wavelength, the propagation loss due to
rain is also a function of signal polarization.
The following plot shows how losses due to rain varies with frequency. The plot assumes the polarization
to be horizontal, so the tilt angle is 0. In addition, assume that the signal propagates parallel to the
ground, so the elevation angle is 0. In general, horizontal polarization represents the worse case for
propagation loss due to rain.
R0 = 1e3; % 1 km range
rainrate = [1 4 16 50]; % rain rate in mm/h
el = 0; % 0 degree elevation
tau = 0; % horizontal polarization

for m = 1:numel(rainrate)
rainloss(:,m) = rainpl(R0,freq,rainrate(m),el,tau)';
end
loglog(freq/1e9,rainloss); grid on;
legend('Light rain','Moderate rain','Heavy rain','Extreme rain', ...
'Location','SouthEast');
xlabel('Frequency (GHz)');
ylabel('Rain Attenuation (dB/km)')
title('Rain Attenuation for Horizontal Polarization');

Similar to rainfall, snow can also have a significant impact on the propagation of RF signals. However,
there is no specific model to compute the propagation loss due to snow. The common practice is to treat
it as rainfall and compute the propagation loss based on the rain model, even though this approach tends
to overestimate the loss a bit.

Propagation Loss Due to Fog and Cloud

Fog and cloud are formed with water droplets too, although much smaller compared to rain drops. The
size of fog droplets are generally less than 0.01 cm. Fog is often characterized by the liquid water density.
A medium fog with a visibility of roughly 300 meters, has a liquid water density of 0.05 g/m^3. For heavy
fog where the visibility drops to 50 meters, the liquid water density is about 0.5 g/m^3. The atmosphere
temperature (in Celsius) is also present in the ITU model for propagation loss due to fog and cloud [3].
The next plot shows how the propagation loss due to fog varies with frequency.
T = 15; % 15 degree Celsius
waterdensity = [0.05 0.5]; % liquid water density in g/m^3
for m = 1: numel(waterdensity)
fogloss(:,m) = fogpl(R0,freq,T,waterdensity(m))';
end
loglog(freq/1e9,fogloss); grid on;
legend('Medium fog','Heavy fog');
xlabel('Frequency (GHz)');
ylabel('Fog Attenuation (dB/km)')
title('Fog Attenuation');
Note that in general fog is not present when it is raining.

Propagation Loss Due to Atmospheric Gases

Even when there is no fog or rain, the atmosphere is full of gases that still affect the signal propagation.
The ITU model [4] describes atmospheric gas attenuation as a function of both dry air pressure, like
oxygen, measured in hPa, and water vapour density, measured in g/m^3.
The plot below shows how the propagation loss due to atmospheric gases varies with the frequency.
Assume a dry air pressure of 1013 hPa at 15 degrees Celsius, and a water vapour density of 7.5 g/m^3.
P = 101300; % dry air pressure in Pa
ROU = 7.5; % water vapour density in g/m^3
gasloss = gaspl(R0,freq,T,P,ROU);
loglog(freq/1e9,gasloss); grid on;
xlabel('Frequency (GHz)');
ylabel('Atmospheric Gas Attenuation (dB/km)')
title('Atmospheric Gas Attenuation');
The plot suggests that there is a strong absorption due to atmospheric gases at around 60 GHz.
The next figure compares all weather related losses for a 77 GHz automotive radar. The horizontal axis is
the target distance from the radar. The maximum distance of interest is about 200 meters.
R = (1:200).';
fc77 = 77e9;
apathloss = fspl(R,c/fc77);

rr = 16; % heavy rain

arainloss = rainpl(R,fc77,rr,el,tau);

M = 0.5; % heavy fog

afogloss = fogpl(R,fc77,T,M);

agasloss = gaspl(R,fc77,T,P,ROU);

% Multiply by 2 for two-way loss

semilogy(R,2*[apathloss arainloss afogloss agasloss]);

grid on;
xlabel('Propagation Distance (m)');
ylabel('Path Loss (dB)');
legend('Free space','Rain','Fog','Gas','Location','Best')
title('Path Loss for 77 GHz Radar');
The plot suggests that for a 77 GHz automotive radar, the free space path loss is the dominant loss.
Losses from fog and atmospheric gasses are negligible, accounting for less than 0.5 dB. The loss from
rain can get close to 3 dB at 180 m.

