EEE 1 Meeting 8

Power in AC Circuits
 Power Equations
Consider a voltage source, a current source and a
network of passive elements (R, L and C). Let
i(t)=Im cos (ωt+ θI) and v(t)= Vm cos (ωt+θV).

+ + +
v(t) i(t) i(t) v(t) i(t) v(t)
− − −

Voltage Current Passive

Source Source Network

Note: The current flows from positive to negative

terminal for the passive network.

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The instantaneous power delivered by the voltage
or current source to the passive network is
p = v(t)i(t) = VmIm cos(ωt + θV ) cos(ωt + θI )
15

Vmcos(ωt+θV)
Imcos(ωt+θI)
10

(θV-θi) -5

-10

-15

25
p
20

15

10

-5

-10

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Trigonometric Identities:
(1) cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
(2) cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
(3) sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
2
(4) cos α = 12 (1 + cos 2α)
(5) cos α cos β = 12 [cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)]
Note: (5) can be obtained by adding (1) and (2)

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 p = v(t)i(t) = VmIm cos(ωt + θV ) cos(ωt + θI )
Using (5), the instantaneous power can be
expressed as
p= 1
2
VmIm[cos(2ωt + θV + θI ) + cos(θV − θI )]
= 1
2
VmIm cos[(2ωt + 2θI ) + (θV − θI )]
+ 12 VmIm cos(θV − θI )
Simplify using trigonometric identity (1), we get
p = 21 VmIm [cos(2ωt + θI ) cos(θ V − θI )
−sin(2ωt + θI ) sin(θ V − θI ) + cos(θ V − θI )]

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Collecting common terms, we get

p= 1
2
VmIm cos(θV − θI )[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
− 12 VmIm sin(θV − θI ) sin 2(ωt + θI )

Using the RMS values of the voltage and current,

we get

p = VI cos(θV − θI )[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]

− VI sin(θV − θI ) sin 2(ωt + θI )
Note: The instantaneous power consists of a
constant term plus two sinusoidal components.

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 The Resistor
iR R
Consider a resistor. Let the
current be described by + vR -
iR = Im cos(ωt + θI )
From Ohm’s law, we get
vR = RiR = RIm cos(ωt + θI )
The instantaneous power delivered to the resistor
is
pR = RI2m cos2 (ωt + θI ) = 12 RI2m[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
or 2
pR = I R[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]

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Comparing pR to the general expression for p
pR = I2R[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
p = VI cos(θV − θI )[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
− VI sin(θV − θI ) sin 2(ωt + θI )

We can conclude that for a resistor:

I2R = VI cos(θV – θI) and
VI sin(θV – θI) = 0

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 The Inductor
iL L
Consider an inductor. Let the
current be described by + vL -

iL = Im cos(ωt + θI )
diL
From vL= L , we get vL = −ωLIm sin(ωt + θI )
dt
The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor
is 2
pL = −ωLIm sin(ωt + θI ) cos(ωt + θI )
= − 12 ωLI2m sin 2(ωt + θI )
or
pL = −I2XL sin 2(ωt + θI )

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Comparing pL to the general expression for p

pL = −I2XL sin 2(ωt + θI )

p = VI cos(θV − θI )[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
− VI sin(θV − θI ) sin 2(ωt + θI )

We can conclude that for an inductor:

VI cos(θV – θI) = 0 and
I2XL = VI sin(θV – θI)

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 The Capacitor
iC C
Consider a capacitor. Let the
current be described by
+ vC -
iC = Im cos(ωt + θI )
1 Im
From vC= ∫ iC dt, we get v C = sin(ωt + θI )
C ωC
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor
is 2
Im
pC = sin(ωt + θI ) cos(ωt + θI )
ωC
or
pC = I2XC sin 2(ωt + θI )

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Comparing pc to the general expression for p
2
pC = I XC sin 2(ωt + θI )
p = VI cos(θV − θI )[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
− VI sin(θV − θI ) sin 2(ωt + θI )

We can conclude that for an capacitor:

VI cos(θV – θI) = 0 and
I2XC = − VI sin(θV – θI)

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 Real or Active Power
Definition: Real or active power is defined as the
average value of the instantaneous power. It is the
power that is converted to useful work or heat.
Recall the instantaneous power supplied by a
source or delivered to a passive network.
p = VI cos(θV − θI )[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
− VI sin(θV − θI ) sin 2(ωt + θI )
Since the average of any sinusoid is zero, the real
or active power is
P = VI cos(θV − θI ) watts

