British Electricity International

Modern
Power r -
-I

I - -

Practice
Third Edition incorporating Modem Power System Practice

TURBINES,
ASSOCIATED PLANT

Pergamon Press
 MODERN
POWER STATION PRACTICE
Third Edition
(in 12 volumesl

Incorporating Modern Power System Practice

 Main Editorial Panel
D. J. Littler, BSc, PhD, ARCS, CPhys, FinstP, CEng. FiEE (Chairman)

+ < E. J. Davies, DSc, PhD, CEng, FIEE

Professor
I
MODERN
H. E. Johnson POWER STATION PRACTICE
F. Kirkby, BSc, CEng, MIMechE, AMlEE
Third Edition
P. 8. Myerscough, CEng, FIMechE, FlNucE

W. Wright, MSc, ARCST, CEng, FIEE, FIMechE, FlnstE, FBIM

Incorporating Modern Power System Practice
Volume Consulting Editor
B Professor E. J. Davies, DSc, PhD, CEng, FIEE

Volume Advisory Editor British Electricity International, London

P. Hambling, CEng, MlMechE

Authors
Chapters 1 8 2 G. F. Hunt. BSciEngt, CEng, MlEE

Chapter 3 M . Douglass, CEng. MlMechE

Chapter 4 A. R. Woodward, BSciEng)

D. L. Howard, BSc, CEng, MlMechE
E. F. C. Andrews, CEng, MIMechE, ABTC Volume C
Chapter 5 B. J. Beecher. BSc, CEng, MlMechE
Turbines, Generators and Associated Plant
Chapter 6 J. J. Arnold, BSc, CEng, MlEE
J. I?. Capener, BSc, CEng, MlEE

Series Production
Managing Editor P. M. Reynolds

Production Editor H. E. Johnson

Resources and T. A. Dolling

Co-ordination J. R. Jackson

PERGAMON PRESS
OXFORD . NEWYORK . SEOUL . TOKYO
 U.K. Peigalnon Press pic., iieadtngion Hill iiali.
Oxford OX3 OBW. Erlgiaild
USA Pergamon Press, nc., (395, Saw Mill River iUoad.1
Elmsford. New York 10523, U S A ,

SEOUL Peigamon Press Korea, KPO Box 315, Seoul 110-603,

Koraa
Contents
JAPAN Pergamon Press,8th Fioor, Matsuoka Central Building.
1.7~1Nishi-Shinjuku, Silinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160. Japan

Copyright a 1991 British Electrictty internaiionai Ltd

PLATES
COLOUR vi
All ~ i g h i sReserved. No pan of this poblicstion may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted FOREWORD vii
;,I sny form or by any means: electronic, elecirosratic,
magneric rape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
orhenvise, wirl~outpermission in writi,,g from the copy- PREFACE ix
rig/?t hoidei
First edition 1963 CON.IENTS
OF ALLVOLIJMES xi
Second edition 1971
Third edition 1991
Chapter 1 The steam turbine 1
Libraw of C o n g r e ~Cataloging
~ in Pubiication Data
Modern power station practice: incorporating modern
power system practicel8ritisi~ Eiectricity 1nternationai.- Chapter 2 Turbine plant systems 124
3rd ed, p. cm.
lnciudes index.
1. Electric power-planis, i . British Electricity inter- Chapter 3 Feedwater heating systems 241
national.
TK119lM49 1990
62.31'21 - dc20 90-43748 Chapter 4 Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant 323
writish ~ i b r a r ycataloguing in Publication Data
British Electricity international Chapter 5 Hydraulic turbines 422
~ o d e r npower station practice.-3rd. ed.
1. Eiectric power-plants. Design and construction
I. Title il. Central Electricity Generating Board Chapter 6 The generator 446
621.3121.
ISBN o-08-040510-X 112 Volume Seti
ISBN 0-08-040513-4 (Volume Ci 563
ISBN 068-04~43.8 (Fleximver)

pinred in the ~ e p u b ~ iof

c Singapore
by Singapore National Printers Lrd
 Colour Plates
Fic. 4.24 Heysham 2 condenser - modular construction
Fic. 6.31 Flux test on completed core
Fic. 6.41 View of a 660 M W generator stator end-windings
Fic. 6.90 Condition monitor (NEI Parsons Ltd)
Fic. 6.97 Dinorwig motor-generator during site winding
Foreword
G . A. W. Blackman, CBE, FEng
Chairman, Central Electricity Generating Board
a n d Chairman, British Electricity International L fd
FOROVER .THIL.TY YEARS, Since its formation in 1958, the Central Electricity Generating
Board (CEGB) has becn at the forefront o f technological advances in the design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of power plant and transmission systems. During
this time capacity increased aimost fivefold, involving the introduction of thermal and
nuclear generating units of 500 MW and 660 MW, to supply one of the iargest integrated
power systems in the world. In fuliilling its statutoly responsibility to ensure continuity of a
safe and economic supply uf eiectricity, the CEGB built up a powerful engineering and
scientific capability, and accumulated a wealth of experience in the operation and
maintenance o f power plant and systems. With the privatisation of the CEGB this
experience and capability is being carried forward by its four successor companies -
National Power. PowerGen. Nuclear Electric and National Grid.
At the heart i f the CEGB~Ssuccess has been an awareness o f the need to sustain and
improve the skills and knowledge of its ennineering and technical staff. This was achicved
through formal and on-job training, aided by a series of textbooks covering the theory
and practice for the whole range of technology to be found on a modern power station. A
second edition of the series, known as Modern Power Station Practice, was ~ r o d u c e din
the early i970s, and it was sold throughout the world to provide electricity undertakings,
engineers and students with an account of the CEGB's practices and hard-won experience.
The edition had substantial worldwide sales and achicved recognition as the authoritative
reference work on power generation.
A completely revised and enlarged (third) edition has now been produced which updates
the relevant information in the earlier edition together with a comprehensive account o f
the solutions to the many engineering and environmental challenges encountered, and which
puts a n record the achievements of the CEGB during its lifetime as one of the world's
leading public electricity utilities.
In oroducine- this third edition, the oooortunitv
.. has been taken to restructure the
information in the original eight volumes i o provide a more logical and detailed exposition
of the technical content. The series has also been extended to include three new volumes on
'Station Commissionine'.- . 'EHV Transmission' and 'Svstem Ooeration'. Each of the eleven
subject volumes had an Advisory Editor for the technical validation of the many
contributions by individual authors, all of whom are recognised as authorities in their
particular field of technology.
All subject volumes carry their own index and a twelfth volume provides a consolidated
index for the series overail. Particular attention has been paid to the production of draft
material, with text refined through a number of technical and language editorial stages and
complemented by a large number of high quality illustrations. The result is a high standard
of presentation designed to appeal to a wide international readership.
It is with much pleasure therefore that I introduce this new series, which has been
attributed to British Electricity International on behalf of the CEGB and its successor
companies. I have becn closely associated with its production and have no doubt that it will
be invaluable to engineers worldwide who are engaged in the design, construction,
commissioning, operation and maintenance o f modern power stations and systems.
March 1990
 Preface

'The increase in generating capacity of the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB)
during the last thirty years has invoived the introduction of new 500 M W and 660 MW
turbine-generator plant for a variety of operational duties from base load to that of flexible
two-shift operation. Thcse plants have been installed in nuclear, coai and oil fired power
stations.
The early operational experience of the 500 MW units provided important data for the
design developn~ent of the 660 MW turbine-generator plant. Thcsc latter machines
benefited from the high quality approach to the design of major components by UK
manufacturers using their developed analysis techniques in the areas of aerodynamics and
stress analysis. The soundness of this approach has been demonstrated by the improved
reliability and performancc of the iatcr plants.
The Third Edition of Modern Power Station Practice gives a detailed account of ex-
perience obtained in the development, design, manufacture, operation and testing of
large turbine-generators in the last twenty years. The practice of testing and evaluatioli of
modern plant has proceeded as before; the advance in analytical and computational
techniques has however meant that the application of this experience to future design and
operation of large turbine-generator plant is of greater benefit than ever before.
One of the major tasks of the Turbine-generator Plant Branch in the CEGB was to secure
the development of 'hrbine-generators a n d their associated Plants to meet the needs o f the
CEGB with due regard to economics, performance and reliability. As Head of the Branch
for some years I have felt privileged t o have been asked to edit Volume C.
T h e authors of this volume have wide experience of the plant engineering field and all
are authorities in their particular field of Technology. I would like to record my sincere
thanks to these colleagues who have produced Volume C . They have undertaken the task
with an enthusiasn~ derived from the knowledge that this work will be of the greatest
assistance to engineers in this field of technology woildwide.

P. HAMHL.INC
Advisory Edilor - Volume C
 Contents of All Volumes

Volnrne A - Station Planning and Design

I'ower station siting and site layout
Sii~tiondesign and layout
<:ivil engineering and building works

\'oltnme B - Boilers and Ancillary Plant

I'ornace design, gas side characteristics and combustion equipment
Iloiler unit - thermal and pressure parts design
Ancillary plant and fittings
1111st extraction, draught systems and flue gas desulphurisalion

Volume C - Turbines, Generators and Associated Plant

'The steam turbine
'Turbine plant systems
I'eedwater heating systems
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
Hydraulic turbines
The generator

Volume D - Electrical Systems and Equipment

Electrical system design
Electrical system analysis
'Transformers
Generator main connections
Switchgear and control gear
Cabling
Motors
Telecommunications
Emergency supply equipment
Mechanical plant electrical services
Protection
Synchronising

Volume E - Chemistry and Metallurgy

Chemistry
Fuel and oil
Corrosion: feed and boiler water
Water treatment plant and cooling water systems
Plant cleaning and inspection
Metallurgy
Introduction to metallurgy
Materials behaviour
Non-ferrous metals and alloys
Non-metallic materials
Materials selection
 Contents of All Volumes

Welding grocesscs ~,,I,,,IIcI 1, - System Operatioe

NOII-dest~ucliv~testing i,,.,,lrli, opclation in Englalld and Wales
Dcfcct analysis and lifc asscssnien; , I ~ ~-~ demand
o ~ , ~ ~ ;llian,lil~g ~ ~ I and generation
Environmental effects
r ~,,~t;&riouai plannilig - power system
Ol,rlil,i~,l,al p'.oceduxes - phi~osophy,i>~.inciplesand outline c o n t e ~ ~ t ~
Volnnle 1: - Control and Instrunlentation r 'i,ri!iol in rcal time
CoIhIc,,I COl,liol S;rUCtllle, supporting services and staffing
Introduction
Automatic control
Automation, protection and interlocks and manuai controls Velamu M - Index
Boiler and turbine instrumentation and actuators
(';,mplele contents of all voiumes
Electrical instruments and metering
t'.,lmt~lstive index
Central control rooms
On-line computer systems
Control and instrumentation system considerations

Volume G - Station Operation and Maintenance

Introduction
Power plant operation
Performance and operation of generators
The planning and management of work
Power plant maintenance
Safety
Plant performance and performance monitoring

Volume H - Station Commissioning

Introduction
Principles of commissioning
Common equipment and station plant commissioning
Boiler pre-steam to set commissioning
Turbine-generator/feedheatingsystems pre-steam to set commissioning
Unit commissioning and post-commissioning activities

Volume J - Nuclear Power Generation

Nuclear physics and basic technology
Nuclear power station design
Nuclear power station operation
Nuclear safety

Volume K - EHV Transmission

Transmission planning and development
Transmission network design
Overhead line design
Cable design
Switching station design and equipment
Transformer and reactor design
Reactive compensation plant
HVDC transmission plant design
Insulation co-ordination and surge protection
Interference
Power system protection and automatic switching
Telecommunications for power system management
Transmission operation and maintenance
 C H A P T E R 1
Evan John Davies
Emeritus Professor of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
at Aston University in Birmingham. died on 14 April 1991. The steam turbine

