PGM Extractive Metallurgy

Chapter 31
Platinum-Group Metals,
Production, Use and
Extraction Costs
This chapter describes the sources, production, properties, uses and prices
of platinum-group metals. The platinum-group metals are platinum (Pt);
palladium (Pd); rhodium (Rh); ruthenium (Ru); iridium (Ir); and osmium (Os).
Platinum-group metals have many useful properties such as:
(a) their ability to catalyze chemical reactions;
(b) their ability to resist corrosion;
(c) their visual appeal;
(d) the ease with which they can be worked; and,
(e) their high conductivities, densities and melting points.
Osmium is, however, rarely used (Shott, 2003). It found use in early
production of incandescent light bulbs, but this use was replaced by tungsten
(the lighting company OSRAM derives its name from osmium and wolfram,
another name for tungsten).
31.1. USES OF THE PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS

The uses of platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium and iridium are shown in
Tables 31.1–31.5.
Two features stand out from these tables:
(a) the consumptions of palladium and platinum are similar, whereas those for
rhodium, ruthenium and iridium are considerably lower; and,
(b) the biggest single use of platinum-group metals is as metallic catalysts for
minimizing car and truck exhaust emissions.
A catalytic converter is shown in Figure 31.1.
The role of platinum in vehicle emissions is to catalyze (i) the oxidation of
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide; and, (ii) the reduction of
NOx to nitrogen. Representative reactions that are catalyzed by platinum-group
Extractive Metallurgy of Nickel, Cobalt and Platinum-Group Metals. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-096809-4.10031-0

Copyright Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 395
396 PART | III Extractive Metallurgy of the Platinum-Group Metals
TABLE 31.1 Palladium Uses in 2009*
Use Tonnesa
Car and truck emission-control catalysts 126.0
Electronics 39.5
In conductive Pd-Ag paste for multi-layer ceramic capacitors
Plated on connectors, circuit boards and copper lead frames
In resistor chips and hybrid integrated circuits
Jewelry 25.3
Investment (bars and coins) 19.4
Dental 19.1
Chemical industry 10.1
Catalyst for producing terephthalic acid (feedstock for

polyester and polyethylene terephthalate manufacture)
Catalyst for production of vinyl acetate monomer for paints,

adhesives, etc.
Corrosion-resistant gauzes for nitric acid manufacture
Other
(Stationary power source emission-control catalysts, oxygen 2.2

sensors)
Total 241.6
Car and truck emission-control catalysts dominate but there are many other uses. Typical palladium
purity is 99.95% Pd.
a
For production in troy ounces, multiply tonnes 3.215 104.
*Jollie, 2010
elements in vehicle catalysts are the following (Jollie, 2007; Jollie, 2009;
Kendall, 2004):
platinum-group
metal catalyst
8HCðsÞ þ 10O2 ðgÞ ! 4H2 OðgÞ þ 8CO2 ðgÞ (31.1)
unburnt in unused inert tailpipe exit gases
hydrocarbon fuel input engine air
platinum-group
metal catalyst
2COðgÞ þ O2 ðgÞ ! 2CO2 ðgÞ (31.2)
partially in unused input inert tailpipe
combusted fuel engine air exit gas
Chapter | 31 Platinum-Group Metals, Production, Use and Extraction Costs 397
TABLE 31.2 Platinum Uses in 2010*
Use Tonnesa
Jewelry 93.6
Car and truck emission-control catalysts 69.4
Investment bars and coins 20.5
Chemical industry 9.2
Catalyst for silicone manufacture
Corrosion-resistant gauzes for nitric acid

manufacture
Medical 7.8
Dental, anticancer drugs, medical implant components,

angioplasty
Pacemakers, defibrillators, tips of heart

electrodes
Petroleum refining 6.4
Reforming and isomerization catalyst
Electrical 5.9
Hard disks, platinum thermocouple wire, fuel cell

catalysts
Glass, liquid crystal displays and flat screens 0.3
Other: 5.9
Stationary pollution control catalysts and gas safety

