Class Notes

(EXT321) Agricultural Communication
Class notes by: Rajesh Paudel (Asst. Prof.)

For the students of B.Sc. (Ag) 6th semester, IAAS/Lamjung Campus, Lamjung
The Meaning of Communication

 Communication- the process by which one person or group shares and impacts
information to another person or group so that both clearly understands one another.
 Communication can also be defined as the transfer of information and understanding
from one entity (person, institution, extension agent etc) to another entity.
 Communication is the act of making news, opinions, or feelings known.
 Communication has also been defined as a conscious attempt to share information and
ideas with others.
 The transfer of information from a source to a receiver through a medium with the intent
to change his/her behaviour.
Communication is the key that opens the door for a change. It is a part or the myriad of decisions
that, taken together constitute social change. There is therefore no other way to understand the
process of change without considering communication since, to a large extent; change involves
communication with oneself or with others. From the definitions above, it can be concluded that,
communication is a process and not an event, a method and not a happening. It involves two
parties, the communicator and the audience. The communicator has an idea that he/she wants to
share with the receiver (farmers/clientele). The communicator can be an extension agent or
teacher who must possess some credibility. His/her credibility will, however depend on the
extent to which he/she is perceived as a reliable source by the receivers. He is expected to know
his audience, know his subject matter, use terms and language that people will understand and
have the interest of the audience at heart. The audience or receiver could be an individual, group,
a class or group of farmers listening, watching or reading the message from the source.
The purpose of Communication
The purpose of communication is to generate a response or reaction which may be physical,
emotional, expressed or subdued in and from the receiver(s) of the message. Basically the
purposes of communication are:
1. To persuade the receiver in his/her direction or thinking.
2. To inform the receiver about an event, issue or a development or even, a new farm
practice/product.
3. To entertain the receiver, and make him/her relax.
4. To educate the receiver by impacting knowledge.
5. To sell an idea.
The ultimate purpose of communication therefore, is to create the same picture that exists in
one individuals mind in the mind of another individual. The principle behind the philosophy
of communication is to establish unity (a oneness) between the source(s) of the message and
the receiver(s) of the message.
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Importance of Communication in Agriculture

For each type of development like social, economic, religious, political and educational,
communication has its important place, similarly for the all round development of agriculture the
communication process also deserves its significant role. Farming is an ancient occupation. If the
farming may be recognised only as a factory of producing the food grains there is no difference
between the ancient time and modern time farming. For other productions, it needs four factors
as land, labour, money and management which are still in the present and were in the past also.
Now, what is the modern farming? The modern farming is that in which the person adopts the
latest new methods of farming based on science for the agricultural production. Thus for the
modern agriculture there is need of one more factor and this factor is the latest knowledge. Thus,
in the modern agriculture for the agricultural production along with the four factors one more
factor of the latest knowledge (fifth) has been added. The question arises from where this new
knowledge may be achieved? The first need is that to create the new knowledge and the second
need is to send this latest knowledge to the farmers. Thus for the modern farming, information
tools are needed.
Agricultural Knowledge ⇔ Agriculture Extension and Information tool ⇔ Farmers
If the middle part or the Agriculture Extension and information tool is replaced, the latest
knowledge cannot reach the farmers and its result will be obstacle in the progress of farming.
Thus for the modernization of farming; the communication process has its special contribution.
Functions of Communication
Communication has four basic functions, namely, information, command, influence and
integrative, which are described briefly as follows.
a) Information function
The basic requirement for adopting and adjusting oneself to the environment is information.
There must be some information about what is going on in the environment which concerns the
people. Exchange of information underlies all communication functions directly or indirectly.
b) Command or instructive function
Those who are hierarchically superior, in the family, society or organization, often initiate
communication either for the purpose of informing their subordinates or for the purpose of
telling them, what to do, how to do, when to do, etc. The command or instructive functions of
communication are more observable in formal organizations than in informal organizations.
c) Influence or persuasive function
It is sometimes considered that the sole purpose of communication is to influence people.
Persuasive function of communication, that is, to induce people is extremely important for
extension in changing the behavior in the desired direction.
d) Integrative Function
This helps to maintain individual, societal or organizational stability and identity by integration
at the interpersonal or organizational level.
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Types of Communication
(i) Vertical and Horizontal Communication
(i) Intrapersonal, interpersonal, and mass communication
The Characteristics of Communication in Agricultural Extension
An extension agent cannot teach if he cannot communication well. So, it is a well
acknowledged fact that most future progress in Agricultural Development in many
developing countries like Nepal will depend on the ability of the communication skill
possessed by the change agent. Good communication does not only consist of imparting
knowledge, but also help people gain a clear view of the knowledge. The common
characteristics of Extension Communication are:
(1)Communication in extension is a two way process involving the source and the receiver
i.e. information and ideas must flow from the receiver to the sender of message and vice-
versa.
(2)The communicator must communicate ideas; collect facts relative to the subject matter,
which are accurate, fast and appropriate.
(3) Communication must be organized. Materials to be presented must be carefully arranged
so as to be cohesive, proceed step by step, and give facts in logical sequence.
(4)The receiver must cooperate in communication.
(5)The communicator must maintain a standard of culture that would stimulate
communication success.
Communication Effects As a change agent, there are three main communication effects that
you must strive to achieve. Namely;
(i) Change in receiver’s knowledge
(ii) Change in receiver’s attitude,
(iii) Change in receivers overt behaviour.
In a number of communication situations, these changes occur in sequence in the sense that,
change in knowledge is supposed to induce change in attitude which in turn induces a change
in behaviour. As a change agent therefore, messeges should be structured in line with this
sequence.
Principles of communication relevant to Agriculture

