SECTION 11

Cooling Towers
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this section is to provide a basic understand-
ing of the design and operation of a cooling tower. A cooling
tower allows water to be cooled by ambient air through evapo-
ration.
COOLING TOWER PSYCHROMETRICS
Psychrometry is the study of cooling by evaporation. Maxi-
mum evaporation takes place when water, in the form of tiny
droplets, is exposed to the maximum air flow for the longest pos-
sible time. The process of evaporation through removal of latent

FIG. 11-1
Nomenclature

Acfm = actual volumetric flow rate of air-vapor mixture, kgs =

kilograms of dry air
m3/h kgw =
kilograms of water
ahp = air power, kW L water rate, kg/(m2 • h)
=
AWB = ambient wet bulb temperature, °C L/G =
liquid to gas ratio, kg/kg
B = combined water loss through blowdown and Q m3/h
=
windage, % of circulating water or m3/h PF =
performance factor, dimensionless
CWT = cold water temperature, °C R =
cooling tower range, °C
DB = dry bulb temperature, °C V =
air velocity, m/h
E = water evaporated, % of circulating water or m3/h va specific volume of dry air, m3/kg
=
G = air rate, kg/(m2 • h) vas vs – va, m3/kg
=
ha = specific enthalpy of dry air, kJ/kg vs =
volume of moist air at saturation per kg of dry air,
has = hs – ha, kJ/kg m3/kg
hs = enthalpy of moist air at saturation per kg of dry Ws = kgw/kgaa, humidity ratio at saturation
air, kJ/kg WB = wet bulb temperature, °C
HWT = hot water temperature, °C

DEFINITIONS OF WORDS AND
PHRASES USED IN COOLING TOWERS
Air inlet: Opening in a cooling tower through which air enters.
Sometimes referred to as the louvered face on induced draft
towers.
Air power: The power output developed by a fan in moving a
given air rate against a given resistance.
Air rate: Mass flow of dry air per square foot of cross-sectional
area in the tower’s heat transfer region per hour.
Air velocity: Velocity of air-vapor mixture through a specific
region of the tower (i.e. the fan).
Ambient wet-bulb temperature: The wet-bulb temperature
of the air encompassing a cooling tower, not including any
temperature contribution by the tower itself. Generally mea-
sured upwind of a tower, in a number of locations sufficient
to account for all extraneous sources of heat.
Approach: Difference between the cold water temperature and
the entering wet-bulb temperature.
Blowdown: Water discharged from the system to control con-
centrations of salt or other impurities in the circulating wa-
ter.
Capacity: The amount of water that a cooling tower will cool
through a specified range, at a specified approach and wet-
bulb temperature.
Cell: Smallest tower subdivision which can function as an inde-
pendent unit with regard to air and water flow; it is bounded
by either exterior walls or partition walls. Each cell may have
one or more fans and one or more distribution systems.
Circulation rate: Actual water flow rate through a given
tower.
Cold water temperature: Temperature of the water leaving
the collection basin, exclusive of any temperature effects
incurred by the addition of makeup and/or the removal of
blowdown.
Collection basin: Chamber below and integral with the tower
where water is transiently collected and directed to the sump
or pump suction line.
Counterflow: Air flow direction through the fill is countercur-
rent to that of the falling water.
Crossflow: Air flow direction through the fill is essentially per-
pendicular to that of the falling water.
Distribution basin: Shallow pan-type elevated basin used to
distribute hot water over the tower fill by means of orifices in
the basin floor. Application is normally limited to crossflow
towers.

11-1
Double-flow: A crossflow cooling tower where two opposed fill
banks are served by a common air plenum.
Drift: Circulating water loss from the tower as liquid droplets
entrained in the exhaust air stream. Units percent of circu-
lating water rate or gpm. [For more precise work, an L/G
parameter is used, and drift becomes kilograms of water per
million kilograms of exhaust air (ppmw).]
Drift eliminators: An assembly of baffles or labyrinth pas-
sages through which the air passes prior to its exit from the
tower, for the purpose of removing entrained water droplets
from the exhaust air.
Dry-bulb temperature: The temperature of the entering or
ambient air adjacent to the cooling tower as measured with
a dry-bulb thermometer.
Evaporation loss: Water evaporated from the circulating wa-
ter into the air stream in the cooling process.
Fan cylinder: Cylindrical or venturi-shaped structure in
which a propeller fan operates. Sometimes referred to as a
fan “stack” on larger towers.
Fan deck: Surface enclosing the top of an induced draft cool-
ing tower, exclusive of the distribution basins on a crossflow
tower.
Fan pitch: The angle which the blades of a propeller fan make
with the plane of rotation, measured at a prescribed point on
each blade.
Fill: That portion of a cooling tower which constitutes its pri-
mary heat transfer surface. Sometimes referred to as “pack-
ing.”
Forced draft: Refers to the movement of air under pressure
through a cooling tower. Fans of forced draft towers are lo-
cated at the air inlets to “force” air through the tower.
Hot water temperature: Temperature of circulating water
entering the cooling tower’s distribution system.
Induced draft: Refers to the movement of air through a cool-
ing tower by means of an induced partial vacuum. Fans of in-
duced draft towers are located at the air discharges to “draw”
air through the tower.
Liquid-to-gas ratio: A ratio of the total mass flows of wa-
ter and dry air in a cooling tower. (See Air Rate and Water
Rate)
heat allows the water to be cooled below the ambient dry-bulb
temperature. The dry air enters the cooling tower and begins
to gain moisture and enthalpy in an effort to reach equilibrium
with the water. The water may be cooled 8°C or more while the
air mass dry-bulb temperature may increase only slightly. A
psychrometric chart (Fig. 11-2) may be used to illustrate the
relationships between wet- and dry-bulb temperatures. All no-
menclature is indicated in Fig. 11-1.
Wet-bulb Temperature
The basis for thermal design of an evaporative type cool-
ing tower is the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the
11-2
Louvers: Blade or passage type assemblies installed at the air
inlet face of a cooling tower to control water splashout and/or
promote uniform air flow through the fill. In the case of film-
type crossflow fill, they may be integrally molded to the fill
sheets.
Makeup: Water added to the circulating water system to re-
place water lost by evaporation, drift, windage, blowdown,
and leakage.
Natural draft: Refers to the movement of air through a cool-
ing tower purely by natural means. Typically, by the driving
force of a density differential.
Net effect volume: That portion of the total structural volume
within which the circulating water is in intimate contact
with the flowing air.
Performance factor: Variable used in determining perfor-
mance characteristics in cooling towers.
Psychrometer: An instrument incorporating both a dry-bulb
and a wet-bulb thermometer, by which simultaneous dry-
bulb and wet-bulb temperature readings can be taken.
Range: Difference between the hot water temperature and the
cold water temperature.
Recirculation: Describes a condition in which a portion of the
tower’s discharge air re-enters the air inlets along with the
fresh air. Its effect is an elevation of the average entering
wet-bulb temperatures compared to the ambient.
Water rate: Mass flow of water per square foot of fill plan area
of the cooling tower per hour.
Wet-bulb temperature: the temperature of the entering or
ambient air adjacent to the cooling tower as measured with
a wet-bulb thermometer.
Wet-Bulb thermometer: A thermometer whose bulb is en-
cased within a wetted wick.
Windage: Water lost from the tower because of the effects of
wind.
Wind load: The load imposed upon a structure by a wind blow-
ing against its surface.
tower. Water cannot be cooled below the wet-bulb temperature
by evaporation. The air entering the tower at a temperature of
24°C and 100% relative humidity has a 24°C “wet-bulb” tem-
perature. The wet-bulb temperature is usually measured using
a sling psychrometer. Wet bulb and dry bulb data for various
locations around the world are shown in Figs. 11-3a and 11-3b.
Types of Cooling Systems
Cooling water is circulated through equipment to absorb
and carry away heat. The basic cooling systems are shown in
Fig. 11-4. The open recirculating system is the most common
for industrial plants.
 FIG. 11-2
Psychrometric Chart