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Recall the instantaneous power delivered to a
resistor, inductor or capacitor.
2
pR = I R[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
pL = −I2XL sin 2(ωt + θI )
pC = I2XC sin 2(ωt + θI )
Since the average of any sinusoid is zero, the real
or active power delivered to R, L and C are
2
PR = I R watts

PL = 0
PC = 0

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 Reactive Power
Recall: The instantaneous power delivered by an AC
source to an inductor or capacitor are
pL = −I2XL sin2(ωt + θI)
pC = I2XC sin2(ωt + θI)
Definition: The negative of the coefficient of
sin2(ωt+θI) is defined as the reactive power Q.
Reactive power is the power associated with
inductors and capacitors. Thus,
QL = I2XL and QC = −I2XC
Unit for Q is vars (volt-amperes reactive)
In general, Q = VI sin(θV - θI)
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 Reactive Power
i L C
Consider a series LC circuit. Let
the current be described by + vL - + vC -
i=Im cos (ωt+θI). The voltages
vL and vC can be shown to be
vL = −ωLIm sin(ωt + θI )
Im
vC = sin(ωt + θI )
ωC vL
vC i
ωt, deg
-90 90 180 270 360
θI

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The energy associated with the inductor and
capacitor respectively are
wL = ½Li2 ∝ cos2(ωt + θI)
wC = ½Cv2 ∝ sin2(ωt + θI)
Plots of the energy are shown below.

wL wC

i
ωt, deg
-90 90 180 270 360
θI

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Comments:
1. When the magnitude of the capacitor voltage
is increasing, the magnitude of the inductor
current is decreasing, and vice versa.

2. When the capacitor is storing energy, the

inductor is supplying energy, and vice versa.

3. Sinusoidal voltages develop across the

capacitor and the inductor when a sinusoidal
current is injected through them. However,
both elements do not absorb real power.
4. The capacitor and inductor voltages are 90°
from the current.

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Apparent Power and Power Factor
Definition: The product of the RMS voltage and
the RMS current is defined as the apparent power.
It is also called the volt-amperes.
S = VI VA or volt-amperes
Notes:
•  Electrical equipment ratings are often expressed in terms
of the apparent power.
•  Apparent power is neither a phasor nor a complex number

Definition: The ratio of the real or active power to

the apparent power is defined as the power factor.

P
PF = = cos(θV − θI )
S
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The power factor must be specified as lagging or
leading:
1. The power factor is lagging when the
current lags the voltage.
2. The power factor is leading when the
current leads the voltage.
Note:

1. The reactive power is positive when the

power factor is lagging.
2. The reactive power is negative when the
power factor is leading.

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 Summary of Power Equations
1.  Real Power: P = VI cos(θV−θI) watts
PR = I2R = VI for a resistor

2.  Reactive Power: Q = VI sin(θV−θI) vars

QL = I2XL for an inductor
QC = -I2XC for a capacitor

3.  Apparent Power: S = VI volt-amperes

4.  Power Factor:

P
PF = = cos(θV − θI )
S
lagging or leading
Note: All the above quantities are scalar quantities. They
are not phasors nor are they complex numbers.
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 Power Factor
Leading Power Factor: Lagging Power Factor:
  
I V V

I
The load (source) is The load (source) is
absorbing (delivering) absorbing (delivering)
negative reactive power positive reactive power

The load is capacitive The load is inductive

(Z = R – jX) (Z = R + jX)

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 Another Look at Real and
Reactive Power

Let V and I be the voltage and  VX
current on a load R + jX.
V
V may be decomposed into VR
(across R) and VX (across X). 
The average power absorbed by R VR
is equal to VRI = VI cos(θV – θI) 
= real power I
The reactive power absorbed by X is equal to
VXI = VI sin(θV – θI)

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 Power Triangle
The power triangle is a right triangle whose sides
correspond to the real and reactive power.

P = VI cos(θV−θI)
Q
Q = VI sin(θV−θI)
θ
S = VI
P
θ = θV − θI
From the power triangle:
(1) S = P 2
+ Q 2 V = V∠θV
(2) Q = P tanθ I = I∠θI

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 Complex Power
Definition: The product of the phasor voltage and
the conjugate of the phasor! current is defined
! as
the complex power S. Let V = V∠θ V and I = I∠θI .
  