I I
John was an engineer, an inteliectual and a respected author
In his own right. It was this rare combination of talents that
he brought to Modern Power Station Practice as consuiting l$~iroductlon 4 E C D ~ D ~ ~of the
C S steam cycle
Editor of seven volumes and, in so doing, bequeathed a 1 l u r b i o e types 4.1 choice of exhaust oressure
legacy from which practising and future enaineerq
" - -- ,nriii
..,,, 1.1 Direction of flow 4.1.1 Thermodynamic dpiimisation
4.12 General economic aotimisation of nisnt
I continue to benefir for many years. I 1.2 Cylinder end exhaust arrangements
1.3 Speed of rotation 4.1.3 Economic optimisatibn of exhaust pressure, condenser
end CW svrtem
2 Ffficiency and output
2 1 Output limitations
21.1 Steam valve pressure drop
21.2 Swsliowing capacity 4.2.3 Feedwater be-aeration
2.2 Moving biades 42.4 LOW pressure feedwater heaters
22.1 impuise-type turbine 4.2.5 High pressure feedwater heaters
2.2.2 Reaction-type turbine 4.2.6 Summarv
2.2.3 Effect an turbine design 4.3 Choice of feed pump and drive system
2.2.4 Biade efficiency 4.3.1 Feed pump sire and number
22.5 Modern blading designs 4.3.2 Feed pump duty. margins, and the need for variable
22.6 LP turbine blading speed
2.3 he effect of clearances on reai designs 43.3 Economic comparison of steam turbine drives with
2.3.1 Profiie loss electric motor drives
2.3.2 Secondaw ioss 4.3.4 Economic comparison of voriable-speed motor lVSMl
2.3.3 Tip leakage drive with induction motor plus fiuid-coupiing drive
2.3.4 Disc windage 43.5 Example of the resuits of an averaii comparison of the
2.3.5 L8CiW wires through-life costs of four feed pump system options.
2.3.6 Other iosres 4.4 Turbine by-paEl Sy518mS
2.3.7 Wetness loss 4.4.1 Superheat plant
2.3.8 Annuius loss 44.2 8"-oass caoacifv
2.4. Stage efficiency and the condition iine 4.4.4 s;&em
44.3 improvement
effectsof sfan-up capabiiity
24.1 Efficiency of stage
2.4.2 The condition iine 4.4.5 PWR wet steam piant
2.4.3 Cylinder efficiency 5 Turbine blading
2.4.4 Leaving loss
2.4.5 Hood loss 5.1 impulse stages
2.4.6 Wetness ioss 5.1.1 Moving blades - details and construction
24.7 Paniai admission 5.1.2 Fixed blades - detsiis and construction
51.3 Veiocity-compounded stage
3 Therrnodvnamics o f the steam cycie 5.2 Reaction stager
3.1 Development of the modern steam cycie 5.2.1 Fixed and moving blader - dstsiis and construction
3.1.1 The steam cycle 5.3 Low pressure stages
3.1.2 The Rankine cycle 5.3.1 Aerodynamic and mechanical constreinis
3.1.3 Practical cycie using superheat 5.3.2 Biade tip restraint
3.1.4 The rehsat cycle 5.33 Baumann exhaust
3.1.5 Regenerative feedheating 5.4 Moving blade root attachments
3.2 Cycle efficiency and heat rate 5.4.1 Fir-free 10015
3.2.1 Cylinder efficiency 5.4.2 Pinned roots
3.2.2 Heat rate 5.5 Diaphragm construction and support
3.3 Termins1 conditions 5.5.1 Kinematic support
3.3.1 Effect of steam inlet conditions 5.5.2 Radial ruppon pads
33.2 Effect of reheaf conditions 5.5.3 Diaphragm construction
3.3.3 Effect of pressure loss in pipework and valves 5.6 Blading materials
3.3.4 Effect of final feed temperatures 5.6.1 12% C i stseis
3.3.5 Effect of exhaust pressure 5.6.2 Titanium
3.4 Superheat cycle 5.7 Blade vibration control
3.4.1 Steam conditions 5.7.1 N ~ t u r afrequencies
l and excitation freq~encies
3.4.2 Reheat 5.7.2 Sources of vibration excitation
3.4.3 Double reheat 5.7.3 Verification of estimated natural frequencies and wheel
3.4.4 CEGB cycles chamber tests
3.4.5 Turbine desians
~ ~
5.7.4 Methods of "ibistion controi
3.5 Wet steam cycie 5.8 Erosion protection
3.5.1 The PWR steam cycle 58.1 Erosion mechanism
3.5.2 Cycie considerations 5.8.2 Erosion progression
3.5.3 Full-speed or hslf-speed machiner 5.8.3 Protection and erosion shieid msterisls
 The steam turbine
6 Turbine cavings
6.1 Forms of casing consiiuctioii
6 1 . 1 High pressure casings
6 1 . 2 Intermediate pressuls casings
6.1.3 Low pressure casings
6.2 Horizontal joints
6 2 . 1 Flsnge design
6.2.2 Bolting
6.3 Exferoai connections
6 3 . 1 Steam inlets -- HP atid IP
6.3.2 HP exhausts
6.3.3 IP exhausts
6.3.4 Use of thermal skirts and piston rings
6 3 . 5 LP cvlinders
6 3 . 6 ~ i e d i t e a mconnections
6.4 Casing materials
6.5 Support and alignment
6 5 . 1 HP and IP cylinder suppons
6 5 . 2 LP cylinder supports
6.6 Casing and diephragm giends
6.7 Lagging
7 Turbine rotors and oouplings
7.1 Types of rotor construction
7 1 . 1 Design for high fetnpeiature operefion
7 1 . 2 Cooling of IP rotors
7.2 Rotor materials
7.2.1 HP and IP rotors
7.2.2 LP- rotors
~~~~
7.3 Rotor resting and balancing
7 3 . 1 Thermai stability
7 3 . 2 Ovenpeed testing
7.3.3 Rotor balancing
Introduction
In order to function, a turbine requires a suitable
working fluid, a source of high grade energy and a sink
for low grade energy. When the fluid flows through
the turbine, part of the energy content is continuously
extracted and converted into useful mechanical work.
Steam and gas turbines use heat energy, while water
turbines use pressure energy. The main objectives of
the turbine designer are to ensure that this process is
carried out with 'maximum efficiency' by means of
plant having 'maximum reliabilify' at 'minimum cost'.
Second objectives are that the plant should require
'minimum supervision' and 'minimum starring time'.
These five objectives conflict with each other and
the final outcome will be a n acceptable compromise
between them.
Chapters I and 2 outline modern power station
practice as implemented by UK turbine makers. The
reasons behind every facet o f turbine development are
explained and, where necessary, technical terms are
defined quantitatively and qualitatively to emphasise
standard practice.
1 Turbine types
Thorough reviews of the development of the steam
2 3
Chapter 1
7 3 . 4 Critical si,eeds
7.3.5 notor fast iracfi~rcr ~ s kassessment
7.4 Cou"iinaS
7 . 4 1 Fiexibie coupiir,gs
7 4 . 2 Semiflexiblc couplings
7 4 . 3 Rigid couplings
7.5 Rotor alignment
7 5 . 1 Alignme,% teellnique
7 5 . 2 On-line monitoring
. .
8.1 Journal bearings
(a)S8"gle #la*
8 1 . 1 Construction
8.1.2 ln~fromcnfilfion
8.1.3 Bearing performance
8.1.4 Factors affecting bearing life
8.2 Thrust bearings
8.3 pedestals
8.4 Oii sealing arrangements
8.5 Turning gear
8.5.1 Hand barring arrangement
8 5 . 2 Electrical turning gear lETGl
9 Turbine application5
9.1 Power generation
9.2 Mechanical drive
9.3 Combined heat and power iCHPl
9.4 Combined-cycie p1snt
turbine have been presented by Traupel [I] and Harris
PI.
F I G . 1.3 ~ i i e c t i o of
~ i riow ror diiiele~itcaiesoiicr
of turbine
1. I Direction of flow
Almost without exception, modern large steam turbines
are of the oxial-flow type (Fig 1.1). Even from the
(Fig 1.3 (b)), in which the steam is admitted at the
early days in the late nineteenth centllry, this has been
centre of the cylinder and is divided to flow in op-
the preferred solution for steam turbines of all ratings.
posite axial directions towards the ends of the rotor.
The principal exception to this rule has been the This arrangement is used to avoid the excessively
radial-flow turbine (Fig 1.2), originally introduced by long blades which would be incurred by a single-flow
Ljungstrom, and developed to its most recent form arrangement. For turbines of large output, it is nor-
by Stal-Laval (now ASEA-Stall. In this design, steam mal to have several double-flow low pressure (LP)
is admitted to the centre o f the machine, expanding cylinders operating in parallel. The second benefit is
outwards through two contra-rotating rotors to the that the double-flow cylinder effectively reduces to
exhaust at the periphery. The concept was success- zero the axial thrust caused by the steam forces on
fully executed and has been applied at ratings up to the moving blading.
about 60 MW. ASEA-Stal still offer the radial-flow according to the type o f blading used (see Section 5 One or both of these objectives are also the reasons
turbine for small industrial sets up to about 30 MW of this chapter), but in terms of direction of flow, for other arrangements of stage groups within a tur-
output. However, the design is not adaptable to large t i l e steam approaches a group of stages at one end, bine cylinder. Thrust reduction is the main target for
outputs because o f the mass of the blades which would I'lows axially through the radially-mounted blading the reversed-flow cylinder (Fig 1.3 (c)), in which the
be mounted at the outer periphery. The largest ap- and exhausts at the other end of the group of stages. steam flows in one direction through one group Of
plication of the radial-flow turbine is for the high 'The simplest configuratior~of blading is in single-flow stages and is then ducted (internally o r externally) to
pressure (HP) cylinder of a 460 MW unit associated with (Fig 1.3 (a)). flow through a second group of stages in the opposite
a boiling water reactor at Oskarshamn in Sweden. Groups of stages within a turbine cylinder may be axial direction. In some cases, the second group o f
Axial flow is therefore the characteristic feature of stages may have several sections in parallel to accom-
i~rranged for flow in opposing axial directions. The
modern steam turbines. These are often categorised inormal situation for this is the double-flow turbine modate the increasing volumetric flow rate.
The s t e a m turbine
In axial till-bines, the stralii is adillitted to llic cyl-
inder and cuhai~stciliioril it, by one or ino1.e circular
pipes in a radiai or near-radial orientation (see Section
6 of this chapter). A 1 thc L.1' t~irbineexbai~st,the
connection fIaiige(s) to the condenser will however
llorlllally be rectangular, at an appropriate locatioli
and ol-ientation to matcll f h e condenser design. This
always in\,olves radial flow in one or mare directions.
The steam is therefore required to turn through a
right angle to enter the axial-flow blading and to
exhaust from it, at the same time redistributing itself
around the circumference. The inlet and exhaust areas
therefore require sufficient space t o allow an orderly
flow without undue pressure loss or flow separation.
In some cases, particularly low pressure turbine ex-
llausts, flow guides may be incorporated.
1.2 Cylinder and exhaust arrangements
For turbines driving electrical generators, the limit of
a single-cylinder turbine is around 100 MW, d e ~ e n d i n g
on the design concepts, the initial steam conditions
(pressure and temperature), whether or not a reheat
cycle is used, fhc exhaust conditions and the specd
Of rotation.
Frequently turbines o f this size are designed and
built o n a modular basis, with the inlet sections, biad-
ing sections, and exhaust sections selected from a range
of standard designs t o suit a range of output powers,
initial and exhaust conditions and special applications
such as extraction steam for process heating or district
heating.
For larger machines, nrulti-cylinder designs are used
(Fig 1.4). The numbel. of cylinders depends o n a simi-
lar list of terminal conditions and design considerations.
A typical turbine of 500-900 MW output in a fossil-
fired power station (coal, oil, o r gas) or a gas-cooled
nuclear station would have one H P turbine, one inter-
mediate pressure (IP) turbine and two (LP) turbines,
rotating at 3000 or 3600 rimin, depending on the grid
frequency (see Section 1.3 o f this chapter). The I P and
L P turbines would probably be double-flow.
In a power station with a water-cooled reactor
(PWR, BWR, CANDU, etc.), the initial steam is at lower
pressure and temperature, so the steam mass flow rate
and volumetric flow rate are likely to be much higher
for a given output. The turbine might then have one
double-flow H P turbine and two or three LP turbines.
The turbine with a number o f cylinders on a single
shaft is described as a tandem-compound machine (Fig
1.5 (a)). The other main type is the cross-compound
machine (Fig 1.5 (b)), in which the turbine cylinders
are mounted on two separate parallel shafts driving
two separate generators. The steam connections and
the auxiliary systems are arranged as for a single
generating unit. This design of plant has been more
widely used where the grid frequency is 60 Hz and
the available L P turbine blading results in a large
Chapter 1 Turbine tylx:!;
~nombeio i L.1' cylinders being requiicd: the use of a
rely long shaft can be avoidcd by the use a l a cross-
corn~oilndmachine. Further, the number of 1.P cylili..
deis can be reduced if thc 1.1' turbine shaft rotates at
1800 rimin, while llie H P shaft rotates at 3600 rimin.
The arrangement of the L P turbine and its con-
nection l o the condelisei depends critically on the
location of the condenser, and the orientation of the
condenser tubes with respect t o the turbine axis.
The condenser has traditionally been mounted below
tbc turbine, with the condenser tubes either axial or
transverse. During the 1960s and 1970s, many 500 MW
and 660 MW turbines were built in the UK with side-
mounted condensers and axial tubes. Variants of this
design are called the pannier condenser (Fig 1.6 (a))
and the ifrtegrul co,zdenser (Fig 1.6 ( b ) ) . The main
objective was to reduce the overall height of the
turbine, with a view to reducing the height and size
of the turbine hall. Because the tubes were axial, the
condenser steam space could be sectionalised, thus
allowing a lower condenser pressure in the cold end.
This provided a small efficiency benefit.
The main disadvantage of this design is that the
conderlser becomes an important part of the turbine in
terms of structural integrity, loading, foundations, etc.
This rnakes the condenser design dependent on the
number and size of LP turbines, thus inhibiting the
concept of modular design and complicating the de-
sign interface between a turbine maker and a number
o f possible condenser makers. This design may also
complicate access to the turbine for maintenance,
for example, t o the bearing pedestals.
Later plant in British stations has therefore reverted
to the use of undemlung condensers with transverse
tubes (Fig 1.6 (c)), using a connecting duct between
the turbine outlet flange and the condenser inlet flange.
Because the condenser tubes are normally much longer
than the width of the turbine casing, this duct is
trapezoidal in shape.
On some turbines built between 1920 and 1960, where
the available last stage blading provided a limitation
on turbine output or efficiency, the Buumann exhausf
turbine (Fig 1.7) has been used by certain manufac-
turers, particularly Metropolitan-Vickers in the UK.
In this design, the penultimate turbine stage is divided:
the steam flow through the outer annular part of
the stage is led directly t o the condenser, while that
flowing through the inner part flows through the final
stage o n its way to the condenser. Because the two
parts o f the penultimate stage moving-blading have
different duties, there is a discontinuity in the blade
profile which makes it a difficult concept t o use in
the most highly-rated turbines.
u
1.3 Speed o f rotation
In the normal case, steam turbines are directly w u -
pled t o the electrical generator, n o gearbox being FIG. 1.4 ~ u l t i - c y l i n d e rturbine arransemenir
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e u! 1eq1 01 iualajj!p ieqmamos s! a3e1s aslndm!
ue u! Laua!s!jja uo o!xer Ll!aojah aqi jo lsajja aql
'nadxa lq3!m auo s v '(3 = '3/n) LI!ao[aA alnlosqe
meals aqi pun Lq~olahapa[q Bu!nom jo o!lei aql uodn
iuapuadap L([e!iuassa s! slnaao sapejq Su!hom aql
01 L31aua jo lajsuel1 aql qa!qm q l ! ~Laua!s!jja a q s
Axia(o!$$a a p e l a V'Z'Z
'JoroJu n i p e se u~nouyijeqs h\o[joq papuedxa L[iea13
e Lq paaeldal ale s~s!p aqi 'pealsu~ ,a[qe!hun sas!p
saxem au!qIni uo!laeal aql j o sapelq 3u!nom aqj ssome
doip alnssald e jo aJuasa~da q s 'sas!p aql ssorae
saaroj ainssald ou alojaiaq) pue sapelq aqi ssorse
dolp alnssa~dou s! alaql aau!s [(ems s! ~ o i aqi o ~ uo
lsniql je!xe aqL ' ~ j e q sialame!p ljems e 01 paqseile u! meld sayel L31aua [ea!ueqaam 01 L81aua s!la\!ly 1"
10 q i ! ~je.i3a1u! laqi!a ale qa!qm sas!p uo pa!i~ea ale iro!srahuoa ley1 .ia![rea passails iu!od sqi s~s!*!lijrllil,l
sapelq 3u!nom au!qim-aslndml ,su3!sap au!qinl aq) u!
sasua>ajj!p iue~!j!u3!s ale alaqi leqi sueam 3u!pe[q
uo!oeai pue asjndm! jo ss!ls!ialsereqs iua~sjj!p s q ~ aql 3u!hea! meals aql jo Ll!ao[ah ah!le[a.l at1.L. ' l i l ~ l i i l l ! l l ~
ufi!sap au!qrn? uo i3a483 &'z'z LI!JO!~A 33elS adL~-as[n(im![e>!dLl e SMOL[S 6.1 : > t i ~ i I i [
'sapelq paxy aq1 u! pau!e3 L]!ao[ah aql J O UO!I
-lodoid e jo ssol aqi 01 anp Llalos alojalaql s! sape[q
3u!nom aql u! auop ylom jes!ueqsam aqL 'sapelq
3u!nom aqi s s o ~ s edolp alnssald ou alojaiaql pue . '
doip Ieaq ou s! alaqL 'sapelq paxlj aql u! Ll!aolaA
om! meals aqi u! leaq aql JO uo!)~odo~de sliahuoa
au!qlnl aslndm! ue 'nealex ~ o s s a j o ~Lq d .pa)uahuI
au!qlnI edhl-aslndtul 1'2.1
.ad61 uo!laeal l o aslndm! ue jo s! au!qlnl
aqi iaqlaqm uodn iuapuadap sk..sapelq 3u!~om aql u!
loiaah Li!so[ah fea!dLl e smoqs 8.1 a1n3q (a[q!ssod
sa 008j 01 I E ~ U se s! paulnl s! mea~s<.a~ltl qq~!qm
'sapelq 8u!nuc11, A I I qznozqi ajBue aqi 'Ljleapl 'a3IOJ e 01 alojaraql pue urn
-"amom u! a3ueqa e 01 as!, sah!3 q~!qm meals aqi JO
uo!lom jo uo!lsal!p u! a3ueqa e saanpold sapelq aql
s ! q ~ ,(I&) sapejq 3u!~om aqi 3u!ialua olrals , I ~ I 1" uo meals aqi jo iuama3u!dm! a q s ' ~ j e q sau!qrnl aql
Li!ao[an an!ie[al aql uegi ssa( s! ( 2 ~ sapnlq
) :I~I!,AIII!I uo xiom jE3!UEqJaW oiu! LB~auas!iau!y si! lrahuos pun
sapelq paxlj i o avzou e II! pa)eia(asae uaaq seq ]ern
meals an!aaar a3eis au!qlni e jo sapejq Bu!nour a q ~ aqi le inq 'anjen iaju! anjen agi ~e Ldjeqiua aqi 3u!
sapelq 6 u ! ~ o m Z'Z
'sjanal lasuapuos
lueisuoa le u!emal suo!l!puoa aql aiaqm pua isneqxa
aql molj Llan!ssassns paienlena aq uea i!un aql jo
a3e1s qaea la sarnssald aql ' ~ o [ pa~!nbal
j aqi 3u!mouy
pue 'au!qlm aqi r o j eiep ISJI 10 u3!sap raqira worj
pau!elqo aq uea x luelsuoa ,riel asd![13 aqL 'p!n[J
Su!yiom aqi s! meals alaqm ( ~ ' 1 )uo!lenbx u! iiah!3
uo!srah xjr 3u!sn Lq pau!e]qo s! L s e l n ~ xiua!a!jjns
'L[je.iauat) 'ail!qlm B uo pea[ [e!lied jo s l x j j a a111 lea11 jo aslladra aql le L3iaua 3!1au!~ sa.i!nbae I! 'a12
3u![lapom uaqm [ooi jnjasn r! s! ,riel asd!l[x ail^
a 4 1 'melsuos e s! )! pue sarnssa~disnaqxa pua lap!
aql ale Ed pue Id 'ale1 MOU ssem aql s! mb alaqm
'[PI L Z ~ Iu! elopols Lq paanpord IS+J SEM
au!qin~ aql ssoiae alnssald u! [lej aql pue moll ssem
uaamlaq d!qsuo!lelal v 'lndmo lamod aql aauaq pue
au!qini aqi q3norql MOU ssem aql sla!ilsai sapa(q
pax!j luanbasqns 11spue iaju! au!qJni aql jo salzzou
aql ie paanpold doip alnssa~d a q s 'jlasq au!qlni
aql uo uo!la!rlsal e s! I! peol 3u!anpa~ JOJ sahjeh
aglorql u! [njasn s! doip alnssald jo jaajja aqi i s j ! q ~
Aqoedao fiU!MOllaMS 1'1.2
'ayen aqi ssorae dolp
a ~ n s s a ~aq1
d 3u!sea~su! pue ,nojj ssem ssal 3u!ll!mlad
0s 'eale anleh aql Bu!anpai Lq paqs s! peol slow 'pea[
paqs 01 pasn s! pue Su!y~ro~yr sa umouy s! s!qs 'dorp
ainssard pue L ~ O I I U J u! asasmu! a31ej e jo asuadxa
-n!eiu!em jo imjja aql seq s!qs 'ieaqai [eUO!lJ!lj 01
L ~ J ~ U~!IJU!Y
J p a i e ~ ~ u asi!
3 ~ j e3u!i~anuoa ' a ~ j e hsin
qSno.lr(l Bu!ssed ralje Ljp!del spuedxa meals aql aiaqm
'sah[en l o ~ l s h o 3autqlnl u! slnaao s!qi jo aldmexa u v
d o ~ pa ~ n s s a l danleA w e a l s 1 ' 1 ' ~
'(Lblaua J O 61!1!qej!eAe u! s o [ ) Ldoliua u!
asealsu! pue alnssard u! ssol e inq 'Ldjeqiua awos jo
uo!luaial aql s! ijnsar a q s ' ~ e a q(euo!lgrj 01 pailanuos
aq 01 ;\31aua ~!iau!y pai~raua3 aq1 jo auios sasna3
a p o u aqi puodaq meals jo oo!suedxa aqL '(Ldlaqlua)
-7.011 ro S3!J!lO mo.lleil e i(3nolql sassed meals uaqm

suo!iei!ur!i indin0 L'Z

'a.1aq1doq) leaq aqi
J O a3uasa1d ail1 01 slip sapelq 3u!nom JL[I qsnolqi
Li!~o[~n n! aseaisu! aql jo asnessq s! s!ql :(I,%) s3pe(q
SU!AOUIaql 3u!ra1ua ruesls all1 jo Ll!aojan an!le[a.I lndlno pue A3ua!3!4)3 2
aqi ueql ia1ea.13 s! (ZM) sapulq ~U!AOUI aqr 3u!~es[
wears agl jo Ll!sojah an!le[ai aqL 'wer8e!p Ll!aojan
a8es adLi-i~o!)aear lea!dLi e smoqs 01'1 am8!d
Li!~olan ow! do.~pleaq 3u!iranuos Lq sapelq pax!j
au!q.inl as[ndm! agl se LaM awes aqi u! aheqaq sapelq 'Eal8UI![3 IS3UIIBM
pax!j a q .Li!~o[an
~ 11! dolp lau e asnes 01 lua!a!jjns aqi u! usna 'mnm!ido aql L[aier a.ie sanleh q3!q qans
1011 s! I! Inq molj ail1 jo ~ o ! ~ a a ~ J!Op aBueqa aql 01 :ieqr pamoqs oqm lreqm 06 ahoqe s! ~ l n s s ~ isneqxard mniu!>do aql alaqm
anp sapelq Su!~om aql u! s ~ n a s oosle aslndrn! a m o ~ [$I 1adne.t~Sq ush!S s! s!s,(jeue an!suaqa.ldmo> aiow V smalsLs z~ 09 u! uo!in(os pallajald aqi amosaq L[uo
,sspelq 3q1 3u!~e3(molj ail1 01 no!isar!p sl!soddo aqi .a.~nie.iadmaiainjosqe iaju! aql s! 'L araqm plnos ssu!q>sm u!iu/r 0 0 9 ~' I S ~ I I U OLE ~ 'sainieiadmai
u! uo!isesi i o isnlql e Sir!leai2 'sapalq Sil!houi sql la isiem 3u!(oo3 isamo( agl ql!m sa!.tliInos asoql u! '-a-!
Ll!so$a&weals o! as!. I? LI! S I ( I I S ~ I s ! q ~'sapti[q SO!AOU~ ' Y ~ I I I S S J JI ~ S ~ B mnm!ldo
~ X ~ lsa,noI aqi i o j [es!ruoiIosa
ar[i it! 3u!.~sn~so j[nq 3u!u!u~1a~aqi 'sspejq 1pax!j 3'11 II! ,(ai[.~'[E]
a.iour aq ,(ew iroiap[s)l
ssi~!il~em
plie s!i.ie~
u ! ~ ~ i / hq
i0051aparit
lei[l uaaq
ales!p11!
set(
s i n ~ s adosp lea,[ aYe~sagi jjerj ,([uo 5snr?xq pasn ?BM
uo!laear %OSuusi s i j san!qrrii
~ , i ~ o ! i e s%o~/as[ndro!,
~ :aioieiadmal lalo! jo lsajja sma~shsi . O< ~ I,! Sa:I!qJeK~ meals-paleriiles roj paads
p m m i aq ~ I I ! O L [ S S ' ~ L I !~~~. I IsI ~
n ~ u ~ ,([I~!>IS
y v ~ d s st11 ~pn[?u!01 pxj!pomi isle! sem d!qsuo!le[ai aij.~. J O 53!040 Jljl j O Ma!AS.I ~ A ! s u ~ L ~ ~ . ~ V
c ~ L'53p\.13S
U O ~ XI!
au!qlnl adAa-uo(aaeau 2'2.2 '.,ni?-lasd![[;[, aql re umooy s! rl~qs~~o!lejas 1131(1 1311!1[38111 183qi~tIn~ j)33tI~-j[lljJql 10J I I J A O I ~PUI?
 Efficiency a n d oi~tiiill

* !,til Iiijt:<, l,l:i~~t\\iia being designed in the iatc

ti!il:. i,ii!l i.;iily I9hOs lhcrc were no analytical tools .. I . . : '~.r . . '
\hrork done by inoving blades t.5 ~ i I , i i ~ l1 i1 , i.~~iiliilcnily $predict the three-dimensional ...?. ', 4 , -
Biadc efficiency (7) = -. . : ,
Available energy i.tiiiii, ( $ 1 ilir llr,<v i n 1.1' cylinde1.s. Today, traverse
i i i r i * , I , 1iii.i.1. ~uliirlrines reveal the significant radial
siiii!,itii!i.itri (11 ,'elocitg in the highly divcl-gent flow.
For the simples1 case we wiil assume \hi, = W , and 13
= 8 (no friction present) as shown in Fig 1.9. i6ii1i111ji1~.: 111 i I ~ ~ ~ i ~ g lanalysis
~ - f / o now
~ employed
For the work done WD = mUAV, where m is the t i + i i i i l l 1111- vi~iri~li~tioii i n detail of tile flow around
c r * i i i t t ~ l i ~ l ~ l iblade, ~ ~ i l using modern computational
mass flow rate and AV = W,cos 8 + W2cos 0 =
2W, cos 0. Also, W , cos 8 = C,COSa - U. Therefore ic-;iiriiijirar, iund Ihavc enabled the complex flow fieid
iii 1 I+ iyllt~tlclslo hc analysed effectively. These methods TIP
WD = mUAV = 2mU (C,cos a - U).
li8rz: Ijrnt, rufincd and validated by input of data
The available energy to the rotor blades is that
f l i * r i i I'Itiw nlusscirement probes on model turbines in
delivered by the fixed blades = (mc,12/2.
Hence 7 = 2mU(C,cos a - U ) / [ ( m ~ , ) ~ / 2 1 iiiirli~iliirltrlcra' usorks and on full-scale machines in
i i i v l i r : 'lltc ilcctliacy o f prediction of flow is now
= (4U/C,)/(cos a - U / C , )
$..Pi.
,t, , C ~ I I C Ilhli!rling can be designed to obtain the de-
= 4<(cos a - 0 slir-ii Il!ri.r.ilixnrasi~~~~al flow pattern. Modeit1 finai MEAN
*ifi?i. liliiliv* iur iu,isted considerably, since the flow
Flii 1.1 l Ideal elliciency curves
1 G rii Itr 11io!.1coniplex at the exit plane. The cross-
This describes a parabola and is shown in Pig 1.11.
- c ~ i ! I i i i i i i l iircil i ~ tthu tip is only around 15% of that
The maxinium value of efficiency may be derived by
ilil l t , i > I (I.?? 1.12).
differentiating the above expression with respect to
U and equating to zero. In reality there are a number of factors that affect
blade efficiency and these wiil be discussed in section
2.3 of this chapter. T o achieve the best efficiency foi-
both designs, reaction turbines require twice the num-
ber of stages of an impulse turbine. This is because
Therefore qmri = cosZa when t = cos a / 2 . By the high velocity ratio (U/C,) for the reaction turbine
inspection of Fig l . I l , it can be seen this occurs means only a small heat drop can be accommodated
when the outlet velocity is axial ($ = 90'). at each stage.
FIG. 1.13 LP lait stage velocity profiles

Ideal reaclion-slage blade efficiency 2.2.5 Modern blading designs

For an ideal 50% reaction stage the velocity diagram
will appear as Fig I . 1 1 . Since the fixed and moving
blades have the same shape, 0 = a and 0 = $, AV
= 2C,(cos a - U). Therefore, WD = mUAV =
mU(2Clcos n - U).
In a reaction stage, there is an enthalpy drop across
the moving blade as well as the fixed; the available
energy is therefore:
Modern turbines are neither purely impulse or re-
to change the direction of the incident velocity o f
action but a combination of both, for the following
the steam relative to the moving blade, so the blade
reasons. lmpulsc turbines began ernplo)iing reaction
inlet angle would not line up with the direction of
of up to 20% at the root of the moving blades in
the oncoming steam fiow. Furthermore, the leaving
order to counteract the poor efficiency incurred from
velocity would depart substantially from the axial
zero or even negative reaction. On the other hand, I!( 1.1' last inovins blade
I I? stage direction, thus increasing the leaving loss and reduc-
reaction at the root of reaction turbines has come
ing efficiency. This is overcome by changing the shape
down to as little as 30-4090 resulting in the reduction
of the moving blade section. The outlet angle is re-
o f the number o f stages required and the sustaining
duced to restrict the flow area so that a pressure
of 50% reaction at the midpoint. Today it may be

and since by symmetry W 2 = C , the available energy
= m ( ~ -, Wi2)/2
~ furthermore W j 2 = C i 2 + U2 -
2 C , U cos a , therefore, available energy = m / 2 ( ~ , ' -
u2 + 2CiUcos a )
and hence
7 = 2U(2Cicos a - u)/[(c,)' - U2 + 2CIUcos a1
= 2((2cosa - <)/(I - E2 + 2 t cos a )
and
qmax= 2cos2s/l + cos 'a when € = cos a
Figure 1.11 shows the diagram efficiency of a reaction
stage in comparison to the impulse stage.
.
more accurate to describe the two designs as:
'Disc and diaphragm' turbine, using low reaction
blading.
'Drum-rotor' turbine, using high reaction blading [21.
2.2.6 LP t u r b i n e blading
Steam passing through the stages of an LP turbine ex-
pands rapidly and accelerates to a high velocity, often
supersonic. Steam at exit from the cylinder can have
up to 10% moisture content. The flow then is complex
and the design a f LP blading reflects this. The blades
are long and have a highly-twisted profile so that the
inlet and outlet angles conform to the three-dimensional
flow characteristics at all blade heights.
'li! Ill~trlrit~ethe point let us assume, for the
ritiiijralll, 111111 the final stage is designed to have a
isI11y low degree of reaction at the base diameter,
lioet lltr gcriphery of the rotor disc. The fixed and
riliivitlK bllldc profiles are then as shown in Fig 1.13.
l , 118 ~ t!o\r2 move to the region half-way up the
ti~iiti~!ji lilttile, i.e., to the stage mean diameter. Typi-
e?rlIv, ol! modern blading, the tip diameter is about
cii<iclilc ( l base ~ diameter so at the mean, the blade
jriltli ( i . ~ ,lhc , circumferential distance between ad-
Jilt:r*l!l hl!irles) is about 1.5 times the pitch at the base
rlii~~rtrrlor. 'l'l~eperipheral speed of the blading is also
I ,1 l l l t ~ t ' a tta prcal as at the base. If the same moving
lilsilt: uurllllt~ was used at the mean diameter as at
Ills i,itcr, lllr flow passage through the moving blading
~"ctitldI ~ Pre~~dered incorrect by the increased pitch:
wiillbl lhi. cl'fcct o f increased blade speed would be
drop develops across the moving blades, and the
steam leaves the moving blades at a higher speed to
offset the higher peripheral speed and arrive at a n
axial leaving velocity. This causes the pressure drop
across the fixed blading to fall in order to maintain
the same pressure drop over the stage as a whole.
There is therefore a substantial degree of reaction at
the mean diameter. Figure 1.13 shows the effect that
increasing reaction from root to tip has on the profile
and on the velocity vectors at root, mean and tip
sections.
The effect o f these changes leads to a more order-
ly streamline flow with substantial increase in the
efficiency of LP turbines. The pressure losses after
the last stage moving blades (proportional to the
velocity squared) have also been reduced by achieving
a reduced and substantially uniform velocity over the

10 11
 The steam turbi~ie
annuiai region i~ii~iicdiaieiydownstream o f tilc last
stage biades. A further beneficiai effect o l reducing
crowding of fro\\' at the blade-tip is that tile excessive
steain leakage over the moving blade-tips, which did
no useful work, has bcen reduccd.
2.3 T h e e f f e c t o f clearances on real designs
Blade efficiencies arc far from ideal and the main
causes of this are aerodynamic factors. The three
most important factors are profile loss, secondary
loss and tip leakage loss. These are of roughly the same
magnitude whilst other sources of aerodynamic ioss,
such as windage and lacing wires, are much smallcr.
2.3.1 Profile l o s s
This is due to the fol.mation of boundary layers on
the blade surfaces. The fluid in the boundary layer
is subject to viscous forces which slow it down and
increase its entropy relative t o the flow in the main-
stream. This results in the steam downstream of the
moving blades having a higher entropy than the steam
upstream. At a given flow rate this would result in a
larger pressure drop across the blades than there would
be in isentropic flow. Since the pressures in a turbine
are fixed, the flow rate becomes less than isentropic
and the entropy of the exhaust steam greater than
isentropic. This means the heat drop obtained across
the stage is less than that for a n isentropic expansion
and is therefore iess efficient.
Profile loss is a boundary layer phenomenon and
is therefore subject to factors that influence bound-
ary layer devclopment. These factors are Reynolds
Number, Surface Roughness, Exit Mach Number and
Trailing Edge Thickness.
2.3.2 S e c o n d a r y l o s s
This is due t o friction on the casing wall and o n the
biade root and tip. It is a boundary layer effect and
therefore dependent upon the same considerations as
those for profile loss. Figure 1.14 shows how the
interaction of the boundary layer phenomenon be-
tween tip and casing and between root and shaft,
creates the secondarv flows A and B.
2.3.3 Tip l e a k a g e
This leakage, as its name implies, arises from steam
passing through the small clearance required between
the moving blade tip and the casing, or between the
end of the fixed blades and the rotating shaft. The
problem is overcome to a certain extent through the
use o f inter-stage seals. At the biade tips there is a
shroud band which extends around the entire cir-
12
Chapter 1
FIG. 1.14 Secondary flows
cumference of the moving blades, joining the tips.
Thc shroud is sealed against the casing by several
knife edges.
The extent o f the leakage depends o n whether the
turbine is of an impulse or reaction type. Reaction
turbines suffer a pressure drop across the moving
blades, so encouraging flow through the clearances.
Consequently, it is more important for a reaction
turbine to have good tip sealing than it is for an
impulse turbine (Fig 1.15).
FIG. 1.18 Reaction and impulse turbine interstage sealing
::l 4 l>ic+c; w i n d a g e
iiii,, I ti,c iriclioii ioss due to the surface friction
i !, ~,iirii t,ti ~ i r ciliscs of an impulse turbine as the disc
~,,:,iic,; ii, tiic siezio~ atm0sphet.e. The result is the
! , i i I ( . i ~ ~ ~01
i ~ si~afl power for an increase in killetic
,,itti i,<:iil cncrsy of i i ~ csteam.
8 , Lacing w i r e s
ll,u ioug blades of the L P cylinder are stiffened
lii\rwiiila thc tip with iacing wires. Their purpose is
i t , r i i ~ l i i i j vibrations and raise the resonant frequency
( $ 1 lile biade so that it does not coincide with any
i ; . i ' i l i ! ~ ) ~ frcquency present in the turbine. The pre-
~:i.i~r.r o l these wires, however, produces losses in blade
iil~i.irncybecause of the passage area that they block.
:. ,
i 2 . 8 Other losses
1 liiir ;we further losses which, though not due t o
i i i ~ . ~irsigii of the moving blades, do affect the biade
i i iicici~cy.These iasses are Wetness loss and Annulus
1li.i.L
2.3.7 Wetness loss
'illis is incurred by moisture entrained in the low
prcssore steam towards the exit plark of the L P tur-
itii~e. The loss is a combination of two effects; the
firs1 is the reduction in efficiency due t o absorption
01 energy by the water droplets and the second is
liic erosion o f the final moving blades leading-edges.
lil-osion occurs because the water droplets travel
i;ir slower than steam, consequently their velocity
iclative t o the blades is significatltiy different in di-
~cctionas well as speed. The result is the impact of
condensation droplets on the blades, in particular a t
tllc tip where the blade rotational velocity is highest.
In the past, the leading edge has been protected
either by a n edge-hardening process or by the brazing-
oo of stellite, which is a very hard material. More
recently, a better understanding of the mechanism of
droplet erosion has produced means of alleviating
o ~ u c hof the problem. Higher last-stage heat drops
are employed, along with higher mass flow loading.
'The result is a higher pressure at the iniet t o the
moving blades leading to the reduction in the size
of droplets.
2.3.8 A n n u l u s loss
This occurs when there is a significant amount of
diffusion between two adjacent stages or where wall
cavities occur between the fined and moving blades.
The extent of the ioss is greatly reduced a t high an-
nulus area ratios (inlet/outlet) if the expansion o f
the steam is controlled by a flared casing wall.
Efficiency and o ~ i t l ~ ~ l i
-.
2.4 S t a g e eificiency a n d t h e condition line
2.4.1 Efficiency of s t a g e
Thc efficiency a f a turbine stage will always be some-
what iess than ideal because of the lasses discussed
in Section 2.2 of this chapter. Thc efficiency of a
weli dcsigned stage in a modern H P turbine is about
85-90%. This stage efficiency is obtained in the
foliowing way:
Actuai stage heat drop or:
n =
Isentropic stagc heat drop
(entlialpy at fixed biade inlet) -
(cnthalpy at moving blade outlet) x 100%
(enthalpy at fixed blade inlet) -
(cnthalpy at isentropic moving blade outiet)
'This can be more eicarly envisaged through the
use of a rurbhie condition line.
2.4.2 T h e condition line
The condition line is the locus of the conditions of
the steam as it passes from the stop valve at the iniet
t o the H P cylinder, through all the turbine stages to
the exit plane of the final moving blade of the L P
cylinder (Fig 1.16). Ideally the expansion of steam
through the turbine will occur isentropically, that is,
at constant entropy shown by the vertical dotted tine.
In reality the friction effects, such as profile and sec-
ondarv
. . ~ ~ , cause an increase in the heat and entropy
, loss.
~
of the steam.
-
Figure 1.17 shows a section of the condition line
displaying one stage only.
H , - H, represents the isentropic hear drop and
H, -
H , the actual heat drop. Cylinder efficiency
then is obtained for H P , I P and L P turbines by
considering the heat drop across ail the stages of the
cylinder.
2.4.3 Cylinder efficiency
There are two commonly used cylinder efficiency
definitions for H P and IP turbines. The first is the
one described above and is known as the internal
efficiency. The second includes the effect of the pres-
sure drop through the stop and governor valves On
the H P turbine and intercept, stop and governor
valves o n the IP turbine and is known as the external
efficiency (Fig 1.18).
It can be seen that, though the pressure drop across
the valves is at constant enthalpy, the change in
entropy affects the moving blade-exit isentropic en-
thaipy so that:
13
The steam turbine Cliaoter 1 Efficiency and outl)ill

ma. 1.16 iilrbiiie candiiioct liixe I:i(i. 1.17 S ~ g ccondition line through the conversion of its kinetic energy to flow
friction losses. This is a constant enthalpy process
since the steam cannot do work on blades that it
has already left. Consequently the steam comes to
rest at the point X on Fig 1.19.
7 (internal) = H 1 - x 100% and Both exhaust conditions are displayed in Fig 1.19 > y derived
!idhi ~ ~ t l l ~ i , l l is from the measured powel The heat loss between the total conditions at blade
H , - H? from which the followine- LP efficiencies can be ci1iili111 iillcl lhc slatic isentropic enthalpy is normally exit (HZ)and the static pressure line (H,) is known as
obtained: tdLt81i 111 ~ . O I I ~ C I I S C Ipressure. TT/TT efficiencies are
H, - H2 the leaving loss. The significance leaving loss has on
7 (external) = x 100% liiit~i)~ii~lly dc~.ivedfrom wetness probe (traverse) tests. efficiency can be seen in the following example:
HI - H4 Total Static/Total Static efficiency (TS/TS) 'rt!i:I R F I I I I O P ~ C exhaust enthalpy in this case is at the
klaiJr still (Jene total pressure. Traverse tests measure Leaving loss = v 2 / 2 J/kg
-
- Hl - H, x 100% i$$i:w ~ l l i u h h ltnd other properties of the steam along
For H P and IP steam turbines, the kinetic energy H , - H, line IrcilQBt of a moving blade. The test is restricted where v, is the velocity of steam leaving the last row
effects at inlet and exhaust are small and usually $11 /lie 111011h11rement across L P turbine stages where of blades. For a 500 MW turbine, the velocity v , is
ignored. ~h~ kinetic energy at inlet to the LP turbine Total Total/Total Static efficiency (TT/TS) il~eirIR ~ ~ i l ' f l c i ~distance
nt between stages to permit typically 170 m/s:
is also negligible but a t the exhaust it is not. As lb6 Ilvr llllhhilge of the probe.
170'
a result LP efficiencies are derived by considering thus leaving loss = -2
= 14450 J/kg = 14.45 kJ/kg
either:

The total exhaust conditions - which includes
the steam kinetic energy and is measurable with a
correctly aligned pitot.
The static exhaust conditions - which represents
conditions when the kinetic energy has been re-
duced to zero and is measurable with pressure gauge.
Total Total/Total Total efficiency (TT/TT)
P:4.4 ibnvlng loss This would be responsible for a 2% reduction in LP
~ I C M I I IIVIIVCA the finalstage of an L P turbine with cylinder efficiency.
- - X 100% b l l ~ i i l l ~energy
~ at the total pressure and enthalpy
HI - H i hlilivill 111 Ply 1.19. i f the steam could be slowed down
iri?iiliitpiat~llylo zero kinetic energy, it would be at 2.4.5 Hood loss
TT/TS efficiencies are usually obtained from heat ajnlli. (>trsxarc and cnthalpy. In practice the steam Another loss which occurs between the final stage
rate tests (see Section 3 of this chapter). The exhaust <Ittau xlll\r down after leaving the last blade, but and the condenser inlet is a pressure drop known as
 The steam turbine

hood loss (1% 1.20). Norii~aily the condenser static 2.4.7 Partial admission
picssiire is less tllao that at blade exit, Tlic steam I'arrial adn~iasioiigives a loss In turbine crficiency il
expands ill the Ihood wllich joins the cxliaust of the thc stcan? sugpiy to the turbine is governed by thc
L.P cylinder to the condenser inlet. The cxpansiotr number o f inozzles in use. Thc alternative mcans o l
converts c n t h a l ~ ~ to
y kinetic energy which is theii steanl governing is tlirottle-control, where admission
converted back lo heat by flow friction losses. is over the con~pletccircumference o f the first stage,
In some cases tlie hood loss is negative and the and coiitiol is achieved by reducing the mail1 stcani
condenser pressure is higher than blade-exit static supply. Partial admission is tilerefore not experienced
conditions. This occurs when the steam kinetic enel.gy by throttle-controlled turbines.
is converted to pressure, a process known as dijfusiori. Thc problem with reducing steam flow by the use of
nozzie-controi is that when the blades are aligned with
a norzle group they run full of steam, but when they
pass into a blank arc, eddies are produced, so caus-
ing a loss. The first and last blades in line with the
nozzle group will only be partially full o f steam and
therefore the flow in them will be onsiderably dis-
tuibcd. Thls is often referred to as 'blade windage',
'blade ventilation' or 'vane action' loss.
There is also an additional factor to consider. As
the idle blades come under the influence of the noz-
zles, the steam in the blade passages has to bc ac-
celerated rapidly, so causing a loss In power. The
~nagnitudeo f this loss increases with the work done
per row, the heat drop, the blade speed, blade width
and height, and the number o f steam admissions. This
factor, known as the steam inertia loss, can account
for 15-20% of the total windage loss in a stage with
single arc admission.
In the UK, there are many interconnected units in
service so that each can be kept In efficient operation
at high load. System load reduction is achieved by
shutting down complete units, so that there is no <w
Fxc. 1.21 Simplified ilealii power plant cycle
benefit from the adoption of nozzle control for individual
units. Alternatively, load reduction is accomplished 8..
,f

FIO. 1.20 Hood loss
2.4.6 W e t n e s s loss
Figure 1.16 shows how the condition line curves sub-
stantially towards higher entropy values below the
saturation line. The reason for this is the Increasing
wetness towards the exhaust in a n L P turbine, dis-
cussed in Section 2.2 of this chapter. If the efficiency
is adjusted to exclude the wetness loss, it is called the
dry stage efficiency. It is common practice to assume
that the total wetness loss is proportional to the
mean stage wetness. Baumann suggested that 1% total
wetness loss be assumed per 1% mean stage wetness.
by reducing the boiler pressure, so that the turbine
valves are maintained wide ope11 over most of the
load range up to 100%. Part-load efficiencies obtained