1. People need to be informed: Information is a necessary input for the proper development
of agriculture.
2. Communication should start with the target audience expressing their needs and wishes:
The central aim of communication is to achieve a desired change in the target audience.
Unless the needs and wishes of the audience are known, it becomes very difficult to achieve
any desired change.
3. Message content should be well suited to the needs of the target audience and not the
sponsor or source. However, in order to achieve effective communication and make positive
contribution to agricultural development, the message content of communication must be
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suitable to farmers’ farm situation and socio-cultural environment as well as meeting their
needs and aspiration.
4. A combination of channels should be used to impact knowledge, ideas and information.
Different channels appeal to different senses. Human senses often reinforce each other in the
acquisition of knowledge, ideas and information. So, when two or more channels are used to
impact knowledge, idea or information, the target audience has a greater opportunity to
understand the chance of achieving his stated objectives as well as that of his clientele.
5. Target audiences are not usually homogeneous; therefore their required information or
message contents and motivation requirements should be expected to differ.
Functions of Mass Communication

i. Surveillance functions: This is what makes the media society the “Watch Dog”. It
facilitates the spread of information on political tragedies and it shapes information
about events happening around the world.
ii. Interpretation functions: The mass media tend to make sense of information and
thereby enable target audience benefit.
iii. Cultural Transmission Functions: This gives further information and clues about the
society. It is also used to teach culture and as a means of transmitting social
education.
iv. Entertainment functions: It is a means of creating joy and serves as a outlet for
excitement for the audience.
v. Propaganda functions: It is used for brainwashing and popularization of a specific
issue of interest.
vi. Commercial Functions: It is used for advertisement and income generation.
Major Elements in Communication Process

Communication process is considered as essential element in the extension education
process. Hence, there is the need to appreciate its essence and components. According to
Berlo (1960), there are four major elements in the communication process. This is referred to
as the S – M – C- R model of communication. The letters in order represents SOURCE,
MESSAGE, CHANNEL and RECEIVER.
Source: A source is the originator of information to be communicated. This may be an
individual or a group working together or an institution.
Message: the message is the stimulus or idea that the source transmits to the receiver.
Message must be clear, useful to the audience, relevant to the environment and timely with
respect to their farming activities.
Channel: A channel is the means by which a message travels from the source to the receiver.
The human sense of hearing makes up the most common means of exchanging ideas.
Receiver: A receiver is the target of teaching/communication who decodes the message
symbols into a meaningful form.
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Feed back: Feedback is a response by the receiver to the source’s message. Through
feedback, the source is viewed as a receiver. Thus, feedback emphasizes the mutuality and
success of communication. It is a control device and an important indicator of areas requiring
modification and for further scientific inquiry.
Nature of Communication Process

Communication process is the process of transmission and reception of information through
talk, written material or other medium. In communication, something triggers off the
thinking process of the originator of the communication (information, message, suggestion,
knowledge, etc). This originator (source) then decides on how he/she will pass on the thought
in his/her mind to another individual. He decides the words (spoken or written), gestures,
actions, etc that he will use in conveying the message. He even decides how the message will
get to the receiver. When the receiver gets the message, a series of thought springs up in
his/her mind. This leads to a response. When the response gets to the former source (who is
now a receiver), another series of thought springs up and the process continues. The cycle
goes on and on as a continuous process with an intrinsically built self propelling inertia. The
non static aspects of communication process are the thought, attitudes, behaviour, relaxations
and emotions.
The nature of communication is mentioned below:
The communication
1. Is a process
2. Employees many means
3. Involves interdependence
4. Comprises number of distinguishable parts:
a. Expression;
b. Interpretation; and
c. Response
5. Takes place within participants
6. Takes place at many levels; and its fidelity varies from one communication situation
to another
Barriers to Effective Communication

A lot of barriers, problems and obstacles exist in the process of communication. The
problems are identified as follows:
(i) Homophily/Heterophily (ii) Selectivity (iii) Cognitive dissonance (iv) Noise (v) Empathy
(vi) Weak Attention (vii) Information Overload (viii) Credibility (ix) Shortage of physical
and material inputs
Development communication
Development, from a sociological point of view implies empowering members of a social
system such that they are able to explore their environment for their socioeconomic
wellbeing. It leads to having access to functional infrastructural facilities and technical
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information for manipulation of the environment to satisfy their social and economic well
being. Communication, on the other hand, is essential to attainment of economic and social
development of a social system. That is, through effective means of communication, useful
technical information can be readily communicated to end users for application and
transformation of their social and economic well being. Since extension service has the goal
of transforming the socioeconomic well being of farmers and their social system, it depends
heavily on technical information and communication media to achieve the aim of
development efforts.
Level of Communication
The four level of communication are:
Intra-personal: Referring to communicate with ones self. It mostly occurs in face-to-face
situations in which the participants can see, hear or even touch another person. It offers an
opportunity for immediate feedback.
Interpersonal: It may be viewed as an attempt on the part of at least one of the participants,
to establish, maintain, exploit or after some relationship either by adapting himself to the
other or by attempting to adapt the other to him in some way. However, the process of
communication, which occurs within each participant, not by what, goes on between them,
determines the immediate and ultimate consequences.
Organizational communication: Organizational communication refers to all those data -
flows that sub serve the organizations communication and inter communication processes in
some way.
Inter-organizational communication: It is the system developed by every organization for
communicating with another organization. It should however, be understood that the
organizations do not inter communicate as such but the people only do it.
Communication media in extension services