11-3
 FIG. 11-3a
Dry Bulb/Wet Bulb Temperature Data2

Design Design Design Design Design Design Design Design

U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S.
Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb
State and Stations State and Stations State and Stations State and Stations
°C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5%
ALABAMA    Petaluma 31 20    Sarasota 32 26    Hobart 29 23
   Alexander City 33 26    Pomona 35 22    Tallahassee 32 26    Huntington 31 23
   Anniston 33 26    Redding 38 20    Tampa 32 26    Indianapolis 31 24
   Auburn 33 26    Redlands 36 22    West Palm Beach 32 26    Jeffersonville 32 24
   Birmingham 33 24    Richmond 24 17 GEORGIA    Kokomo 31 23
   Decatur 33 24    Riverside-March AFB 35 21    Albany,    Lafayette 31 24
   Dothan 33 26    Sacramento 34 21     Turner AFB 34 26    La Porte 31 24
   Florence 33 24    Salinas 19 15    Americus 33 25    Marion 31 23
   Gadsden 33 24    San Bernardino,    Athens 32 24    Muncie 31 24
   Huntsville 33 24     Norton AFB 36 22    Atlanta 32 24    Peru,
   Mobile AP 33 26    San Diego 26 20    Augusta 34 26     Bunker Hill AFB 30 23
   Mobile CO 33 26    San Fernando 31 21    Brunswick 31 26    Richmond 31 24
   Montgomery 34 26    San Francisco AP 23 17    Columbus,    Shelbyville 31 24
   Selma-Craig 34 26    San Francisco CO 21 16     Lawson AFB 33 25    South Bend 30 23
   Talladega 33 26    San Jose 25 18    Dalton 33 25    Terre Haute 32 24
   Tuscaloosa 34 25    San Luis Obispo 29 21    Dublin 33 25    Valparaiso 31 24
ALASKA    Santa Ana 28 21    Gainesville 32 24    Vincennes 32 24
   Anchorage 19 14    Santa Barbara 24 19    Griffin 31 24 IOWA
   Barrow    9    8    Santa Cruz 20 16    La Grange 32 24    Ames 31 24
   Fairbanks 24 16    Santa Maria 23 17    Macon 33 25    Burlington 31 24
   Juneau 19 14    Santa Monica 25 20    Marietta,    Cedar Rapids 30 24
   Kodiak 17 13    Santa Paula 29 20     Dobbins AFB 32 24    Clinton 31 24
   Nome 15 13    Santa Rosa 33 19    Moultrie 33 26    Council Bluffs 31 24
ARIZONA    Stockton 34 20    Rome 33 25    Des Moines 31 24
   Douglas 34 20    Ukiah 33 19    Savannah-Travis 33 26    Dubuque 30 23
   Flagstaff 27 15    Visalia 36 21    Valdosta-Moody AFB 33 26    Fort Dodge 30 23
   Fort Huachuca 32 19    Yreka 32 18    Waycross 33 26    Iowa City 31 24
   Kingman 36 21    Yuba City 37 20 HAWAII    Keokuk 32 24
   Nogales 34 21 COLORADO    Hilo 28 23    Marshalltown 31 24
   Phoenix 41 24    Alamosa 27 16    Honolulu 29 23    Mason City 29 23
   Prescott 33 18    Boulder 32 17    Kaneohe Bay 28 24    Newton 31 24
   Tucson 38 22    Colorado Springs 30 16    Wahiawa 29 23    Ottumwa 31 24
   Winslow 34 18    Denver 32 17 IDAHO    Sioux City 32 24
   Yuma 42 25    Durango 29 17    Boise 33 18    Waterloo 30 24
ARKANSAS    Fort Collins 32 17    Burley 33 16 KANSAS
   Blytheville 33 26    Grand Junction 33 17    Coeur d’Alene 28 16    Atchison 33 25
   Camden 34 26    Greeley 33 17    Idaho Falls 29 16    Chanute 34 24
   El Dorado 34 26    La Junta 35 21    Lewiston 32 18    Dodge City 35 22
   Fayetteville 33 24    Leadville 26 12    Moscow 29 17    El Dorado 36 24
   Fort Smith 35 26    Pueblo 33 18    Mountain Home AFB 34 17    Emporia 34 24
   Hot Springs 34 26    Sterling 32 18    Pocatello 32 16    Garden City 34 22
   Jonesboro 33 26    Trinidad 32 18    Twin Falls 33 16    Goodland 34 20
   Little Rock 34 26 CONNECTICUT ILLINOIS    Great Bend 35 24
   Pine Bluff 35 27    Bridgeport 27 23    Aurora 31 24    Hutchinson 36 23
   Texarkana 34 26    Hartford,    Belleville, Scott AFB 32 24    Liberal 34 22
CALIFORNIA     Brainard Field 29 23    Bloomington 31 24    Manhattan,
   Bakersfield 37 21    New Haven 28 23    Carbondale 32 25     Fort Riley 33 24
   Barstow 39 21    New London 28 23    Champaign/Urbana 32 24    Parsons 34 24
   Blythe 42 23    Norwalk 27 23    Chicago, Midway 31 23    Russell 35 24
   Burbank 31 21    Norwich 28 23    Chicago, O’Hare 30 23    Salina 36 24
   Chico 37 20    Waterbury 28 22    Chicago 31 24    Topeka 34 24
   Concord 34 20    Windsor Locks,    Danville 31 24    Wichita 36 24
   Covina 33 21     Bradley Field 29 23    Decatur 31 24 KENTUCKY
   Crescent City 17 15 DELAWARE    Dixon 31 24    Ashland 32 24
   Downey 30 21    Dover AFB 31 24    Elgin 30 24    Bowling Green 32 24
   El Cajon 26 20    Wilmington 31 24    Freeport 31 23    Corbin 32 24
   El Centro 42 26 DISTRICT OF    Galesburg 31 24    Covington 31 23
   Escondido 28 21 COLUMBIA    Greenville 32 24    Hopkinsville,
   Eureka/Arcata 17 15    Andrews AFB 31 24    Joliet 31 24     Campbell AFB 32 24
   Fairfield-Travis AFB 33 19    Washington National 32 24    Kankakee 31 24    Lexington 31 24
   Fresno 36 21 FLORIDA    La Salle/Peru 31 24    Louisville 32 24
   Hamilton 27 19    Belle Glade 32 26    Macomb 32 24    Madisonville 32 25
   Laguna Beach 25 20    Cape Kennedy 31 26    Moline 31 24    Owensboro 33 25
   Livermore 34 20    Daytona Beach 31 26    Mt. Vernon 32 24    Paducah 33 25
   Lompoc,    Fort Lauderdale 32 26    Peoria 31 24 LOUISIANA
    Vandenburg AFB 19 16    Fort Myers 33 26    Quincy 32 25    Alexandria 33 26
   Long Beach 25 20    Fort Pierce 32 26    Rantoul,    Baton Rouge 33 26
   Los Angeles AP 25 20    Gainesville 33 26     Chanute AFB 32 24    Bogalusa 33 26
   Los Angeles CO 30 21    Jacksonville 33 26    Rockford 31 23    Houma 33 26
   Merced-Castle AFB 36 21    Key West 32 26    Springfield 32 24    Lafayette 33 26
   Modesto 35 21    Lakeland 32 26    Waukegan 31 24    Lake Charles 33 26
   Monterey 20 16    Miami 32 26 INDIANA    Minden 34 26
   Napa 33 20    Miami Beach 31 26    Anderson 32 24    Monroe 34 26
   Needles 42 23    Ocala 33 26    Bedford 32 24    Natchitoches 34 26
   Oakland 24 17    Orlando 33 26    Bloomington 32 24    New Orleans 32 26
   Oceanside 25 20    Panama City,    Columbus,    Shreveport 34 26
   Ontario 36 22     Tyndall AFB 32 26     Bakalar AFB 32 24 MAINE
   Oxnard 25 19    Pensacola 33 26    Crawfordsville 31 24    Augusta 28 21
   Palmdale 37 19    St. Augustine 31 26    Evansville 33 25    Bangor, Dow AFB 27 21
   Palm Springs 42 23    St. Petersburg 32 26    Fort Wayne 31 23    Caribou 26 19
   Pasadena 33 21    Sanford 33 26    Goshen 30 23    Lewiston 28 21