in this manner are comparable to nozzle-governed
machines, whilst the full-load efficiency is better.
3 Thermodynamics of t h e steam cycle
3.1 Development of the modern steam cycle
This section will outline a modern steam cycle and
then discuss its development f r o ~ nthe basic thermo-
dynamic power cycle. Having developed a modern
steam cycle, the means o f assessing its efficiency and
economic implications will be introduced.
3.1.1 The s t e a m cycle
A power station operates using a closed steam power
cycle, where water undergoes various thermodynamic
8
8
!,i~,ii:iscs in a cyclic process. Figure 1.21 is a sim-
l i l ~ l ~ r diagram
il of a modern steam plant, showing
iiio)~01' the essential elements.
011r 11alCof the cycle consists of the boiler (or heat
,~liircu)and its auxiliaries; the other, the turbine
ryclc, consists of turbine, generator, condenser, feed
O I I I I I and
~ feedwater heaters.
('otlsider first the boiler plant involved In the cycle.
I.r,:dwater is supplied to the boiler drum, where water
I!, boiled and converted Into dry saturated steam.
'Illis dry steam is further superheated in the super-
llvater and then fed to the H P cylinder of tlle tur-
I~inc.The steam expands in the turbine giving up heat
energy, a high proportion of which is transferred
inlo work energy on the turbine shaft. The shaft
turns an electrical generator which produces electric
power. Steam leaving the H P cylinder returns to the
boiler, where It is reheated. The reheated steam is
further expanded In the IP and L P cylinders, before
passing into the condenser.
In the condenser, which is a large surface-type heat
exchanger, the steam is condensed by transferring Its
latent heat of vaporisation to the cooling water (CW).
The main steam, having been condensed in tlle
condenser, is now in a liquid state at a very low pressure
and approximately saturation temperature. This water
drains from the condenser, where it enters the hotwell.
The water in the hotwell is pumped by the condensate
extraction pump through the low pressure feedheating
system to another pump, the boiler feed pump.
In a modern regenerative cycle, some of the steam
passing through the turbine cylinders is bled from a
series of extraction belts located after selected moving
blade stages and fed to the condensate and feedwater
heaters. Thls steam is used to heat the condensate In
the L P heaters and the feedwater in the H P heaters,
which are o f a surface type.
The boiler feed pump increases the water pressure
to a level in excess of the drum pressure, to provide
for the pressure loss in the boiler circuit and H P
feedheating train. The cycle Is now complete.
3.1.2 T h e Rankine cycle
Having presented a modern practical steam power
cycle, attention will now be given to the development

The steam turbine
of such B cycle 110111 a basic vapour powcs cyclc -
thc Rankine cyclc.
For the purpose of illustraliiig the various power
cycles, the Temperature-Entropy (T-S) and Entlialpy-
Entropy (H-S) diagrams will be used. An understand-
ing of thermodynamic properties -- Entropy and
Enthalpy is assumed. However, in the context of
the following descriptio~lo f steam cycles, a review of
Entropy will be beneficial.
Entropy is an abstract property of steam which
increases when heat is added and decreases when
heat is rejected. Its magnitude is such that if the
temperature at which heat is transferred is multiplied
by the change in entropy that results in the pro-
cess, then that product equals the amount of heat
transferred.
Now consider the simple Rankine cycle for steam,
shown scheinatically in Fig 1.22 and on the T-S dia-
gram in Fig 1.23.
Water is pumped into the boiler by the feed pump
(process A-B). In the ideal Rankinc cycle, there is no
temperature rise across the pump and points A-B are
coincident. The water is then heated to produce dry
saturated steam (process B-C). The dry saturated
FIG. 1.22 Simple Rankine cycle power
18
.&
&+
..-
V'
steam is expanded thraogli tire torbine iseiilrapicall)~,
i . c , u,itlroilt loss. This process (C-D) ~)ioduceswork
along liic turbine shaft. F'inally the wet steam issuing
from tile turbine gives up its heat in the condenser and
returns lo watel. (process O-A).
The heat input t o the boiler or 'the energy paid
for' is represented by the area EABCDP on the T-S
diagram. The work done by the cycle is represented
by the area within the polygon ABCD. The heat
rejected to the condenser is represented by the rec-
tangle ADFE. In the context of power generation,
Thermal Efficiency q is defined as:
Work done = (Energy for geneiation)/Heat input
(i.e., energy paid for). Hence the Thermal Efficiency
Of the Rankine cycle, based upon Fig 1.23, 1.23 is q
(Rankine) = Area ABCD/Arca EABCDF.
The economic implication of cycle efficiency is a
major factor behind the development o f the cycle,
wllil~t maintaining or reducing capital cost per elec-
trical unit supplied. The other major consideration in
the choice of cycle, is the engineering feasibility of
-7:
Theifnodynamics of the steam cycle
, , . -
e No salniated steaill must enter the condenses, i.e.,
point D must be within the vapoui boundary (Fig
1.23).
e The exhaust wetness in the last turbine stage must
not exceed 12%, i.e., DD' nlust be less than 12%
.
of A D ' .
Material properties limit the maximum temperature
within the cycle.
3.1.3 Practical cycle using s u p e r h e a t
The first development o f the Rankine cycle into a
more practical steam cycle involves raising the pres-
sure and temperature of the steam entering the turbine.
The superheated steam cycle is shown schematically
l t i l , 121 K;$iikise cycle T-S diagram
in Fig 1.24, and on the T-S diagram in Fig 1.25.
In the s u ~ e r h e acycle,
t the saturated dry steam leaving
~,q
%
.S!
the boiler drum is further heated before entering the
. ,...
.:.wlrs!ie lcr~~lil~iil conditions. The effect o f changing turbine. For the same quality of steam entering the
,
condenser (i.e., same point D), the increase in work done
*;
9
,E
ie$jir:iiei i-~i~~dltiorrs is dealt with thoroughly in Section
8 i nl i l i l i rltilplcr. However, it is useful to consider is shown o n Fig 1.25. The quantity of heat rejected to
the condenser is the same as for the Rankine cycle.
it!, li4li*wi11,&criteria when attempting to change
* . ; I I I I I ~ Icor~~iitions: Hence, there is an improvement in the cycle efficiency.
,~
FIG.1.24 Superheat cycle plant
The steam turbine C h a ~ t e r1 Thermodynamics of the steam cycle

The superheat efficiency is greater than the Rankine tlierrnel efficiency from the 7 - S diagram is q(lichia,,=~
efficiency as Area (P + Q)/(I' i- Q i R) is greater (Area ABCDEF)/(Area GABCDEFH).
than Q/(Q + R). "; The reheat cycle benefits from reduced wetness in
This superheat cycle was chosen to Ilave the same the turbine exhaust, but presents an increased capital
turbine exhaust conditions as the ~ r e v i o u s Rankine outlay in terms of reheater pipewoik to, from and within
- A S " , ' ~ , ~ ~ ' cycle. However, a major advantage of superheating the boiler. The turbine is usually split into H P and
$ L P cylinders t o avoid the high thermal gradients
which would be introduced between stages of reheat
o n a single-cylinder machine.
I'
3.1.4 T h e r e h e a t cycle
3.1.5 Regenerative f e e d h e a t i n g
The desire for further increases in cycle conditions and
T o complete the cycle development of the steam cycle
consequent increases in cycle efficiency, led to the
t o that of Fig 1.21, the inclusion of regenerative
addition of steam reheat during turbine expansion. The
ENTROPY, s feedheating must be discussed. Physically, a propor-
reheat cycle is shown schematically in Fig 1.26 and
tion of the steam is bled from various points on the
FIG. 1.25 Superheat cycle T-S diagram o n the T-S diagram in Fig 1.27. Fit. 1.27 Reheat cycle T-S diagram turbine, which is then condensed to heat feedwater
In the reheat cycle, steam at a given initial tem- o n its return to the boiler. Figure 1.28 illustrates
perature is partially expanded through the turbine
the improvement in thermal efficiency for a simple
Area ABC,D (process C-D) doing some work, and then is fed back
~ ( s u P c ~ ~=
Il,e reheat cycle incorporates an improvement in Rankine cycle (Fig 1.29), by virtue of the bled-steam
c ~ ~ )
Area EABC, DF t o the boiler, where it is reheated to about original
i l ~ o i n a l efficiency aver the superheat cycle. The releasing all of its heat to the feedwater, and little
temperature (process D-E). The heated steam is then fed
- Area ( P + Q) through the remainder of the turbine before being
Area (P + Q + R) condensed (process E-F).

flc. 1.26 Reheat cycle plant FIO.1.28 Rankine cycle with regenerative feedhealing
[
20
i1
i
T h e s t e a m turbine Chapter 1 Ther~nodynamicsof t h e s t e a m cycle

3.2 C y c l e e f f i c i e n c y and h e a t r a t e ii leal tul.binc erpaiision incorl>osates losses or ii- H, - H,

l?vcr,sibilitiescouesponding lo an inciease in entropy. HI' cyiindcr ,I =
lie last section dealt with tire theoretical aspects of H, - I(;
steaio cycles. An attempt is now made lo investigate I t can be seen from the Mollier diagram, that for
tile differences betwecn an ideal turbine expansion t i 1 1 expansion between two pressures, the gl.eater the H, -
i'illiopy rise (i.e., the greater number o f losses), tlie I P cylinder 7 =
(one which is isentropic) and an actual turbine ex- H3 - Hh
pansion, leading to expressions for turbine heat rate lusr energy there is available for wo1.k. Refinement
and efficiency. i l l turbine design aims to reduce the losses and in- H6 - H,
LP cylinder q =
The general cycle cfficiency was illustrated with the crease the available energy. Hd --
use o f the T-S diagram: for the turbine alone, eiii- Now consider tile whole turbine expansion process
ciency is best discussed using the Mollier or enthalpy- illlough H P , 1P and LP cylinders on a Mollier dia- In the case of the H P and IP cylinders, these are
entropy (H-S) diagram. A comparison of actual and ~!,i;im,as shown in Fig 1.32. external efficiencies because tlie throttling loss is
isentropic turbine expansions is illustrated in Fig 1.31. included.
The turbine expansion shown is that for an H P cylin- One small advantage of the irreversibilities in the
der, i.e., wholly in the superheat region. 1P and LP turbines is the reduction in exhaust steam
wetness, causing less erosion on the final stazes
. of
blading. The condition of the plant can be monitored
FIG. 1.29 T-S diagranl for the Kniikine cycic by measuring the temperature and pressure of the
will, feedlieating
steam at points between the cylinder, hence deriving
the steam enthalpy. It should then be possible to
compare cylinder efficiencies with the original design
or none to the condenser. There will bc a small values. Turbine blade erosion or steam leakage results
loss of work available from the bled-steam not ex- in a reduced cylinder efficiency. In practice, the L P
panding in the turbine; however, this loss is out- cylinder exhaust enthalpy is not direclly measurable
weighed by the gain in cycle efficiency. and it nus st be derived from an overall heat balance.
The greater the number of feedheaters installed,
the greater the improvement in thermal efficiency.
However. the incremental gain for each additional 3.2.2 H e a t r a t e
feedheater reduces as the number of heaters increases. The principles of stage and cylinder efficiency having
T h e methods of optimising the number of heaters for been introduced, consideration is now given to the
a particular size of plant are covered in Section 4.2. definition of turbine heat rate. The heat rate is deter-
of this chapter. mined by measurement of various plant operating
T h e cycle has now been developed to the modern parameters. These include:
plant cycle that was first considered. Before going
o n to discuss this in detail, the T-S diagram for a Flow rate, using a differential pressure device.
reheat cycle with regenerative feedheating is given in
Fig 1.30. Enthalpy, based on calibrated pressure and tem-
perature measurement.

Electric power, based o n calibrated voltage and

current measurements.

Consider a steam cycle with single reheat and re-

generative feedheating, shown in Fig 1.33.
I
ENTROPY
The heat rate is defined by:
FIG. 1.32 Mollier chart for aelllal turbine exllanrion
Heat input horn boiler (klih)
HEAT RATE =
FIG.1.31 Compaiison of isenfropic and Electrical output from generator (kW)
actual turbine expansions
Using measurements around the cycle from Fig 1.33
The actual turbine expansion line includes the ma-
3.2.1 Cylinder efficiency jor losses encountered: H P throttling loss through
In Section 2, the stage efficiency was defined. Re- llie governor valve and associated pipework; reheater HEAT RATE =
M I ( H I - HO + M I ( H I - H*)kl,kWh
ferring to Fig 1.31, the overall cylinder efficiency is ]pressure loss through pipework (to, within and from P,
given by: the boiler): the leaving and hood losses a t the last
The corresponding thermal efficiency is given by:
fitage of the L P turbine (see Section 2 of this chapter).
FIG.1.30 Rsnkine cycle with reheat and ?l(eylindar) =
HA-HC _- (Useful work done) From Fig 1.32 it is possible t o derive the following -
- 3600
x 100% -
(kW)
regenerative feedhesting H A - H, (Isentropic enthalpy change) cylinder efficiencies: HEAT RATE (klis)
22
'1-lie steam turbine
FIG. 1.33 Cycle used for
A means of measuring cycle heat rate having been
defined, consideration can now be given to varia-
tions between the design heat rates auoted bv the
turbine manufacturers a n d the heat iates achieved
in operation.
First, consider the variation of the hourly heat
consumed by the turbine-generator with th; load
produced. This characteristic is known as Willans
line (Fig 1.34), and is based on turbine test runs at
100%. 80%, 60% and 40% load. It is British practice
to specify performance and test at these four loads,
A linear relationship exists and extrapolation to the
no-load output condition reveals a no-load heat con-
sumption of about 3% of the full-load value. The
variation in heat rate with load (Fig 1.35) shows the
high thermal cost of operating plant on part-load.
The optimum heat rate (i.e., the minimum condition)
should correspond to the design output (100% load).
The major contributory loss comes from the throttling
loss across the turbine governor valves. The effects
of throttling are discussed later in this chapter.
Operating the unit at part-load is one of the
'external' factors preventing the achievement of the
design heat rate. The other major external factor,
which increases average heat rate, is the need to start
the unit as required by the operating regime. During
start-up, the unit is unloaded and additional works
power is needed for start-up systems.
24
Chapter 1 Tlier~nodyna~nics
of the steam cycle
1 i,. 1.35 Variation of Ileal raic with load for a typical
660 MI\' unit (tliroltle goveined) ENTROPY I
derivation of lieat rate 11
' 4.1.36 Tlle cffccl or increasing temperalare
C: I2eicrioration of cylinder clearances on available energy
AS lclllperal~liei~ incieared from 7 ,to Tj tile available
cnergy increaser, as the slope o f rlle constant pressure line
r !li~lcrioration in feedheating efficiency is greater Ilia" the Condenser picsruie line, i.e..
AIBI > A , ~ I
$ I'I!I>I
control of superheat and reheat temperature,
Il~i~tliciilarly
in older designs).
in entropy. As the temperature is increased from T ,
1:~clors become more prevalent as the plant to T,, the available energy increases, since A,B, >
o iili,.~.
AtB,.
8
$
so
1 iiyt;i
Now consider the effect of increasing the inlet steam
pressure at a constant temperature. The additional
available energy is shown on Fig 1.37. The increase in
$ available energy is less than that for temperature for
8 :$,3 'Terminal conditions the same entropy change. The significant advantage
3
!I! I I l i h tieclioll, the effects of certain terminal con- of increasing both temperature and pressure is illus-
/' d!ilblllh 01' the steam cycle are considered in detail. trated on Fig 1.38.
/' l i l v illlplrcl on efficiency is evaluated and the con- There are limitations to the selection of inlet steam
Po- /' SllsI!llx l'ttced by the designer are discussed. conditions. As mentioned in the previous section
/
/
'' there are criieria which affect the choice of inlet
conditions:
7
NOLOAO HtATllCONSUMPiION 8.7 Effect of steam inlet conditions
20 10 80 80 100 Maximum turbine exhaust wetness 12%
LOAQ UMCR I'llilly, consider the effect of steam inlet conditions
l i t I l l ? turbine. The temperature of the steam supplied No dry steam to enter the condenser
111 !llr lurbine stop valve is a major factor in the
PIG. 1.34 Willans line for a typical 660 MW unit r v c l i sl'l'iciency and the efficiency of the turbine in Metallurgical constraints on the choice of turbine
r~iilvollinp available energy into work. The effect of and boiler materials.
l l l i i ! ~ l l ! ~ i t lthe
~ steam inlet temperature for a turbine
Plant operating losses cause the other major in- u;t(%i~lidill[t between set pressures is shown on the
crease in design heat rate. In practice, turbine heat Ml~lllcr diagram (Fig 1.36). The expansion process The metallurgical limit on temperature is 565°C for
rates increase due to: i.ll!iwti is 1'01 a single-cylinder turbine with no increase coal-fired plant brought into service with the CEGB
T h e steam turbine
FIG. 1.37 The effect of Inereasing presshire on
available cneigy
A S P ~ ~ S S U T inere86e~
C from P I to P3 the available energy
increa~c~, a$ the slope of thc condenser pressere line is
greater than the temperature iine, i . c , AIB1>AiBI
over the years 1960 to 1986. This limit reflects
a compromise between ease of manufacture, creep
strength and cost. The practice on CEGB 500 MW
and 660 MW sub-critical units has been to select a
pressure of 159 bar at the turbine stop valve.
3.3.2 Effect of r e h e a t conditions
Now consider the selection of reheat conditions for
T
a single reheat cycle. Having established the steam
conditions at entry to the H P turbine, there are several
design com~romisesinvolved in the choice of reheat
pressure and temperature. First, consider the boundary
conditions. The H P cylinder exhaust steam must be
sufficiently superheated to avoid any wetness in the
cold reheat pipework, which would cause severe ero-
sion. As in the previous section, the exhaust steam
from the L P cylinder must be wet, but not greater
than 12% wetness. These boundaries are illustrated,
together with the effects of changing pressure, on
the Moilier diagram (Fig 1.39). Now consider the
effect of changing reheat temperature for a constant
pressure drop in the H P cylinder (Fig 1.40). The
effect o f reducing the pressure or of raising the
temperature of the reheat steam is to reduce L P
exhaust wetness.
26
Chapter 1 Thennodynumics of t h e steam cyclr
lhas bcen mcntioocd in previous sections and is iniin
discussed in more detail. Simpiy, the effect of p s c .
sure ioss anywlicrc in the steam path causes a loss
in cycle efficiency by reducing the energy available for
conversion into work.
Vaivc gear at the inlet to the H P and 1P turbines
is used to control the inlet mass flow and hence the
load on tile machine by a throttling process. Figure
1.41 shows a Maiiier diagram comparing the condition
lines of a reheat turbine at fuil ioad with ail the
valves wide open and one at part load, where the ioad
has been reduced by 40% by throttling on the iniet
valves to the H P turbine. Other pressure losses are
neglected. The throttling effect is to reduce the inlet
pressure by a constant enthalpy process (represented
by horizontal line AB). The result is a ioss in en-
tropy and also a slight fall in temperature with some
reduction in the availabie heat drop. This accounts
for a small loss in efficiency. However, the major
flow reduction which results is the main reason for
the reduction of work done in the H P , IP and LP
cylinders. in this example, the condenser pressure is
assumed to remain constant and the pressure drop
ria i 38 The effect of
fempeiaiuic upon
mereasing borli prerniic and
avallabie energ)
?
INleoP".S
I 4 1 1 'l'liu U I I C C ~ iif variation in relieat iempciatuie
<s
d
z.*.
4li!iitil1lJi i,:dl!cin~ 1,P exhaust wetness is desirable,
.$
@
-4
(jrri i!i$di i t I~:!~lperaturecould iead to some diffi-
. r(rlline i+illi mi~lcrials.The common practice has been
!I;t~iirilt 10 I11c original superheat steam condition,
$.<, w*., ,
..*,. .11;(
Allt!il!r~ important factor in the design of the re-
ti.-.- .
,nar~-i14llllc cffecl o f pressure losses in the pipework.
P/ fits jslwhllr~loss ~.esuItsfrom a throttling effect which
, @$i!$v~h IIM ovi~ilableenergy for work (to be discussed
$$$elill lllih ~eclion).The oressure at which steam is
IN 11b0ut 25% o f ' t h e stop valve condition,
--.
WETNsESLlMi,
@
118 llpproximately a fourfold increase in
W@1811v. 'Thih necessitates the use of increased ~ i o e
ell are expensive and inflexible. The ;lait
IIIII~to weigh the merit of using larger pipes,
fg
.?&
98 {Ape ~trtlsin parallel, versus the improvement in
@ p i # alflcicncy. The usual pressure drop is 7.5 to
I@+% irl lhc HP cylinder exhaust pressure. Finally,
~4NrIliiinla will exist in the boiler on the range o f
Eftact of pressure loss in pipework a n d
Fia. 1.39 Boundary conditions for a rehcat line and the FiO. 1.41 LOPSof available energy due lo throttling
effect of changing pressure at constant ~empeiilture !cl o f pressure loss in pipework and valves the governor valve
The steain turbine
across the tiil-bioc cylinders is coiitroiled by liie Ellipse
law relationship described in Section 2.1.2 of this
chapter.
Pressure losses along pipe suns can bc caiculated
using equations and charts 161. Pressure loss is associated
with pipe diameter, of surface roughness, steam flow rate
and the pipe geometry (number of bends, expansions,
contractions). Simply reducing piping losses by re-
designing pipe runs, or by adding to the number or
pipes, may increase the capital cost of the plant in
excess of the benefit gained in running costs.
3.3.4 Effect of final f e e d t e m p e r a t u r e s
In the previous section, the concept of regenerative
surface. In order to avoid a n increase in the stack
temperature, the air heater would have to be increased
in sire, and the cost o f this would exceed any sav-
ing on the economiser. Consequently the ecollomic
optimum feed temperature is somewhat lower than
the thermodynamic optimum.
Raising the final feed temveraturc also has imoli-
cations for the design o f the'^^ turbine. Past prac-
tice has been to use bled.steam from the HP turbine
exhaust. The saturation temoerature o f the bled-steam
controls the maximum feed temperature obtainable.
To provide steam at a higher pressure with a higher
saturation temmrature, rewires steam to be bled
from an intermediate point b n the H P cylinder. This
is an additional complication and cost to the turbine
plant. Despite the increases in capital cost, the benefit
from improved cycle efficiency is such that the addi-
tional heater is worth including.
The design of the Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor
(AGR) has resulted in limitations on the finai feed
temperature. The feed train is curtailed in order to
limit the final feed temperature to about 150°C. This
limitation is imposed because of the allowable tem-
peratures in the gas cooling circuit.
3.3.5 Effect of e x h a u s t pressure
The efficiency of the cycle is strongly influenced
by the L P turbine exhaust pressure. The back pres-
sure of the condenser sets the saturation temperature
at which the expanded steam rejects its latent heat
of vaporisation to the cooling water. Consequently,
changes in back pressure affect the temperature of
cycle heat rejection. The effect of a change in con-
denser saturation temperature on the cycle work done
is shown on a T-S diagram in Fig 1.42. Generally,
a low exhaust pressure is sought as it improves cycle
efficiency.
Chapter 1
4 in CEGB fossil-fuel and AGR power stations.
t
E/
I M~ATSUICTED I mitigated by the reduction in casing size and pipe
I i
rNT"oP".S
F $ ( i 1.42 The effect of condenser saturation icmneraluic
on cycle work done
However, there arc several plant constraints affect-
ing the selection design exhaust pressure. Consider
the effect of lowering the exhaust pressure on the tur-
%
bine condition line on the Mollier diagram (Fig 1.43).
Expansion to a lower pressure results in increased
wetness, and increased specific volume at the exhaust.
The increase in exhaust wetness tends to increase
the erosion of the last-stage blades. However, more
significant is the effect of increased specific volume,
implying the need for a higher volume flow rate.
The volume flow rate through the condenser is the
product o f the mean steam axial velocity and the
annular exhaust area. The annular exhaust area is
limited by the maximum length of L P blade. At 3000
r/min, the centrifugal forces o n the long blades be-
come very high and there is a limit to the mechani-
cal stress which blade roots can sustain. Hence, having
established a maximum annular area, the increase in
volume flow rate must be accommodated by an in-
crease in exit velocity. Steam issuing from the last
stage o f the turbine with high residual velocity re-
presents a loss of kinetic energy. This kinetic energy
performs no useful work on the turbine blades and
therefore is a loss of available energy, known as the
'leaving loss', and varies with the square of velocity.
The other loss associated with the turbine exhaust is
the 'hood loss', which defines the hydraulic pressure
loss between the last row of moving blades and the
condenser; this also varies with the square of the
same velocity.
ENTROPY S
I,, clfeei of exhaust presmlre on turbine
expansion
1 Ihr 1.1' turbine exhaust area affects
I rii811 o f machine, in particular the ther-
11 01 lhc condenser (see Chapter 3). The
I 1 0 plovide a certain volume flow rate
lit; ronfipufiltion of the L P cylinders since
91 I ~ ~ C 4 I I double-flow L P cylinders may be
111 pi~rilllel to give the desired flow rate.
otid size of the chosen arrangement o f
nl'lccts many other areas of design - the
lllicr; the plant arrangement; size of civil
rodoced all factors against decreasing
rrc, i l ~ edesign compromise is once more
~pl'o~'cmentsin cycle efficiency versus the
ity and therefore reliability
IIIIIY, a major factor affecting the choice
p~r'ssure is the ambient temperature at
('\I1call reject heat. This factor seasonally
tin Ihrraial efficiency of the plant.
@,'lion deals with the superheated steam cycle
Thermodynamics of the stcaln cyclc
and its development to the current reheat cycic used
3.4.1 S t e a m conditions
The effects of increasing turbine stop valve pressure
and temperature and the effect of reheat have been
discussed in regard to cycle efficiency in Section 3.3
of this chapter.
It is also relevant to consider the major influences
on turbine efficiency. The most important factor in
turbine efficiency is blade length. Generally, an in-
crease in blade lengths implies reduccd leakage losses
and secondary losses [5,7].
A n increase in steam pressure at a given steam flow
reduces thc volumetric steam flow and hence reduces
blade length. Increased steam pressure also requires
thicker casing walls and larger horizontal joint flanges
and joint bolts. It also implies thicker steam pipe
walls which require additional length to obtain the
required flexibility. These difficulties are only partly
diameter made possibie by the smaller volume flow.
Another important effect of increased steam pres-
sure is the requirement of increased pumping power
to raise the feedwater to the higher pressure.
It follows that increases in steam pressure are only
a benefit in practice when associated with a n increase
in unit size and/or an increase in steam temperature.
An increase in steam temperature has the effgct of
increasing the specific volume and hence blade length
and therefore tends to increase turbine efficiency with-
out any increase in unit size. There are vractical
disadvantages, which include the required increase in
casing size and pipe diameter, and increased thermal
stresses especially when starting and loading.
The influence of the combined effects of tem-
perature and pressure changes and turbine efficiency
considerations on unit size can be illustrated by a
study of the 'standard' steam conditions specified by
the BEA and CEGB from 1945 onwards.
Table 1.1 has been simplified by the exclusion of
a number of units of close to the 'standard' 60 MW
size, some of which employed reheat. It shows the
general trend.
There is a progressive increase in unit size accom-
panied by a series of step increases of pressure and
temperature, with a few notable exceptions. The main
exceptions are the two 375 MW supercritical units
for Drakelow C, commissioned in 1967-68 and the
two 550 MW cross-compound units for Thorpe Marsh,
commissioned in 1963-65. These units could be said
to have been ordered before their time and have not
been followed by further development.
The steam temperatures can be seen to reach a
plateau of 538°C and 565°C. The 538°C limit applies
to oil-fired units to avoid the use of austenitic ma-
terials in the boiler. These suffer heavy corrosion due
to the sodium and vanadium content o f the fuel oil.
29
T h e stearn turbine
Bisckwall
P0illi
Uckaioutli
Castle
L)onnisg,on
Feriyblidgc tl
Biytlie A
Higll Marnlla81l
Biyllle B
Thorpe Marrll
U',,, Thuriock
Tilbuiy B
Drakelow C
Wcst Hllrlon
Grain
The 56SPC limit for coal-fired plant is to avoid
increasing costs due to the extended use o f austenitic
materials t o avoid creep failure. Creep is the phe-
nomenon o f slow progressive yielding which occurs
at high temperature. In the turbine, it leads to re-
duced clearances and increased stress levels over a
period of time, and in the boiler (where temperatures
are higher) to time-dependent tube failures.
Current worldwide practice for modern large units
is to limit steam temperatures to the 540°C level.
3.4.2 Reheat
Table i . i also shows the general adoption o f reheat
for all units over 100 MW. It has been shown earlier
in this chapter that reheat allows a closer approach
t o the ideal Carnot cycle. Its adoption has cost and
design significance. There is, of course, the require-
ment of additional piping t o and from the boiler,
the latter requiring high temperature with larger bore
size than the H P steam pipes. The higher volume
flow of the reheated steam requires the I P turbine
to have a larger rotor diameter and longer blades
than the H P turbine. Sometimes there is a choice
between increased outlet blade angle and double flow
in the I P cylinder, resolved in the case o f CEGB 500
and 660 M W units by using double flow.
T o reduce creep in the high temperature regions,
it is common t o admit a supply o f lower temperature
cooling steam t o the space between the inlet fixed
blades and rotor. This steam tends t o flow through
the balance holes in the discs and the diaphragm
glands, thus shielding the rotor from the hotter steam
30
Chapter i
a t the blading.
The IP turbine casing has t o provide openings
large enough t o pass the exhaust steam on to the
L P turbine at moderate velocities without unduly
reducing its stiffness. The casing inlet end must be
carefully designed to reduce thermal stress.
The pipework to and from the reheater and in the
reheatei section of the boiler represents a significant
storage volume. it is therefore necessary to supply
additional valves to protect the turbine from over-
speeding in the event of a sudden ioss of load. As in
the H P turbine, these valves must bc in serics-pairs
t o provide back-up in the event of one valve failing
to close when required. They operate at the same high
temperature but must be considerably larger than the
H P valves. T o handle the flow, up to four sets of
valves may be provided.
3.4.3 Double reheat
A further approach t o the Rankine cycle can be made
by using additional stages of reheat. A second stage
of reheat involves similar additional cost and design
considerations t o those already described for single
reheat. There are obviously greater difficulties in
matching steam and metal temperatures during start-
ing and load changes.
Figure 1.44 shows a simplified Mollier diagram for
a single and double reheat supercritical cycle, and
Fig 1.45 shows the T-S diagram. In practice a second
stage o f reheat is only normally justifiable with a
supercritical cycle.
Thermodynamics of the steam cycic
into superheated steani \+'itllout hoiling in the acccplcd
sensc. The latent iical of vaporisation is ~ . c i oand,
since the densities of the water and steam arc thc
same, there is no wcli defined water-to-steam rransi-
lion interface.
A brief explanation from physical data source may
be hclpful. Water at high temperature consists of
clusters of molecules held together by strong potential
binding forces of short duration. Thesc clusters pci-
mil angular a r linear displacement which gives rise
t o the liquid characteristics.
Evaporation of a liquid into a gaseous space nor-
mally consists, at the molecular level, of a surface
molecule in a liquid cluster acquiring sufficient thermal
(and thus kinetic) energy to overcome the potential
binding forces of ils neighbouring inolecules to b x a k
away clear of the cluster and leave the surface of the
iiquid to enter the gaseous space. The binding forces
between the surface molecuie and molecules well below
the surface are not significant as potential forces drop
off extremely rapidly with increasing distance. Liquids
subjected to high pressures logically require higher
thermal energy, and therefore higher tempcratuie, for
the surface lnolccuic to break free of the molecular
cluster. At supercritical pressures, the potential forccs
exerted between molecules in a niolecular ciuster are
too large to bc overcome by increases in thermal
energy and hence n o surface molecules escape from
the molecular clusters. However, as the supercritical
pressure fluid undergoes a temperature rise, the aver-
age size of its clusters diminishes. With further in-
creases in fluid temperature, the molecular clusters are
reduced to isoiated molecules and all traces of any
form of crystalline structure has disappeared. Thus
the supercritical pressure fluid acquires its steam-like
qualities not by evaporation of isolated surface mole-
cules, but rather by the gradual diminution in the
number of molecules contained within moiecuiar
clusters.
A double-reheat supercritical cycle can show ap-
proximately a 3.9% efficiency advantage over a single
reheat subcritical cycle (242 b a r / 5 4 O 0 ~ / 5 4 0 'compared
~
with 166 bar/540°C/540"C).
For single-reheat, the reheat pressure is commonly
about 25% o f the initial pressure while for double-
reheat the first reheat is usually at about 30% and the
second 10% or less. There are no known proposals
for triple-reheat, and it is most unlikely that the
additional cost could be justified. There is also the
difficulty of designing an LP turbine with the high
inlet temperature required. This is already about 370°C
for double-reheat machines.
3.4.4 CEGB c y c l e s
It is instructive t o consider some recent and current
CEGB design cycles by comparing their Mollier diagrams
(Fig 1.461, the selected cycles are:
The steam turbine
(b) 660 MW AGR 160 bar/530"C rclieating to
37.4 bar (23.3% TSV) with 41 mbar
pressure.
(c) New subcritical coal-fired 176 bai/565'C reheatill
to 565°C at 50 bar (20.8% TSV) with 57 mb.
condenser pressure.
(d) New supercritical coal-fired 240 bar/565'C r
heating to 565-C at 60 bar (25.0% TSV) wi
57 mbar condenser pressure.
In this example, single-reheat has been selected f a
the supercritical cycle. The advantages and disadvan
of double-reheat require careful consideration. Ail C
coal or oil-fired plant is designed to be capable o
'two-shifting' for a significant part of its life.
clearly more difficult to achieve this kind of fle
with double-reheat and the type o f plant eventual1
built will need to take these factors into account.
The two 660 MW cycles are typical of the lat
units in service, although the coal-fired 660 MW un
use 565°C TSV and reheat temperatures.
Both the AGR and the oil-fired 660 MW unit
a back pressure boiler feed pump turbine, sup
with steam from the H P exhaust and returning I
the IP/LP crossover point.
The oil-fired unit has bled-steam extractions at H
exhaust, at BFPT midpoint, at BFPT/IP turbine e
haust and from three positions in the L P turbin
The AGR requires cooler feedwater and takes ble
steam from the BFPT/IP exhaust and from four PO.
tions in the LP turbine.
The new large coal-fired units will use motor-drivel
feed pumps. They can take advantage of higher filla
feed temperature and the economics justify bled-steal
extraction from the H P turbines at approximately 70-
har.
..~~ Thev also have bled-steam extraction from H
exhaust, I P exhaust and four stages from the
turbine.
FIG. 1.46 Condition lines for current CEGB designs The diagram shows how much larger are the I
and L P heat drops than those of the H P turbine
It is also notable how close together are the I P a n
L P expansion lines for all four examples. The H
(a) 660 MW oil-fired with BFP turbine.
expansion line for the subcritical coal-fired machi
(b) 660 MW AGR with BFP turbine. is not very different from that for the two 660 M
units, although its higher pressures will mean redu
(c) New subcritical coal-fired with motor-driven feed specific volumes throughout. The new supercritical U
pump. has larger H P and I P heat drop than the subcritic
machine. This implies additional available work b
(d) New supercritical coal-fired with motor-driven feed this is bought at the price of increased feed pun1
pump. power.
The feed pump power is a n important part o f t
cycle selection.
The steam conditions for these cycles are summarised
The low back pressure of the AGR is clearly a
below:
parent. This pressure is largely site-dependent and
a function of the mean year-round cooling Wat
(a) 660 MW oil-fired 160 bar/53S0C reheating to
temperature. The oil-fired 660 MW unit is locat
538% at 39 bar (24.4% TSV) with 61 mbar con-
on the Thames where the water temperature is qni
denser pressure.
--
lilt i:, ill ;i ci,:istal sitc with cold u8ater.
qiirbi.(l to ronsider these cycles fro111the
rltrl)i~lei,ylindei designs. T h e 660 MM1
11 llnc 660 MW AGR turbines are quite
llltu 01' 11,c same steam conditions and
imelics this. In fact. the AGR machine
lcss i3P steam flow a n d 5 % more
w S17r similar power output due to its
IrflniJ~~lircyoil-ement. 11 also has about
' larhille inlet steam flow.
lncca UIK! accommodated by Small blade
level changes. In the Cases chosen,
tlq)alcrlt contradiction in that LP inlet
; oll.firerl unit is lower, whiie its re-
Is lhi~:ltei. This arises from the fact
IIC uscs A four-flow L P iurbine with
\rhilr the AGR uses six flows with
I' torbines are also rather different.
I I f ' crhanst/LP inlet pressure is en-
1111 thr tnrbine designer. It is the point
pil~ecr lrom the two flows of the IP
i. 11111~ or six fiows o f the LP. A low
11. i n lnrgc crossover pipework and long
I?litditng, while a high pressure results
ililel blading and higher L P inlet tem-
I111 helecterl pressure represents a com-
I I lllese considerations and must give
1h1. 11' ilnd 1.P turbine appropriate to
titgcs nnd tbc stage diameters required.
dcailtns, an effort is made to select
Ihu use of standard turbine mod-
increased reliability and reduced
and also reduces the number of
notably spare rotors.
trr the new coal-fired proposais, it
Ibcrcil that, although the condition lines
111oiclerbines will be very different from
1 Iunill. because they will be designed for
Ihe order of 30% increase in power
' I1 also embody the most recent blading
lfic of detail design improvements.
le how little difference there appears
critical and supercritical condition
lnri LI' sections. It should be added
cr pressures quoted are approximate
Ily optniised values.
t/l.I' inlet 'crossover' pipework merits
handles low pressure steam
to minimise pressure losses.
ate branches where the 1P
and where the LP inlet steam
ed with a number o f flexible
pe/casing expansion differ-
Ircllnics installed above, and sometimes
Thermodynamics of the s t e a ~ ncycio
heiow, the turbine ccntrcline, The 'above centl-cline'
arrangement reqiiiics i-cmoval of the pipework belore
the LP turbine can be opened (or inspection, The
'below centreline' location has sometimes been tliougl~t
to be responsible for some turbine misalignment, due
to heal transmission to bearing pedestals and casings.
The IP exhaust is considered to be the most suit-
abie point for connection to the de-aeratot.. This is a
direct contact heater which is vented to the condenser
and designed to remove air from the feedwater before
it enters the main feed pumps. It is always combined
with a large capacity storage vessel and elevated to
provide a static head to the main feed pump suction.
The CEGB has used reheat cycles for all power
station turbines above 100 MW rating. This is not
true worldwide. In some countries there is a need for
large units operating on a simple non-reheat cycle for
peak-load lopping duty. These machines run for only
a few hours a year, so maximum efficiency is not
important, but they must be able to run-up to full-
load quickly and be inexpensive.
For this class o f turbine, the feedheating cycle is
kept as simple as possible and the expense and com-
plication of reheating is not economic. A typicai
machine o f this type would deliver 280 MW from a
singie-casing condensing turbine in doubie-flow.
3.5 Wet steam cycle
The wet steam cycle is mainly associated with the
evolution of nuclear power. Nuclear power has been
developed mainly on conventional lines, by using the
nuclear fission reaction as a source of heat for the
steam cycle. In this section, discussion will be con-
centrated upon the thermodynamic and economic
aspects of nuclear-powered ~ l a n t.s ,in .varticular those
~ ~ ~
aspects relating to the steam cycle for a Pressurised
Water Reactor (PWR).
3.5.1 The PWR s t e a m cycle
The PWR power plant features three principal heat