Communication media refers to the means by which information is disseminated to extension
clients. This may be by prints, spoken word, and signs and symbols.
Prints: This implies putting extension messages in written form. This could be text on
papers, handbills, educational board, fliers etc. This is for giving comprehensive information
on a subject matter which can be read over time by the users.
Spoken words: This lead to oral message delivery by extension personnel to clients
(farmers). Delivering the message in clear form such that the clients understand the message
for application.
Signs and symbols: It involves making use of signals or indicators for dissemination of
information to ones client. This is usually devoid of spoken and written words. For
understanding the packaged signs and symbols, it implies that what is traditionally
understood by members of the social the system must be used by the extension personnel.
The extension personnel must however understand the signs and symbols as understood by
members of the social system so as to avoid conflicts of meaning.
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Channels of communication
A channel of communication refers to the means by which packaged information can be
disseminated to the clients (farmers). Example of communication channels are television,
radio, person to person, paper etc.
 Radio broadcast: It involves communication of extension messages through
the radio. This makes use of sound mainly.
 Television broadcast: The dissemination of extension messages via the
television makes use of sound and pictures.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT): It refers to any electronic device that
facilitates the collection, processing, storage, retrieval, flow and exchange of information
between a source and the receiver. It is possible for quick exchange of information and
feedback or interaction.
Audience Analysis
Extension audience refers to a set of people targeted for extension message delivery. This
may be men’s club, women groups, youth associations etc. Extension audience is however
made up of different categories of people and this may be in terms age group, sex, occupation
(crop, livestock and agro-processing), educational background etc.
In view of the differences in members of a social system or groups, it implies that make up of
a group differs in composition and such calls for analysis of the audience for effective
packaging of agricultural extension messages. Therefore group analysis can be done through
the following methods:
Observation: It involves taking a careful and critical look at the members of a group so as to
know and understand their make-up and what they do as means of livelihood. This calls for
living with community for sometimes and interacting with the members.
Discussion: This can be done either by having meaningful and in-depth discussion on
specific purpose with a key informant, informal groups or formal groups in a social system.
Survey: This is a scientific approach for studying and analysing the make-up of a group.
This could be conducted by employing sampling techniques such as random, systematic,
quota and purposive sampling. Thereafter, data collecting and analysis, based on which
conclusion can be drawn.
Rapid Rural Appraisal: It is related to interaction with the audience for quick data
collection or information generation about the make-up of the group.
News Writing and Editing

News refers to newly generated information that will be of value to the audience. Such
information either stimulates the audience to action or informed on the issue of concern.
Writing implies scripting or putting a piece of information down in writing. Writing style
may however take different forms. It could be in narrative, descriptive, expository,
persuasive, argumentative forms. The employed style of writing depends on purpose or what
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one wants to accomplish. Editing simply refers to taking a careful look at a write-up with a
view to ensuring that errors are corrected for clarity.
Agricultural programs
Broadcast programs involves different dimension or ways by which agricultural activities can
be packaged and presented in both print and electronic media. Programmes may the form of
talks, magazines, documentary, features etc.
Modern information technologies in extension