11-4
 FIG. 11-3a (Cont’d)
Dry Bulb/Wet Bulb Temperature Data2

Design Design Design Design Design Design Design Design

U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S.
Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb
State and Stations State and Stations State and Stations State and Stations
°C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5%
   Millinocket 27 20    Farmington 32 24    Artesia 36 21    Minot 30 20
   Portland 27 21    Hannibal 32 25    Carlsbad 36 21    Williston 29 20
   Waterville 27 21    Jefferson City 33 24    Clovis 33 19 OHIO
MARYLAND    Joplin 34 24    Farmington 33 18    Akron-Canton 29 22
   Baltimore AP 32 24    Kansas City 34 24    Gallup 30 16    Ashtabula 28 22
   Baltimore CO 31 24    Kirksville 32 24    Grants 29 16    Athens 32 23
   Cumberland 31 24    Mexico 33 24    Hobbs 36 21    Bowling Green 30 23
   Frederick 31 24    Moberly 33 24    Las Cruces 34 19    Cambridge 31 24
   Hagerstown 32 24    Poplar Bluff 33 26    Los Alamos 29 16    Chillicothe 32 23
   Salisbury 31 24    Rolla 32 24    Raton 31 17    Cincinnati 31 23
MASSACHUSETTS    St. Joseph 33 25    Roswell, 36 21    Cleveland 30 23
   Boston 29 22    St. Louis AP 33 24     Walker AFB    Columbus 31 23
   Clinton 29 22    St. Louis CO 33 24    Santa Fe 30 16    Dayton 30 23
   Fall River 27 22    Sedalia, 32 24    Silver City 33 17    Defiance 31 23
   Framingham 28 22     Whiteman AFB    Socorro 34 18    Findlay 31 23
   Gloucester 28 22    Sikeston 33 25    Tucumcari 35 20    Fremont 29 23
   Greenfield 28 22    Springfield 33 24 NEW YORK    Hamilton 31 23
   Lawrence 29 23 MONTANA    Albany AP 29 22    Lancaster 31 23
   Lowell 29 23    Billings 31 18    Albany CO 29 22    Lima 31 23
   New Bedford 27 22    Bozeman 29 16    Auburn 29 22    Mansfield 29 23
   Pittsfield 27 21    Butte 27 14    Batavia 29 22    Marion 31 23
   Springfield,    Cut Bank 28 16    Binghamton 27 21    Middletown 31 23
    Westover AFB 29 22    Glasgow 29 18    Buffalo 28 22    Newark 32 23
   Taunton 28 23    Glendive 32 18    Cortland 28 22    Norwalk 29 23
   Worcester 27 21    Great Falls 29 16    Dunkirk 28 22    Portsmouth 32 24
MICHIGAN    Havre 31 18    Elmira 28 22    Sandusky 31 23
   Adrian 29 23    Helena 29 16    Geneva 29 22    Springfield 31 23
   Alpena 28 21    Kalispell 29 17    Glen Falls 28 22    Steubenville 29 22
   Battle Creek 29 23    Lewiston 28 17    Gloversville 28 22    Toledo 29 23
   Benton Harbor 29 22    Livingston 29 16    Hornell 28 22    Warren 29 22
   Detroit 30 23    Miles City 33 19    Ithaca 28 22    Wooster 29 22
   Escanaba 27 21    Missoula 29 17    Jamestown 28 22    Youngstown 29 22
   Flint 29 22 NEBRASKA    Kingston 29 23    Zanesville 31 24
   Grand Rapids 29 22    Beatrice 33 24    Lockport 29 23 OKLAHOMA
   Holland 28 22    Chadron 33 20    Massena 27 21    Ada 35 24
   Jackson 29 23    Columbus 33 24    Newburg-    Altus AFB 37 24
   Kalamazoo 29 23    Fremont 33 24      Stewart AFB 29 23    Ardmore 35 24
   Lansing 29 22    Grand Island 33 23    NYC-Central Park 31 23    Bartlesville 35 24
   Marquette 25 20    Hastings 33 23    NYC-Kennedy AP 29 23    Chickasha 35 24
   Mt. Pleasant 29 22    Kearney 32 22    NYC-LaGuardia AP 31 23    Enid-Vance AFB 36 24
   Muskegon 28 22    Lincoln 33 24    Niagara Falls 29 23    Lawton 36 24
   Pontiac 29 23    McCook 33 22    Olean 27 22    McAlester 34 24
   Port Huron 28 23    Norfolk 32 24    Oneonta 27 21    Muskogee 35 25
   Saginaw 29 22    North Platte 32 22    Oswego 27 22    Norman 34 24
   Sault St. Marie 25 20    Omaha 31 24    Plattsburg AFB 27 21    Oklahoma City 35 24
   Traverse City 28 22    Scottsbluff 32 19    Poughkeepsie 30 23    Ponca City 34 24
   Ypsilanti 30 22    Sidney 32 19    Rochester 29 22    Seminole 34 24
MINNESOTA NEVADA    Rome-Griffiss AFB 28 22    Stillwater 34 24
   Albert Lea 29 23    Carson City 32 16    Schenectady 29 22    Tulsa 35 25
   Alexandria 29 22    Elko 32 16    Suffolk County AFB 27 23    Woodward 34 24
   Bemidji 27 21    Ely 29 14    Syracuse 29 22 OREGON
   Brainerd 29 22    Las Vegas 40 21    Utica 28 22    Albany 30 19
   Duluth 26 20    Lovelock 34 18    Watertown 27 22    Astoria 20 17
   Fairbault 29 23    Reno AP 32 16 NORTH CAROLINA    Baker 30 16
   Fergus Falls 29 22    Reno CO 33 16    Asheville 29 22    Bend 29 16
   International Falls 27 20    Tonopah 32 16    Charlotte 33 24    Corvallis 30 19
   Mankato 29 23    Winnemucca 33 16    Durham 32 24    Eugene 30 19
   Minneapolis/St. Paul 30 23 NEW HAMPSHIRE    Elizabeth City 32 26    Grants Pass 34 20
   Rochester 29 23    Berlin 27 21    Fayetteville, 32 25    Klamath Falls 29 16
   St. Cloud 29 22    Claremont 28 22     Pope AFB    Medford 33 19
   Virginia 27 20    Concord 29 22    Goldsboro, Seymour- 32 25    Pendleton 32 17
   Willmar 29 22    Keene 28 22     Johnson AFB    Portland AP 27 19
   Winona 29 23    Laconia 28 22    Greensboro 32 24    Portland CO 28 19
MISSISSIPPI    Manchester,    Greenville 32 25    Roseburg 31 19
   Biloxi, Keesler AFB 32 27     Grenier AFB 29 22    Henderson 32 25    Salem 29 19
   Clarksdale 33 26    Portsmouth,    Hickory 31 23    The Dalles 29 19
   Columbus AFB 33 26     Pease AFB 28 22    Jacksonville 31 26 PENNSYLVANIA
   Greenville AFB 33 26 NEW JERSEY    Lumberton 32 25    Allentown 30 23
   Greenwood 33 26    Atlantic City 30 24    New Bern 31 26    Altoona 29 22
   Hattiesburg 33 26    Long Branch 31 24    Raleigh/Durham 32 24    Butler 29 23
   Jackson 34 26    Newark 31 24    Rocky Mount 32 25    Chambersburg 31 24
   Laurel 33 26    New Brunswick 30 24    Wilmington 32 26    Erie 28 22
   McComb 33 26    Paterson 31 24    Winston-Salem 32 23    Harrisburg 31 24
   Meridian 34 26    Phillipsburg 30 23 NORTH DAKOTA    Johnstown 27 21
   Natchez 33 26    Trenton 29 24    Bismark 31 21    Lancaster 31 24
   Tupelo 33 26    Vineland 30 24    Devil’s Lake 29 21    Meadville 28 22
   Vicksburg 34 26 NEW MEXICO    Dickinson 31 20    New Castle 30 23
MISSOURI    Alamogordo,    Fargo 29 22    Philadelphia 31 24
   Cape Girardeau 33 25      Holloman AFB 34 19    Grand Forks 29 21    Pittsburgh AP 29 22
   Columbia 33 24    Albuquerque 33 18    Jamestown 31 22    Pittsburgh CO 30 22