sensors
Platinum aluminide coatings on turbine blades
Wire for positioning turbine blade casting cores
Platinum-tipped spark plugs, oxygen sensors
Total 219.0
By far the largest uses are automotive catalysts and jewelry. Typical platinum purity is 99.95% Pt.
a
*Jollie, 2010
TABLE 31.3 Rhodium Uses in 2009*
Use Tonnesa
Car and truck exhaust emission-control catalysts 19.3
Especially for catalyzing NOx / N2 reduction
Chemical industry catalysts 1.7
For producing oxo-alcohols and acetic acid
Glass industry 0.6
In furnaces for making liquid-crystal display glass and fiberglass
Electrical 0.1
Other 0.7
Total 22.4
Car and truck emission-control catalysts dominate. Typical rhodium purity is 99.9% Rh.
a
*Jollie, 2010
TABLE 31.4 Ruthenium Uses in 2009*
Use Tonnesa
Electronics 10.5
In perpendicular magnetic recording disks
In plasma display panels (enhances image quality when

included in inner surface conductive paste)
In conductive pastes
In resistor components
Chemical and electrochemical industries 5.7
In catalysts, especially for producing acetic acid
Other (including electrochemical anode coatings) 1.7
Total 17.9
Electronic uses dominate. Typical ruthenium purity is 99.9% Ru.

a
*Jollie, 2010
TABLE 31.5 Iridium Uses in 2005*
Use Tonnesa
Chemical and electrochemical industries 1.7
Catalyst for producing acetic acid
Electrochemical anode coatings
Electronics 0.2
Crucibles for growing lithium-based scintillator crystals and

yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) laser crystals
Other
(Including car and truck engine spark plugs) 0.9
Total 2.8
Usage is small but important. Typical iridium purity is 99.9% Ir.

a
*Jollie, 2010
FIGURE 31.1 Sketch of automobile catalytic converter, which catalyzes the reduction of NOx
and hydrocarbons and the oxidation of carbon monoxide. It operates at ~200 C during start-up and
800 C during cruising. Converters are typically oval, ~0.35 m long and ~0.25 m across the oval
(sometimes round).
platinum-group
metal catalyst
2NOx ðgÞ þ ð2 xÞO2 ðgÞ ! 2NO2 ðgÞ (31.3)
accidentally oxidized in unused input fully oxidized nitrogen
input engine N2 engine air for Reaction ð31:4Þ
ðfrom input airÞ
platinum-group
metal catalyst
10NO2 ðgÞ þ 8HCðsÞ ! 4H2 OðgÞ þ 8CO2 ðgÞ þ 5N2 ðgÞ
from unburnt inert tailpipe exit gases
Reaction hydrocarbon
ð31:3Þ fuel
(31.4)
These reactions take place at 200 C at the start-up of the engine and
increase to 800 C during cruising (Catalytic, 2010).
31.1.1. Specific Uses

Palladium and platinum are the most used of the platinum-group metals
(Figures 31.2 and 31.3). This is because:
(a) they are present at higher concentrations in platinum-group ores than the
other platinum-group elements;
300
Platinum & palladium production, tonnes per year
palladium
200
platinum
100
0
1990 2000 2010
Year
FIGURE 31.2 Annual primary production of palladium and platinum (Jollie, 2010). Growth has
been steady except for the wild swings in palladium production from about 1995 on. These swings
may be due to rapid growth in demand for palladium catalyst and subsequent releases of palladium
from the Russian stockpile.
45
ruthenium
Rhodium, ruthenium & iridium production,
30
tonnes per year
rhodium
15
iridium
0
1990 2000 2010
Year
FIGURE 31.3 Annual primary production of rhodium, ruthenium and iridium (Jollie, 2010).
Ruthenium and iridium production comfortably meets demand (Jollie, 2009).
(b) they are powerful catalysts, especially useful as car and truck emission
reduction catalysts (Jollie, 2007; Jollie, 2009; Kendall, 2004);
(c) they are soft and easily worked into useful shapes, for example jewelry; and,
(d) they are readily hardened by alloying with other metals, such as copper,
cobalt, iridium, tungsten and other platinum-group metals (Kendall, 2002).
Rhodium is also a key ingredient in car and truck emission reduction
catalysts (Jollie, 2007; Kendall, 2004). However, it is always more dilute in ore
than platinum, which restricts its supply and increases its price, which in turn
limits its use.
Ruthenium is used extensively in vertical magnetic recording hard disks. It
is also the third most common platinum-group element, which ensures
a sufficient supply for all its uses.
Iridium has few uses and occurs at low concentration in ores. Its production
and consumption are very small.
The primary production of platinum-group metals is small when compared
to the primary production of nickel (1.6 million tonnes/year, 2008) and cobalt
(70 000 tonnes/year, 2008). However, the value of the production of platinum-
group metals is comparable to that of nickel.
31.2. MINING OF PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS

South Africa and Russia dominate the mining of platinum-group elements, as
shown in Table 31.6. South Africa mines the most platinum and rhodium. Russia
TABLE 31.6 Primary Production of Platinum-Group Metals by Region*
2009 production, tonnesa
Region Pt Pd Rh Ru Ir
South Africa 141 074 21
Russia 024 084 02
North America 008 024 000.5
Zimbabwe 008 006 000.6
Other 004 005 000.1
Total 185 193 24 18b 3b
Platinum and rhodium are dominated by South Africa. Global productions are shown in Figures 31.2
and 31.3. A further 20%e30% is made from recycle end-of-use scrap (Chapter 38).
a
b
Demand.
*Jollie, 2010
mines the most palladium. The ores from these countries also contain ruthenium
and iridium, which are mined together with platinum, palladium and rhodium.
31.2.1. Ore Grade

The concentrations of platinum-group elements in proven South African and
Russian deposits are shown in Table 31.7. All of these concentrations are less
than 10 g/tonne (0.001%) in ore.
Platinum-group elements also occur:
(a) at higher concentrations in small deposits, for example, at Stillwater, USA,
where the concentration is about 20 g/tonne total PGE, mostly palladium
(Norilsk Nickel, 2008); and,
(b) at lower concentrations, about 1 g/tonne, in nickel-copper sulfide deposits,
from which they are recovered as by-products (Kerr, 2002).
31.2.2. Mineralogy
Platinum-group elements occur in ore:
(a) as small (10–50 mm) platinum-group mineral grains, for example, braggite
[(Pt,Pd)S] isoferroplatinum [Pt3Fe] laurite [(Ru,Ir,Os)S2] near mineral
grains of nickel and copper sulfides (Cabri, 2002); and,
(b) as atoms in pentlandite [(Fe,Ni,Co)9S8].
TABLE 31.7 Concentrations of Platinum-Group Elements in South African

and Russian in situ Ores*
Element Concentration, or grade, of ‘in situ’ ore, g/tonne
Pd 2e7
Pt 2e4
Rh 0.2e0.5
Ru 0.3e0.7
Ir 0.1e0.2
Os 0.04e0.1
Total 7e10
0.0001% h 1 g/tonne of ore. ‘As-mined’ concentrations of ore are as much as 40% lower than in situ
concentrations of ore, because the ore is diluted with rock during underground mining.
*Anglo American Platinum, 2009; Impala Platinum, 2008; Jones, 2005; Norilsk Nickel, 2008
Efficient platinum-group element extraction requires, therefore, fine

grinding of ore and efficient flotation of platinum-group element minerals and
base-metal sulfides. This is discussed further in Chapter 32.
31.2.3. Mine Locations