Propagation Delay and Doppler Shift on Top of Propagation Loss

Functions mentioned above for computing propagation losses, are useful to establish budget links. To
simulate the propagation of arbitrary signals, we also need to apply range-dependent time delays, gains
and phase shifts.
The code below simulates an air surveillance radar operated at 24 GHz.
fc = 24e9;
First, define the transmitted signal. A rectangular waveform will be used in this case
waveform = phased.RectangularWaveform;
wav = waveform();
Assume the radar is at the origin and the target is at a 5 km range, of the direction of 45 degrees azimuth
and 10 degrees elevation. In addition, assume the propagation is along line of sight (LOS), a heavy rain
rate of mm/h with no fog.
Rt = 5e3;
az = 45;
el = 10;
pos_tx = [0;0;0];
pos_rx = [Rt*cosd(el)*cosd(az);Rt*cosd(el)*sind(az);Rt*sind(el)];
vel_tx = [0;0;0];
vel_rx = [0;0;0];
loschannel = phased.LOSChannel(...
'PropagationSpeed',c,...
'OperatingFrequency',fc,...
'SpecifyAtmosphere',true,...
'Temperature',T,...
'DryAirPressure',P,...
'WaterVapourDensity',ROU,...
'LiquidWaterDensity',0,... % No fog
'RainRate',rr,...
'TwoWayPropagation', true)
loschannel =

phased.LOSChannel with properties:

PropagationSpeed: 299792458
OperatingFrequency: 2.4000e+10
SpecifyAtmosphere: true
Temperature: 15
DryAirPressure: 101300
WaterVapourDensity: 7.5000
LiquidWaterDensity: 0
RainRate: 16
TwoWayPropagation: true
SampleRate: 1000000
MaximumDistanceSource: 'Auto'

The received signal can then be simulated as

y = loschannel(wav,pos_tx,pos_rx,vel_tx,vel_rx);
The total loss can be computed as
L_total = pow2db(bandpower(wav))-pow2db(bandpower(y))
L_total =

289.6873

To verify the power loss obtained from the simulation, compare it with the result from the analysis below
and make sure they match.
Lfs = 2*fspl(Rt,c/fc);
Lr = 2*rainpl(Rt,fc,rr,el,tau);
Lg = 2*gaspl(Rt,fc,T,P,ROU);

L_analysis = Lfs+Lr+Lg
L_analysis =

289.6472

Multipath Propagation
Signals may not always propagate along the line of sight. Instead, some signals can arrive at the
destination via different paths through reflections and may add up either constructively or destructively.
This multipath effect can cause significant fluctuations in the received signal.
Ground reflection is a common phenomenon for many radar or wireless communication systems. For
example, when a base station sends a signal to a mobile unit, the signal not only propagates directly to
the mobile unit but is also reflected from the ground.
Assume an operating frequency of 1900 MHz, as used in LTE, such a channel can be modeled as
fc = 1900e6;
tworaychannel = phased.TwoRayChannel('PropagationSpeed',c,...
'OperatingFrequency',fc);
Assume the mobile unit is 1.6 meters above the ground, the base station is 100 meters above the ground
at a 500 meters distance. Simulate the signal received by the mobile unit.
pos_base = [0;0;100];
pos_mobile = [500;0;1.6];
vel_base = [0;0;0];
vel_mobile = [0;0;0];
y2ray = tworaychannel(wav,pos_base,pos_mobile,vel_base,vel_mobile);
The signal loss suffered in this channel can be computed as
L_2ray = pow2db(bandpower(wav))-pow2db(bandpower(y2ray))
L_2ray =