transfer processes. In the primary circuit, fuel is
irradiated, liberating heat which is transferred to a
secondary steam cycle. In a nuclear power station
the plant performing this function is known as the
Nuclear Steam Supply System (NSSS). In the second
cycle, the steam generated is expanded to drive tur-
bines which generate electrical power. Finally heat is
rejected to the Cooling Water (CW) in the condenser
- this is the third heat transfer process. The PWR
general arrangement is shown in Fig 1.47.
The NSSS consists of the reactor, the reactor coolant
system (RCS) and a number of auxiliary and safety
systems. The RCS consists of the reactor within its
pressure vessel and three or four cooling loops con-
necting the reactor to the primary/secondary heat
33

The steam turbine
exchangers (steam generators) The reactor vessel and
cooling loops arc filled with demineralised Water, which
is pumped around the primary circuit. In this system,
boiling within the reactor is suppressed by maintain-
ing coolant water pressure in excess of the saturation
corresponding to the coolant temperature at
from the reactor. The pressure is controlled
system and a surge tank, known as the
by a
pressuriser, connected to one of the Cooling loops.
he secondary circuit is of major interest to this
discussion, The fcedwater enters the steam generatpr,
its temperature increases up to its saturation
temperature. AL the saturation temperature, the water
changes state to steam which leaves the steam genera-
tor wet. The heat exchange process for both
-,
C V.C.I ~ S is shown on a Temperature-Enthal~~ (T-H)
diagram (Fig 1.48).
~h~ wet steam produced in the steam generator is
of a lower quality than the superheated steam con-
ditions from both fossil-fired and AGR-powered plant.
ow^^^^, there are limitations to the steam, condltlons
attainable. On the primary side, the m ~ X m U m!em-
perature is restricted by the desirability of avoldlng
boiling in the reactor core, as heat transfer
coefficients for steam are considerably !owe1 than
that for water. Consequently the primary clrcuit outlet
temperature, TI, is less than the saturation value for
that Having established the primary circuit
conditions, the steam generator and secondary circuit
Chapter 1 Thermodynamics of the stearn cycle
,
q,ii:I!t~ i,y iedi~cingwetncss. Thc iocarparation of a
r . l i ! ~ i . i i i ~ ~ i l l i surface
il~ would necessitate an unwarranted
iriiii~~Iii,titioii ill the design of the steam generator. The
i!i.risii ~pi:~cliceis to reduce the 'pinch point' to a
$ 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 i i i i r ~ (see
i Fig 1.48) whilst uptimising steam gen-
~iii!i)i cosl against improvements in overall cycle
~I~Iv~cIIL'?.
I~811iiiiiernow the cycle for the turbine-generator
Ll'!jl 1.47). The slightly wet steam leaves the steam
# @ l t ~ ~ ~ ' ~!)asses % l l ) lthrough
, governor valves and enters 2
f l i p lit' turbine. The steam is expanded through the
IIiV~orhinewhere its pressure reduces and its wetness
3
L l i r . ! o i i ~ ~ Tile ~. Wet steam then passes through a mois-
iiiir ncl~ilrntorwhich returns the steam to a near-dry
iai~liiilcd state. The steam is then reheated in two
*!ii!i~!,. 'I-he first reheat process uses steam bled from
e tiil~j>i~~g on the HP cylinder, the second uses live
ataitlli taken upstream of the governor valves. The
uti:iilli leaving the reheaters is in a superheated con-
~ l l i i i i r i 11erorc entering the LP turbine where it is
~ - i ~ ~ : ~ to ~ i ai l low
r d pressure. The low pressure steam
1,. ii~nilrmscdin the condenser, rejecting heat to the Fi(i. 1.49 Expansioll of slealii fcorn inilial colldiiioils
6 i V . I lhc condensate is pumped through several stages wiillout reheat or tnoisiure separation
i s ! i I; Ilcnlcrs to thc de-aerator.
I lic dc-aerator is a large direct contact feedheater
w l i ! i i , iprovides for oxygen removal, a buffer store
it! iccilrsilter and sufficient gravity head to overcome This expansion results in steam at the later stages
!lie I I I : ~ positive suction head of the boiler feed pump. with a moisture content of 25%. A high moisture
I l i i lrerlwater is pumped through several stages of content is intolerable as it results in blade erosion and
III' I,csters before return to the steam generator. stage efficiency losses. The undesirability of blade
erosion was discussed earlier in this c h a ~ t e r As
. steam
_------ ..,.~
: ,*Z,,S'#<,<..',
is expanded through the turbine it starts to condense
I,
- / I
&.t\:> 'Cycle considarations
1 i,tirii!ul now the effects of the varrous nroceswr
in the wet region along the 'Wilson line' which
corresponds to a wetness factor of 3-4% (see Fig
.~~~
~ ~ ~ - 1.50).
- - Above the Wilson line, the steam behaves as
11ptitt 1111: thermodynamics and economics of the wet dry steam; below the line, wetness becomes apparent
ils,&~,i ?yule. Earlier it was concluded that the inclu- in the turbine expansion. Water droplets entrained in
al!'ir 111' :I superheating surface within the steam gen- the steam flow only accelerate to a small proportion
oiiiiir was economically impractical. However, it is of the dry steam velocity as they pass through the
rlnhi~sblcto reduce the steam wetness as far as possi- fixed blades. The resultant mist has a velocity which
tilr wilh the moisture separating equipment within does not suit the inlet velocity triangle of the moving
1111; olrir!?~generator. The Westinghouse four-looo 3425 blade (Section 1.2.2 of this chapter), neither in mag-
-1 $:, kOW (Illermal) design, which ha; been adapted ;or the nitude nor direction. As the mist progresses through
'II- I
I
I
,,.&
@ lIt('u first PWR station at Sizewell, provides steam to the turbine, the droplets migrate toward the blade
:$
e Ill* 111rbinewhose full load conditions are nominally: tips by virtue of centripetal inertia. The resultant effect
! ! IS
I I
U"151LDWXSPEcIFIczN~"a~~~
mx,'
I
$.d & l'rciisore = 66.6 bar
of the wet steam is a mechanical drag corresponding
to a 1% cylinder loss for every 1% wetness.
The effects of a high moisture content are un-
Tempera,YIe ~ g a i n s i(mars x, "e'll~'erature = 282'C attractive from the viewpoints of turbine efficiency
specific enthalpy, for the primary and secondary <"cutrS
in *he $team generator of a PWR
is the pioducl of mass and
* Maximum wetness factor = 0.25%
and operational economics. The cycle described earlier
included a moisture separator reheater (MSR), which
enthatpy of the two nutds. aqh must be the ,i' takes partially expanded steam, removes the moisture
Same for both piacerrer as it equals t h quanntY
g I IN' exhaust pressure in the condenser is of the order and reheats to a superheat temperature. The choice
~
heat transferred
of reheat or crossover pressure is affected by various
8 30 mbar. The expansion of the steam from the parameters for a machine rotating at 3000 r/min;
,j llllIi111 conditions to this pressure would result in an these are:
conditions are designed factor in the final sages. ~h~
is heated and the resulting steam/water on a Mollier diagram ( ~ 1.49)
i ~ The maximum wetness in the LP turbine exhaust
through moisture separators, ~ h i c himprove the with 85% efficiency. (lo- IZrna).
The sreain turbine
I'lci. I S 0 The 'Wilcoo liiic' dividing llle ivcl and dry
ex"ilnii0"
. The maximum wetness in the H P turbine exhaust
(14-15%).
The temperature to which reheat steam can be
raised, limited by the maximum steam temperature
available at the turbine stop valve (TSV).
Overail cycle efficiency.
Plant capital costs.
The wetness in the H P turbine can be a little higher
than that for the LP turbine as the blades are shorter
and the tip velocities are considerably Less.
Considering these parameters on the Mollier chart
(Fig 1.51) presents a 'window' within which the cross-
over pressure can vary. The resultant LP condition
line is very similar to that of a conventional LP cyl-
inder o n a fossil-fired or AGR plant. The option to
replicate the LP cylinder is attractive, as it presents
savings in terms of design and manufacture and of-
fers a utility, such as the CEGB, the option to ra-
tionalise its national spares holding. The replication
of the LP cylinder would, however, restrict the varia-
tion in crossover pressure still further.
The inclusion of steam reheating following mois-
ture separation has obvious advantages in terms of
improving the LP exhaust wetness. The more effective
the moisture separator, the less reheating is required;
modern separators can produce steam with wetness
factors of 0.25% or better.
Chapter 1 Thermodynamics of the steam cycie
MOISTURE
SEPARATOR
To LP
CYLlNOERS
1'16. 1.51 Con~tiaiiirs03,crossover I ) T ~ S S U ( C ior MSK
Note that pierrurc P I is outside the 'wiiidos'
as it corresponds to an excessively-Pig11 value
of HP exhaust wetness
The need for steam reheating has been addressed,
but the means of reheating has not been discussed in
detail. The objective of the reheating process is to
produce the best steam conditions for the minimum
cycle and plant capital cost. The factors to be con-
sidered are:
The choice of live steam (single-stage reheating) or
.
live and bled-steam (double stage reheating).
The final terminal temperature difference achieved
between reheated steam and live steam.
The pressure loss across the reheater
TO LP
CYLINDERS
Although all these factors are considered simui-
taneously in the design, consider the choice between
single and double-stage reheating. The plant arrange-
ments for single and double-stage reheating are shown
in Fig 1.52. The variation in net cycle output against
total reheater surface area (Fig 1.53), shows a con-
sistent advantage over the single stage reheating.
The thermodynamic benefit derives from using a
higher proportion of the high quality, dry steam pass-
ing through the turbine to do work. Hence the HP
turbine efficiency is improved, since wetness reduces FIO.1.52 Single and double-stage reheating plant
The steam turbine
mc. 1.53 Comparison of output with reheater surface area
for siiiple and double.s,oge relieafiiig
stage and cylinder efficiency. The other benefit of
two stages over one concerns the efficiency improve-
ment associated with dividing the temperature rise
across an increased number of heaters (in a similar
way, the increase in the number of feedheaters in-
creases overall cycle efficiency). The benefits to op-
erating efficiency must be judged against the increased
capital cost of the additional plant. The increased
capital cost includes extra heating surface, a H P cylinder
bled-steam tapping, extra pipework and increased pres-
sure loss in the reheater.
The effect of H P exhaust pressure upon the choice
between single and double-stage reheating, is shown
in Fig 1.54.
The ootimum pressure is shown, but there is little
penalty associated with deviating from the optimum.
However, this curve shows the general benefit of double-
stage reheating over a range of exhaust pressures
3.5.3 Full-speed or half-speed machines
The final issue dealt with in this section involves a
comparison of half-speed (1500 r/min) and full-speed
(3000 r/min) machines. The study is limited to the
steam turbine rather than the generator, as the tur-
bine is more affected by the wet steam cycle. It is,
however, pertinent to observe that generators at 3000
r/min and 1500 r/min are technically feasible up t o
the largest required outputs. There are substantial
differences in the weights and manufacturing costs
of Lpole and 4-pole generators favouring the full-
38
5 I,,
z 2 . 0 ~ / 1 . 5 ~= 2.05
5 02
Z
5
$ <jolinnriniici
I
*PEX*hUS,PHESSUYF, 4011P,NiEiPiiFSS"R~
p i t i 1.54 Advastace of double-svage over
speed machine. Whilst small differences in efficiency
exist, they are much smaller than those arising in
the steam turbine area.
The principal factors involved in a comparison
.
half and full-speed turbines are:
xelative sizes and weights of the turbines and! ;
differences in their constructional features.
Relative exoectations of reliability, operational fleai. sS,
.
bility, and ease of maintenance.
Relative thermal efficiencies.
b Economic comparisons.
Size, weight ond construclion
For equal stress levels in geometrically-similar turbi
rotating components, all linear dimensions should
inversely proportional to the speed. Theoretical
the last-stage blades of a half-speed turbine could
made twice as long as those of a full-speed tur
and could be carried o n a rotor of twice the diamete
leading to an exhaust area of four times the. s i
However, practical half-speed turbines are limi
by weight and physical size to be about 40% la
than full speed turbines: Table 1.2 gives a compari
between realistic half and full-speed machines in te
of relative sizes and weights.
Note that the total relative volume and weight
the rotors and casings per unit exhaust area for 1
half-speed turbine is 2.85 times the full-speed turbin
The manufacturing costs associated with the larg
half-speed machine are higher as more materials a
Chapter 1
Thermodynamics of the steam cycle
--
1.4
IOiI i/liliii ,,l,i,il,~
l~l,,,l< <~I,L,,,>, 1.42 = 1.96
iilliil illlii I!,c~CIII of rotor 1.43 = 2.74
wcigtli of 2.05 x 2.74 = 5.60
)%<,I illlit c x l i i ~ ~ i sarea
t
1.4
1.4
ii8td weii'iht of turbine 1.43 = 2.74
single-
I I : I ? ~ I ~ C Itnornbci of turbine stages have to FIG. 1.55 Comparison of 1haIf.speed and full-meed
Ilc ~'ollsll~~~clional differences between the HP cylinders
lllr~ely associated with the increased
-f
I of rlle half-speed turbine. The dimen-
unr lo the forgings of H P rotors of achievement of zero erosion is likely to be more
" furbine have resulted in a crossover difficult with a half-speed machine.
@ ~ ~ 8 i ~ i i ~tlliI11 1 l s optimum.
i. These higher crossover The LP cylinder for the full-speed machine is si-
bi 4,' ., ,li~qlllrr 1111 additional inner casing in the
$$%@$i.i '
milar to that of a fossil-fired plant. Consequently,
# :>?@ P i l h i l i . l 11) 11v0id excessive thermal gradients. In
Me&#+ibiaii. lllr lillgr size of the individual components
though there are few differences in blading erosion
problems, the experience of UK utilities is in the
I t t i l l rpc,cd lilrbil~c,farces the designer to 'over
full-speed area. The design of half-speed LP rotors
i i i i l l i . u~~lislr~~clionalfeatures (see Fig 1.55). involves a shaft with various discs, shrink fitted; this
type of rotor presents poorer dynamic behaviour
?WZ and is more susceptible to stress corrosion cracking
&?it#biiiir., o,~c'rlr,h,,lol flexibility and maintenance problems.
. ~ ~ # i i ! ? l i i ! l ol yl f1111 and half-speed turbines are just There are two disadvantages associated with the
half-speed machine which are related to plant op-
@ $$ ~$fs*niliar~l In llle cho~ceof machine as efficiency
111d need to be considered. eration. The larger diameter of the H P rotor leads
lillll 111 observe that there is no valid t o increased thermal stress. In addition, the rate of
vs lllltion of experience to support any increase of steam temperature at the inlet to the LP
ollr design being more reliable than the cylinder may have to be restricted during start-up, to
mmr be placed upon objective assess- avoid losing the shrink fit rotor.
I (including engineering) differences There is no reason to suggest that the frequency of
rccs of difficulty in various areas maintenance of the half-speed machine is significantly
nnd operation. different from that of the full-speed machine. However,
I !iYslcmatic differences between the
there will be increased problems in lifting, handling,
transporting and machining components of the half-
'ill1 re&ard to the H P blade and rotor
speed turbines, due to their weight and size.
ltionary components of the H P cylinder
hi pressarc differences with wet steam
(ilucl,; if leakage flows are generated,
IBcI of wire-drawing erosion. The in- Relative thermal efficiencies
dii~~cnsions of the half-speed turbine Marginal differences exist between the two designs
k I~aditngsat the joints as great as with regard to the internal cylinder efficiences. They
lhc flill-speed machine. Therefore the can be summarised as:
i i i e steam turbine
s 'The enforced i~igiicrossover pressure of the hail-
speed machine resuils in higher leakage loss in tilc
last few stages of the L P cylinder-.
r The half-speed LP cylinder experiences higher tip
losses due to the increased radial clearances asso-
ciated with a more flexible rotor.
e The full-speed machine has marginally higher tip
losses in the last stage L P blade due to aero-
dynamic effects.
Economic comparisons
It has already been shown that the half-speed turbine
is more expensive than the full-speed turbine of equal
output and exhaust area, with no advantage in effi-
ciencv or reliabilitv. Hence the full-meed turbine will
be advantageous whenever its exhaust area can match
the value which is desirable for an economically achiev-
able condenser pressure.
In order to establish the regions of potential eco-
nomic application of the two types of turbine, it is
.
necessary to consider:
The relationship of desirable exhaust areas to
different combinations of outputs and condenser
. pressures.
The economically achievable condenser pressures
. available.
Available total turbine blade exhaust areas for full-
speed turbines and the regions of outputs and
condenser pressures where they are cconomically
advantageous
Half-speed turbines are economical only in circum-
stances where the largest outputs are combined with
very low condenser pressures, favouring the adoption
of larger exhaust areas than those which could be
provided by currently available full-speed turbines
(see Fig 1.56). Even this region of economic appli-
cation of the half-speed turbine is under threat from
the impending availability of full-speed machines with
greater exhaust areas.
Turbine-generator for the CEGB PWR
The proposed station at Sizewell B will incorporate
a single 3425 MW (thermal) PWR of a four-loop
design. The NSSS will provide steam to two full-
speed turbine-generators, each with a gross output of
622.5 MW.
The current turbine design incorporates a means
of isolation of the steam supply to enable main-
tenance work to be performed o n one machine whilst
continuing to operate the other. This means of iso-
lation will improve generating availability.
Economics of the sleatn cycle
w i l , k is iiol as iaigc as it could
ti. v~~lIill~elsic flow rate, and tiierefore
r i l llir slrnm, increases as tile exhaust
ii~iillci.ri.Ail increase in velocity mcans
i l i Ikiliclic ellcl-gy of the steam at thc
i111d therefore a loss of power due
Ica\,ing loss.
i l k 1 1)resSllre is reduced. the cor-
xirlilrlilion temperature is reduced.
litole htearll is extracted from the tur-
lir iwni iIir iondcn3atc in the first feedwater..~
141 leas steam passes through the last
flrrbine, giving a further loss in
s lilcan that there is an 'op-
' where the greatest nct power
when the effect of point (a)
Fit, 1.56 Regions of power outpui and coolins water 18, ,
ilnd (c). At exliaust pressures
temperature$ favouring econoinic application of 30W r/mili ll1111, ilie incl.ease in power due ta (a)
and ISW r/miil turbines, assuming current, iasr-stage blad? duc to (b) and (c), so a net
lengths are used to give m exl~austarea of 65-70 mi also invoived in the choice of design exhaust pres-
The turbine comprises one H P cylinder and tllr
t
I (;cncri~tion and increase in heat
i r ~ l i ~ i u stn!.essure
l is lowered further.
rlra Ihigller than optimum, the op-
1 1 , 'l'ilis is shown graphically in
sure, resulting in the exhaust pressure being some-
what greater than tile thermodynamic optimum.
L P cylinders on a single shaft. The six-flow exhai
provides a n area of 47 mZ, which is sufficient for
c pclccntage increase in heat rate
11~sillsl(exhaust pressure/optimum
4.1.2 General e c o n o m i c optimisation of plant
A central theme so far in this chapter, has been the
rated output, whilst using seawater cooling. Howe improvement of cycle efficiency. The importance of
modern blading developments will enable the de lllc corresponding characteristic
efficiency in reducing the unit cost of electricity can
of high speed machines with much larger exhai best be seen by examining its relation to other factors
areas, suitable for outputs in excess of 1000 MW. 191, nlrbiae heat rate with exhaust
ill I'il! 1.57, is obtained from the affecting cost. What matters most to the utility man-
ager is the reduction of the total lifetime cost of the
11 iiilta relating to the turbine ex-
111t%haflows and the heat rejected. plant (refer to Volume A for the full discussion).
The major concern of this chapter is the iifetime gen-
I' is tlscd liere with respect to the
4 Economics of the steam cycle i i l l i l 1hc::il rate. Economic factors are
eration costs of turbine-generator plant, which breaks
4.1 Choice of exhaust pressure
The turbine efficiency depends, to a certain extet
.
down into:
Capital cost.
Fuel cost.
on the choice of turbine exhaust pressure. This ch
Operating and maintenance costs.
is based on both thermodynamic and economic groun
Following consideration of thermodynamic optimis
tion, the economic factors influencing the wh For a valid c o m ~ a r i s o n of new designs,
- . all these
spectrum of turbine.generator plant optimisation cost elements musi be considered simultaneously at a
described. The form of economic study to per certain reference date, e.g., the commissioning date. The
selection of the turbine exhaust pressure, conden Capitai cost is conditioned by the timing of stage
and cooling water parameters is then given.
4.1.1 T h e r m o d y n a m i c optimisation
/ payments and the interest rates predicted over the
construction period. Similar considerations a .. o ~.l vto
the Fuel cost and Operoting/Maintenance costs, with
interest rates being the determining factor. To enable a
The power developed by a steam turbine suppl'
6 7 8 9 1 0 comparison between plant of different ratings, these
with a constant mass flow rate varies on the exha
kXI4AUSI PRESSURE costs are expressed as a Capital cost factor, measured
pressure changes for the following reasons: l"P5lli)~ExHnusrrRsssunE
in f/kW.
(a) As the exhaust pressure is reduced, the isentro The Capital cost comprises not only the cost of
heat d r o ~across the last stage increases and the turbine-generator itself, but also the costs of the
additional work is done in the turbine. I,"! licul rate cllaiacieristic turbine hall to house it and the services required.
The steam turbine
The historicai trend has been to larger, higher output
plant of compact design, which has had a considcr-
able impact on reducing the Capital cost factor. The
practical problems of transport and assembly indicale
diminishing returns in this trend, which suggest that
plant with an output of about 1000 MW may be a
maximum limit.
The Fuel cost expended over the power station
lifetime is of course directly influenced by the design
cycle efficiency, and the means of achieving this is
the prime topic of this section. It has been shown that
the cycle efficiency can be improved by increasing the
provision and complexity of the plant, e.g., increasing
the number of reheating stages. The designer carries
out a cost-benefit analysis to reach a reasonable
compromise, to ensure that the benefits of improved
efficiency are not eclipsed by excessive capital costs,
or by complication leading to reduced reliability.
In different parts of the world and in a rapidly
changing economic environment, the cost of fuel can
show wide variations. For new plant, it is desirable
for the utility to present the designer with a cost
expressing the capitalised value of 1% improvement
in the heat rate. This will enable him to identify the
options best suited to the application.
Plant Operating and Maintenance Costs are reduced
by improving the reliability of plant and by mini-
mising the maintenance and overhaul outage times.
Increased plant automation permits a reduction in the
manpower required per MW produced.
Figure 1.59 depicts the typical breakdown of lifetime
generation costs. Fuel costs form the largest element,
such that a 1% improvement in efficiency of the
plant is equivalent to a saving of approximately 2%
o f the Capital cost.
\ FUEL
COSTBIW
FIO.1.59 Lifetime costs of a rurbine-generator unit
42
4.1.3 Economic opt-imisation of exhaust
pressure, c o n d e n s e r a n d CW s y s t e m
u p to now we liave colisidered the design ,$
fhe turbine. The economic a~timisation is highly
~~~~ ~~
dependent upon the Cooling water (CW) systeln as
well. The general economic considerations given ill
the previous section will now be developed to examine
the combination of the turbine, condenser and CW
system.
Figure 1.60 shows a typical 'direct cooled system
using sea water as a coolant. The system is called direct
cooled because the water is used once and then dis-
charged. A circulating pump forces water througll
screens, which removes any debris large enough t0
block the condenser. There are valves at inlet and
outlet to the condenser to ensure flexibility of op-
eration during changes in climatic conditions. Flexi..
bility is developed further by increasing the numbc
o f circulating pumps available. The CW system there
fore makes a significant contribution to the capital
of the plant. On inland stations, using indirect co
with large cooling towers, the costs can be higher St1 .
FIG. 1.60 A once-through (coastal) CW system
The task is to optimise the overall design so as
to minimise the lifetime generation costs. This means
minimising the capital and running costs over the
lifetime of the plant. The capital costs usually con-
sidered for a direct cooled system are:
The capital cost of the turbine and of the buil
ing to house it (this will vary if longer last-stage
blades or a different number of turbine cylinders
are chosen).
The capital cost o f the CW culvert system (this will
vary with CW flow).
The capital cost of the CW pump (rated to suit the
CW flow).
The capital cost of the condenser surface (an indepen-
dent variable, subject to constraints).
Chapter 1
.
?,.
\
-$
r $lit iiiliiiitil,, casts are:
,$
a !I". cils! oc additional pumping power (this will
.g viily will1 CW flow).
ti. cost of a small change in turbine efficiency.
operaling and maintenance costs are ignored
lilere are exceptional circumstances.
!z clear that there are many variables to be
red and it is therefore necessary to fix certain
design Parameters (the number and area o f
exhausts) so that the characteristic relation-
veen the Power output and exhaust pressure
aintained. With the turbine exhaust design
constraints are automatically imposed on the
!he condenser.
condenser surface can vary in two ways:
i l l ~ l ~ t t ~ the
i n g number of tubes (and adjusting the
Ilow lo give the same velocity).
S il~creasingthe length o f the tubes.
IIIC fixed the turbine design, for a typical trans-
~~adcrslung condenser, the maximum tube length
o be fixed (Fig 1.61). The condenser tube sur-
area can only be changed by varying the number
!~l>csused up to limits imposed by the available
I . Since these are basically heat transfer calcula-
the condenser tube materials, diameter and
icsses must all be fixed according to the prin-
'el out in Chapter 4.
I"BIIINGII<
i J7IW
NUMBEllOlTUBES
VaRIAaLs
t
FIG. 1.61 Transverse underslung condenset
Economics of the steain cyclc
A sitc study is undertaken to obtain thc iempcra..
t u x of Llie water sourcc over a !period of a year, so
that an estimate o f tile average annual CW inlei
lemperaturc can be made. The specific heat and den-
sity o f the waler are also measured.
Using these fixed parameters, the heat transfer cal-
culatiolls can be made. As well as the effect of the
exhaust pressure on output and heat rate, there are
other variabies needing optimisation, Increasing the
number o f tubes in the condenser, for a given CW flow
rate, results in a reduction in CW velocity, and hence
a reduction in friction losses and pumping power
costs. However, low CW velocity needs a larger heat
transfer surface, which could be achieved by increas-
ing the length o f the condenser tubes. This is not
possible because, as stated earlier, the length of the
tubes is usually constrained.
Increasing condenser outlet temperature reduces
the mass flow o f CW but increases the turbine ex-
haust pressure, resulting in a rise in heat rate, a fall
in power and therefore a drop in efficiency.
Figure 1.62 shows the results from the heat trans-
fer calculations. Lines of constant CW velocity and
turbine exhaust pressure are displayed. If we consider
increasing the condensel- tube surface area by increas-
ing the number of tubes, then as discussed above,
at constant CW flow, both CW velocity and turbine
exhaust pressure decrease. The effect on output of the
changing exhaust pressure, may be determined from
the output/exhaust pressure characteristic (Fig 1.58).
9 .$om
# 6 r n
?
a 1,130
*
ii rww
3
rww
CML1NEWATlllrlWIUIW
FIG. 1.62 Relationship between hear transfer parameters
It is customary t o consider a reference or nominal
design having a given surface area and CW flow rate.
and to compute t h e change in cost from the reference:
The effect of the variables on the following economic
data can now be considered:
43
The steain turbine Chapter 1
s Incieineots of CW l'iow wili affect CW puolp costs quite possible that these wiii not be used, becaosc
there are Surtliei coiistiainls on the desigir yet to bc
s Increments of CU' fro\\, will afScct CU' systcni casts considered.
r Increments of coridcnser surface wili affect con-
The most significa~~i consiiaints, after thc turbine
exhaust area and condenser lcngth previously men-
de~isercosts.
tioned, arc the limits on CW velocity. There is a
0 Changes in output wili affect the running costs maximum velocity permissible to prevent tube erosion
and a minimum velocity to avoid silting. Environ-
e Increments of CW flow and head will affect the mental considerations enforce a limit on the maximum
consumed CW pump power and will therefore af- temperature of the C W discharge into the river or sea
fect the running costs. so that fishing is not affected.
The exercise can be repeated with one of the fixed
parameters changed t o a new value. In this way, the
If the individual costs are calculated for the grid of change in costs using different exhaust annulus areas
points on Fig 1.62 and then summatcd to give the can be found. A similar analysis can be undertaken for
total cost at each point, wc can plot contours of a tower-cooled system, where CW is cycled between
constant cost, as shown in Fig 1.63. the condenser (where it receives heat from the steam),
Computer programs have been devised which will and the cooling tower where it transfers the heat to
evaluate the best design combination of parameters the rising air. (For a full explanation of the 'indirect
for minimum total cost and Fig 1.63 is a typical cooling' system see Chapter 4.)
graphical output. From Fig 1.63 it can be seen that The economic optimisation calculations are based
the smaller the contour, the lower the total cost. The on a constant CW inlet temperature and the assump-
most economic design parameters therefore exist at tion that all the condenser tubes will bc available. In
the centre of the smallcst contour. It is, hawevcr, reality, the seasonal changes in temperature in the
CWI#NGW"llrlFLOl"PATIII9~S
RO. 1.63 Effect of cost
\!I< lpioduce a range of CW iiilct temperature of
liriwecii 5-17"C, corresponding lo a variation fioni
i l i , . irleal turbine exhaust pressure of i 15 mbar. This
i.<ii~idbe responsible for a change in turbine efficiency
(11 around 0.7°/0.
11 cannot bc assumed, either, that all the condenser
li$bcs will bc operational throughout the lifetime of
111c condenser. Material too small to be trapped by
Ihc screens may build up in the tubes, restrict the
I'io\\, and eventually block it entirely (known as fouling).
'The problem can be alleviated either by regular main-
lcilance or through the provision of automatic cleaning
by circulating foam rubber balls that clean away the
dIr.1 and scale formation. The effects of erosion at
lllc higher velocities can be practically eliminated by
llir use of hard materials such as Titanium for the
coi~denser tubes. Changes in tube material and in
loilling factor, arc evaluated during the design to
confirm the mosl economic choice for the full range
of operating conditions.
4.2 Regenerative feedheating
'llic principle of 'preheating' boiler feedwater before
I l k admission t o a boiler was well established before
t l ~ cturn of the century. The expression ‘regenerative'
Il~ipliesthat latent heat in steam, or sensible heat in
boiler flue gases, is captured, reclaimed and set to
work again in the fluid cycle.
Ihrly examples of feedheating involved the dis-
ullikige of exhaust steam into the tanks from which
llic feed pumps draw their water and the use of
'~~i:o~iomisers', which captured heat from flue gas and
lrd lo economy in the use of fuel.
'The practice of preheating the boiler feedwater has
ci$~itiibutedas much to efficiency improvements as
itliy other single development in steam power plant.
In this section 'regenerative' feedwater heating plant
iising steam extracted from the turbine is covered;
ieedheating plant involving the 'economiser' is dis-
cussed and described in Volume B.
From the early days of utilising latent heat from
lhe exhaust steam from steam eneines - and small tur-
bllles to preheat feedwater, the principle of feedwater
heating has been progressively widened; modern ~ l a n t
I b very sophisticated, involving multiple steam ex-
Iraclions from steam turbine cylinders, L P heaters,
combined heating/de-aerating plant, H P heaters, L P
rlrains pumps, H P drains pumps, pressure cascading
111 drains and the incorporation of other plant, such
tua moisture separator/reheaters. which are used in
u'et steam cycles.
The academic treatment of regeneratve feedwater
heating and its place within the cycle was covered
in Section 3.1 of this chapter and illustrated by
Ikankine cycle diagrams. The impact of feedwater
Iheating plant upon the turbine cycle efficiency can
Economics of the steam cyc:iv
bc shown by comparing lire lrcal laic (kJ/kWii) ot
modern large capacity turbine-gcneialor planl, i n
volvirig seven stages of beating, with a hypothetical
-
nlant of eauivalcnt electrical eelieratinc
. canacitv,
. . brii
without feedheating plant. Thc comparison is made
with the assuxnntions that the cyiindeis of a muiti-
cylinder tandem turbine have the capacity to pass
the total quantity of steam sul)plied by the boiler,
that the exhaust pressure is identical, that the 'leav-
ing loss' is identical and that the condensate from
the turbine condensers is pumped, as feedwater t o
the boiler, a t a typical condensate temperature o f
35°C (for a temperate climate plant).
The difference in 'heat rate' of the two turbine
plants is found t o be significant, the heat rate o f the
plant equipped with the seven-stage regenerative plant
being only 0.86 of the hypothetical plant of equivalent
capacity but without feedheating plant.
A full treatment of the economic benefit of the
turbine plant with feedheating would involve consi-
deration of a boilcr plant designed for a high feed-
water temperature and a hypothetical boiler design
suitable for feedwatcr delivered to it at condenser
temperature, but the figure 0.86 provides a goad
measure of the improvement wrought by bled-steam-
heated feedwater plant and of its benefit in terms
of reduced fuel consumption.
4.2.1 Feedheating plant s t a g e s - s u p e r h e a t
cycles
The optimum number of feedheating stages, in strict
terms of cycle efficiency, could be as high as the
number of steam expansion stages in the associated
turbine cylinders. But it is not practical, in cnginecr-
ing terms, to provide steam extraction points at each
stage in the cylinders, because of the casting/casing
complexity that would arise and the additional and
excessive length of the complete turbine, with cor-
respondingly long rotors.
As with most engineering designs, a compromise
between the academic optimum design and a design
which is practical; producible and commercially viable
is necessary.
The type of power plant with which the turbine
plant is associated also influences the number of feed-
heating stages because the steam-raising plant eco-
nomics interact with the turbine plant.
For electricity generation in the UK, the following
steam-raising plant sources have featured in recent
years:
Advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGRs).
Pressurised water reactors (PWRs)
The steam turbine
Coal-fired and oi1:fired pla,ils yield similar numbcis
of fcedhcating stages as optimum, about three LP
stages, a heating/dc-aerating stage and two H P stages,
leading to a final fcedwater ternpclratol.e of about
250°C.
An optimisatior~ technique is used to determine
the number of feedwater heaters, with practicalities
still dominating.
In a world of changing economics in the field o f
fuel supply, at1 upset in prices, upward or downward,
such as experienced with oil supply prices can lead
to a significant difference in turbine and turbine plant
configuration. It is necessary at the inception of a
power station project to revalue cycle efficiency in
the light of prevaiiing fuel prices and best predictions.
AGR planrs are found to bc most economic with a
moderate final feedwater temperature of about 150".
This is because the lower temperature produces a
wider 'approach tcmpcratore' ta the reactor coolant
gas, and a greater 'log mean temperature difference'
(LMTD) for the steam generators associated with the
reactor. This wider LMTD, produced by the feed-
water temperature of 15O0C, is beneficial in that the
steam generators, encompassed within the concrete
pressure vessel with the reactor, can be smaller, so
the pressure vessel is smaller and lower in capital
cost.
The final feedwater temperature is 'optimised' -
i.e., the value o f cycle efficiency, costed at a rate
appropriate to the use o f nuclear fuel over the life
of the plant, is related to the capital cost variations
of steam generators, etc. The lowest sum of lifetime
operating cost and capital cost determines the op-
timum design, which includes the corresponding final
feedwater temperature as a design parameter.
The outcome of this AGR plant optimisation is
that three LP feedwater heaters are used, in con-
junction with a fourth combined heating and de-
aerating stage, to provide a final feedwater temperature
of about 150°C to the complete exclusion o f H P
feedwater heaters. The boiler feed pumps draw their
supply of water from an elevated tank, forming the
combined heating and de-aerating stage, and deliver
the water directly to the 'economiser' section o f the
reactor steam generators.
Economic systems evolved during the past two
decades for both fossil-fired and AGR plants involved
'back-pressure furbines'(driving the boiler feed pump),
with one or two steam extraction ooints for H P feed-
water heaters.
The driving steam for the boiler feed pump turbine
is taken from the exhaust of the H P cilinder of the
main turbine, and is therefore steam which has been
expanded and has lost part of its superheat (Fig 1.64).
Steam extracted from the boiler feed pump turbine
is therefore relatively low in superheat and the heat
to be surrendered to the feedwater is mainly the latent
heat which is beneficial to cycle efficiency.
Various main plant manufacturers have evolved
Chapter 1 Economics of the steam CYL~C
slightly diffcrcnt systems, such as eithcr one or two
entiactioo poinis oil a boiler fecd pump turbinc, will?
a corresponding number of HP fcedwater ileaIel.s,
depending on their manufacturing costs and their
relationship to the then prevailing worih of cycle
efficiency. The finai H P feedwater heater has, in every
case, used steam exhausted from the H P cylinder of
the main turbine (i.c., the same point in the cycle as
the supply to the feed pump turbine).
For large capacity plant, HP feedwafer healers of
the 'tubeplate' type (as illustrated later in Fig 1.691,
cannot be made sufficiently large to perform the
entire feedheating plant stage duty because o f manu-
facturing limitations. These limitations involve tube
plate diameter and thickness and tube hole drilling
length.
The provision of heaters in pairs has proved ne-
cessary at each heating stage to permit the stage duty
to be performed. Each 'line' (or bank, or 'string')
o f heaters can be by-passed in the event of a fault
to permit continuity of feedwater flow to the boiler.
The heat transfer surface area for heaters (of all
types), and therefore the overall size of the heater,
is carefully optimised. The optimisation involves manu-
facturing cost versus the lifetime value of efficiency
based on fuel cost and the predicted utilisation for
the type of plant.
For relatively high fuel cost applications, an ad-
ditional heat transfer section is incorporated in heaters
as a 'drains cooling' section. The condensate of the
heating steam is cooled to a temperature lower than
saturation temperature by the ingoing feedwater, there-
by increasing the effectiveness of the heater in the
cycle.
Further features of feedheating plant - and suitable
for any type of main plant - are those of 'pressure
cascading' and 'drains pumping'. Heating steam, after
being condensed in a heater, is led, as drains, to a
lower pressure heater where it 'flashes-off' and sur-
renders part of its remaining heat to the lower pressure
heater. This principle can be applied to all heaters
in a bank as a 'cascade'.
Drains pumping involves collecting drains after
cascading and pumping them back into the condensate
feed system at a point that closely corresponds to
their temperature. Figure 1.65 illustrates both cascad-
ing and pumping for the two L P heaters.
4.2.2 Feedheating plant s t a g e s - wet s t e a m
cycle
A PWR station is now under construction in the UK,
based upon a standard design for large capacity plant
(1200, 1300 MW). This design, designated 'Standard
Nuclear Unit Power Plant System' has a feedheating
plant involving L P heaters, a de-aerator/heater and
H P heaters but with certain variations arising from
the wet steam cycle of the PWR.
T h e steam turbine Chapter 1 Economics of tlie s t e a m cyciii
..