1. Electronic data base access and search systems: Data bases that contain information on
characteristics of plant varieties, plant and animal diseases and possible control methods,
market prices of inputs and products in various markets, weather forecasts can be accessed
online.
2. Feedback systems: Modern technologies make possible much faster and more effective
feedback
3. Advisory systems: This can include decision support systems and expert system.
Simulation models are rapidly gaining importance in research on plant and animal
production. Linear programming and similar techniques also are now important in economic
research.
4. Networks: Modern information technology to some extent allows widely separated
farmers to maintain contact irrespective of distance. This allows people to place information
on the network, ask questions from other groups, send electronic mails to each other and also
gain access to international data bases through the internet.
Communication Model
Communication has been related to various subjects. Among them, there are psychology,
sociology, journalism etc. Due to relation with the various subjects, scientists have presented the
different models of the communication keeping in mind the situations of their own fields. The
model shows any process or the scientific theory by making graph. This means that the model is
a map that shows the relationship to the related subjects of an event by signal which helps in
understanding an event.
Types of Model:
1. Structural Model–These are the models which are made to show any event or formal qualities
of the subject. These reveal the sequence of number, size and shape in the process or the method.
2. Process Oriented Model–These are the models which show their relationship and their actions
with different elements.
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Models of Communication
A number of models have been developed since the time of Aristotle who proposed
communication to consist of three ingredients; a speaker – the person who speaks, a speech – the
speech that the individual produces and an audience – the person/persons who listens.
Aristotle Model–In the subject of the communication, about two thousand years ago from
Aristotle and Plato’s time, the systematic work had been initiated. Aristotle told three elements.
From this model there is achieved a basis to formulate the models.
Speaker → Speech → Audience
Over the years, other components such as transmitter, receiver, channel, encoder, decoder,
response and effects, sometimes used to describe the same component, were added to elaborate
the steps in the communication process.
Berlo’s Model (1960)–Berlo has recognised the following elements in the communication
process
Communication Source → Encoder → Message → Channel → Decoder → Communication Receiver
Leagan’s Model (1961)–Leagan has accepted the response as the main factor.
Communication → Message → Channel → Treatment → Audience → Audience Response
Litterer Model (1962)–Litterer has also added the communication noise.
Noise
↓
Selection → Encoder → Transmission → Channel → Decoder → Decoding → Selection
Westley and Mecleans Model (1968)–They have involved the “feedback” in their model.
According to them the ‘message’ from the ‘communication source’ by the ‘sender’ reaches to
‘receiver’ and he feedbacks to the sender.
Sender→ Encoder → Channel→ Decoding → Receiver
↑↓
└ ← Feedback ←┘
Roger and Shoemaker (1971) proposed communication process in terms of SMCRE model, the
components of which are Source, Message, Channel, Receiver and Effects. A source sends a
message via certain channels to the receiving individual which causes some effects, i.e.,
changing the existing behavior pattern of the receiver.
Fidelity in Communication
The basic step in affecting change is the communication in any field. More the information is
sought, more the adoption, and high the contacts of farmers with communication sources, higher
is the adoption. The awareness manner is also related with adoption. Rate of adoption, extension
agencies and use of extension teaching aids as primary source of information are better than
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community sources. Communication Fidelity-Amount of knowledge gained, kind of attitude

formed; and extent of adoption depends positively on six variables:
1. Compatibility of language of change agent with receiver.

2. Frequency of contact with the receiver.
3. Usefulness of message.
4. Different channels used and their use of frequency by extension agency.
5. Socio-economic status of receiver.
6. Past experience of the clientele with the message of extension agency.
All above relates to communications ability of change agent and his strategy of communication.
Problems in Agriculture Communication

Problems in Communication
opinion leadership.
complacency and over-
In the agricultural communication there may be the following problems:

 Lack of training facility for the extension workers.
 Effect of the local problems upon the communicator.
 Lack of necessary equipment for the communication.
 No proper selection of the rural leaders.
 Lack of efficient training of rural leaders.
 No proper arrangement of education for the farmers.
 Lack of response in communication.
 Lack of mutual relationship between farmers and extension worker.
 Unorganized (unplanned) efforts of the communication.
 Lack of purity and correctness of the facts in the message.
 The communicator has no knowledge of the social values and social organizations.
 Not understanding the importance of the communication.
 Not operating properly the communication media.
 No consideration towards the physical hurdles in imparting the message in the
communication.
 Alternative use of improper media.
 Lack of discretion in the message receivers towards the message.
 Attitude of the message receiver towards the communicator.
 Effect of technical disturbance in communicating the message.
 No correct interpretation of the message in decoding the message.
 Unable to affect properly the message receiver by the message.
 The psychological problems (emotional hurdles and nervous diseases) of the message
receiver
 The cultural problems (the people of different cultures understand differently the
meaning of actions motions and examples) of the message receiver.
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Extension Communication System

Communication, in extension, is a two-way stimulus-response situation in which the necessary
stimulus is provided by the communicator (the Extension Agent) in the form of a message, which
provides certain response on the audience (the farmers). A diagrammatic representation of the
extension communication system based on the model developed by Leaguns (1963) is presented
in
Elements of Extension Communication System