109.1524

The free space path loss is given by

L_ref = fspl(norm(pos_mobile-pos_base),c/fc)
L_ref =

92.1673

The result suggests that in this configuration, the channel introduces an extra 17 dB loss to the received
signal compared to the free space case. Now assume the mobile user is a bit taller and holds the mobile
unit at 1.8 meters above the ground. Repeating the simulation above suggests that this time the ground
reflection actually provides a 6 dB gain! Although free space path loss is essentially the same in the two
scenarios, a 20 cm move caused a 23 dB fluctuation in signal power.
pos_mobile = [500;0;1.8];
y2ray = tworaychannel(wav,pos_base,pos_mobile,vel_base,vel_mobile);
L_2ray = pow2db(bandpower(wav))-pow2db(bandpower(y2ray))
L_ref = fspl(norm(pos_mobile-pos_base),c/fc)
L_2ray =

86.2165

L_ref =

92.1666
Wideband Propagation in a Multipath Environment
Increasing a system's bandwidth increases the capacity of its channel. This enables higher data rates in
communication systems and finer range resolutions for radar systems. The increased bandwidth can also
improve robustness to multipath fading for both systems.
Typically, wideband systems operate with a bandwidth of greater than 5% of their center frequency. In
contrast, narrowband systems operate with a bandwidth of 1% or less of the system's center frequency.
The narrowband channel in the preceding section was shown to be very sensitive to multipath fading.
Slight changes in the mobile unit's height resulted in considerable signal losses. The channel's fading
characteristics can be plotted by varying the mobile unit's height across a span of operational heights for
this wireless communication system. A span of heights from 10cm to 3m is chosen to cover a likely range
for mobile unit usage.
% Simulate the signal fading at mobile unit for heights from 10cm to 3m
hMobile = linspace(0.1,3);
pos_mobile = repmat([500;0;1.6],[1 numel(hMobile)]);
pos_mobile(3,:) = hMobile;
vel_mobile = repmat([0;0;0],[1 numel(hMobile)]);

release(tworaychannel);
y2ray = tworaychannel(repmat(wav,[1 numel(hMobile)]),...
pos_base,pos_mobile,vel_base,vel_mobile);
The signal loss observed at the mobile unit for the narrowband system can now be plotted.
L2ray = pow2db(bandpower(wav))-pow2db(bandpower(y2ray));

plot(hMobile,L2ray);
xlabel('Mobile Unit''s Height (m)');
ylabel('Channel Loss (dB)');
title('Multipath Fading Observed at Mobile Unit');
grid on;
The sensitivity of the channel loss to the mobile unit's height for this narrowband system is clear. Deep
signal fades occur at heights that are likely to be occupied by the system's users.
Increasing the channel's bandwidth can improve the communication link's robustness to these multipath
fades. To do this, a wideband waveform is defined with a bandwidth of 10% of the link's center frequency.
bw = 0.10*fc;
pulse_width = 1/bw;
fs = 2*bw;

waveform = phased.RectangularWaveform('SampleRate',fs,...
'PulseWidth',pulse_width);
wav = waveform();
A wideband two-ray channel model is also required to simulate the multipath reflections of this wideband
signal off of the ground between the base station and the mobile unit and to compute the corresponding
channel loss.
widebandTwoRayChannel = ...
phased.WidebandTwoRayChannel('PropagationSpeed',c,...
'OperatingFrequency',fc,'SampleRate',fs);
The received signal at the mobile unit for various operational heights can now be simulated for this
wideband system.
y2ray_wb = widebandTwoRayChannel(repmat(wav,[1 numel(hMobile)]),...
pos_base,pos_mobile,vel_base,vel_mobile);
L2ray_wb = pow2db(bandpower(wav))-pow2db(bandpower(y2ray_wb));

hold on;
plot(hMobile,L2ray_wb);
hold off;
legend('Narrowband','Wideband');

As expected, the wideband channel provides much better performance across a wide range of heights for
the mobile unit. In fact, as the height of the mobile unit increases, the impact of multipath fading almost
completely disappears. This is because the difference in propagation delay between the direct and
bounce path signals is increasing, reducing the amount of coherence between the two signals when
received at the mobile unit.