11-5
 FIG. 11-3a (Cont’d)
Dry Bulb/Wet Bulb Temperature Data2

Design Design Design Design Design Design Design Design

U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S.
Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb
State and Stations State and Stations State and Stations State and Stations
°C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5%
   Reading 30 23    Tullahoma 33 24    Tyler 35 26    Tacoma-
   Scranton/Wilkes-Barre 29 22 TEXAS    Vernon 36 24      McChord AFB 26 18
   State College 29 22    Abilene 36 23    Victoria 34 26    Walla Walla 32 19
   Sunbury 30 23    Alice 35 26    Waco 36 25    Wenatchee 33 18
   Uniontown 29 23    Amarillo 34 21    Wichita Falls 37 24    Yakima 32 18
   Warren 28 22    Austin 36 25 UTAH WEST VIRGINIA
   West Chester 30 24    Bay City 33 26    Cedar City 32 17    Beckley 26 21
   Williamsport 30 23    Beaumont 33 27    Logan 31 17    Bluefield 26 21
   York 31 24    Beeville 35 26    Moab 36 17    Charleston 31 23
RHODE ISLAND    Big Springs 35 22    Ogden 31 18    Clarksburg 31 23
   Newport 28 23    Brownsville 33 26    Price 32 17    Elkins 28 22
   Providence 28 23    Brownwood 36 24    Provo 34 18    Huntington 32 24
SOUTH CAROLINA    Bryan 34 26    Richfield 32 17    Martinsburg 31 24
   Anderson 32 24    Corpus Christi 33 26    St. George 37 19    Morgantown 29 23
   Charleston AFB 32 26    Corsicana 36 25    Salt Lake City 33 18    Parkersburg 31 24
   Charleston 32 26    Dallas 36 25    Vernal 30 17    Wheeling 29 22
   Columbia 34 25    Del Rio, VERMONT WISCONSIN
   Florence 32 26      Laughlin AFB 36 24    Barre 26 21    Appleton 28 22
   Georgetown 31 26    Denton 36 24    Burlington 28 22    Ashland 26 20
   Greenville 32 24    Eagle Pass 37 25    Rutland 27 22    Beloit 31 24
   Greenwood 33 24    El Paso 36 20 VIRGINIA    Eau Claire 30 23
   Orangeburg 34 25    Fort Worth 36 24    Charlottesville 31 24    Fond du Lac 29 22
   Rock Hill 33 24    Galveston 31 27    Danville 32 24    Green Bay 28 22
   Spartanburg 32 24    Greenville 36 24    Fredericksburg 32 24    La Crosse 29 23
   Sumter-Shaw AFB 32 25    Harlingen 34 26    Harrisonburg 31 23    Madison 29 23
SOUTH DAKOTA    Houston AP 33 26    Lynchburg 31 24    Manitowoc 28 22
   Aberdeen 31 23    Houston CO 34 26    Norfolk 32 25    Marinette 28 22
   Brookings 32 23    Huntsville 36 25    Petersburg 32 25    Milwaukee 29 23
   Huron 32 23    Killeen-Gray AFB 35 24    Richmond 32 25    Racine 29 23
   Mitchel 32 23    Lamesa 34 22    Roanoke 31 23    Sheboygan 28 23
   Pierre 33 22    Laredo 37 25    Staunton 31 23    Stevens Point 30 23
   Rapid City 32 19    Longview 35 26    Winchester 31 24    Waukesha 29 23
   Sioux Falls 31 23    Lubbock 34 22 WASHINGTON    Wausau 29 22
   Watertown 31 23    Lufkin 34 26    Aberdeen 23 17 WYOMING
   Yankton 31 23    McAllen 34 26    Bellingham 23 17    Casper 31 16
TENNESSEE    Midland 36 22    Bremerton 24 17    Cheyenne 29 16
   Athens 32 24    Mineral Wells 36 24    Ellensburg 31 17    Cody 28 16
   Bristol-Tri City 31 23    Palestine 36 26    Everett-Paine AFB 23 17    Evanston 28 14
   Chattanooga 33 24    Pampa 34 21    Kennewick 33 19    Lander 29 16
   Clarksville 32 24    Pecos 36 22    Longview 27 19    Laramie 26 15
   Columbia 33 24    Plainview 34 21    Moses Lake, 32 18    Newcastle 29 19
   Dyersburg 33 26    Port Arthur 33 27     Larson AFB    Rawlins 27 16
   Greenville 31 23    San Angelo,    Olympia 26 18    Rock Springs 28 14
   Jackson 33 25     Goodfellow AFB 36 23    Port Angeles 19 16    Sheridan 31 17
   Knoxville 32 24    San Antonio 36 24    Seattle-Boeing Fld 25 18    Torrington 31 17
   Memphis 34 26    Sherman Perrin AFB 35 24    Seattle CO 26 18
   Murfreesboro 33 24    Snyder 36 22    Seattle-Tacoma AP 24 17
   Nashville 33 24    Temple 36 25    Spokane 31 17

The dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures represent values which have been equalled or exceeded by 5% of the total hours during the months of June through Sep-
tember in the northern hemisphere and the months December through March in the southern hemisphere.

The data for Canadian stations are based on the month of July only.

AP = airport AFB = air force base CO = urban offices

Adapted to SI with permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from the 1993 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals.