Research and Technology
Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic and intensive process of carrying on a
scientific method of analysis. It is an activity directed toward discovery and the development of
an organized body of knowledge. Research is generally classified as basic, applied and adaptive.
The connectivity of these three types of research is illustrated in the following example.
Connectivity of Types of Research:
 Basic or fundamental research: Discovery of dwarfing gene in rice
 Applied or practical research: Development of dwarf high yielding varieties of rice
 Adaptive or on-farm research: Find out location specific dwarf high yielding rice varieties.
Technology is the application knowledge for practical purposes. Generally, technology is used to
improve the human condition, the natural environment, or to carry out other socio-economic
activities. Agricultural technology is a complex blend of materials, processes and knowledge.
Agricultural technology may be classified into three categories.
a) Material technology where knowledge is embodied into a technological product such as
tools, equipments, agrochemicals, medicines, etc.
b) Knowledge-based technology, such as the technical knowledge, management skills and other
processes that farmers and rural people need for better production in their enterprises.
c) Traditional technology which is essentially experience based and situation based and is made
up of farm operations which have evolved over generations.
Technology may be a fully or partially science based system. Most often it is upgraded
traditional technology with research contribution built to the existing system. Thus when we talk
about recommended modern agricultural technology, we often refer to traditional technology
with several scientific components which are systematically evolved and validated.
Communicator
In the context of agriculture and rural development, Extension Agent is the communicator who
starts the communication process. The abilities an individual should posses or the competencies
needed by the Extension Agent, according to Dubey and De (1990), are given below.
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a) Technical competency: Refers to the ability to acquire, understand and apply technical
information needed by the target audience. It includes his ability to correctly handle relevant
technical materials and equipments.
b) Economic competency: Relates to the ability to understand the market forces and, advice and
guide the client system towards maximization of benefits. It includes his ability organize
economic activity with the client system such as formation of beneficiaries committee,
cooperative society, arrange bank credit, etc.
c) Scientific competency: Relates to the ability to understand the cause and effect relationships
and a logical approach towards problem solving.
d) Occupational competency: Relates to the willingness and skill to perform the range of
physical tasks involved in the execution of a specific activity. It includes his ability to conduct
trials and demonstrations in the client’s own situation and interpret the results to them.
e) Communication competency: Relates to the ability to select process and communicate
appropriate messages to the audience in a way they can understand and motivate them to change
their behavior in the desired direction. It includes his ability to use appropriate extension method
and media, treatment and presentation and evaluation.
f) Social competency: Relates to the ability to understand the social system of the target
audience and be sociable with them. It includes his ability to initiate and sustain group activity
for achieving the desired goals.
Knowledge generates through research (from Research Institutes, Universities and other
Research projects) are the originators or sources of extension message. The Extension Agent
obtains the required information from the research and carries it to the audience, the farmers.
Extension agent is the communicator, the carrier of information. They also carry back the
reactions of the farmers, their problems, etc., as feedback information to research, for finding
solutions for them.
The credibility of the communicator and the organization the individual represents are important
for effective communication. Credibility means trustworthiness and competence. Before the
audience accepts any message, it will judge whether the communicator and the organization the
individual represents can be relied upon and is competent enough to give the information.
The characteristics possessed by a good communicator are:
knowledgeable of:
i) the objectives – have them specifically defined,
ii) the audience – their needs, interests, abilities, predispositions,
iii) the message – its contents, validity, usefulness, importance,
iv) channels – that will reach the audience;
interested in:
i) the audience and its welfare
ii) the message and how it can help people
iii) the results of communication and its evaluation;
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iv) the communication process,

v) the communication channels – their proper use and limitations;
prepared to
i) make plan for communication – a teaching plan,
ii) acquire communication materials and equipment,
iii) make plan for evaluation of results,
skilled in
i) selecting message
ii) treating message
iii) expressing messages - verbal and written
iv) selection and use of channels,
v) understanding the audience,
vi) collecting evidence of results.
To be a good communicator, the thumb rule is go to the people and listen to them.
Message
Research in agriculture carried out at the relevant research institutions originate or source the
knowledge-based technology which constitutes the content or subject matter of the message.
Information given in the message is usually specific to a particular audience and it may only be a
‘noise’ to another audience.
To motivate people to produce the desirable changes in their behavior, the message should be
relevant, interesting, clear, credible, timely, applicable and beneficial. A good message should
be;
i) in line with the objectives to be achieved,
ii) clear – understandable by the audience,
iii) in line with the mental, social, economic, and physical capabilities of the audience,
iv) significant – economically socially or aesthetically to the needs, interests and values
of the audience,
v) specific – no irrelevant material,
vi) simply stated – covering few pertinent points at a time,
vii) accurate – scientifically sound, factual and current,
viii) timely – especially when seasonal factors are important and issues are current,
ix) appropriate to the channels selected,
x) appealing and attractive to the audience – having utility and immediate application,
xi) applicable – can apply recommendation to one’s own particular situation,
xii) manageable – can be handled by the communicator within limits of time and
resources.
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Channel
Channel or method of communication constitutes the medium through which information flows
from a sender to one or more receivers. Face-to face word-of mouth is the simplest and yet one
of the most widely used and effective means of communication, particularly in the developing
countries. As society change from traditional to modern, the emphasis shifts from oral to media
systems of communication. The channels of communication may be classified into a number of
ways according to different criteria as follows.
Classification of Channels by Criteria:
Many obstructions can enter the channels. These are often referred to as ‘noise’ and
prevent the message from being heard by or carried over clearly to the audience. ‘Noise’ emerges
from a wide range of sources and causes. Some of these are listed below.
a) Failure of a channel to reach the intended audience. All people cannot attend meetings,
all people may not have radio or TV, or may not be tuned in if they had, or some people cannot
and others may not read the written materials,
b) Failure on the part of the communicator to handle channels skilfully. In a meeting,
those who cannot hear and see what is being said and shown do not receive the message.
c) Failure to select the channels appropriate to the objectives of a communicator. If the
objective is to teach a certain skill, method demonstration, TV or video will be appropriate,
rather than radio or newspaper.
d) Failure to use channels in accordance with the abilities of the audience. Written
materials cannot serve as useful channels of communication for an illiterate group of persons.
e) Failure to avoid physical distraction. Loud noise near a place of meeting or load
shedding at the time of projecting visuals may cause distraction to the audience.
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Treatment and Presentation