Conclusion
This example provides a brief overview of RF propagation losses due to atmospheric and weather effects.
It also introduces multipath signal fluctuations due to bounces on the ground. It highlighted functions and
objects to calculate attenuation losses and simulate range-dependent time delays and Doppler shifts.

References
[1] John Seybold, Introduction to RF Propagation, Wiley, 2005
[2] Recommendation ITU-R P.838-3, 2005
[3] Recommendation ITU-R P.840-3, 2013
[4] Recommendation ITU-R P.676-10, 2013
[5] Recommendation ITU-R P.525-2, 1994
https://cloudrf.com/docs/models

CloudRF
Propagation Models
This service offers a variety of propagation models for different purposes, all of which are open
source so you can examine the algorithms used for your piece of mind. For maximum speed the
models are all written in a low level language (C++). Feedback from radio professionals and
developers is encouraged to optimise the models where possible.

Model Description Frequency Source

range

Irregular Terrain 'Longley Rice' Model. US Gov. general 20-20,000MHz itm.cc

Model (ITM) purpose model used by FCC

Line of Sight (LOS) Simple model for viewing obstructions Any los.cc

Okumura-Hata Hata model for cellular communications in 150-1500MHz hata.cc

urban areas

ECC33 (ITU-R ECC33 model for cellular and microwave 700-3500MHz ecc33.cc
P.529) communications

Stanford University SUI model for WIMAX communications 1900- sui.cc

Interim (SUI) 11000MHz

COST231-Hata European COST231 frequency extension 150-2000MHz cost.cc

to Hata model for urban areas

ITU-R P.525 Free Space Path Loss model 20- fspl.cc

100,000MHz

ITM with Enhanced ITM general purpose model. 20- itwom3.0.cc

obstructions 3.0 The Author says it's better. See for 100,000MHz
yourself.

Ericsson Ericsson model for cellular 150-1900MHz ericsson.cc

communications up to 1.9GHz

Find your perfect model

Using our interactive chart, you can find your perfect model. Just lookup your frequency along the
bottom and find a model that suits your needs whether that's a conservative cellular model like
Ericsson 9999 or a more optimistic general purpose model like the Irregular Terrain model.

Irregular Terrain Model

This service uses the Irregular Terrain Model version 7, also known as the 'Longley Rice' model. The
ITM model is a long standing general purpose model developed by the US NTIA and used by the
FCC which meets most radio engineering requirements for frequencies between 20 MHz and 20
GHz. It is suitable for everything RF from handheld VHF walkie-talkies to SHF microwave links. It
factors in electromagnetic theory, terrain features, ground clutter, diffraction and radio
measurements to predict the attenuation of a radio signal at a given point on the earth.
With the addition of reliability (time and situations) as a percentage the model can be tuned to be
compliant with TSB-10 (Revision F) standards for microwave communications which defines a
reliability of 80% for a long term loss and 99% for a short term loss.

Line of Sight (LOS) model

The LOS model is a simpler model well suited to super high frequency microwave links where LOS
is key. It factors in terrain data and antenna heights to provide a clear yes/no result. It starts where
the ITM model finishes at 20GHz and extends the maximum range up to 100GHz.

Okumura-Hata models
The Hata models were designed for Urban cellular planning which is evident by their focused
frequency range (150-1500MHz) and minimum tower elevation of 30m. The model assumes the
transmitter is higher than the average height of the rooftops.

COST231-Hata extension
The COST231-Hata model extends the Hata cellular models another 500MHz up to 2000MHz so is
well suited to GSM1800 in urban areas.

ITU-R P.525 Free Space Path Loss

The free space model is a very simple model that assumes no obstacles exist between transmitter
and receiver. It factors in the frequency and distance. It can be further enhanced with the addition of
knife edge diffraction which will factor in terrain obstacles and antenna heights.

ITU-R P.529 ECC33

ECC33 model for cellular and microwave communications covering 700-3500MHz

ITWOM3.0
The Irregular Terrain Model with obstructions 3.0 model is claimed by its author to be an
enhancement to the ITM model with improved diffraction scatter and accuracy. Future models By
popular demand we have added new models and are open to requests for more.