11-6
 FIG. 11-3b
Dry Bulb/Wet Bulb Temperature Data2

Design Design Design Design Design Design Design Design

Country and Country and Country and Country and
Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb
Station Station Station Station
°C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5%
ADEN Vancouver 23 19 CANADA (Quebec) FRANCE
Aden 37 28 Victoria 21 16 Bagotville 27 20 Lyon 30 21
AFGHANISTAN CANADA (Manitoba) Chicoutimi 27 20 Marseilles 29 21
Kabul 34 18 Nantes 27 19
Brandon 28 21 Drummondville 28 22
ALGERIA Nice 28 22
Churchill 23 17 Granby 28 22
Algiers 32 24
Dauphin 27 21 Hull 29 22 Paris 28 19
ARGENTINA
Flin Flon 26 19 Mégantic 27 22 Strasbourg 27 19
Buenos Aires 30 24
Portage la Prairie 28 22 Montréal 28 22 FRENCH GUIANA
Córdoba 34 23
Cayenne 32 28
Tucuman 36 23 The Pas 26 20 Québec 27 21
GERMANY
AUSTRALIA Winnepeg 29 22 Rimouski 24 19
Berlin 26 19
Adelaide 33 20 CANADA (New St. Jean 29 22
Hamburg 23 18
Alice Springs 38 22 Brunswick) St. Jéirome 28 22
Hannover 24 18
Brisbane 30 24 Campbellton 26 20 Sept. Iles 21 17
Mannheim 28 20
Darwin 33 27 Chatham 28 21 Shawnigan 28 22
Munich 27 18
Melbourne 30 20 Edmundston 27 21 Sherbrooke 27 22
GHANA
Perth 34 23 Fredericton 28 21 Thetford Mines 27 22 Accra 32 26
Sydney 27 22 Moncton 26 21 Trois Riviéres 28 22 GIBRALTER
AUSTRIA Saint John 24 19 Val d’Or 27 20 Gibralter 30 23
Vienna 28 19 CANADA (Newfound- Valleyfield 29 22 GREECE
land) Athens 33 22
AZORES CANADA (Saskatch-
Lajes (Terceira) 25 22 Corner Brook 22 18 ewan) Thessaloniki 33 24
BAHAMAS Gander 25 19 Estevan 30 21 GREENLAND
Nassau 31 26 Goose Bay 25 18 Moose Jaw 30 20 Narssarssuaq 16 11
BELGIUM St. John’s 23 19 North Battleford 28 19 GUATEMALA
Brussels 25 19 Stephenville 22 18 Guatemala City 27 19
Prince Albert 27 19
BELIZE CANADA (Northwest GUYANA
Regina 29 20
Belize 32 27 Terr.) Georgetown 31 26
Saskatoon 28 19
BERMUDA Fort Smith 26 18 HAITI
Kindley AFB 29 26 Swift Current 31 19 Port au Prince 34 27
Frobisher 15 11
BOLIVIA Yorkton 27 20 HONDURAS
Inuvik 24 16
La Paz 20 13 CANADA (Yukon Tegucigalpa 29 22
Resolute 11  8 Territory)
BRAZIL HONG KONG
Belem 31 26 Yellowknife 23 17 Whitehorse 23 14 Hong Kong 32 27
Belo Horizonte 28 24 CANADA (Nova CEYLON HUNGARY
Scotia) Colombo 31 27 Budapest 29 21
Brazilia 30 24
Amherst 26 20 CHILE ICELAND
Curitiba 28 23
Halifax 23 19 Punta Arenas 18 12 Reykjavik 13 12
Fortaleza 32 26
Kentville 27 21 Santiago 31 21 INDIA
Porto Alegre 32 24
New Glasgow 25 21 Valparaiso 25 18 Ahmenabad 41 26
Recife 30 25
Sydney 25 20 CHINA Bangalore 34 23
Rio de Janeiro 32 26
Truro 26 21 Chungking 35 26 Bombay 33 27
Salvador 30 26
Yarmouth 21 18 Shanghai 32 27 Calcutta 36 28
São Paulo 28 23
CANADA (Ontario) COLOMBIA Madras 38 28
BULGARIA Baranquilla 34 28
Belleville 28 23 Nagpur 42 26
Sofia 29 21
Bogotá 21 14 New Delhi 41 28
BURMA Chatham 29 23
Cali 26 20 INDONESIA
Mandalay 38 27 Cornwall 29 22
Medellin 29 22 Djakarta 31 26
Rangoon 35 28 Hamilton 28 23
CONGO Kupang 33 27
CAMBODIA 34 28 Kapuskasing 27 21
Brazzaville 33 27 Makassar 31 26
Phnom Penh Kenora 27 21
Kinshasa 32 27 Medan 32 26
CANADA (Alberta) Kingston 28 23 (Leopoldville)
Calgary 26 17 Palembang 32 26
Kitchener 28 22 Stanleyville 32 27
Edmonton 26 18 Surabaya 32 26
London 28 23 CUBA
Grande Prairie 26 17 IRAN
North Bay 26 20 Guantanamo Bay 33 27
Abadan 43 27
Jasper 25 17 Oshawa 29 23 Havana 32 27
Meshed 34 19
Lethbridge 29 18 Ottawa 29 22 CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Tehran 37 23
McMurray 26 18 Owen Sound 27 21 Prague 28 18
IRAQ
Medicine Hat 31 19 Peterborough 28 22 DENMARK
Baghdad 42 22
Red Deer 26 18 Copenhagen 23 18
St. Catharines 28 23 Mosul 43 22
CANADA (British DOMINICAN
Sarnia 29 23 IRELAND
Columbia) REPUBLIC
Sault Ste. Marie 26 21 Santo Domingo 31 27 Dublin 21 17
Dawson Creek 24 17
Sudbury 27 20 ECUADOR Shannon 22 17
Fort Nelson 26 18
Thunder Bay 27 20 Guayacil 32 26 ISRAEL
Kamloops 31 18 Jerusalem 33 21
Timmins 27 20 Quito 22 17
Nanaimo 25 18 Tel Aviv 33 22
Toronto 29 23 EL SALVADOR
New Westminster 26 19 San Salvador 35 24 ITALY
Windsor 30 23
Penticton 31 19 ETHIOPIA Milan 29 23
CANADA (Prince
Prince George 25 17 Edward Island) Addis Ababa 27 18 Naples 30 22
Prince Rupert 16 14 Charlottetown 24 20 Asmara 27 17 Rome 32 22
Trail 30 18 Summerside 25 20 FINLAND IVORY COAST
Helsinki 22 17 Abidjan 31 27

11-7
 FIG. 11-3b (Cont’d)
Dry Bulb/Wet Bulb Temperature Data2

Design Design Design Design Design Design Design Design

Country and Country and Country and Country and
Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb
Station Station Station Station
°C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5% °C 5%
JAPAN NEW ZEALAND SOMALIA TAIWAN
Fukuoka 32 26 Auckland 24 18 Mogadiscio 32 27 Tainan 32 28
Sapporo 27 22 Christ Church 24 19 SOUTH AFRICA Taipei 32 27
Tokyo 31 26 Wellington 22 18 Capetown 30 21 TANZANIA
JORDAN NICARAGUA Johannesburg 27 21 Dar es Salaam 31 27
Amman 33 20 Managua 33 26 Pretoria 29 20 THAILAND
KENYA NIGERIA SOVIET UNION Bangkok 34 27
Nairobi 26 18 Lagos 32 27 Alma Ata 28 19 TRINIDAD
KOREA NORWAY Archangel 20 14 Port of Spain 32 26
Pyongyang 29 24 Bergen 23 18 Kaliningrad 25 18 TUNISIA
Seoul 31 26 Oslo 23 18 Tunis 36 23
Krasnoyarsk 24 16
LEBANON PAKISTAN TURKEY
Kiev 27 19
Beirut 32 24 Chittagong 32 27 Adana 35 25
Kharkov 28 19
LIBERIA Karachi 35 27 Ankara 32 19
Kuibyshev 27 19
Monrovia 31 27 Lahore 41 27 Istanbul 30 23
Leningrad 22 17
LIBYA Peshwar 39 26 Izmir 34 23
Bengasi 33 24 Minsk 23 18
PANAMA & CANAL UNITED ARAB
MADAGASCAR Moscow 26 18 REPUBLIC
ZONE
Tananarive 28 22 Panama City 33 27 Odessa 28 20 Cairo 37 23
MALAYSIA PARAGUAY Petropavlovsk 18 13 UNITED KINGDOM
Kuala Lumpur 33 27 Asunción 36 27 Rostov on Don 29 20 Belfast 21 17
Penang 33 27 PERU Sverdlovsk 22 16 Birmingham 23 17
Singapore 32 27 Lima 29 23 Tashkent 32 21 Cardiff 23 17
MARTINIQUE PHILIPPINES Tblisi 28 19 Edinburgh 20 16
Fort de France 31 27 Manila 33 27 Glasgow 20 16
Vladivostok 23 20
MEXICO London 24 18
Volgograd 30 21
Guadalajara 32 19 POLAND
SPAIN URUGUAY
Mérida 34 25 Kraków 26 19
Barcelona 29 23 Montevideo 29 22
Mexico City 26 15 Warsaw 26 20
Madrid 32 19 VENEZUELA
Monterrey 34 25 PORTUGAL Caracas 27 21
Lisbon 28 19 Valencia 31 23
Vera Cruz 31 28 Maracaibo 35 28
PUERTO RICO SUDAN
MOROCCO Khartoum 40 24 VIET NAM
San Juan 31 26
Casablanca 30 21 Da Nang 34 29
RUMANIA SURINAM
NEPAL Paramaribo 32 27 Hanoi 35 29
Bucharest 32 21
Katmandu 30 24 Saigon 32 28
SAUDI ARABIA SWEDEN
NETHERLANDS Stockholm 22 16 YUGOSLAVIA
Dhahran 42 29
Amsterdam 23 17 Belgrade 30 22
Jedda 38 28 SWITZERLAND
NEW GUINEA Zurich 26 19
Manokwari 31 27 Riyadh 41 24
SYRIA
Point Moresby 32 26 SENEGAL
Damascus 37 21
Dakar 33 27

The dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures represent values which have been equalled or exceeded by 5% of the total hours during the months of June through Sep-
tember in the northern hemisphere and the months December through March in the southern hemisphere.

The data for Canadian stations are based on the month of July only.

AP = airport AFB = air force base CO = urban offices

Adapted to SI with permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from the 1993 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals.

11-8
 The open recirculating system routes cooled water through
the heat-exchange equipment. Effluent warm water then is
cooled by contact with air in a cooling tower. The cooling ef-
fect is produced by evaporation of a portion of the circulating
water, and this evaporation causes the dissolved solids in the
water to become concentrated. Water lost by evaporation must
be replaced by makeup water. But water lost through entrain-
ment of droplets in the circulating air (windage or drift) tends
to limit the degree of concentration since the entrained droplets
also contain dissolved solids. Windage loss varies with the type
of tower.
Typical windage losses, expressed as percentages of the
total system water circulation rate, for different evaporative
equipment are as follows:
Spray ponds 1.0 to 5.0%
Atmospheric-draft towers 0.3 to 1.0%
Mechanical-draft towers 0.1 to 0.3%
FIG. 11-4
Cooling System Characteristics
11-9
Tower Location
Local heat sources upwind of the cooling tower can elevate
the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the tower. Inter-
ference occurs when a portion of the saturated air upwind of
the tower contaminates the ambient air of a downwind tower.
Drift and condensed water can cause corrosion problems with
downwind equipment.
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
The performance characteristics of various types of tow-
ers will vary with height, fill configuration, and flow arrange-
ment — crossflow or counterflow; however, these factors have
been taken into consideration in preparation of the Performance
Characteristic Nomograph Fig. 11-5. When accurate character-
istics of a specific tower are required, the cooling tower manu-
facturer should be consulted.
Example 11-1 — Effect of Varying WB Temperature on Cold Water Tempera-
ture (CWT).
What is new CWT when WB changes from 25° to 15° with m3/h and range
remaining constant?
Enter Nomograph at 30° CWT, go horizontally to 25° WB, then vertically
down to 15° WB, read new CWT of 24°.