Treatment is the way a message is processed so that the information gets across to the audience.
The purpose of treatment is to make the message clear, understandable and realistic to the
audience. Presentation means how the message is communicated or placed before the audience.
Some useful hints in treatment and presentation of the message are given below.
a) Treatment and presentation of the message shall depend to a great extent on the choice of the
channels and the nature of audience.
b) Treatment and presentation of the message cannot be ‘tailor made’ for each communication
function or reduced to a formula or recipe.
c) Treatment and communication are creative tasks that require original thinking, deep insight
into the principles of human behavior and skills in using refined techniques of communications.
Some aspects that are useful in the treatment and presentation of the message are listed below.
a) Treatment:
i) repetition or frequency of mention of ideas and concepts,
ii) contrast of ideas,
iii) chronological, logical or psychological ordering of presentation material
iv) presenting one side or both sides of an issue,
v) emotional or logical appeal,
vi) starting with strong argument compared to saving them for the end of the presentation,
vii) proceeding from general to specific or vice-versa, and viii) drawing conclusions explicitly
compared to leaving conclusions implicit for the audience to draw.
b) Presentation:
i) limit the scope of presentation to a few basic ideas and to the time available – too many ideas
at one time may be confusing.
ii) be yourself – you cannot be someone else, strive to be clear, not clever,
iii) know the facts – fuzziness means death of a message,
iv) do not read the message – people have more respect for a communicator who talks to the
audience,
v) know the audience – each audience has its own personality, be responsive to it,
vi) avoid showing superiority – do not talk or act down to people or audience, or underestimate
their intelligence,
vii) decide on the dramatic effect desired – effective presentation requires sincerity, smoothness,
enthusiasm, warmth, flexibility and appropriateness of voice, gestures, movements and tempo,
viii) use a combination of communication methods or techniques to keep audience interest,
ix) use alternative communicators when appropriate, as in group discussion, panels, interviews,
etc.,
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x) quit on time – communicators who stop when they have finished are rewarded by audience
goodwill.
Audience
An audience or receiver of message is the target of communication function and may consist of a
single person or a number of people comprising of men, women and youth. Communication, to
be successful, must be target oriented. The communicator must know the target, their needs,
interests, resources, facilities, constraints as well as their number and locations.
Audience segmentation is a communication strategy that consists of identifying certain sub-
audiences within a total audience, and then conveying a special message to each of these sub-
audiences. An audience may be formed according to tenancy groups such as land owner farmers,
share cropper farmers, livestock farmers (dairy, poultry or ruminants), home makers, etc or they
may be categorized according to farm size (large, medium, small or marginal) etc. This approach
breaks down a heterogeneous audience into a series of relatively more homogenous sub-
audiences in which different communication channels or messages are used with each sub-
audience.
In addition to knowing the identity of an audience and some general characteristics, there are
other somewhat more specific aspects that help to clarify the exact nature of an audience and
how to reach it. Some of these aspects are listed below.
a) Established communication channels in the social organization,
b) The system of values held by the audience – what they think is important,
c) Forces influencing group conformity – customs, traditions, etc.
d) Individual personality factors – proneness to change, etc.,
e) Native and acquired abilities,
f) Educational, economic and social levels,
g) Pressure of occupational responsibility – how busy or concerned they are,
h) Peoples needs as they see them, and as a professional communicator see them,
i) Why the audience is in need of changed ways of thinking, feeling and doing,
j) How the audience views the situation.
It may be noted that the audience is not a passive recipient of message. The individuals
are rather selective in receiving, processing and interpreting messages.
Audience Response
Response of the audience is the ultimate objective of any communication function. Response to
messages received may be in the form of some kind of action, either mental or physical.
However, until the desired action results, extension communication does not achieve its’ most
essential objective.
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The possible kinds of response to messages received are numerous. The following gives an idea
of the possible variety in responses that may result when a useful message is received by a
typical rural audience.
a) Understanding verses knowledge: people usually do not act on facts alone. To act one has to
gain understanding of the facts. Understanding is attained when one is able to attach meaning to
facts, see the relationship of facts to each other and to the problem. Communication must
promote understanding.
b) Acceptance versus rejection: audience response may go either way. Communication must
lead to understanding and acceptance of the message.
c) Remembering verses forgetting: when opportunity of action is not immediately available or
action is delayed, the message may be forgotten. Transmitting the message to right people at
right time is often a crucial factor in successful communication.
d) Mental verses physical action: changes in the minds of people must always be followed by
physical action. People should not only understand and accept the message but shall act on it.
e) Right verses wrong: the goal of communication is to promote desirable action by the
audience as specified in the objective. If the response of the audience is in line with the
objective, it is assumed to be ‘right’ action.
FEEDBACK IN COMMUNICATION
Meaning
 A communication process is said to have feedback, when the receiver of the message gives
his response to the sender’s message.
 Sending back the knowledge about the message to the communicator is known as feedback.
 Feedback is one of the important elements of the communication process.
 A communication process without a provision for feedback is not an effective
communication.
 An effective two-way communication occurs when the sender transmits message and the
receivers involves in feedback to the sender which is illustrated below.
Feedback may be :
 Verbal ( through words)
 Non-verbal( in form of smiles , sighs, etc)
 It may take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc
Extension communication is never complete without adequate and correct feedback information.
Feedback means carrying some significant responses of the audience back to the communicator.
Communication work is not an end in itself. The Extension Agent should know what has
happened after the message has reached them. Some of the characteristics of feedback are,
(Intention, Specificity, Description, Usefulness, Timeliness, Clarity, Validity and reliability,
Readiness)
a) it is source oriented,
b) it varies in different communication situations.
d) it affects the source or communicator,
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e) it exerts control over future messages,