Knife edge diffraction

In their native form, the empirical models (Hata, COST, ITU-R P.525) do not factor in the significant
effects of diffraction caused behind obstacles. To accommodate this without the processing
overhead associated with recognised complex diffraction theories, a proprietary knife edge
diffraction function has been written which simulates modest diffraction, varied by wavelength and
the angle of the received point to the obstacle summit.

Signal server
The models listed are implemented in a program called 'Signal server' which is the open source
application that powers CloudRF. It's a modified version of the popular SPLAT! program, written by
John Magliacane and used by the FCC, NASA and Engineers worldwide. Signal server is licensed
under the GPL so you can download the source code and use it for free. Signal server on Github

Requirements
 Linux
 GCC,G++
 Multicore CPU (optional)
 ~2GB Memory
 SRTM terrain tile(s) or ASCII Grid tile(s)

Signal Server is a very resource intensive multicore application. Only publish it for
common use if you know what you are doing and you are advised to wrap it with
another script to perform input validation.

Additional programs/scripts will be required to prepare inputs such as .sdf tiles

(srtm2sdf.c), 3D antenna patterns (.ant) and user defined clutter (.udt) or manipulate the
bitmap output (.ppm). More information can be found in the SPLAT! project.

Installation
make

Test
./test.sh

Parameters
Version: Signal Server 3.05 (Built for 100 DEM tiles at 1200 pixels)
License: GNU General Public License (GPL) version 2

Radio propagation simulator by Alex Farrant QCVS, 2E0TDW

Based upon SPLAT! by John Magliacane, KD2BD

Usage: signalserver [data options] [input options] [output options] -o outputfile

Data:
-sdf Directory containing SRTM derived .sdf DEM tiles
-lid ASCII grid tile (LIDAR) with dimensions and resolution defined in header
-udt User defined point clutter as decimal co-ordinates:
'latitude,longitude,height'
-clt MODIS 17-class wide area clutter in ASCII grid format
Input:
-lat Tx Latitude (decimal degrees) -70/+70
-lon Tx Longitude (decimal degrees) -180/+180
-txh Tx Height (above ground)
-rla (Optional) Rx Latitude for PPA (decimal degrees) -70/+70
-rlo (Optional) Rx Longitude for PPA (decimal degrees) -180/+180
-f Tx Frequency (MHz) 20MHz to 100GHz (LOS after 20GHz)
-erp Tx Effective Radiated Power (Watts) including Tx+Rx gain
-rxh Rx Height(s) (optional. Default=0.1)
-rxg Rx gain dBi (optional for text report)
-hp Horizontal Polarisation (default=vertical)
-gc Random ground clutter (feet/meters)
-m Metric units of measurement
-te Terrain code 1-6 (optional)
-terdic Terrain dielectric value 2-80 (optional)
-tercon Terrain conductivity 0.01-0.0001 (optional)
-cl Climate code 1-6 (optional)
-rel Reliability for ITM model 50 to 99 (optional)
-resample Resample Lidar input to specified resolution in meters (optional)
Output:
-dbm Plot Rxd signal power instead of field strength
-rt Rx Threshold (dB / dBm / dBuV/m)
-o Filename. Required.
-R Radius (miles/kilometers)
-res Pixels per tile. 300/600/1200/3600 (Optional. LIDAR res is within the tile)
-pm Propagation model. 1: ITM, 2: LOS, 3: Hata, 4: ECC33,
5: SUI, 6: COST-Hata, 7: FSPL, 8: ITWOM, 9: Ericsson, 10: Plane earth, 11:
Egli VHF/UHF
-pe Propagation model mode: 1=Urban,2=Suburban,3=Rural
 -ked Knife edge diffraction (Already on for ITM)
Debugging:
-t Terrain greyscale background
-dbg Verbose debug messages
-ng Normalise Path Profile graph
-haf Halve 1 or 2 (optional)
-nothreads Turn off threaded processing

REFERENCE DATA
Signal server is designed for most of the environments and climates on Planet Earth but
Polar region support is limited above extreme latitudes. (Svalbard is ok). It can run with
or without terrain data and can even be used to simulate radiation of other EM
emissions like light.

