The Earth’s Magnetic

Field and Life

David E. Loper
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Institute
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida

IAGA General Assembly,

Toulouse, July 25, 2005
1
DL to CB:
02Apr04

IAGA
“My first reaction on a sober
Friday morning is
‘Did I really agree to give a
talk on that?!’ ”

2
 CB to DL:
05Apr04

IAGA

“I thought it only fair to send you

… the evidence that could be
presented in court …”

3
 This talk will NOT cover
• Correlations of
Gallet &
> magnetic field reversals Courtillot
1995

> impacts
> and mass extinctions

Raup &
Sepkoski 1984

4
 This talk will NOT cover
• Biological effects of magnetic fields
> correlations of field strength and
• skull thickness (Ivanhoe, 1979)
• cancer (Archer, 1978)

> levitating frogs

• NHMFL

> bio-navigation
> the lesser electric ray that
puts magnetite grains in its
ears (Rudloe)
5
 Geomagnetism & anthropology
An interesting book:
The Search for the Great Turtle Mother
by Jack Rudloe

6
 This talk will NOT cover

• Environmental magnetism

• Medical magnetism
> Magnets placed in shoes, etc.

7
 Consider the big picture

• The big bang

• Formation of stars and galaxies
• Supernovae and the formation of
heavy elements
• Formation of solar system
• Structure and dynamics of Earth
and evolution of life
> habitability and
> the prevalence of life in the Galaxy
8
Hubble
What is so special about Earth?

Gaia Magoo?

or

“If we were typical, we should not exist …

we humans should be the descendants of long-ago
settlers from somewhere else.” von Hoerner 1978
9
 Scope of presentation
• The focus will be on
> geophysics
> geomagnetism and
> aeronomy of Earth
• With some comparative
planetology
• Related topics:
NASA
> geology NASA

> biochemistry > geochemistry

> habitability > SETI
> cosmology > astrobiology 10
 Outline
• Ingredients for life
> simple life > complex life
> intelligent life
• civilization and technology

• Recipe for life: how to build a habitable planet

> components of a habitable planet
> the Life-Sustaining Loop
• What could go wrong - in the future?
• What could have gone wrong - in the past?
> why are we alone? Role of a planetary
> the Magoo Hypothesis magnetic field?
11
 Comparative planetology

JPL

Mercury Venus Earth Mars

Life No No Yes No?
Water No No Yes Early
Magnetic field & dynamo Yes? No Yes Early
Plate tectonics No No Yes Early
Large Moon No No Yes No 12
 Ingredients for simple life
• Lots of C, H and O
> A dash of N, P, S, Na, K, Ca, etc
• Lots of liquid water
• Some starter organic molecules
> prevalent in interstellar space
> introduced by comets?
• A template for cells
> provided by aerosols?
• Energy
> solar, geothermal or chemical
13
 Ingredients for complex life

• Some oxygen
> from photosynthesis
• Stable climate
> plate tectonics
• Lots of time
> ~3 Gyr

14
 Ingredients for intelligence,
civilization and technology
• Dry land (continental crust)
> mineral deposits
> hydrocarbon deposits
• Oxygen-rich atmosphere
• Very stable climate
• Suitable plants & animals
> Guns, Germs & Steel;
J. Diamond Patte Loper

What about the magnetic field?

15
 Recipe for life
• Choose the right neighborhood
> galactic habitable zone later
> circumstellar habitable zone

• Build a habitable Earth

> containing the focus on
components of the life- this first
sustaining loop

The desired goal: life on Earth

16
 The Life-Sustaining Loop
• What features and processes were
(and are) essential for the development
of life on Earth?

• To answer this, let’s consider the

components of the Loop

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 The key component
“… we take the primary requirement for
habitability to be the presence of liquid
water on a planet’s surface.” Kasting 1997

liquid water

life on Earth
Wes Skiles 18
 The hidden component

Has Earth retained liquid water

because of its magnetic field?

magnetic field liquid water

life on Earth
19
 Water loss

Energetic atoms
H* + O* can escape;
ions can be
+ H++ O+ swept away
a variety of
processes

vapor in the
atmosphere

Water loss is tied to

atmospheric loss
liquid and ice on
planet surface solar heating
20
U Cambridge
 Types of atmospheric loss
• Involving neutrals or ions
• By internal or external forcing

ask
Google

define:
aeronomy

21
 Loss of ions –
internal mechanisms
• polar wind
> strong planetary
(dipolar) field
> flux is not large

22
 Loss of ions –
external mechanisms.1
• Involves several magnetic fields
> solar / interplanetary field
> planetary field
SOHO
> induced field
> crustal field
Rohman