Example 11-2 — Effect of Varying Cooling Range on Cold Water Tempera-

ture.
What is new CWT when cooling range is changed from 10° to 15° (50%
increase in heat load) with m3/h and WB held constant?
Enter Nomograph at 30° CWT, go horizontally to 25° WB, vertically to
10° R, horizontally to 15° R, vertically downward to 25° WB, read new CWT
31.8°.

Example 11-3 — Effect of Varying Water Circulating Rate and Heat Load on
Cold Water Temperature.
What is new CWT when water circulation is changed from 200 m3/h to
300 m3/h (50% change in heat load at constant Range). Varying water rate,
particularly over wide ranges, may require modifications to the distribution
system. Enter Nomograph at 30° CWT, go horizontally to 25° WB, vertically
to 10° R, horizontally to Performance Factor of 1.8. Obtain new PF by multi-
plying (1.8) (300/200) = 2.7, then enter Nomograph at PF of 2.7, go horizon-
tally to 10° R, vertically down to 25° WB, read new CWT 33.2°.

11-10
 Example 11-4 — Effect of Varying WB Temperature, Range, and Water Cir-
culating Rate on Cold Water Temperature.
What is new CWT when the WB changes from 25° to 15°, R changes from
10° to 12.5°, m3/h changes from 200 to 250 (25% change in heat load.) En-
ter Nomograph at 30° CWT, go horizontally to 25° WB, vertically to 10° R,
horizontally read PF 1.8 then multiply (1.8) (250/200) = 2.25 (new PF). Enter
Nomograph at PF = 2.25, go horizontally to 12.5° R, vertically down to 15°
WB, read 27.5° new CWT.

Example 11-5 — Effect of Varying Fan HP Input on Cold Water Tempera-

ture.
What is new CWT if motor is changed from 30 kW to 35 kW in Exam-
ple 11-4? The air flow rate varies as the cube root of the horsepower and
performance varies almost directly with the ratio of water rate to air rate,
therefore the change in air flow rate can be applied to the Performance
Factor. Increasing the air flow rate (by installing a larger motor) decreases
the Performance Factor. PF correction factor = (35/30)1/3 = 1.053. Divide
PF by PF correction factor to get new PF. Applying this to Example 11-4,
we get 2.25/1.053 = 2.14. Enter Nomograph at 2.14 PF (instead of 2.25 PF)
go horizontally to 12.5° R, vertically down to 15° WB, read 27.2° CWT.

Performance tests on a cooling tower should be done in ac- ample 11-5), m3/h could be increased from 250 to (250) (1.053)
cordance with the Cooling Tower Institute (CTI) Acceptance = 263 m3/h.
Test Code and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) test code. Example 11-7 — Calculate the concentrations and blowdown
rate for the following cooling tower:
Examples Circulation Rate = 2000 m3/h
The use of the Nomograph is illustrated by the following Water Temperature Drop Through Tower = 10°C
examples covering typical changes in operating conditions.
Type of Tower = Mechanical Induced Draft
Assume a cooling tower is operating at known conditions of:
Blowdown Rate = 4.0 m3/h, or 0.2% of circulation rate
Flow = 200 m3/h
Therefore:
Hot Water = 40°C
Evaporation Loss = 1.8% (1% for each 5.5°C temperature
Cold Water = 30°C drop)
Wet Bulb = 25°C (all rates are based on a percent of circulation rate)
This is commonly referred to as 40-30-25 or 10° Range Windage Loss = 0.3% (maximum for mechanical draft tower,
(40° – 30°) and 5° Approach (30° – 25°). p. 11-2)
Example 11-6 — The correction factor shown in Example 11-5 Number of E+B
could also be used to increase m3/h instead of decreasing CWT, Concentrations
(cycles) = B
as was done in Example 11-5. In Example 11-4, we developed
a new CWT of 27.5° when circulating 250 m3/h at 12.5° R and 1.8 + (0.2 + 0.3)
15° WB. If motor kW is increased from 30 to 35 under these = = 4.6
(0.2 + 0.3)
conditions with PF correction factor = 1.053 (as shown in Ex-

11-11
 FIG. 11-5
Performance Characteristic Nomograph

11-12
If the resultant concentrations are excessive and a desired con- Mechanical Draft Towers
centration of 4.0 is required, what must the blowdown rate be?
Fans are used to move the air through the mechanical draft
E tower. The performance of the tower has a greater stability
B =
Cycles – 1 because it is affected by fewer psychrometric variables. The
fans provide a means of regulating the air flow. Mechanical
1.8 draft towers are characterized as either forced draft or induced
= = 0.6%
4.0 – 1 draft.
The windage component of B is 0.3%, therefore the blowdown Forced draft towers (Fig. 11-6) — The fan is located on
rate required would be 0.6 – 0.3 = 0.3% or the air stream entering the tower. This tower is characterized
(2000 m3/h) (0.003) = 6.0 m3/h by high air entrance velocities and low exit velocities, therefore,
the towers are susceptible to recirculation thus having a lower
performance stability. The fans can also be subject to icing un-
CONCENTRATION CYCLES der conditions of low ambient temperature and high humidity.
The concentration of compounds occurring in circulating
Induced draft towers (Fig. 11-7a and 11-7b) — The fan
water systems that can cause scaling or corrosion of equipment
is located on the air stream leaving the tower. This causes air
must be controlled at a desirable level. This concentration level,
exit velocities which are three to four times higher than their
developed on each system, is based on the quality of makeup
air entrance velocities. This improves the heat dispersion and
water and the water treating chemicals used to control corro-
reduces the potential for recirculation. Induced draft towers re-
sion or scaling. The concentration is usually reported as concen-
quire about one kw of input for every 18 000 m3/h of air.3
tration cycles and refers to the number of times the compounds
in the makeup water are concentrated in the blowdown water.
FIG. 11-7a
For example, if the concentration in the makeup water were
125 mg/kg and the concentration of the blowdown were 500, Mechanical Induced Draft Counterflow Tower
the concentration cycles would be 500/125 or 4 cycles. The com-
pounds are concentrated by the loss of water through evapora- Air
tion and windage. The evaporation loss in a cooling tower is cal- Out
culated from the ratio of specific heat to the heat of vaporation.
The specific heat of water is 4.186 kJ/(kg • °C) and the heat of Fan
vaporation is 2326 kJ/kg. The ratio 4.186/2326 = 0.0018/°C indi-
cates that 0.18% evaporation occurs for every degree of cooling
taking place across the tower.