S = V I * = (V∠θ V )(I∠ − θI ) = VI∠(θ V − θI )
= VI cos(θV − θI ) + jVI sin(θV − θI )
or 
S = P + jQ
Note: The complex power S is a complex number
whose real and imaginary components are the real
and reactive power, respectively.

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Example: In the circuit shown, v(t) = 311 cos377t
volts. Find the power and reactive power delivered
to the load. 0.5Ω 3.06 mH

+ i(t) 7.5Ω
v(t) Load
- 12.854 mH

Transform the network.

! o
V = 220∠0 volts
ZL1 = j377(0.00306) = j1.154Ω
ZL2 = j377(0.012854) = j4.846Ω

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Transformed 0.5Ω j1.154Ω
Network ! + 7.5Ω
! + I !
V Vx
- j4.846Ω
-
Get the total
impedance.
Zeq = 0.5 + j1.154 + 7.5 + j4.846
o
= 8 + j6 = 10.0∠36.87 Ω
Find the current
!
! V 220∠0o o
I= = o
= 22∠ − 36.87 A
Zeq 10∠36.87

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Find the voltage across the load
! !
VX = I(7.5 + j4.846)
= (22∠ − 36.87o ) (8.929∠32.87o
= 196.45∠ − 4.0o volts
Find the complex power delivered to the load.
! !* o o
PL + jQL = VX I = (196.45∠ − 4 ) (22∠36.87 )
= 4321.8∠32.87o
= 3,630 + j2,346
Thus, PL=3,630 Watts and QL=2,346 Vars.

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 8Ω
Example: Given
+ i(t)
v(t)=100 cos 10t volts,
find all Ps and Qs. v(t) 0.6H
-

Transform the network 8Ω

! o !
V = 70.71∠0 V ! +
I
o V j6Ω
Z = 8 + j6 = 10∠36.87 Ω -

Solve for the current

!
! V 70.71∠0o o
I= = o
= 7.071∠ − 36.87 A
Z 10∠36.87

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Power and Reactive Power delivered to R and L

PR = I2R = 7.0712(8) = 400 watts

QL = I2XL = 7.0712(6) = 300 vars
Power and reactive power supplied by the source

Ps = VI cos(θ V − θI ) = 70 .71(7.071) cos 36 .87 o

= 400 watts
Qs = 70 .71(7.071) sin 36 .87 o = 300 Vars
or !! o o
S = V I* = (70 .71∠0 )(7.071∠36 .87 )
o
= 500∠36.87 = 400 + j300

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 R1=6Ω L1=1.2H
Example: Given
v=200 cos 10t + i1 i2 i3
R2=5Ω
Volts. Find all v 0.01F
real power and - L2=0.5H
reactive power.

The transformed network

 o
V = 141.42∠0 V 6Ω j12Ω
ZL = j12Ω ! ! !
1
!+ I1 I2 5Ω I3
ZL = j5Ω
2 V -j10Ω
- j5Ω
ZC = −j10Ω

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In a previous example, we found
! o
I1 = 7.071∠ − 36 .87 A
! o
I2 = 10∠ − 81 .87 A
! o
I3 = 7.071∠53.13 A
Average power dissipated by the resistors
2 2
PR1 = I R1 = 7.071 (6) = 300 watts
1
2 2
PR2 = I R2 = 10 (5) = 500 watts
2

Reactive Power delivered to the capacitor

2
QC = −I XC = −7.0712 (10) = −500 vars
3

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Reactive Power delivered to the inductors
2 2
QL1 = I XL1 = 7.071 (12) = 600 vars
1
2
QL2 = I XL2 = 102(5) = 500 vars
2

Power and reactive power supplied by the source

θ = θV − θI = 0 − (−36.87o ) = 36.87o
PS = VI1 cos θ = 141.42(7.071) cos 36 .87 o
= 800 watts

QS = VI1 sin θ = 600 vars

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We can also use the complex power formula
!!*
PS + jQS = V I1
o o
= (141.42∠0 )(7.07∠36.87 )
= 1000∠36.87o = 800 + j600
Thus, PS=800 watts and QS=600 vars.

Note: Real and reactive power must always be

balanced. That is,
PS = PR1 + PR2 = 800 watts
QS = QL1 + QL2 + QC = 600 vars

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End