Mars crustal field NASA

23
 Loss of ions –
external mechanisms.2
• non thermal escape Similar to
> photoionization sandblasting
> dissociative recombination
> charge exchange
> pickup-ion sputtering

• generally not
important

24
 Loss of neutrals –
internal mechanisms
Maxwell-
• Jeans escape – Boltzman
distribution
> hot atoms boiling off
> not important

• hydrodynamic escape –
> like a supersonic nozzle
> important early in the evolution outer space
of atmospheres of all terrestrial Supersonic nozzle
planets

planet surface
25
 Loss of neutrals –
external mechanisms.1
• impact blowoff
> Important on early Mars
> not important on Earth or Venus
• due to larger escape velocity
• Photodissociation
> important early for Venus
USGS
• during solar T Tauri phase

26
 Loss of neutrals –
external mechanisms.2
• Solar wind scouring Lund Observatory

> effective if the wind penetrates

below the exobase
• no planetary magnetic field
> important during the T Tauri
phase of solar evolution
> process includes
• photodissociation
• photoionization
• charge exchange, etc exobase The level in the upper
atmosphere where the mean free
> H escapes and drags O along path equals the scale height
• CO2 is too heavy
27
 The solar wind

consists of
energetic
protons
(H+) and
electrons

is variable,
originating
in flares

drags the
solar
magnetic
field NASA

28
 Solar wind at Mars

Mars has no
large-scale
magnetic field

Solar wind
comes close to
the surface of
Mars, scouring
away its
atmosphere

29
NASA
 Solar wind at Venus

Solar wind was

very strong
when the Sun
was in the T
Tauri phase

Chassefière 1997:
Venus could
have lost an
ocean of water IGPP.UCLA
in ~10 Myr.

30
 Solar wind at Earth

Earth has a
large-scale
magnetic
field

Solar wind is
deflected away
from Earth,
protecting the
atmosphere

Jim Kaler
31
 Aside: Evolution of Planetary
Atmospheres: Venus, Mars & Earth

• Primitive atmospheres have been lost

> principally by hydrodynamic escape

• Faint early Sun

> greenhouse gases

• Earth: Moon-forming
impact

32
GJ Taylor
 Venus’ atmosphere
formation & now
early loss timeline

H2O in the escape to outer space

atmosphere

in the HOT!
CO2 atmosphere

Lots of water
vapor initially.
Key factor: no
condensation

Cambridge Atlas 33
of Astronomy
 Mars’ atmosphere
formation & now
early loss timeline

in the condense
H2O atmosphere
sequestered in the crust
ocean by plate tectonics

not much
water to
begin with COLD!

in the
CO2 atmosphere sequestered

magnetic field
and plate
tectonics 34
NASA
 Earth’s atmosphere
formation & now
early loss timeline

in the condense
H2O atmosphere in the ocean

CO2 in the
atmosphere early sequestered in the crust
greenhouse

O2 photosynthesis
in the atmosphere

volcanic
N2 in the mantle
degassing in the atmosphere

magnetic field and plate tectonics

35
 Earth’s climate
• Obliquity and climate are
stabilized by the Moon, but
• Earth had three global ice
ages
> Huronian ~2.2 Byr ago
• triggered by oxygen?
> Sturtian ~750 Myr ago
> Varangian ~600 Myr ago
• cause of Cambrian
explosion?

• How did Earth recover?

> CO2 build-up due to volcanic
degassing
end of the aside Mueller
Where was Gaia? on atmospheres 36
 Questions about water loss
• What is the current escape flux?
> Is the flux of H or O more critical?
• What is the rate-limiting process?
> Is the magnetic field involved?
• How did the flux vary in earlier epochs?
> Was it greater when the climate was warmer?
> Was there a different rate-limiting process in earlier
epochs?
• vigorous young Sun (T-Tauri phase)
• Would Earth have retained its liquid water
in the absence of a magnetic field?
37
 Some speculative answers
“…the magnetic field acts as a shield to solar
wind erosion.” Lundin 2001
“…the terrestrial magnetosphere, which protects
our atmosphere and hydrosphere from the
erosive effect of the solar wind, has played a
major role in the retention of volatile components
...” Chassefière and Leblanc 2004

“A possible strong magnetic field …may be

effective in hindering the hydrodynamic
escape of hydrogen.” Tian et al 2005
38
 Loop - continued

magnetic field liquid water

life on Earth
39
 Why is Earth a magnet?