Steam admittcd to tlic H P cylinder of thc turbine
is at a dry saturated condition, i.e., without superireat,
On expansion thrauglr tlie cylinder, tlie steam bc-
comes wet. The water fraction is removed in a passivc
'moisture separator' and the water and its heat is
reclaimed and pumped into the fccdheating system at
the de-aerator (where separator water temperature
and de-aerator temperature coincide) for maximum
efficiency (Fig. 1.65). Thc dried steam is then passed
through two-stage reheaters for superhcating, steam
being the heating medium. Steam bled from the HP
cylinder is used in the primary reheatei- and live steam
(i.e., at boiler conditions) is used in the secondary
reheatei. Condensate formed from the rehearing steam
is sccovcicd and introduced into thc H P fccdwalei
heate1.s at appropsiatc temperature points in the cycle.
The PWR steam generators liave a continuous
'blowdown' system to limit the concentsation of slight
impurities in the steam generators. The 'blowdown'
water, at a temperature approximating to boiler satura-
tion temperature, is passed through a heat exchanger
incorporated in the LP fecdheating plant upstream of
the de-aerator/heater, where the heat is recovered.
Condensate, formed from bled-steam extracted from
the LP turbines and supplied to LP feedwater heaters,
is collected in a drains receiver and pumped into the
de-aerator/heater tank for recovery of both condensate
and heat.
lii, t,!c:lc inuolucs four stages of 1.P fcedheating, o f typically 5 pg (of oxygen) per kg (of water), i . c ,
riix i:i :ici:iioi/lieater and thl-ec stages o r I-1P feed- five parts per billion.
I i i ~ ! ~ i i t i i i~i,i l i i ail ultiinatc heater utilising condensate Desigii piacticc has bcen lo iilslall lligli level plant
liiiiii l i i v secondary reheatei to preheat thc feed to in an auxiliary plant annexe between the boiler house
fi l i i i ~ i ~ r ~ iof ~ i 226°C
~ ~ r u before admission to the steam and tuibinc hall, at a level set by boiler house steel-
~ ~ V ~ ! W ~ , ~ I ~ ~ I S . work. l'ro\,ision of generous margins over the steady
state NPSH iequiremeols of suction stage feed pumps
has oroved oossible.
2 2 1,medwater de-aeration
~~
Typically, tanks have had a total volume equal to
about ten minutes feedwater flow rate, with an eight
jiiuitwlller chemistry requirements are stringent with
minute store to provide a buffer for transients and time
Wpiiil lo lllc permissible level of dissolved oxygen.
t o unload the plant should the condenser extraction
l'hc rrluill concern is that of minimising waterside
pumps fail. The mass of water stored is about half a
Vi?l'iriiioii o i boiler tubes. Waterside corrosion and
Iliailllc i:orl-osion lead to thinning of tube walls and tonne per megawatt of plant capacity (i.e., about
Iiir ~~t!hrvql~ent risk of rupture by the internal fluid 330 t for current 660 MW plant).
iilakiii! c In summary, this type o f combined plant, which
"".
A il,~lliflca,lt
% ' , ' feature of British designed is described in detail in Chapter 3, fulfils important
(iitilil bccn the combined 'feedheating/de-aerating/
liila
primary functions:
* f i l ? i hiorage plant'. This is illustrated in Fig 1.64
WI!ii'ii i~lhowsthe ~ o s i t i o nof the de-aeratine/feedheatine
j#lrit! wiiliin typical turbine plant and Fig 1.66 is a
alli!jili. lil~~stiation
f~~wlI~~:n~lit~,~, ..inlant,
of a typical high level de-aerating/
~~ ~~~~