f) it affects communication fidelity, (fidelity is described as the degree of desirable changes in
receivers behavior as a result of communication)
g) it maintains the stability and equilibrium of a communication system
Feedback should be a continuous process as the audience and communicators are neither
always the same persons, nor are they interacting in the same situation. Feedback information
provides the communicator an opportunity to take corrective steps in communication work, helps
in follow-up activities, and acts as a pathfinder for need-based research.
The Extension Agent take steps to analyze the response of the audience which may be positive,
negative or no response. If there has been no response or negative response to a message, the
Extension Agent find out reasons for the same. If the problem pertains to research, it should be
referred as feedback information to research for finding out solutions.
If the problem does not relate to research, the Extension Agent shall find out whether the
message has been relevant to the audience, or whether the channel, treatment, audio-visual aids
have been appropriately used. If not, corrective action should be taken without any loss of time.
For a season-bound program, if nothing can be done in that particular season, the Extension
agent takes the appropriate steps next season, so that the mistakes are not repeated.
If there has been a favourable response to the message by the audience, the Extension Agent
shall find out what next is to be done to reinforce the learning already made by the farmers.
Types of Feedback
Negative feedback or corrective comments about past behaviour. These are the things that didn’t
go well.
Positive feedback or affirming comments about past behaviour. These are things that went well
and need to be repeated.
Negative feed forward or corrective comments about future behaviour. These are things that
don’t need to be repeated next time.
Positive feed forward or affirming comments about future behaviour. These are things that
would improve performance in the future.
The following are some of the importance of feedback in communication either in a formal or
informal setting:
1. It completes the whole process of communication and makes it continuous.
2. It sustains communication process
3. It makes one know if one is really communicating or making sense
4. It is a basis for measuring the effectiveness of communication
5. It is a good basis for planning on what next to be done especially statistical report
6. Communication will be useless without feedback
7. Feedback paves way for new idea generation
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Factors affecting Good Communication

 Homophily: Degree to which two or more individuals are similar to each other in
certain characters or factors. Ex: Education, age, farming
 Heterophily: Degree to which two or more individuals are different from each
other in certain characters or factors. This may create obstacle in the way of
communication.
 Credibility: It refers to the perceived trustworthiness and expertise accorded to a
source by its audience at any given time.
 Competence Credibility: It is the degree to which a communication source or
channel is perceived as knowledgeable and expert. E.g. Veterinary Doctors are
having higher competence credibility than para veterinarians.
 Safety Credibility: It is the degree to which a communication source or channel is
perceived as trust worthy. E.g. Veterinary doctors unless otherwise popular in an
area will have lesser safety credibility than paraveterinarins or local leaders. So,
the efforts of the doctors should be such that, besides competence credibility,
safety credibility is also developed.
 Distortion: It is the transformation of the meaning of a message by changing its
content. Omission: It is the deletion of all or part of a message.
 Redundancy: It is the repeating of a message in different forms, over different
channels, or over time. Ex; Written messages
 Verification: It is insuring the accuracy of a previous message.
 Noise: It is the disturbance created during communication.
 Empathy: It is the ability of an individual to project into the role of another. More
the empathy homophily will be increased and thus it facilitates effective
communication.
COMMUNICATION APPROACHES IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION PROGRAMS

OF NEPAL, THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS AND LIMITATIONS.
Introduction
“Agricultural communication is defined as a plan transfer of farm technology from the research
system to the farmers’ system through extension system and media with a view to make a
desirable changes in respect of higher productivity, profitability and prosperity and also get
feedback from clients.”
For the development of agriculture sector in a holistic approach, there has to be a strong
framework of the three sectors viz. Research, Education and Extension. All these three sectors
should then carter to the needs of the farmer, in such a way that production as well as
productivity of agricultural goods is increased. There is a good system set up in Nepal with
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establishment of autonomous agencies in all the three sectors. However the results are far behind
what had been expected of them.
Agricultural extension service is one of the major under taking of the government to educate,
disseminate information and support the livelihoods of the Nepalese farmers. Government of
Nepal, Directorate of Agricultural Extension is the sole authoritative body for disseminating
facts, ideas and services to the farming community.
Approaches in Agricultural Extension:

Since 1950, the country has practiced several extension models and approaches, with support
from donors or from the government’s own resources. Some of the models or approaches
adapted in Nepal are as follows:
Approaches adopted in the past
(i) Training and Visit System:
This system was based on the principle of single line of command with continues Training and
contacts. Research extension linkage was stronger though material Support for adoption was
quiet weak.
(ii) Integrated Rural Development Approach.