The locations of mines where the ore is extracted primarily for platinum-group
metals are shown in Figure 31.4.
The South African mines are located in the Bushveld region of South
Africa. There are about 20 active mines in the region that mine about
250 tonnes of platinum-group elements per year (Jollie, 2010).
Most of the mines are underground, although several are open pit. They also
produce significant amounts of nickel, copper, cobalt, silver and gold as by-
products.
The main Russian mining region is around Norilsk and Talnakh,
in northern Siberia. It has six underground mines and one open pit mine
(Kendall, 2004). These mines produce about 120 tonnes of platinum-group
elements per year along with large quantities of nickel, copper, cobalt, silver
and gold.
Russia also has several placer platinum metal deposits, in Kondyor and
Koryak, in Siberia and in the central Urals. These deposits account for about
one quarter of the Russian production.
Small amounts of platinum-group metals are also mined in North America
and Zimbabwe (Table 31.6).
404
15
12
20
11 18
PART | III Extractive Metallurgy of the Platinum-Group Metals

1 2 10
3
9 13
8 7
17
14
16
19
6
5
FIGURE 31.4 Platinum-group metal mines, concentrators, primary smelters and primary refineries. C mines, concentrators, smelters, Cu-Ni refineries.
- Primary platinum-group metal refineries. The mines and refineries are identified in Table 31.8.
TABLE 31.8 Locations of Primary (from Ore) Mines, Concentrators,

Smelters and Refineries in the Platinum-Group Metal Industry
Approximate
platinum-group
metal production,
Location Operations tonnes/year
1 Stillwater, USA M(2), C, S, B 016
2 Lac des Iles, Canada M, C 007
3 Sudbury Basin, Canada M(~10), C(2), S(2), B 020
4 Port Elizabeth, South Africa R
5 Bushveld and Springs, M(~20), C(~20), S(6), 250

South Africa B(4), R (3)
6 Selous, Zimbabwe M, C, S 05
7 Hanau, Germany S, B, R
8 Hoboken, Belgium S, B, R
9 Acton, England R 010
10 Royston, England R
11 Kristiansand, Norway B, R 010
12 Kola Peninsula, Russia M, C, S, B 010
13 Prioksk, Russia R
14 Yekaturinburg, Russia R
15 Norilsk/Talnakh, Russia M(7), C(2), S(3), B 120
16 Novosibirsk, Russia R
17 Krasnoyarsk, Russia R
18 Kondyor, Russia Alluvial platinum mine 004
19 Niihama, Japan R
20 Koryak, Russia Alluvial platinum mine 003
M ¼ mine; C ¼ concentrator; S ¼ smelter, B ¼ base metal (nickel, copper, cobalt) refinery;

R ¼ platinum-group metal refinery. The bracketed numbers indicate number, for example, M(2) ¼ 2
mines. Their locations are shown on the map given in Figure 31.4. South Africa and Russia dominate
production.
31.3. EXTRACTION OF PLATINUM-GROUP METALS

Extraction of platinum-group metals consists of the following steps:
(a) mining ore rich in platinum-group metals while leaving rock lean in
platinum-group metals behind;
(b) isolating the platinum-group elements in the ore into a flotation concen-
trate consisting of nickel-copper-iron sulfides that is rich in platinum-
group elements;
(c) smelting and converting this concentrate to a nickel-copper sulfide matte
that is richer than the concentrate in platinum-group metals;
(d) separating the platinum-group elements in the converter matte from the
base metals, either by magnetic concentration or by leaching, to produce
a very rich platinum-group metal concentrate containing about 60%
platinum-group elements; and,
(e) refining this concentrate to individual platinum-group metals with purities
in excess of 99.9%.
Concentrating and smelting/converting are done in or near the mining
region. Refining is done in the region or in distant refineries (see Figure 31.4).
31.4. PRICES
The recent platinum-group metal prices are shown in Figures 31.5 and 31.6.
The following features of these figures are worth noting:
(a) the platinum price has increased steadily;
250
rhodium
Platinum, palladium & rhodium prices,
200
million actual U.S.$ per tonne
150
100
platinum
50
palladium
0
1990 2000 2010
Year
FIGURE 31.5 Palladium, platinum and rhodium prices, 1992–2010 (Johnson Matthey, 2010).
million actual U.S.$ per tonne 20