. " Serves as a feedwater heater.

lbiiiiaater from LP feedheaters is admitted to the
iuiii lowers on the tank. Steam, typically bled either
i i i s i i t !!I? inain turbine or boiler feed pump turbine,
at 1iiI.ri1 from the feed pump turbine exhaust, is sup-
p l i t ~ l i r , ~ heating and de-aerating the ingoing feed-
Qtillcl. I:eedwater, de-aerated t o a boiler quality standard
Feedwater is de-aeratcd down to the necessary low
gas content,
It acts as a 'buffer' to the fluctuations of condensate
feedwater flow that occur in service.
The tank height provides a hydrostatic head to satisfy
the suction pressure requirements of the boiler feed
pumps.

-
----Y*,Nn~WI"sPU

-e e ~ r m n~ mc ~
--- ~~~WY,e~ONIII*LT8
D%,WS

FIG. 1.65 Simplified feedwater heater arrangement for a PWR FIG. 1.66 Typical high level de-aeratoilfeedheatei
T h e s w a m turbine
Keliable and effective service over sevcral decades has
been obtained from plant of the designs described,
but changing cconon~icsand competitiveness lrdve now
icd to a change in design.
The design illustrated in Fig 1.67 invoives the
direct injection of steam into the body of stored
water through a series of vertical perforated tubes
immersed in the waier, and the admission o f con-
densate through self-regulating sprays. The condensate
is heated almost t o saturation temperature; steam
rises through the water and gases are liberated and
conducted away through small vents adjacent t o the
sprays.
The water passes at low velocity through the tank
at a rate corresponding to the plant load and is
almost at saturation temperature. The remaining dis-
solved gases arc liberated: they rise to the surface
and steam space and are then conducted away through
small vents, the water being brought up t o saturation
temperature by the injected steam. This design and
its function arc covered fully in Chapter 3.
For thermodynamic economy, the bled-steam used
in the de-aerator should ideally be without superheat -
the use o f superheat is a wasteful way of heating water
when it could be more effectively used by being con-
verted t o mechanical work in a turbinc.
Chap
British practice l o r tlic stedin supply to the bn
fced pump turbine has been, as caplaioed earlier,
use steam partly expanded through and exhausted I'l-0
the H P cylinder of the main turbine (sometimes kno\
as 'cold reheat deorn'). This steam, after furthei
pansion thiough the boiler feed pump turbine, cont
oniy a modest amount of superheat and this exlial
steam is used to supply the combined feedheatin
de-aerating plant.
Because the steam requirement of the boiler fc
pump turbine cannot be exactly matched to I
steam requirement of the feedheating/de-aerating 1118
throughout the load range, arrangements are necess
t o pass any excess steam, or t o supply any stc
deficiency from another part of the cycle.
An effective means of accomplishing these reql
ments is to design the boiler feed pump t o exhaust
a pressure approximately equal t o the pressure of I
main turbine IP cylinder exhaust. This exhaust sle
is supplied to the L P cylinders and the boiler fc
pump turbine exhaust, the heater/de-aerator and t
main turbine IP/LP crossover pipes are connect
together.
The steam pipcwork is arranged so that, du
piant operation, the fced pump turbine exhaust stet
is preferentially used by the heater/de-aerator, w
11, 'rl'ill' iiilo tile crossover jpipe. If a
1 : I , I deficiency is supplied
I ' rlossovrr, at the same pressure but
li11i1)il.~viieretlie heatei./de-aerator 'floats'
I p u m p turbine exhausi and the
literconnected piping, has proved
feed pump turbine is unavail-
hy elcctric pumps are used, the heater/
supplied entirely from the I P / L P
lion can continue unimpaired. Such
ioo is advantageous and removes
o f one plant item upon another.
a steam turbine drive for the
Ilc economic benefits and the flexibiiity
iliril hyslcm are clear. If boiler feed pump
~lred,tllc system described above would
i ~Ulll~ly from the main turbine only.
~ r r r ~ u rfeedwater
e heaters
(1.1') feedwater heaters are basically
ir!r'~ll.d 'tube and shell' heat exchangers,
Ilailte I)assing through the tubes and
Ibcinl! admitted t o the shell. This type
111lpcdvcrlically, has been used for many
le'o ildvaaces worthy of note have been
II ycllrs and are now treated as modern
Economics of the steam cycic
for heating tire condensate, with consequentiai in)-
provement in cycle efficiency. Bled-steam valves are
omitted - both the traditional isolating valve and
the non-return valve. It has been established by cx-
periment and experience that steam refiux on turbine
trip, when the stage pressure collapses to condenser
pressure, is negligible and hence there is no significant
contribution to rotor overspeed.
With the heaters being almost completely within the
condenser 'neck', there is economy in turbine hall area
and in the elimination of supporting steelwork, access
ladders and platforms.
The omission of an isolating steam valve prompted
the development of improved methods of prevent-
ing heater flooding. Neck heaters arc equipped with
valveless primary drains and a valveless secondary
drain, the latter being arranged physically a little higher
than the primary drain outlet.
External L P heaters, although still of the traditional
form, are now arranged in a horizontal attitude, elevated
so that the bled-steam piping from the turbine falls
to the heaters, thus assuring drainage. This minimises
the risk of water entering the cylinder and the possi-
bility of damage by impact o n rotating components.
The heaters are 'stacked', so that the ultimate
L P heater can drain its bled-steam condellsate into
the next heater, and that heater can drain its con-
densate into the condenser above the working level
The steam turbine Chapter I Econoinics of the steam cycli:
,.
I\ b~;iriation on the traditionai design o f l i p lheater al.c;!s and increased tinit rating, serve la reduce capbiai
2
Q irlil; ils thick ihemisl,heiicai prcssul-e iiead, luheplate and operating costs arid arc therefore beneficial lo

".
@ b

E
0
8,
%L $
l i i , d sledni shell, is a design based o n boiler tech-
tiiili)l:!' in which inlcl/outlet headers and serpentine
lt~iics arc all contained within a steam shell, as il-
the consumers.

!iirlr;tted in Fie" 1.70.