TYPES OF COOLING TOWERS Water

Inlet
Cooling towers have two types of air flow: crossflow and
counterflow. In crossflow towers, the air moves horizontally
across the downward flow of water. In counterflow towers, the
air moves vertically upward against the downward fall of the Air In Air In
water.
There are many types and sizes of cooling towers: Watet
Outlet

FIG. 11-6
FIG. 11-7b
Mechanical Forced Draft Counterflow Tower
Mechanical Induced Draft Cross Flow Tower

Air Air
Water Out Out
Sprays
Fan
Air
In
Water
In

Air Air
In In

Water Water
Fan Out Out

11-13
 Coil shed towers (Fig. 11-8) — This application exists in
many older cooling towers. The atmospheric coils or sections
are located in the basin of the cooling tower. The sections are
cooled by flooding the surface of the coils with cold water. Rea-
sons for discontinued use were scaling problems, poor tempera-
ture control, and construction costs. This type tower can exist
both as mechanical or natural draft.
Natural Draft Towers
Atmospheric spray towers (Fig. 11-9) — Cooling towers
of this type are dependent upon atmospheric conditions. No me-
chanical devices are used to move the air. They are used when
small sizes are required and when low performance can be tol-
erated.
Hyperbolic natural draft towers (Fig. 11-10) — These
towers are extremely dependable and predictable in their
thermal performance. A chimney or stack is used to induce air
movement through the tower.
ENVIRONMENTAL
Environmental factors should be considered when choosing
whether or not to use a cooling tower. Areas to consider would
include:
1. Leakage to the atmosphere (VOC, CO2)
2. Particulate matter (mist eliminators)
3. Tower blowdown (disposal well, treatment, release to
surface waters, evaporation ponds)
These issues are discussed further in Section 18 — Utilities.
BASIN
The cooling tower basin design should take into consider-
ation the suction requirements for the water circulation pump.
This is discussed in more detail in the “Submergence” section
under the title “Net Positive Suction Head” in Section 12 —
Pumps and Hydraulic Turbines.

FIG. 11-8 SALTWATER COOLING TOWERS4

Mechanical Draft Coil Shed Tower In some parts of the world, where fresh water is not in suf-
ficient supply for a cooling tower, salt water can be used in place
of fresh water. This would include sea water, brackish water and
Air
Outlet
Fan Water produced water. Salt water has a 4-8% performance penalty com-
Gear
Drive
Inlet
pared to fresh water. Salt water cooling towers cost 35-50% more
than fresh water cooling towers. This is due to the performance
penalty (larger tower required) and materials of construction
(corrosion avoidance). Concentration cycles are reduced to around
1.5. Corrosion of nearby equipment and structures due to drift is
also a concern.
Air Drift Air
Inlet Fill Eliminators Fill Inlet