Iridium and ruthenium prices,
15 iridium
10
ruthenium
0
1990 2000 2010
Year
FIGURE 31.6 Ruthenium and iridium prices, 1992–2010 (Johnson Matthey, 2010).
(b) the palladium price peaked in 2000 and since remained steady; and,
(c) the rhodium, ruthenium and iridium prices have been volatile over the
years due to imbalances in supply and demand.
31.5. COSTS OF EXTRACTION OF PLATINUM-GROUP METALS

31.5.1. Operating Costs
Annual reports of South African platinum mining companies indicate that
operating costs for making platinum-group metals are of the order of
US$ 20 million/tonne of refined platinum metals (Impala Platinum, 2009).
These operating costs are divided between plant areas. This itemization is given
in Table 31.9. The high cost of the front-end (mining, concentration and
smelting) is in contrast with the low cost of hydrometallurgical refining.
These costs may be further divided as shown in Table 31.10.
31.5.2. Analysis
The above costs are expressed per tonne of total precious metals (that is, the
sum of Pt, Pd, Rh, Ru, Ir and Au) (Impala Platinum, 2009). A representative
make up of this tonne of product metals is typically made up of 0.52 tonnes of
platinum, 0.25 tonnes of palladium, 0.07 tonnes of rhodium, 0.11 tonnes
of ruthenium, 0.03 tonnes of iridium and 0.02 tonnes of gold. This depends, of
TABLE 31.9 Breakdown of Operating Costs Per Area
Area Contribution to cost, %

Mining 70
Concentration 10
Smelting/converting 10
Leaching (platinum concentrate) 5
Refining to metal 5
TABLE 31.10 Components of Cash Operating Costs for Making Metallic

Platinum-Group Metals from South African Ores
Mining/ Smelting/
concentration converting Leaching/refining
Item % % %
Labor 41 21 32
Stores 26 22 27
Utilities 06 26 09
Contracting 14 01
Sundry 13 25 15
Toll smelting/refining 05 17
course, on the composition of the original ore. The combined sales value of
1 tonne of these metals at the end 2010 was US$ 40 million, compared with an
operating cost US$ 20 million/tonne of product platinum-group metals.
31.6. SUMMARY
Platinum-group metals are found mainly in South Africa and Russia, and are
mostly also produced in those countries.
About 500 tonnes of platinum-group metals are produced per year. Their
biggest use is as automotive emission-control catalysts. They catalyze reduc-
tion of NOx to nitrogen and oxidation of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
Platinum-group metals are also used in jewelry and many other

applications.
As-mined platinum-group ores typically contain 4–5 g/tonne of ore
platinum-group elements. Platinum-group metals are, therefore, costly to
produce and expensive to buy. In early 2011, their prices range from US$
6 million/tonne of ruthenium to US$75 million/tonne of rhodium.
REFERENCES
Anglo Platinum. (2009). 2008 Anglo Platinum Annual Report.
Cabri, L. J. (2002). The platinum-group minerals. In L. J. Cabri (Ed.), The geology, geochemistry,
mineralogy and mineral beneficiation of platinum-group elements (pp. 13–129). CIM, Special
Volume 54.
Catalytic. (2010). Catalytic converter.
Impala Platinum. (2008). Fact sheet.
Impala Platinum. (2009a). Impala Platinum fact sheet.
Impala Platinum. (2009b). Review of operations – Impala Platinum Annual Report 2008. pp. 52–55.
Johnson Matthey. (2010). Current and historical [platinum group metal] prices.
Jollie, D. (2007). Heavy duty diesel: a growing source of PGM demand. In Platinum 2007.
Johnson Matthey.
Jollie, D. (2009). Palladium use in diesel oxidation catalysts. In Platinum 2009. Johnson Matthey.
Jollie, D. (2010). Platinum 2010. Johnson Matthey.
Kendall, T. (2002). Platinum jewellery alloys. In Platinum 2002. Johnson Matthey.
Kendall, T. (2004). 30 years in the development of autocatalysts and PGM mining in Russia. In
Platinum 2004. Johnson Matthey.
Kerr, A. (2002). An overview of recent developments in flotation technology and plant practice for
nickel ores. In A. L. Mular, D. N. Halbe & D. J. Barratt (Eds.), Mineral processing, plant
design, practice and control proceedings, Vol. 1 (pp. 1142–1158). SME.
Norilsk Nickel. (2008). Mineral reserves and resources statement.
Shott, I. (2003). Osmium, chemical and engineering news. Available from. http://pubs.acs.org/cen/
80th/osmium.html.
SUGGESTED READING
Cabri, L. J. (2002). The geology, geochemistry, mineralogy and mineral beneficiation of platinum-
group elements. CIM Special Volume 54. CIM.
Jones, R. T. (2005). An overview of Southern African PGM smelting. In J. Donald &
R. Schonewille (Eds.), Nickel and cobalt 2005 challenges in extraction and production
(pp. 147–178). CIM.
Kendall, T., & Jollie, D. (2000–2010). Platinum 2000 to Platinum 2010. Johnson Matthey.
London Platinum and Palladium Market. (2011). History and market practices.