The dynamo and

magnetic field
help Earth to cool
faster

Ohmic dissipation
dominates viscous
diffusion

A visualization of the
dynamo operating in
the core G. Glatzmaier
40
 Dynamo dynamics

Dynamo action is driven by convective

motions in the outer core

Convection is driven by thermal and/or

compositional buoyancy
(and posssibly precession)
These motions stir the outer core into
a well-mixed, adiabatic state

41
 Earth
structure
Outer core is
well mixed by
convection

Adiabatic
temperature
increases
with depth

42
Nimmo and Alfè
 Core energetics

Heat flux to the mantle:

Qconv can
Q = Qcond + Qconv be negative

Conduction Convection

The big drain:

heat conducted
down the aidabat

43
 Heat conduction
thermal conductivity
dT dT K
Qcond = -kA dr
≈ 8 × 10-4
m
dr
20th century: A ≈ 1.5 × 1014 m2

W
If k = 28 , then Qcond ≈ 3.4 × 1012 W Qsurf ≈ 45 × 1012 W
mK

21st century: Stacey & Anderson 2001

W k is causing
If k = 56 , then Qcond ≈ 6.8 × 1012 W trouble
mK
44
 Too much conductivity?
thermal conductivity

Wiedemann-Franz Law: k = LT σ
electrical
conductivity

Too much of
a good thing!

45
 Core heat sources

Q = QP + QR + QL + Qg + ...
Primordial heat Gravitational
(compositional)

Radioactivity
Latent heat

QP requires QL and Qg require cooling

planetary cooling and inner core growth

QR decays with time;

Half life of 40K is 1.25 Gyr

46
 Dynamo energy sources

Qdynamo = ε ⎡⎣QP + QR + QL − Qcond ⎤⎦ + Qg

Efficiency Heat sources Heat sink

factor

Need: 11
Qdynamo > several × 10 W

The dynamo appears to

without QR: 100-330 K/Gyr;
require a large core
with QR : 30-70 K/Gyr;
heat flux and radioactive
Gubbins etal 2003, 2004
heating in the core

47
 Unresolved issues
• Dynamo power
> amount required vs amount available
• Amount of heat conducted down the adiabat
> Stacey’s recent estimate of k
• Thermal vs. compositional convection
> role of precession
• Age of the inner core
• Amount of radioactivity in the core
> reasonable thermal history
• Mode of core motion
> overturning or box-filling 48
 The third component

large heat flux

magnetic field liquid water

life on Earth
49
 Planetary cooling

T = potential temperature
dT Energy
=r −q balance
t = time
dt q = surface heat flux
r = radioactive heating
dr Radioactive heating
<0 decreases with time
dt

(
q = f T, mode of convection )
∂q Hot planets
>0
∂T cool faster

50
 Mantle modes
(
q = f T, water ) Magma
q ocean all young
Earth Plate planets
tectonics
Water
Dynamo (
q = f T, no water )
No dynamo No water
Sluggish lid cooling
r Venus warming
Rigid lid
Conduction Mars
Moon
No melt Some melt Lots of melt
T 51
 Large heat flux

• Requires plate tectonics

• Other cooling modes are not acceptable
for the development of life
> magma ocean: too hot and short
> sluggish-lid convection: no dynamo
> rigid-lid convection: no dynamo
> conduction: no dynamo

52
 Effects of plate tectonics
• Rapid mantle circulation
> sequestration of carbon &
stabilization of climate
• Formation of continental crust
> volcanoes and mountains
• Concentration of minerals
> via volcanism and hydrothermal circulation
• Geophysical hazards
> earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis !
53
 The fourth component

large heat flux plate tectonics

magnetic field liquid water

“Could it be that magnetism,

like life, depends on water?”
Stevenson, 2004 life on Earth
54
 Requirements for plate tectonics
• Water in liquid form Mars did not
have enough
> oceans of it
• Some partial melting at mid-ocean ridges?

water
provides
lubrication
55
 The water cycle
• Water is
> added to oceanic crust by hydrothermal
circulation at mid-ocean ridges (serpentine)
> conveyed to subduction zones
by plate motion
> released at depth by breakdown
of hydrated minerals
> the lubricant permitting the subducting
plate to slide beneath the surface plate
56
 Closing the loop

large heat flux plate tectonics

The Life-Sustaining Loop

magnetic field liquid water

The bottom line: life would

not exist on Earth without
the magnetic field life on Earth
57
 A modified loop

heat flux is a
process, not plate tectonics
a feature

magnetic field liquid water

protection from
cosmic rays life on Earth
58
 What can go wrong
in the future?