FIG. 11-10
Coils Hyperbolic Natural Draft Tower

Air
Water Outlet
Outlet

FIG. 11-9
Atmospheric Spray Tower
Air Outlet

Water Inlet
Distribution
System
Hot
Water
Inlet
Air
Air In Air In Inlet

Water Outlet

Water Outlet

Cold Water
Collection Basin

11-14
 FIG. 11-11
Properties of Saturated Air1

Hum. Ratio Volume Enthalpy Hum. Ratio Volume Enthalpy

Temp. Temp.
kgw/kga m3/kg dry air kJ/kg dry air kgw/kga m3/kg dry air kJ/kg dry air
°C Ws va vas vs ha has hs °C Ws va vas vs ha has hs
–60 0.0000067 0.6027 0.0000 0.6027 –60.351 0.017 –60.334 17 0.012178 0.8217 0.0160 0.8377 17.102 30.824 47.926
–59 0.0000076 0.6056 0.0000 0.6056 –59.344 0.018 –59.326 18 0.012989 0.8245 0.0172 0.8417 18.108 32.900 51.008
–58 0.0000087 0.6084 0.0000 0.6084 –58.338 0.021 –58.317 19 0.013848 0.8274 0.0184 0.8457 19.114 35.101 54.216
–57 0.0000100 0.6113 0.0000 0.6113 –57.332 0.024 –57.308 20 0.014758 0.8302 0.0196 0.8498 20.121 37.434 57.555
–56 0.0000114 0.6141 0.0000 0.6141 –56.326 0.028 –56.298 21 0.015721 0.8330 0.0210 0.8540 21.127 39.908 61.035
–55 0.0000129 0.6170 0.0000 0.6170 –55.319 0.031 –55.288 22 0.016741 0.8359 0.0224 0.8583 22.133 42.527 64.660
–54 0.0000147 0.6198 0.0000 0.6198 –54.313 0.036 –54.278 23 0.017821 0.8387 0.0240 0.8627 23.140 45.301 68.440
–53 0.0000167 0.6226 0.0000 0.6227 –53.307 0.041 –53.267 24 0.018963 0.8416 0.0256 0.8671 24.146 48.239 72.385
–52 0.0000190 0.6255 0.0000 0.6255 –52.301 0.046 –52.255 25 0.020170 0.8444 0.0273 0.8717 25.153 51.347 76.500
–51 0.0000215 0.6283 0.0000 0.6284 –51.295 0.052 –51.243 26 0.021448 0.8472 0.0291 0.8764 26.159 54.638 80.798
–50 0.0000243 0.6312 0.0000 0.6312 –50.289 0.059 –50.230 27 0.022798 0.8501 0.0311 0.8811 27.165 58.120 85.285
–49 0.0000275 0.6340 0.0000 0.6341 –49.283 0.067 –49.216 28 0.024226 0.8529 0.0331 0.8860 28.172 61.804 89.976
–48 0.0000311 0.6369 0.0000 0.6369 –48.277 0.075 –48.202 29 0.025735 0.8558 0.0353 0.8910 29.179 65.699 94.878
–47 0.0000350 0.6397 0.0000 0.6398 –47.271 0.085 –47.186 30 0.027329 0.8586 0.0376 0.8962 30.185 69.820 100.006
–46 0.0000395 0.6426 0.0000 0.6426 –46.265 0.095 –46.170 31 0.029014 0.8614 0.0400 0.9015 31.192 74.177 105.369
–45 0.0000445 0.6454 0.0000 0.6455 –45.259 0.108 –45.151 32 0.030793 0.8643 0.0426 0.9069 32.198 78.780 110.979
–44 0.0000500 0.6483 0.0001 0.6483 –44.253 0.121 –44.132 33 0.032674 0.8671 0.0454 0.9125 33.205 83.652 116.857
–43 0.0000562 0.6511 0.0001 0.6512 –43.247 0.137 –43.111 34 0.034660 0.8700 0.0483 0.9183 34.212 88.799 123.011
–42 0.0000631 0.6540 0.0001 0.6540 –42.241 0.153 –42.088 35 0.036756 0.8728 0.0514 0.9242 35.219 94.236 129.455
–41 0.0000708 0.6568 0.0001 0.6569 –41.235 0.172 –41.063 36 0.038971 0.8756 0.0546 0.9303 36.226 99.983 136.209
–40 0.0000793 0.6597 0.0001 0.6597 –40.229 0.192 –40.037 37 0.041309 0.8785 0.0581 0.9366 37.233 106.058 143.290
–39 0.0000887 0.6625 0.0001 0.6626 –39.224 0.216 –39.007 38 0.043778 0.8813 0.0618 0.9431 38.239 112.474 150.713
–38 0.0000992 0.6653 0.0001 0.6654 –38.218 0.241 –37.976 39 0.046386 0.8842 0.0657 0.9498 39.246 119.258 158.504
–37 0.0001108 0.6682 0.0001 0.6683 –37.212 0.270 –36.942 40 0.049141 0.8870 0.0698 0.9568 40.253 126.430 166.683
–36 0.0001237 0.6710 0.0001 0.6712 –36.206 0.302 –35.905 41 0.052049 0.8898 0.0741 0.9640 41.261 134.005 175.265
–35 0.0001379 0.6739 0.0001 0.6740 –35.200 0.336 –34.864 42 0.055119 0.8927 0.0788 0.9714 42.268 142.007 184.275
–34 0.0001536 0.6767 0.0002 0.6769 –34.195 0.375 –33.820 43 0.058365 0.8955 0.0837 0.9792 43.275 150.475 193.749
–33 0.0001710 0.6796 0.0002 0.6798 –33.189 0.417 –32.772 44 0.061791 0.8983 0.0888 0.9872 44.282 159.417 203.699
–32 0.0001902 0.6824 0.0002 0.6826 –32.183 0.464 –31.718 45 0.065411 0.9012 0.0943 0.9955 45.289 168.874 214.164
–31 0.0002113 0.6853 0.0002 0.6855 –31.178 0.517 –30.661 46 0.069239 0.9040 0.1002 1.0042 46.296 178.882 225.179
–30 0.0002346 0.6881 0.0003 0.6884 –30.171 0.574 –29.597 47 0.073282 0.9069 0.1063 1.0132 47.304 189.455 236.759
–29 0.0002602 0.6909 0.0003 0.6912 –29.166 0.636 –28.529 48 0.077556 0.9097 0.1129 1.0226 48.311 200.644 248.955
–28 0.0002883 0.6938 0.0003 0.6941 –28.160 0.707 –27.454 49 0.082077 0.9125 0.1198 1.0323 49.319 212.485 261.803
–27 0.0003193 0.6966 0.0004 0.6970 –27.154 0.782 –26.372 50 0.086858 0.9154 0.1272 1.0425 50.326 225.019 275.345
–26 0.0003533 0.6995 0.0004 0.6999 –26.149 0.867 –25.282 51 0.091918 0.9182 0.1350 1.0532 51.334 238.290 289.624
–25 0.0003905 0.7023 0.0004 0.7028 –25.143 0.959 –24.184 52 0.097272 0.9211 0.1433 1.0643 52.341 252.340 304.682
–24 0.0004314 0.7052 0.0005 0.7057 –24.137 1.059 –23.078 53 0.102948 0.9239 0.1521 1.0760 53.349 267.247 320.596
–23 0.0004762 0.7080 0.0005 0.7086 –23.132 1.171 –21.961 54 0.108954 0.9267 0.1614 1.0882 54.357 283.031 337.388
–22 0.0005251 0.7109 0.0006 0.7115 –22.126 1.292 –20.834 55 0.115321 0.9296 0.1713 1.1009 55.365 299.772 355.137
–21 0.0005787 0.7137 0.0007 0.7144 –21.120 1.425 –19.695 56 0.122077 0.9234 0.1819 1.1143 56.373 317.549 373.922
–20 0.0006373 0.7165 0.0007 0.7173 –20.115 1.570 –18.545 57 0.129243 0.9353 0.1932 1.1284 57.381 336.417 393.798
–19 0.0007013 0.7194 0.0008 0.7202 –19.109 1.729 –17.380 58 0.136851 0.9381 0.2051 1.1432 58.389 356.461 414.850
–18 0.0007711 0.7222 0.0009 0.7231 –18.103 1.902 –16.201 59 0.144942 0.9409 0.2179 1.1588 59.397 377.788 437.185
–17 0.0008473 0.7251 0.0010 0.7261 –17.098 2.092 –15.006 60 0.15354 0.9438 0.2315 1.1752 60.405 400.458 460.863
–16 0.0009303 0.7279 0.0011 0.7290 –16.092 2.299 –13.793 61 0.16269 0.9466 0.2460 1.1926 61.413 424.624 486.036
–15 0.0010207 0.7308 0.0012 0.7320 –15.086 2.524 –12.562 62 0.17244 0.9494 0.2614 1.2109 62.421 450.377 512.798
–14 0.0011191 0.7336 0.0013 0.7349 –14.080 2.769 –11.311 63 0.18284 0.9523 0.2780 1.2303 63.429 477.837 541.266
–13 0.0012262 0.7364 0.0014 0.7379 –13.075 3.036 –10.039 64 0.19393 0.9551 0.2957 1.2508 64.438 507.177 571.615
–12 0.0013425 0.7393 0.0016 0.7409 –12.069 3.327 –8.742 65 0.20579 0.9580 0.3147 1.2726 65.446 538.548 603.995
–11 0.0014690 0.7421 0.0017 0.7439 –11.063 3.642 –7.421 66 0.21848 0.9608 0.3350 1.2958 66.455 572.116 638.571
–10 0.0016062 0.7450 0.0019 0.7469 –10.057 3.986 –6.072 67 0.23207 0.9636 0.3568 1.3204 67.463 608.103 675.566
–9 0.0017551 0.7478 0.0021 0.7499 –9.052 4.358 –4.693 68 0.24664 0.9665 0.3803 1.3467 68.472 646.724 715.196
–8 0.0019166 0.7507 0.0023 0.7530 –8.046 4.764 –3.283 69 0.26231 0.9693 0.4055 1.3749 69.481 688.261 757.742
–7 0.0020916 0.7535 0.0025 0.7560 –7.040 5.202 –1.838 70 0.27916 0.9721 0.4328 1.4049 70.489 732.959 803.448
–6 0.0022811 0.7563 0.0028 0.7591 –6.035 5.677 –0.357 71 0.29734 0.9750 0.4622 1.4372 71.498 781.208 852.706
–5 0.0024862 0.7592 0.0030 0.7622 –5.029 6.192 1.164 72 0.31698 0.9778 0.4941 1.4719 72.507 833.335 905.842
–4 0.0027081 0.7620 0.0033 0.7653 –4.023 6.751 2.728 73 0.33824 0.9807 0.5287 1.5093 73.516 889.807 963.323
–3 0.0029480 0.7649 0.0036 0.7685 –3.017 7.353 4.336 74 0.36130 0.9835 0.5662 1.5497 74.525 951.077 1025.603
–2 0.0032074 0.7677 0.0039 0.7717 –2.011 8.007 5.995 75 0.38641 0.9863 0.6072 1.5935 75.535 1017.841 1093.375
–1 0.0034874 0.7705 0.0043 0.7749 –1.006 8.712 7.706 76 0.41377 0.9892 0.6519 1.6411 76.543 1090.628 1167.172
0 0.003789 0.7734 0.0047 0.7781 –0.000 9.473 9.473 77 0.44372 0.9920 0.7010 1.6930 77.553 1170.328 1247.881
1 0.004076 0.7762 0.0051 0.7813 1.006 10.197 11.203 78 0.47663 0.9948 0.7550 1.7498 78.562 1257.921 1336.483
2 0.004381 0.7791 0.0055 0.7845 2.012 10.970 12.982 79 0.51284 0.9977 0.8145 1.8121 79.572 1354.347 1433.918
3 0.004707 0.7819 0.0059 0.7878 3.018 11.793 14.811 80 0.55295 1.0005 0.8805 1.8810 80.581 1461.200 1541.781
4 0.005054 0.7848 0.0064 0.7911 4.024 12.672 16.696 81 0.59751 1.0034 0.9539 1.9572 81.591 1579.961 1661.552
5 0.005424 0.7876 0.0068 0.7944 5.029 13.610 18.639 82 0.64724 1.0062 1.0360 2.0422 82.600 1712.547 1795.148
6 0.005818 0.7904 0.0074 0.7978 6.036 14.608 20.644 83 0.70311 1.0090 1.1283 2.1373 83.610 1861.548 1945.158
7 0.006237 0.7933 0.0079 0.8012 7.041 15.671 22.713 84 0.76624 1.0119 1.2328 2.2446 84.620 2029.983 2114.603
8 0.006683 0.7961 0.0085 0.8046 8.047 16.805 24.852 85 0.83812 1.0147 1.3518 2.3666 85.630 2221.806 2307.436
9 0.007157 0.7990 0.0092 0.8081 9.053 18.010 27.064 86 0.92062 1.0175 1.4887 2.5062 86.640 2442.036 2528.677
10 0.007661 0.8018 0.0098 0.8116 10.059 19.293 29.352 87 1.01611 1.0204 1.6473 2.6676 87.650 2697.016 2784.666
11 0.008197 0.8046 0.0106 0.8152 11.065 20.658 31.724 88 1.12800 1.0232 1.8333 2.8565 88.661 2995.890 3084.551
12 0.008766 0.8075 0.0113 0.8188 12.071 22.108 34.179 89 1.26064 1.0261 2.0540 3.0800 89.671 3350.254 3439.925
13 0.009370 0.8103 0.0122 0.8225 13.077 23.649 36.726 90 1.42031 1.0289 2.3199 3.3488 90.681 3776.918 3867.599
14 0.010012 0.8132 0.0131 0.8262 14.084 25.286 39.370 Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
15 0.010692 0.8160 0.0140 0.8300 15.090 27.023 42.113 Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, from the 1993 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals
16 0.011413 0.8188 0.0150 0.8338 16.096 28.867 44.963

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 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 3. Evans, Frank L., Jr., “Equipment Design Handbook for Refin-
eries and Chemical Plants,” 2nd ed., Gulf Publishing Company,
1. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Condition- Houston, Texas.
ing Engineers, “ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals,” Table 1,
Chapter 6, Atlanta, Georgia. 4. Maulbetsch, John S. and DeFilippo, Michael N., “Performance, Cost
and Environmental Effects of Saltwater Cooling Towers.”
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Condition-
ing Engineers, “ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals,” Tables 1,
2 and 3, Chapter 24, Atlanta, Georgia.

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