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Chapter 31

31.1. USES OF THE PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS

Extractive Metallurgy of Nickel, Cobalt and Platinum-Group Metals. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-096809-4.10031-0

TABLE 31.1 Palladium Uses in 2009*

In conductive Pd-Ag paste for multi-layer ceramic capacitors

Plated on connectors, circuit boards and copper lead frames

In resistor chips and hybrid integrated circuits

Investment (bars and coins) 19.4

Chemical industry 10.1

Catalyst for producing terephthalic acid (feedstock for

Catalyst for production of vinyl acetate monomer for paints,

Corrosion-resistant gauzes for nitric acid manufacture

(Stationary power source emission-control catalysts, oxygen 2.2

TABLE 31.2 Platinum Uses in 2010*

Car and truck emission-control catalysts 69.4

Investment bars and coins 20.5

Chemical industry 9.2

Catalyst for silicone manufacture

Corrosion-resistant gauzes for nitric acid

Dental, anticancer drugs, medical implant components,

Pacemakers, defibrillators, tips of heart

Petroleum refining 6.4

Reforming and isomerization catalyst

Hard disks, platinum thermocouple wire, fuel cell

Glass, liquid crystal displays and flat screens 0.3

Stationary pollution control catalysts and gas safety

Platinum aluminide coatings on turbine blades

Wire for positioning turbine blade casting cores

Platinum-tipped spark plugs, oxygen sensors

TABLE 31.3 Rhodium Uses in 2009*

Especially for catalyzing NOx / N2 reduction

Chemical industry catalysts 1.7

For producing oxo-alcohols and acetic acid

Glass industry 0.6

In furnaces for making liquid-crystal display glass and fiberglass

TABLE 31.4 Ruthenium Uses in 2009*

In perpendicular magnetic recording disks

In plasma display panels (enhances image quality when

Chemical and electrochemical industries 5.7

In catalysts, especially for producing acetic acid

Other (including electrochemical anode coatings) 1.7

Electronic uses dominate. Typical ruthenium purity is 99.9% Ru.

TABLE 31.5 Iridium Uses in 2005*

Chemical and electrochemical industries 1.7

Catalyst for producing acetic acid

Electrochemical anode coatings

Crucibles for growing lithium-based scintillator crystals and

(Including car and truck engine spark plugs) 0.9

Usage is small but important. Typical iridium purity is 99.9% Ir.

31.1.1. Specific Uses

31.2. MINING OF PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS

TABLE 31.6 Primary Production of Platinum-Group Metals by Region*

2009 production, tonnesa

South Africa 141 074 21

Russia 024 084 02

North America 008 024 000.5

Zimbabwe 008 006 000.6

Other 004 005 000.1

Total 185 193 24 18b 3b

31.2.1. Ore Grade

TABLE 31.7 Concentrations of Platinum-Group Elements in South African

Element Concentration, or grade, of ‘in situ’ ore, g/tonne

Efficient platinum-group element extraction requires, therefore, fine

31.2.3. Mine Locations