• Liquid water can disappear

• Dynamo can cease

• Plate tectonics can cease

59
 Fate of water
• Water can be Mars
> lost to outer space
• after failure of dynamo?
> sequestered in the mantle
abmedia
• Oceans can freeze
> large spin-axis eccentricity
• ice at the equator
> failure of the carbonate-silicate cycle
> inauspicious continental configuration?
• Oceans can boil Venus and
> increasing solar Mercury
luminosity 60
H Kaiser
 Failure of the dynamo

• Core heat flux too small

> less than the heat conducted down the adiabat
• waning of radioactive heat
Mars
• plate tectonics ceases

• Outer core too thin

> inner core grown too large Mercury?
• magnetic Reynolds number too small

61
 Failure of plate tectonics.1
• Lack of melting at mid-ocean ridge?
> Australian- Gurnis and
Müller 2003
Antarctic
discordance

62
Evidence of PT failure in
stress near AAD?

No clear
stress
pattern

63
 Failure of plate tectonics.2
• Lack of water at mid-ocean ridge Mars
> Iceland, Afar Face of the Earth

Heezen and Tharpe 64

 Failure of plate tectonics.3
• Oceanic crust too thick
> this crust is buoyant
> requires a hot mantle
• no longer a problem for Earth
USGS
• Resistance due to bending
too large
> at subduction zones plates are
bent beyond the elastic limit
Conrad & Hager 2001
• this is an energy-loss mechanism
> If the plates are sufficiently strong,
plate tectonics ceases and
‘sluggish-lid’ convection results
65
 Other future problems.1
Mars
• Moon recedes until
> Earth falls into orbital
resonance with other planets
> Spin orientation becomes
chaotic
> Climate becomes unstable
Jim Head

66
 Other future problems.2

• Impact of asteroid or comet

> mass extinction

• Wandering star comes near

> increased orbital eccentricity
> climate extremes
• Nearby supernova
> lethal radiation
Hubble

Hubble
67
 Other future problems.3
• Massive volcanic eruption
> Toba nearly exterminated “Genetic evidence suggests that
Homo Sapiens Human population size fell to
about 10,000 adults between 50
~73,000 years ago and 100 thousand years ago.”
Ambrose 1998

68
 Problems avoided.1

• Too much water when Earth formed

> continents drowned
> no weathering of silicates Too much of
> no sequestration of CO2 a good thing!
> enhanced greenhouse effect
> oceans boil away
• Too little water
> no oceans
> no plate tectonics
> no continents
> no climate stability Wekee Wachee
69
 Problems avoided.2

• Moon never formed

> no climate stability
• Large obliquity
> variable climate
• ice at equator Earth

• Jupiter did not get big

> lots of impacts
> mass extinctions
• Jupiter had eccentric orbit
NASA
> Earth’s orbit and climate unstable
70
 Problems avoided.3
• Earth too close to Sun
> oceans boil
> tidal locking, temperature
extremes

• Earth too far from Sun

> oceans freeze

• Earth too small

> interior cools too quickly

71
 Problems avoided.4
• Sun too big It takes a long
> lifetime too short for time (~ 4 Gyr)
complex life to develop for complex
life to develop
• Sun too small
> planets too close; tidal locking

• Solar system low in heavy elements

> planetary cores and planets too small
> not enough radioactivity

72
 Habitable zone

Solar lifetime too short

Darwin
73
 Evolution of the Sun

hot cool
bright bright

hot cool
dim dim

Faulkes
74
Galactic
habitable
zone increasing
age of
galaxy
Poor in heavy
elements

Too crowded

OK
“… we are living in
a short window of
opportunity in the
history of the
universe …”
Gonzales 1998
75
 Problems avoided.5
• Sun too close to neighbors
> too much radiation
> too many close encounters
with wandering stars
• Sun has a companion star
> no stable planetary orbits

On Dec. 27, 2004, a

magnetar emitted in
0.2s more photonic
energy that our sun
does in 300 Kyr 76
 Summary.1

Enricho Fermi: “Where are they?”

G. Gonzales 1998: “We are all there is.”

Many things could have gone wrong,

but didn’t for Earth.

Why do we appear to be The Magoo Hypothesis:

alone in the Universe? It’s just dumb luck

77
 Summary.2

• Earth is a special and interesting place

> on which to live and
> to study and learn about

• There remain many important

unanswered questions in
> aeronomy and
> geomagnetism

78
 Summary.3

• We humans are fortunate to be here

> IAGA is the only group in the Galaxy devoted to the
study of planetary magnetic fields and aeronomy!

• We all should enjoy

> our lives,
> our families,
> our friends
> and our science
Thank you for your attention

79