'Thc pressure parts associated with such a design,
1 ~ 1 1 i > \ +as
~ i , a 'header' type heater are smaller (relative to
li!i' thick walls of a hemi-head and tubcplate heater)
all11 are more amenable t o temperature changes as a
r~liisctiuenceof load change than the traditionai type
of lheater. Furthermore, it can be made in larger
eal,i~cilies than the traditional design. For large unit
kirca, a single line o f 'header' type H P heaters could
l i i iiscd instead of a double line of hemi-head/ tubeplate
IIPIIICIS, which may yield space and cost savings,
cli:l>oidiog on suppliers' specific designs and manu-
li8i:li~1~illg costs.
4.2.6 Summary
11, silrnmary, in the field of feedwater 'heating, there
l t n i ~ . been a number of changes in recent years but
llir~clhavc been of an evolutionary, not a revolutionary,
I I I ~ I I ~ I CThe
. first two stages of L P feedheating are
!i~oorl,orated in the 'neck' of the condenser, with the
~ ~ l r r i i aLl P stages being arranged in a horizontal
i~llil!lrle below the L P turbines.
(Combined de-aerating/feedheating plant is now of
1111, 'steam-injection' type and more compact than
Illlherlo. H P feedwater heaters are arranged in a
ilori?.ontal attitude below the turbine cylinders. The
friilxaler is now raised to a higher temperature by
llic ~xtractionof steam from the H P cylinder. For
liili~ccapacity plants the use of 'header' type heaters
$!tit) permit space and cost savings t o be made which,
111 cat~junction with improvements in other plant
4.3 Choice of feed pump and drive system
A full description of feed pump design and devclop-
ment is given in Chapter 3. In this section, feed
pump size, number, duty, margins and the need for
variable-speed are discussed; comparisons on economic
grounds are also made between steam turbine and
electric-motor drives, and between variable-speed motor
(VSM) and induction motor/fluid coupling drives.
The section is concluded with a typical example of
an overall comparison of through-life costs of four
feed-pump system options, that was performed for a
future 900 MW turbine-generator unit.
Boiler feed pumps now being designed for future
large units are tandem arrangements, i.e., the slow-
speed booster pump (suction stage pump) is driven
in tandem with the main plessurc stage pump, using
either a step-up gearbox (lo the high speed pressure
stage) or a reduction gearbox (to the suction stage),
depending o n the speed of the driving motor or steam
turbine.
The position of the feed pumps in the steam cycle
o f a modern turbine-generator unit was shown in
Fig 1.65 (in this case for a P W R unit) physically they
are situated beneath the de-aerator, upstream of the
HP heaters.
4.3.1 Feed pump sire and number
The choice o f feed pump size and number is based
upon the principle of ensuring that full turbine-

Fic. 1.70 Arra~~gemenl

of a header-type horizontat HP heater
The steam turbine
generator unit output can be maintaincd with the
loss of one main duty fccd piiml~. This ensures
inaxiillum plant availability.
For the majority of 500 and 660 MW units, thc
most economic solution has been a 100% duty steam
tuibine-driven feed pump with two x 50% electric
motor-driven start/standby sets (higher capital costs
but lower running costs than ail-electric pumps).
The situation is now changing for units over 660
MW in that the saving in capital costs of having
150% (three x 50%) feed pump capacity compared
with ZOO%, begins to outweigh the increased com-
plication o f having two pumps running in parallel
for full-load operation. Other advantages of having
three idcnticai 50% duty pumps include reduced
spares holdings, quicker maintenance, modular con-
struction with a more compact layout occupying less
station floorspace, and less complex and expensive
pipework.
Feed pump size has more recentiy been influenced
.by two other factors:
international market appeal - 50% duty pumps
for large (over 660 MW) units have the greatest
worldwide market potential, whereas 100% duty
pumps would require new pumps to be designed
. that have very little export potential.
The choice o f feed pump driver influeilces, to a
certain extent, the pump size - for example, the
current international trend to electric motors and
50% duty pumps means that no variable-speed
motors or couplings large enough for 100% duty
have yet been developed.
4.3.2 Feed p u m p duty, margins, a n d t h e need
f o r variable s p e e d
The duty of the boiler feed pump as determined by
the boiler and turbine pressure flow conditions, is
given by Fig 1.71. Shown on the diagram are the
boiler feed-pump characteristics, i s . , the relation-
ships between the head produced by the boiler feed
pump corresponding to the particular value o f feed
flow pumped, and the boiler feed pump speed. Various
head/flow characteristics corresponding to the operat-
ing range o f pump speeds are indicated. The curve
denoted as 'system resistance' is the relationship
between feedwater flow and the head that has to
be produced by the boiler feed pump to pump the
feedwater into the boiler. Also shown in the dia-
gram are the design values of feedwater flow for the
turbine plant, boiler plant and the feed pump itself.
It is normal practice to design the boiler to pro-
duce a higher rate of steam generation than that
appropriate to the value used in the turbine-generator
design. This margin is normally about 5 % and is
intended to cover application variations (e.g., site
conditions such as available cooling water) at the time
Chapter 1
that the boiler is designed, and also to allow for a
deterioration o f plant capability in service. In addi- L
tion to the effect of the boiler margin, the boiler f
feed pump is designed to produce a rather higher
feedwater flow than that needed by the normal boiler 8,
design condition. This is intended to cope with pump 13
wear and transient conditions, and to act as an op- fj
erational margin.
At the value of fecd flow corresponding to the
turbine design quantity, the head produced by the g
pump is in excess of that required to pump the water
to the boiler. This excess pressure can be minimised f
if the pump can bc driven at reduced speed: if this
is not possible the excess pressure has to be broken E,
down across the feedwater regulating valve. As can E
be seen from Fig 1.71, at low values of feed flow, 'g
the excess of head produced by the pump over the %
system resistance head is considerable. On typical
British sets of 500 MW and over, variable-speed drive -$
is always adopted because the cost of providing it is
much less than the operational and financial losses
that would be incurred by this breakdown of pres-
sure. In addition to this, all conventional plant is
required to be capable of two-shift operation, i.e.,
to be shutdown overnight and started in the morning.
During an overnight shutdown the boiler pressure
falls significantly, such that during the start-up period
next morning, the boiler feed pump is only required
to deliver some 100-2043 bar instead of the approxi-
mate 230 bar closed-valve full-speed pressure o f the
pump. For this reason, the pump that is used during
the start-up period should have a speed range down
to approximately 70% full speed to avoid excessive
As the powcr reqilii.e~lle~li
o f a boilex feed pump
ti)! a typical 500 MW unii is approximately 10 MW,
i t can be seen that the clioicc of an economic and
leci~nicallyacceptable variable-speed boiler feed pump
iliive is a decision of major importance. The possible
lyiies of boiler feed pump val-iable-speed drives which
ii;ii,c been considered by the CEGB for use on large
puneraling units arc:
e I'ixed-speed electric motor with variable-speed
coupling.
D Converter-fed variable-speed (electric) motor (VSM).
e Back pressure steam turbine
r ('ondensing steam turbine
I I I addition to these choices, the option of slipring
ilidtiction motor, regulated by resistance in the rotor
cllcuit, has been considered and used in the past.
lliis relatively cheap and simple solution, using large
llitiiiil rheostats with mechanically-movable tapping
I,oiiirs, has proved unreliable in practice, with a high
l~~iiiiitenance burden.
& i'ariable-speed electric motors and condensing steam
Illrbines have only recently become viable options
l l o i future units over 900 MW) due to the trend to
8ll)wel- (6000 r/min or less) 'International Class' boiler
kc11 pumps, to limit erosion and cavitation in the
Ipllmp, to the NPSH required and de-aerator height,
Flu. These two types of drive are not feasible for
8 IIPr with the higher speed 'Advanced Class' pumps
$ Ilacd on 500 and 660 MW units so far, due to con-
\'CIIPI size limitations and blade vibration and stressing
~llil'ici~ltics.
1, /\ technical description of electric motor drives
h'r~iinble-speed,induction, synchronous, etc.) for feed
I~Iltili)sis given in Volume D. A description of the
II*V o f steam turbines for driving feed pumps can
I!,, found in Section 9 of this chapter.
1 d,9.9 Economic comparison of s t e a m turbine
dllvus w i t h electric m o t o r drives
I%/,i,iro/ costs
i)ll the majority of 500 and 660 MW units, a variable-
~pcl'ddrive to the 100% duty feed pump is provided
Iby ti back pressure steam turbine, using bled-steam
Iloni tile main turbine H P cylinder exhaust and ex-
Ilnllhling to the main IP/LP crossover. Bled-steam
li~ppingson the feed pump turbine itself have been
tlkerl in the past to supply steam to one or more
klaDcr of H P feedheaters.
!,ti, large modern units (over 660 MW), the capital
k'tlata of the extra bled-steam pipework and the boiler
IBGd PUIIIP turbine are significantly greater than the
Economics of tlie steam cycic
psouisioii necessary [or 50% eiectric fecd pumgs, wiiicll
includes eqilivaie~ll bled-steam pipework for tiic HI'
beater alone, 11lus elcct~icmotors (including reinforce-
ment of tlie station electrical system to cope with thc
high motor-starting currents). Also, the first option
usually includes a live steam connection direct from
the boiler to the feed pump turbine for operational
flexibility, even though the electric pumps are aften
used for starting. The live steam pipework is expensive,
due to its high pressure duty.
There is usually no extra capital cost attributable
to the required increase in rating of the main IP/LP
turbines and the generator needed to supply the extra
power for electric motor-driven feed pumps, since it
requires only a marginal increase in steam flaw (3%)
of the main unit.
With all-electric feed pumps, the system is more
compact (less floorspacc) and simpler, needing fewer
spares holdings. Because the pumps are frecd from
tile constraints of steam pipework they can be placed
in the ideal position for NPSH considerations, on
the basement floor (instead o f a few metres above
it to accommodate the steam inlet pipework below
tile pumps) directly beneath the de-aerator (NPSH is
defined in Chapter 4 and de-aerator height, etc., is
discussed in Chapter 3). These factors can lead to
savings in capital costs for the de-aerator and its
civil engineering costs and the feed pump suction
pipework between the de-aerator and the pump.
Running costs
A steady state model of the thermal performance of
tile turbine and fecdheating/pumping plant can be
incorporated in a computer simulation program. Such
a program can then be used to compare overall cy-
cle efficiencies (it calculates the cycle heat rate) for
different input data and can be used to compare the
thermodynamic effects on the overall cycle of steam
turbine-driven and electric motor-driven feed pumps.
Figure 1.72 illustrates these thermodynamic effects
graphically for a fixed 900 MW sent-out (SO) unit
with a fixed main turbine exhaust area and pressure,
for 50% feed pumps. Also shown, is an example
calculation to determine the additional work done
in the main turbine due to changing from a back-
pressure feed-pump-turbine drive to a n electric-motor
drive. This calculation is continued in Fig 1.73, where
the additional work done in the main turbine due to
nor having steam turbine driven pumps is compared
with the electrical power used (and associated gen-
erator, transformer, cabling, motor, gears and converter
or fluid-coupling losses) to drive the motor-driven
pumps. It can be seen that in this case, which is for
a back-pressure feed pump turbine with no bled-
steam tappings to H P heaters (for a future 900 MW
unit), there is a unit heat rate improvement with
electric motor-driven feed pumps.
55
Tile steam turbine Chapter 1 Economics of the stealri i:yclr:
..

B/iCl< PRESSURE 13Fl~iURBlNl:. MOTO:? ILRIVEN i:€liD i,UMlii.S

2~50% FEED PUMPS %r50*/oFEE:) I'IJMI'S -
.
I
CHANGCSUUE TOUSEOFfrlOTOR OiilVt
lexl>!eirodi r u oiunt(scn8 ovooutputortotai n c i i r u p p t i e ~ )
FiGURFS FOHVAHHBIE SPEED MOTORS IN BRACKETS WHERE DI:I:EHENI
,50vo DUTY PUMPS)

ADOIIIONAI HEAT SUPPLIE0:NREHEATeR - 16996 AOUITIONAI.WORKDONE N i i ' i U R B N t - 4 280:0

ii001TiONAL POWER REQUIRED

8 Y FEE0 PUMP
= 2MB ADOiiiONhi WORK DONE iN LP TURBINE
OUETODiVERGENiCONSIANTPRtSSURE LlNES
DUETOLOWER WETNESSLOSS
O.~Uvo
= 0228
-
LOSSESASSOCIAT-TEDWTWMOiORDRlVE.
ADDITIONAL GENERATOR LOSS
TRANSFORMER
CABLlNG
-
= 004"0(004"/.]
001""10.01"%~
= 005% (005%)
MOIOR I& INVERTER) = 00996 (013%1
GEARBOXIFLUIDCOUPLlNG = 0 20%. (0.00%)
= 03Sah<O230/r)
DEIERIORATIIION IN HEAT RATE - 44B0laI4.320/ol iMPROVEMENlIN HEATRATE - 6 We)o

NET HEiirRiiiEiMPROVEMENi 7 499 - 4 4 8 = OSl~b(lN0UCIIONMOIORS)

499 - 632 = a 6 ~ o m l v a n i a a i e s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 1 0 ~ ~ ,

I'lCi. 1.73 Collll~lrisoi)OI iilrbille-drives and motor-driven feed pc~rnps

Ill' exhaust, and is therefore a lower grade o f speed, has a soft-start capability (oniy 1.5 times against
r l than that used for the back pressure turbine, 4.5 times full-load current) which salves the station
lllc steam is exhausted to the feed pump turbine's electrical system problems.
condenser o r to the main condenser. This has
'vantage of reducing the steam flow (and hence
loss) through the main LP turbine, or of Running rosrs
18 its required exhaust area.
In addition to the flow and head margins applied
SPECIFIC ENTROPY, ~JI~QK ;I3 operating data demonstrates that feed pumps
to the feed pu,np (and hence to the drive, that
licilicve the same availability figure regardless of
been described, clcaric motor drives are cur.
A ADDITIONAL HEAT SUPPLiED IN REHEATER (if dl.iver. Hence the savings in overall CEGB
=62.g (3588.2-31232) = 2924MW = 1 49°/0TOTAL HEAT SUPPLIED to be able to give their rated
. I I I rlilming costs froin the higher feed pump system
output at a eicctrical system frequency of
(3 ADDITIONALWORK DONE IN IP TURBINE i i i l i l i l i i ~of a 100% steam and two x 50% electric
=62g (3588.2 .29735) = 38.65MW = 4,29°10 TOTAL POWEROUTPUT 49,5 Hz so, at the operating condition of
i l>llws, colnpared with three x 50% electric
C ADDITIONAL WORK DONE IN LPTURBINE Hz, is again a margin to be
Iiilln~s,are not significant. (Typical feed pump
(DUETO DIVERGENTCONSTANT PRESSURE LINES) for, in this case by VSM converter or by cou.
=62.g (785.4 .689.8) 0.852 = 4 . 4 4 ~= 0.48NTOTAL
~ POWER OUTPUT 1 availabilities would be 99.96% compared with
(DUETO REDUCED WETNESS LOSS) = 0.22% TOTAL POWER OUTPUT piing slip, Hence, the normal duty point for the feed
pump drive has significantly less power output than
MW TOTAL
HEAT SUPPLIED its 100% rated output. Figure 1.74 compares the
MW GENERATED MW SENTOUT (BOILER 8 REHEATER) kgbTSV overall efficiencies of VSM and motors with fluid
BASIS: Economic c o m p a r i s o n of variable-speed couplings, for decreasing pump outputs. Even at the
1 BACK PRESSURE BFPT 900 900 1962.4 772.0
2 INDUCTION MOTOR 925 900 1954.2 757.5 r &%MI drive with induction m o t o r plus normai duty point, the advantage of VSM drive can
3 VARIABLE SPEED MOTOR 923.5 900 195j.o 756.3 clearly be seen, and the difference in efficiency affects
station lifetime costs signficantly. This difference at
the duty point is mainly due to two factors:
F,C. 3.72 ~ h ~ ~ ~ ~ o d y effects e the change to inotor-driven feed PulnPs
n a m i of
Fluid coupling slip - it is an inherent feature
lllc presently preferred auxiliary electrical system
of fluid.drive designs that there is still some slip
illlie of 1'1 kV, the direct on-line starting of squirrel-
'''duction the input and output turbine,
for 50Vo duty feed pumps On
even at their rated output, which creates losses in
=he back pressure turbine option considered above problems have occurred with this type o f ~iiodernunits (900 MW and over) would involve
form of heat in the working fluid (removed

has no bled.steam tappings for HP heaters because
it has bee,, found [hat, in practice, the improvement
they give to the overall cycle efficiency can be offset
by the effect of the main boiler feed pump availability
on ~p heater ALSO, feed system stability
Overseas electricity utilities have tended to use c0
densing turbines with their slower 'International
pumps because they can give a better overall
cycle efficiency (heat rate). Steam is usually extracted
from the main turbine IP cylinder exhaust instead Of
.
cvelopment o f quick-switching techniques not
fly available. The squirrel-cage motor and geared
lllic coupling gives the minimum first cost, but
lirect drive high speed synchronous motor (about
r/min), fed from a converter to give variable
by coolers),
Gearbox losses - VSMs have the same advantage
as steam turbine drives in that they can drive
the high speed (high power) pressure stage pump
T h e sream turbine
FIG. 1.74 Variation of electric motor drive efficiency
with outpiit, for boiler feed pumps
directly, so that the gearbox (reduction) only has
to transmit the suction stage power, which is about
20% or less of the total feed pump power. For the
same gearbox efficiency the actual power lost in the
gearbox will therefore be up to four times as much
for a n induction motor/fluid coupling pump, where
the slow-speed motor has to transmit over 80% o f
its power to the pressure stage pump through a
step-up gearbox (usually incorporated in the fluid
coupling).
Rapidly increasing slip losses in the fluid coupling
lead to a much sharper decrease in drive efficiency
than the VSM, for decreasing pump speed (output).
Lifetime running costs will increase even further,
relative to the VSM, if the fixed-speed motor and
fluid-coupling feed pump has to be run at part-loads
for any significant periods o f time.
4.3,5 Example Of the results Of a n overall
parison Of the through-1ife costs Of four feed
p u m p system options
Figure 1.75 shows the capital and running costs of
Ciiapter 1 Economics of the stearn cvcli.
the four feed pump oplions that were the subjecl
of detailed invesligation fox a typical future large
coal-fired turbine-generator unit. This histogram sum-
marises the effects of the factors already discussed
in this section, the main points of which are repeated
below.
From this study, the three x 50% feed pump
option became the only viable one for many reasons,
but mainly because it is the best compromise between
feed pump system availability (no interruption to
full-load outout with one feed Dump unavailable)
and capital cost. Operations data ~ ; O ~ ? E G B sources
suggests the same level of pumpset availability regard-
less of the type of drive, so for these four options
(all three x 50%) the iloss of availability' costs shown
on the histogram are all the same.
due to not having three identical pumps (increased
maintenance trmes and spares holdings), and the fact
that operating data shows that repair and maintenance
costs are directly related to capital costs, which ale
higher for the steam ootions.
Capital costs reflect the higher cost of steam turbines
and their associated bled-steam pipework, valves, ctc.,
compared to electric motors, with the condensing steam
turbine (option 3) being the most expensive, due to
the larger steam volume and the design problems COST OF LOSS OFAVAILA~ILITY
involved with the last-stage blade. The VSM and con- L=l REPAIRS A N 0 MAiNTENANCECOSTs
verter equipment (option 1) is more expensive than C3 CAPITALCOST
the simple induction motor with fluid coupling (option
RUNNING COSTS RELAiiVE TOOPTION (31
2), but there is more uncertainty in the latter cost due
to the development costs of equipment to cater for the
high starting current with existing 11 kV station electrical FCC;.1.75 Ranking of feed pump opcioiis
systems.
Running costs are presented in Fig 1.75 relative to
the condensing steam turbine-driven pumps (3) which
was found to be the most efficient option. For turbine- si~r!ilicantly lower load than its rated output. Since 4.4 Turbine by-pass systems
driven pumps, the differential heat rates, calculated tllr efficiency of the induction motor with fluid This comprises a pipework system with valves and
by computer program using data from CEGB refer- caoi~iingfalls off with decreasing load much quicker pressure dropping devices to enable live steam from
ence designs, have been used to obtain the equivalent Illan the VSM efficiency (due to coupling slip losses - the steam raising plant to by-pass the turbine complete-
lifetime running costs between the turbine and elec- IDC Fig 1.74). the through-life running costs of this ly and be dumped into the condenser. The associated
trically-driven options. The back Dressure turbine option el~lion(2) are greater than for the VSM option (I). control system will open the by-pass according to
is based on the most efficien; designs but without An example of how an electric motor-driven feed the specific needs of the plant. The need for a by-pass
bled-steam tappings for H P heaters, to avoid possible pUlnp system can give a better overall steam cycle system and the purposes to which it may be put are
feed system stability problems and loss of heater qfl'iciency, i.e., a better heat rate, than a back pressure discussed in this section. The details of its physical
Itlrbine-driven system is shown in Figs 1.72 and 1.73, implementation are discussed in Chapter 2.
availability.
which are largely self explanatory. This efficiency The requirement for, and configuration o f , by-pass
For the motor-driven pumps, the lifetime running
costs take account of the power input required at the yalli can lead to the improvement in through-life systems are mainly governed by the boiler arrange-
Illnning costs that can be seen on the histogram if ment. The general considerations applicable to fossil-
pump couplings (calculated for all pumps, whatever
l!(*lions ( 1 ) and (2) are compared with option (4). fired and AOR superheat cycles are discussed first.
the type of driver, using pump efficiencies consistent
with what might be expected for international stand- l ' l ~ eabove conclusions relate to a specific set of The special considerations for PWR wet steam plant,
ard machines), augmented by efficiency losses in the C'Lonomic circumstances. Different applications, studied using steam reheat, follow.
d r ~ v epackage, associated cabhng, and transformer. The U~ilinsta scenario of changing fuel prices, capital costs
tradltlonal pump head and flow marglns (3%/5%) nsd operating costs may result in different conclusions. 4.4.1 S u p e r h e a t plant
and the reoulrement to be able to oroduce full out- Mc\,crtheless, these considerations exemplify the need The superheater and reheaters are an integral part o f
lu ilnalyse not only the capital cost, but also the other the boiler. The basic system for a single reheat turbine
put with a'minimum electrical system frequency of 'f
49.5 Hz ensure that the pump duty point is at a
8 Ouslponents of lifetime cost in arriving at a solution. is shown in Fig 1.76.
The sreain ti~rbine
pic. 1.76 ~ a s i ctuibliie by-pass iysiexn
Wliei) oil iilii by-pars, tile governor i,alue and interceptorvalve are ~losed.the sicam parses iron, the supcilieatei
lo the HP by-pars valve, tiicn titrougli ihe lelieatcr and LP by-pass valve. The rlenm is fully atlcmpeiaied by
spray water before parriog to the condenser. ~ l l inon-renwn
e valve in the H P turbine crllausr pre'enrs a ieveisc
110\s- into the turbine, In praeiicc. ~ulierca ungle vaive is rhowi>. tlicre are usually two or more parailel
values pcifoilnlng each duty
The system depicted permits completely independ-
ent boiler operation. Although the system operation
seems quite straightforward, the function of reducing
the steam pressure from turbine inlet conditions down
to exhaust conditions invalvcs a major change in the
energy available which imposes a heavy duty on the
components involved. The need to supply a by-pass
system must therefore be carefully evaluated against
the benefits.
The prime reason why UK manufacturers have
sunplied by-pass systems for certain applications is
to-permit continued operation o f the boiler and turbine
following a large load reduction or a circuit-breaker
trip to the house load. In a weakly-connected supply
network, this may be an overriding consideration,
since the abiiity to run-through such a transient would
allow iapid reconnection of the unit following fault
clearance. Without a by-pass, the power mismatch
following opening of the circuit-breaker causes the
turbine governing and interceptor valves to close
r a.~ i d i y . T o accommodate the reduction in steam
~
flow. the boiler firing rate must be rapidly reduced
to a minimum. On most boilers, with the possible
exce~tionof some oil-fired units, this involves a firing
trin which necessitates a ourgine
- ~ - ? ~~~~ . operation for several
hours prior to reloading. If a by-pass is supplied, a
large proportion of the excess steam can be diverted
through the by-pass system. If necessary, the boiler
Chapter 1
8 ti trip to house load. The H P by-pass size is usually
8 i.spressed as a percentage of the H P stop valve flow
@ at rated full-load conditions. T o cater for a load
f,
t i
can be slowly reduced in load to a low level, ready
for reioading when required. If the boiler load is
maintained and the system fault cleared, the unit
may be reloaded to a generator ioad corresponding
to the capacity of the by-pass within a fcw minutes.
Subsequent loading to full load is then accomplished
at the normal rate.
If provided for this basic reason, the turbine by-
pass system may also provide other benefits, although
these are not always significant. A full list of the
other possible benefits are summarised as follows:
For hot starts, following less than a I 11 shutdown,
the boiler flow through the by-pass can be adjusted
to raise the main and reheat steam temperatures
l o the values required by the turbine. When the
turbine valves are opened, the thermal stresses in
turbine components is minimal. The subsequent
run-up and loading may then be selected t o mini-
mise either the time to load or the thermal stress,
.
or some compromise between the two.
0,
. ~~
starts. the by-pass
.. may be used to bring
the main and reheat steam temperatures to a posi-
tive ,,,ismatch in order to minimise the time to
inad ~. . i t .h i.navailable
~ ~ ~ stress
~.~~~~ ~ -
mareins
In general, the by-pass provides for a smooth
warm-up of boiler components, including the re-
heales and lhe main sleain ~>ipework.A tnorc iaipid
boiler run-ill, may he possible, thus saving fuel.
c Water loss during start-up is mioimised since, if'
no by-pass is fitted, supcrheatcr vents are used
lo discharge steam to provide a flaw o f steam
I l ~ r o u g ltile
~ sugerhealer.
61 Independent operation o f the boiler is more readi-
ly achieved with the fuli capability of de-aeration
and condensate poiishing.
4.4.2 BY-pass capacity
y SO.
/
Sizing of the by-pass system is based on the most
$
iiidilous duty, in this case the abilily to run-thiougl~ ,.
m-
c t i o to h o s e l o a d the size of the b. . m will
lii. given by:
Ill' by-pass capacity
house load
= 100% -
( full load ) loo] -
1'14. 1.77 Typical lleai load on col>denrei
[inherent boiler ioad rejection capacity]
= 70% (typically)
The additional throughput of condensate flow must
also be taken into account in the design of the LP
'i'lic L P by-pass size is generally expressed as a heaters.
llcicentage of the interceptor valve flow at rated full-
Ihad conditions. For a trip to house load, rapid closure
01' the interceptor valves causes a pressure rise and 4.4.3 System effects
lliu LP by-pass opens to contain this. The LP by- In operation, other problems arise from the intro-
~)ilssis ilsually sized at well beiow the 100% capa- duction of the by-pass systems. Followit>g a load
ibilily since, under the worst case of rejection from rejection, the H P governor valves close fully and once
filli-load, any excessive pressure rise is accommodated the by-pass is operating, the non-return valves in the
Iry lifting of reheater safety valves for a feu, minutes. H P turbine exhaust prevent reverse flow into the HP
A by-pass system sized on the basis of load rejec- turbine. However, the steam already in the turbine
1lo11 capability can readily accommodate the duties cylinder is effectively 'bottled up' and the continuing
Iaiposed for start-up and independent boiler operation.
rotation o f the turbine causes rapid overheating of
To reduce the enthalpy of the steam, it is neces-
the blading due to turbulence and frictional heating
Nury to inject spraywater, derived from the condensate
of the contained steam.
hyslem, after both H P and LP by-pass valves. The
A similar problem arises during start-up. Without a
rpraywater flow adds to the H P by-pass flow to give
by-pass, the H P turbine exhaust pressure prior to
Ihe mass flow rate through the L P by-pass system;
synchronisation is at a very low value, controlled by
lliis is therefore used in sizing calculations.
the flow through the I P and LP turbines. With a by-
The supply o f a by-pass system reflects on the
pass, there will be a much higher flow through the
tlcsign of other plant in a major way. To cater for
by-pass and the turbine exhaust pressure is consider-
the supply of spraywater on top of the maximum ably higher. Normally this value of exhaust pressure
U P by-pass flow, it is necessary to increase the rat- would only be attained with a much higher flow
In); of the condensate extraction pumps. through the turbine. The H P turbine is therefore
The increased flow and high enthalpy of the by- operating with its efficiency considerably reduced and
purs steam increases the size and cost of the con- in addition is producing some rotation'loss heating.
deliser significantly. Figure 1.77 shows how the A typical condition line for the H P turbine is shown
iudditional heat load relates to the H P by-pass size. on the Mollier diagram in Fig 1.78.
F&ri
%(
*r
$,+ The steam turbine
F ~ c . 1.78 HP turbine condilion line
These problems arc effectively dealt with by pro-
viding a connection from the H P turbine exhaust to
the condenser, sized to take approximately the H P
flow that obtains prior to synchronisation and ar-
ranged to open only when the by-pass is in operation.
During by-pass operation, there is a transient loss
in the water stored in the de-aerator due to the re-
circulation of spraywater. An assessment o f the worst
case transient is normally made to ensure that feed
system stability is maintained.
The remaining problems concern the malfunction
of the by-pass system and associated plant. T o pro-
tect the L P turbine, it is necessary to trip the by-
pass valves closed in the event that loss o f conden-
ser cooling water causes a high L P turbine exhaust
pressure. Failure of spraywater valves and other as-
pects are covered in more detail in Chapter 2.
4.4.4 I m p r o v e m e n t of s t a n - u p capability
The provision of a by-pass system improves start-
g
Cliapler 1 Economics of the steam cyclc
..,,
&
up of the boiler and tu~.bine,11s economic impact is
most readily appreciated by considering the effect on
hot starts following an overnight shutdown. This is
the duty normally seen by a unit allocated to two-
shifting. Figures 1.79 (a) and (b) depict tlie diffei-
ences in unit start-up with and without the by-pass
in operation. The start-up time is roughly 15 minutes
less if the by-pass is used. The saving may be coil-
siderably more if the boiler/turbine is not a flexible
unit designed for two-shifting.
Depending on the intended duty of the plant, this
may represent a significant saving to lifetime costs.
There is also a small saving because, without a by-
pass, water would be lost through the superheated
vents as part of the standard start-up procedure. A
further advantage of the by-pass system for start-up
is that inexperienced operators are more easily able
to bring the steam conditions to appropriate values
before rolling-off the turbine. Against these advantages
must be set tlie cost and maintenance burden asso-
ciated with the supply of a by-pass system. In general,
a small capacity (35%) by-pass system is unlikely to be
iustified on the erounds of im~rovementof start-ur,
capability.
One notable exception is the once-through boiler,
where a substantial bypass flow is required for a
lengthy period during start-up. The CEGB AGR ma-
chines, which use a superheat steam cycle, are examples
of this. The AGR also needs to use the by-pass for a
lengthy period during shutdowns, particularly if the
reactor is to bc maintained at temperature in readiness
for the next start-up.
4.4.5 PWR w e t s t e a m plant
The reheater is not part of the boiler. This function
is carried out by live steam from the reactor and
bled-steam from the H P turbine in vessels mounted
adjacent to the turbine. There is therefore no require-
ment for separate H P and L P by-passes to permit
independent operation of the reactor and steam gen-
erators. A single by-pass circuit to dump H P stop
valve inlet steam to the condenser is employed. Warm-
through of the reheater is accomplished as part of
the turbine start-up. Rapid starting and utilisation for
two-shifting is not the role of PWR plant.
The reasons for the supply of by-pass systems on
PWR plant are therefore:
(a) To enable the nuclear plant to accept transients
without tripping or actuating safety valves.
(b) T o remove stored energy and residual heat follow-
ing a turbine and reactor trip to bring the plant
to equilibrium.
(c) TO permit a manually controlled cooldown of the
plant to the point where the residual heat removal
system can be put into operation.
The steam turbine Chapter 1 Turbine blading