This approach was based on the integration and coordinated management of Resources for rural
development. Technology support was not adequate.
(iii) Tuki Approach

This approach had the goal of utilizing trained local farmers based on self motivation Principle.
These farmers were also working as agri. input dealer, so that the technological message could
go along with inputs required.
(iv) Farming System Research and Extension Approach.

This approach viewed research and extension in the whole farming system perspective, so that
cropping system research could be done. Farmers would know the interdependencies between
components and could relate to physical,biological and socio-economic factors.
(v) Block Production Program.

This program was based on the principle that intensive use of resources consolidated together in
an area called "Block" could increase the productivity. This was not effective for scattered area.
Approaches at present
(i) Conventional Educational Approach.
Besides the group members, the key farmers are involved in the process of motivation and
education. The farmers themselves in a wider area disseminate the knowledge and skills taught
20
to them. This approach has been effective to facilitate the adoption of new innovation by
interested farmer, which eventually radiated demonstration effect to neighboring farmers.
(ii) Pocket Package Approach

Pocket package approach refers to the production strategy on pocket area basis. The feasible
pockets for a certain commodity is selected and then a project is developed through bottom up
process. This has been positive to introduce the package of technologies as demanded by
pockets. It has also helped to develop the crops/commodities on commercial scale.
iv) Projectization Approach

Every commodity based production program has been implemented on the basis of Project-
designed within the frame work of time duration, budget expenditure and expected output
Package of activities which are required to achieve the output are identified and included in the
Project. This approach has been adopted in all the seventy-five districts with a priority in the
production pockets.
(iv) Farmers Group Approach

The principle is to put the farmers of same interest together and carry out the activities on group
basis. This has been very effective to bring the innovation to the groups, which in turn expand to
its command area farmers. The limited manpower and other resources can be well utilized by
means of group.
v) Farmers Field School Approach

This is based on the principle of adult learning. This has been very effective approach in
reaching farmers and helping them to have an access to the knowledge and skills required for
crop management. This approach is becoming popular because of its democratic and
participatory process. An effective example of this is IPM (Integrated Pest Management) classes.
(vi) Partnership Approach

Government organizations is undertaking partnership approach with other organizations like
Department of Irrigation, NGOs, CBOs, Private Organizations etc, to effectively deliver the
extension services. This strategy has encouraged relevant stakeholders to join hands in
development.
Challenges of the Agriculture extension programs:

In spite of the significant efforts made by the extension system, however, there are still several
problems and issues that require due attention to be paid for more efficient and effective
performance. One of the major challenges for agricultural extension system is how to serve the
majority of rural poor and socially disadvantaged groups who had long been neglected by
extension and other services. Other issues are inadequate linkage among research and extension,
21
education, farmers and other stakeholders, poor infra-structural development, insufficient

number of extension personnel etc. to cater diversified agricultural services.
Means used in the communication process in Nepal

With the passing time and modernization the means of communication has changed. Unlike in
the past when communication processes were not so developed letter used to be sole medium.
Later after the advent of democracy, radio and newspaper came as effective means of
communication. They served for many years as a reliable means for the transmission of state led
strategies in Agriculture and other sectors. There used to be weekly programs on better farming
practices and other issues of agriculture and animal husbandry. One particular program aired in
Radio Nepal was very popular among the farmers. The program was based on conversation of a
JTA and a old women of a community. The program was a huge success in disseminating the
techniques of improved ways of farming and it was aired for many years.
In the present context the importance of such program might have decreased but the government
of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture Development, Department of Agriculture Extension have been
employing various tools and techniques for teaching the improved methods and for the
dissemination of useful informations to the farming community.
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Class Notes

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Class Notes

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(EXT321) Agricultural Communication

Class notes by: Rajesh Paudel (Asst. Prof.)

The Meaning of Communication

Importance of Communication in Agriculture

Principles of communication relevant to Agriculture

Functions of Mass Communication

Major Elements in Communication Process

Nature of Communication Process

Barriers to Effective Communication

Communication media in extension services

News Writing and Editing

Modern information technologies in extension

Communication → Message → Channel → Treatment → Audience → Audience Response

Litterer Model (1962)–Litterer has also added the communication noise.

community sources. Communication Fidelity-Amount of knowledge gained, kind of attitude

1. Compatibility of language of change agent with receiver.

Problems in Agriculture Communication

complacency and over-

In the agricultural communication there may be the following problems:

Extension Communication System

Elements of Extension Communication System

iv) the communication process,

Classification of Channels by Criteria:

Treatment and Presentation

e) it exerts control over future messages,

Factors affecting Good Communication

COMMUNICATION APPROACHES IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION PROGRAMS

Approaches in Agricultural Extension:

(ii) Integrated Rural Development Approach.

(iii) Tuki Approach

(iv) Farming System Research and Extension Approach.

(v) Block Production Program.

(ii) Pocket Package Approach

iv) Projectization Approach

(iv) Farmers Group Approach

v) Farmers Field School Approach

(vi) Partnership Approach

Challenges of the Agriculture extension programs:

education, farmers and other stakeholders, poor infra-structural development, insufficient

Means used in the communication process in Nepal

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