-sdf

Directory containing Digital Elevation Models (DEM)

SDF formatted tiles can be created by converting SRTM tiles (30m or 90m) in HGT
format with the srtm2sdf.c utility from SPLAT!. At the time of writing these tiles can be
obtained for free from the USGS website.

-lid

WGS84 ASCII grid tile (LIDAR) with dimensions and resolution defined in header

LIDAR data can be used providing it is in ASCII grid format with WGS84 projection.
Resolutions up to 25cm have been tested. 2m is recommended for a good trade off.
Cellsize should be in degrees and co-ordinates must be in WGS84 decimal degrees. To
load multiple tiles use commas eg. -lid tile1.asc,tile2.asc. You can load in different
resolution tiles and use -resample to set the desired resolution (limited by data limit).

ncols 2454
nrows 1467
xllcorner -1.475333294357
yllcorner 53.378635095801
cellsize 0.000006170864
NODATA_value 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...
-udt

User defined CSV clutter file

This text file allows you to define buildings with co-ordinates and heights. Elevations in
the UDT file are evaluated and then copied into a temporary file under /tmp. Then the
contents of the temp file are scanned, and if found to be unique, are added to the
ground elevations described by the digital elevation data in memory. Height units are
determined by appending M for meters or nothing for feet. Format:
latitude,longitude,height

54.555,-2.221,10M
54.555,-2.222,10M
54.555,-2.223,10M

Antenna radiation pattern(s)

Antenna pattern data is read from a pair of files having the same base name as the
output file (-o), but with .az and .el extensions for azimuth and elevation patterns.

045.0
0 0.8950590
1 0.8966406
2 0.8981447
3 0.8995795
4 0.9009535
5 0.9022749
The first line of the .az file specifies the direction measured clockwise in degrees from
True North. This is followed by azimuth headings (0 to 360 degrees) and their associated
normalized field patterns (0.000 to 1.000) separated by whitespace.

The structure of SPLAT! elevation pattern files is slightly different. The first line of the .el
file specifies the amount of mechanical beamtilt applied to the antenna. A downward tilt
is expressed as a positive angle, while an upward tilt is expressed as a negative angle.
This data is followed by the azimuthal direction of the tilt, separated by whitespace. The
remainder of the file consists of elevation angles and their radiation pattern (0.000 to
1.000) values separated by whitespace. Elevation angles must be specified over a -10.0
to +90.0 degree range. In this example, the antenna is tilted down 2 degrees towards an
azimuth of 045.0 degrees.

2.0 045.0
-10.0 0.172
-9.5 0.109
-9.0 0.115
-8.5 0.155
-8.0 0.157

Examples

90m resolution
 INPUTS: 900MHz tower at 25m AGL with 5W ERP, 30km radius
 OUTPUTS: 1200 resolution, 30km radius, -90dBm receiver threshold, Longley Rice model

./signalserver -sdf /data/SRTM3 -lat 51.849 -lon -2.2299 -txh 25 -f 900 -erp 5 -rxh
2 -rt -90 -dbm -m -o test1 -R 30 -res 1200 -pm 1

30m resolution
 INPUTS: 450MHz tower at 25f AGL with 20W ERP, 10km radius
 OUTPUTS: 3600 resolution, 30km radius, 10dBuV receiver threshold, Hata model

./signalserverHD -sdf /data/SRTM1 -lat 51.849 -lon -2.2299 -txh 25 -f 450 -erp 20 -
rxh 2 -rt 10 -o test2 -R 10 -res 3600 -pm 3

2m resolution (LIDAR)
 INPUTS: 1800MHz tower at 15m AGL with 1W ERP, 1 km radius
 OUTPUTS: 2m LIDAR resolution, 5km radius, -90dBm receiver threshold, Longley Rice
model

./signalserverLIDAR -lid /data/LIDAR/Gloucester_2m.asc -lat 51.849 -lon -2.2299 -txh

15 -f 1800 -erp 1 -rxh 2 -rt -90 -db