(d) I~ollawiiiga turbine trip or sliutdowo, lo maintain
the reactor and steam generators in a hot-standby
condition, ready for turbine restarting.
A diagram of a typical by-pass system configuration
is shown in Fig 1.80. The main by-pass is through
six parallel sets of control valves into the three con-
denser sections. Valves I, 3 and 5 are niodulating
valves used for all three functions but sized to be
capable of performing the cooldown duty (c) on their
own. Valves 2, 4 and 6 are capable of being switched
open or closed and arc only used for duties (a), (b)
and (d). An additional dump t o atmosphere is also
provided for duty (d), sincc infrequent discharges
to atmosphere are permissible for short durations.
This reduces the duty on the condenser, permitting
considerable economies to be made. Thus, in the
evcnt of a turbine-generator trip, valves 1, 3 and 5
are opened first, followed by valves 2, 4 and 6 and
finally, if necessary, the atmospheric dump valve.
For one reactor, the total capacity is arranged to be
approximately 70% of the full MCR steam flow with
about 10% being accommodated by the atmospheric
dump valve. In association with further relief valve
capacity in the reactor system, this permits a trip of
the total turbine-generator capacity. A reactor trip
only i-eqilircs a by-pass capacity of 40% and is ac-
complished williout discharge lo atmosphere.
Both condenscr and atmospheric sets of valves are
required to open fast, particola!-ly for duties (b) and
(d). The opening time of approximately three seconds
permits containment of tile steam pressure rise witll-
in the settings of the atmospheric valves for the
reactor trip case. The valve closing rates are designed
to protect the turbine and condenser in the event
of a system failure. A closure time of 5 seconds is
provided to protect against high condenser/turbine
exhaust pressures in the event of a condenser cooling
water failure. The effects o n other plant are similar
t o those discussed for superheat plant and are taken
into account In the design.
The provision of sufficient by-pass capacity t o
avoid tripping the reactor in the event of a turbine-
generator trip justifies the by-pass on economic grounds.
If the reactor were allowed to trip for a turbine
problem lasting for perhaps only 30 minutes, there
would be a severe availability penalty.
The problems of implementing a by-pass system
are addressed in Chapter 2. Thcse matters are proper-
ly dealt with at the design stage and result in systems
which provide economic benefits by achieving better
co-ordination between the turbine and boiler systems.
Ii Turbine b l a d i n g mid blades need to be very robust, Tlie diapliragnl
lhas the atlvantagc of a i-clatively S ~ R I I diameter a!
llle stcam seal between diapliragin and rotor, hiit
this labyrinth scal niusl be as good as possible to
L1 Impulse stages deal with ibc high pressure drop. Tlrc radial iabyrintll
seal ensures adequate insensitivity to axial dispiace-
6.1.1 Moving b l a d e s - details a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n rnent between the rotor and the casing. A typical
lli !lie impulse stage, invented by Professor Rateau, impulse stagc arrangement is shown in Fig 1.81.
llic imajority of the lieat drop occurs in the station-
itry blading and the driving force on the stagc arises
from the change in momentum o f the stcam across
llic tiloving blades. The impulse design possesses the
itdvi~ntages o f compactness and comparative inscn-
hllivity t o blading clearance since little pressure drop
Itikcs place over the moving blading. However, the
liioving blades are subject to disturbances from the
Ilur/.le wakes, so resonance must be avoided and
rie;iln bending stresses must be kept low; also, sincc
l l ~ u~nomentunichange is relatively high, the moving
Irliides have t o be robust and tend to be heavy. It
I,. ihcl-efore regular practice to attacll the iadivid-
ll~llly manufactured blades to a wheel disc, often by
,IlsildIe roots which engage with corresponding axial
i l ~ ~ ~ o l d machined
ers on the whecl rim.
One or more protrusions arc left at the outer end
111 i l i ~ . moving blade. These pass through holes in a
ri,\,rrband which may in turn fit into a slot machined
Ill tlic outside of the blade: when these protrusions
nl tenons are formed into rivets, they keep the cover-
btisd in place. The coverband acts as a seal and braces
lllc blading t o reduce vibration. Each length of coves-
I)tlnd ties a short length of blades together and may
l i l t i t , tip to the next length or overlap, so that an
retleniely robust construction is created. Since a cer-
li3i11degree of reaction builds up towards the outer
!ll~i~iieterof all impulse blades, axial scaling fins arc
lur~iicd integral with the moving blade shroud or
~,o\'erband.

8.1.2 Fixed b l a d e s - details a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n

FIG.1.80 Turbine by-pass system for a
'l'llerc are two methods of constructing the stationary
Iloszlc blading. Built-up blades, machined from the
mlid, are used for nozzle plates and steel diaphragms,
Whilst cast-in blades, formed from steel plates em-
lredded into cast iron diaphragms, are used where
loeperatures are below 230'C. On some of the latest
tlinchines, HP blades have been electrochemically ma-
~lllned.An impulse stage is frequently used for the
I'lrhl s a g e of the H P turbine. The fixed blades may
1llc11be incorporated in an integral nozzle box, there-
Ily obviating the problem of pressure sealing at the
inaldc of the blade ring. By absorbing a high heat
drop, the nozzle box arrangement also reduces the
IVessure and temperature of the steam impinging o n
llie 14P rotor and inner casing.
Since impulse stage diaphragms have t o withstand
wet stcam machine llie bulk o f the stage pressure drop, both diaphragm
nc. 1.81 Modern impulse stage with labyrinth seating
5.1.3 Velocity-compounded s t a g e
The first HP stage of a turbine, where it is desired
t o give a large pressure drop t o the first row of noz-
zles, sometimes incorporates two impulse stages on
the same wheel. This is done to protect the casing
and rotor from higher pressure and temperature con-
ditions. As a velocity-compounded stage uses ap-
proximately the same heat drop as four impulse
stages, it is used t o provide a shorter and cheaper
turbine, although with some sacrifice in efficiency.
It is no ionger used in large base-load turbines.

64
Tl?e sreain turbine
Figure 1.82 shows the arrangcrneill of such a
stage. 'The iiazzlcs, of the convergent-diverge~~t
type,
produce "cry high stearn kinetic cncigy, sonic of
which is absorbed by the first raw of blades, the
remainder being deflected back by the slationa~y
guide blades and used in the second row. Both moving
blades and nozzles are machined froin tlie solid and
are nccessaiily very robust.
FIG. 1.82 Velocity-coinpounded (Curtis) stage
5.2 Reaction stages
5.2.1 Fixed a n d moving blades - details a n d
ConstruCtion
Although called 'reaction', these stages in fact employ
equal degrees of impulse and reaction, resulting in
the fixed and moving blades being of identical section.
66
Chapter i
'This type of blading was designed and developed b)
Sir Charles Parsons and lends itself lo ecoi~omiczil
production of blades from standard rolled sections.
Only a sinall heat drop can be accommodated pci
blade row, due to the comparatively high velocity
ratio required for good efficiency; this means that a
large number of expansions are required. Steam ap-
proaches the moving blades with a velocity that is
low and substantially axial in direction. Consequently,
the driving force applied to the moving blades arises
almost entirely from the reaction force of the steam
as it accelerates through the moving blades. The force
applied to the moving blades is thus fairly steady, witli
very little disturbance arising from the nozzle wakes
of the fixed blades, so fairly high bending stresses
can be employed in the moving blades without risk
of fatigue failure due to vibration.
Since the pressure drop across the fixed blades is
small, diaphragms are not required, but small tip
clearances are needed throughout the turbine to pre-
vent excessive leakage losses. This was achieved iii
earlier turbines by axial sealing and end-tightening.
With solidly-coupled shafts which expand either
side of a single thrust bearing and with multi-casing
arrangements, end-tightening is not feasible and a
compromise has to be reached between fine clearances
sure drop develops across the moving blades and
to reduce leakage and large clearances to accom-
the steam leaves the moving blades at a higher speed
modate differential exvansion when starting. - to offset the higher peripheral speed, enabling the
Modern reaction turbines generally employ a com-
steam to leave the blades with the minimum of swirl.
bination of axial and radial sealing at the stators and
The stage is designed to have a fairly low degree of
rotors, and for this purpose, the rotor blades are
reaction at the base and, since the pressure drop
provided at their outer edge with shrouds formed
across the fixed blades decreases in response to the
of sections integral with the blade (see Fig 1.83).
These mate with replaceable finned sealing segments
I Aerodynamic a n d mechanical c o n s t r a i n t s increasing pressure drop across the moving blades,
lti i.;iily machines, the last few low pressure moving reaction increases with blade hcight. The radial tcn-
in tlie casing. Fins formed on the inner diameter of
lilii~lc~ were of constant cross-section. Thc stl.ess in sion duc to centrifugal force and the aerodynamic
the fixed blades provide sealing at the rotor.
l l i i i l y p c o f biade increased quadratically from the effect o f change of steam flow resiilts in a highly-
Small reaction-type blades can be manufactured
!ip lo the base and attained its rnaxiinum ijaiue in twisted moving blade, having a robust low reaction
by cutting from rolled bar of the requisite profile
Iri~asitionfrom blade to root: this placed a re- section at the root and a slim high reaction sectioit
or machining from bar, while larger blades may be
ii:lio~l on the length of blade that could be used at at the tip, see Fig 1.85.
separately cold-rolled after which the root portion is
heated and forged. Blades may also be machined from iionous speed. Modern last-stage blades have a
envelope forgings o r produced by precision forging, so section which reduces exponentially with the
that the profile requires no further machining; this of the radius. The tensile stress due to centri- 5.3.2 Blade t i p restraint
is valuable where tough materials make machining ss is then virtually constant over the gl.eater The use of long blades and large blade chords in-
difficult. Final machining can also be awkward where I of the blade length and this has enabled blades volves an increase in pitch and this creates compli-
integral shrouds and root fixings interfere with the lo 940 mm long to be used on 3000 r/min cations in the various devices used to stiffen the
machine tool. T o facilitate manufacture, modern prac- blade assembly and dampen vibration. A coverband o r
O n modern blading, the tip diameter is typically
tice is to braze together short groups of blades before lacing wire must behave as a beam spanning the blade
machining the circumferential serrations on the sides Iloul double the base diameter, so that at the mean, pitch in resisting centrifugal loading, and must also
of the roots, see Fig 1.84. The brazing also permits Ill? blade pitch, i.e., the circumferential distance be- accommodate the substantial circumferential strains
easier assembly. Groups of blades are fitted in the lwrcli adjacent blades, is about 1.5 times the pitch due to radial elastic extension of the blades and the
rotor or casing in circumferential grooves which have UI liiu base diameter. The peripheral speed is also tendency of the blade to untwist at speed.
corresponding circumferential serrations machined in 1.5 ti~nesas great as at the base and the effect of When lacing wires are used, they are usually of
their walls. The blades arc secured in the grooves lI11h increased blade speed is to change the direction the 'loose' type with circumferential restraint on only
by similarly serrated side-locking pieces cut from rolled at' 1!1c incident velocity of the steam relative to the one blade in each group,
- ~
and are free to move
strip. A suitable stop plate at the half joint locates fr~<~\'iiig blade. The moving blade inlet angle is there- circumferentially in adjacent blades, centrifugal forces
the fixed blades in the circumferential groove and l b t c set to line up with the direction of the incoming providing the necessary damving
. .throurh friction. Thc
prevents the blade segments from rotating due to iilci~ni flow and the moving blade section is also gaps between adjacent lacing wires can introduce
torque reaction. c l ~ ~ ~ n g This
e d . reduces the outlet angle so that a pres- complications in vibration patterns on long blades
67

- t o be wider and heavier than blading with stiffening
I:IG 1.85 i:>nal blade envelopes
and overlapping lacing wires are sometimes used to
give some measure of continuity around the annulus.
A coverband of conventional design is not feasible
for slim sections and where the peripheral speed may
bc approaching Mach 2, but a continuous ring o f
stiffening devices of sufficient elasticity may be used
t o accommodate circumferential strains. The elastic
arch banding, shown in Fig 1.86, braces the blade
tip and provides some resistance t o blade untwist as
well as largely permitting circumferential strain.
Zigzag spool rods shown in Fig 1.87 are frequently
incorporated in the tips of the last-stage L P blades
of modern turbines. The spool rods provide no re-
-
straint against circumferential exoansion or centri-
fugaal untwist, but the reduced sections at the ends
of the rods are forced against the holes in the blades
by centrifugal action and the sliding friction provides
effective damping, minimising blade vibration and
high frequency flutter at the blade tip.
A recent variant to the spool rod is the ball-
jointed tip tie. The dumb-bell-shaped tie rod fits into
a fixed ball-shaped socket in one blade and into a
sliding ball socket in the next blade. In common with
the spool rods, centrifugal strains are not restrained
but the ball-joints provide more controlled damping
and the evaluation of tie rod stressing is more re-
liable. Some tliicketting of the bladc is required, how-
ever, in the region of the tip tie to accommodate tlie
ball-joint sockets.
A few manufactui.e~.shave dispensed with all forms
o f stiffening, relying on the stiffening effect of cen-
trifugal forces, which can be very substantial on
freely-cantilevered blades. This type of blading tends
and introduces difficulties in manufacture and rotor
design. Freely-cantilevered blades are most suitable
for the last stages of very small high speed turbines,
where it is not bossible t o intioduck complicated stif-
fening devices and where the increased bladc width
is not an embarrassment.
5.3.3 B a u m a n n e x h a u s t
A special type of exhaust blading, invented by Dr
Baumann, has been used by one manufacturer in
order to achieve greater exhaust area without undue
lengthening of the blades of the last moving row.
Known as the 'multi-exhaust', it used two-tier blades
for the penultimate stage, steam from the outer tier
exhausting directly to vacuum. The net result was
that, without lengthening the blades of the last row,
but by lengthening those of the previous row, the
leaving loss was appreciably reduced.
5.4 Moving blade root attachments
The last-stage blades of large turbines develop centri-
fugal forces of hundreds of tonnes when running,
very efficient methods of attachment are therefore
needed.
Systems in use at present include rhombus fixings
in a peripheral slot, finger-shaped pinned fixing and
straight or curved fir-tree roots. Fir-tree roots provide
a n excellent method of attachment, since they permit
Turbi~tchiadin(>
5.4.1 Fir-free roots
Fir-lice serrations lliay be in line with tlie axis ol
the macliinc, inclined to the axis. or curved, see
Fig 1.88. Curved fir-tree roots follow the blade chord
at the root section. Tire straight root, in iine with
the axis, is used for slightly-twisted end blades. Botl,
the iiiclincd and the cwved fir-trec roots are used
for iliglily-twisted blades t o achieve a closer blade
pitch at the inner steam patli. Optimum selection
of tlie dimensions and number of serrations of the
fir-tree root has been made possible by finite ele-
ment calculations o f stresses in the shaft and root.
Because o f unavoidable inaccuiacies in manufacture,
the pit between the supporting planks of the ilidividual
fi~.-treetips varies. This is also taken into account
in the calculations. Pull-out tests on fir-tree roots
have confirmed their reliability. In view of their high
strength and close packing capability, side entry fir-
tree roots arc gene~ally used for fixing last stage
L P blading.
111 earlier turbine stages, fir-tree serrations are $ma-
chitied circu~nfercntiallyin grooves in the rotor, and
groups of biades are secured in the grooves by simi-
larly-serrated side locking pieces cut from rolled strip.
Tile blades of the first row of the H P turbine are
axially attached to a short wheel disc o n the rotor
by straddle roots, which engage with corresponding
shoulders machined circumferentially on the wheel
rim. The straddle fixing therefore acts as an inverted
fir-tree, the tree shape, usually with only one or two
branches, being formed on the rotor disc.
5.4.2 Pinned roots
Multifork pinned roots are generally easier to maoil-
facture than fir-tree roots, since the machined faces
are plain with no undercuttitlg, and the pin or rivet
holes are simply drilled and reamed. The enormous
force o n moving blade roots, particularly in the LP
2F--F
xK
tbilncllned
I'IG. 1.67 Zigzag rpool roc1 lip-tier
i~
iclCurved
close staggering o f the blade cascade and the
lhc shaft teeth. FIG. 1.88 Types of fir-tree roo,

l l i c stcai-ii tiiihine
stages ellsiil.es rigidity i n any typc of root fixing at
synchronous speed but, contrary to thc fir-lrec root,
tlic multifol-k pinned root provides a rigid fixing
when the macl~ine is statiannry. This enabics the
zero speed vibl-atioii characteristic of the blades t o
be confi~.medwith confidence and ensures a smooth
unstepped spectrum of characteristics, as tile machine
is r u n up. Replacement of multiforked blades, how-
ever, involves further reaming of the securing pin
holes. This is awkward in-siru and can only be carried
out a limited number of times.
5.5 D i a p h r a g m c o n s t r u c t i o n and support
5.5.1 Kinematic s u p p o r t
AIi diaphragms are dividcd at thc horizonlai joint
into two scmicircuiar halves l a permit assembly.
Iliaphragms arc located in the turbine cylinder as
close as practical to the horizontal and vertical axes
of the machine, in order to reduce to a rninilnum
the effects of differential expansion. Particularly when
the machine is small, the ioss in output arising from
the internal ciearances can bc significant. It is for
this reason that the practice developed of supporting
and guiding the diaphragms in the inner cylinder by
keys in each half. This method of iocation, which
is known as kinematic support, is generally used on
current H P and IP turbines o f the disc and diaphragm
type, and o n the early stages of L P turbincs.
The details of a kinematic support systenl are in-
flt~cnccd by the method of manufacture. As the
adjacent surfaces of the cylinder and diaphragm are
circular, the diaphragm has t o be supported on keys
fitted into milled recesses in both cylinder and dia-
phragm, as close to tile horizontal joint as practical.
Transverse location of the diaphragm is achieved by
keys o n tile verticai centreline fitted into milled key-
ways. Adequate clearances are provided o n fitting the
keys t o ensure freedom of movemetlt for differential
expansion. T o avoid steam leakage between the two
halves o f the diaphragm, the top half sits o n the
bottom half, and keys at the half-joint are arranged
in line with, and transverse to, the machine centreline.
This iocates the top half-diaphragm axially and ra-
dially with the bottom half-diaphragm, and provides
an effective steam seal. The keys o n the bottom half
horizontal joint have to be sized t o take the weight
of the complete diaphragm.
T o enable the top half-diaphragm t o be retained
in the top half cylinder when it is raised, stopplates
are ~ r o v i d e d at the horizontal ioint o n e a c h ~ s i d e .
The diaphragm is located axially against a machined
recess in the cylinder which offers frictional resistance
to the expansion of the diaphragm relative t o the
cylinder. When sizing the support keys, it is usual
A
Chapter 1 Turbine i,li~iiiin;i
0
,,
to take into account the torque ieactioli 0x1 t l l c
$
rliapl~ragin.
Ail keys have provision for adjustmcnt, so thal
correct aiignmeot of the diapliragms can bc achieved.
A typical arrangemcnt of diaphragm support and
location keys is shown in Fig 1.89.
5.5.2 Radial s u p p o r t p a d s
The provision of this system of kinematic support
becomes progressively more difficult as the diameter of
the diaphragm increases. As the size of turbine has
increased, the basic concept of kinematic support has
been modified t o suit the circumstances.
One alternative has been t o fit keys in both half-
diaphragms so that each is supported independently
at the horizontal joint. This arrangement requires that
there is a gap between the half-diaphragms for ex-
pansion, resulting in a steam leakage across the half
joint: it also requires more machining and fitting.
Thc difficulty in proxaiding kitiematic support for
large diaphvagms occurs inainly in LP turbines, where
the outer ring diameter is large. In the LP turbine,
the differential temperature between diaphragm and
cylinder that has to be accommodated is much reduced.
This, together with the need t o provide some form
of stop-plate for the top half-diaphragms, led to an
alternative arrangement where, in the running condition,
the top half-diaphragm is supported on the bottom
half-diaphragm, which itself just rests in the recess
in the cylinder. The clearance for differential expan-
sion is achievcd by exact machining of the outer
diameter of the diaphragm.
A more practical arrangement is to machine a
generous radial clearance between cylinder and dia-
phragm and to fit the haif-diaphragm with a nuinber The first four L P diaphragms are usually a welded
hli~iids fitted into grooves machined in half rings,
of radial support pads which are then dressed to construction, similar t o the H P and IP, with stainless
wllirh may be machined from plate or may also be
obtain the required location of the half-diaphragm. steel blades, rims and centres. Later stages may have
ci~st.The diaphragm half rings are then built up by
Differential steam pressure forces the diaphragm pre-machined biades cast into cast-iron inner and
weirling the nozzles to the inner and outer half rings
outer rings against the downstream axial face of the outer rings. Cast iron enables optimum shapes of
lhc axial faces of the half rings. Castings in stain-
circumferential recess in the inner cylinder. T o prevent
steel suffer from the formation of regions of steam passages t o be formed. These diaphragms may
the diaphragms seizing in this recess, and to permit
n ferrite, particularly near the trailing edges o f also be cast as complete halves in stainless steei.
adjustment, small crushing pegs are fitted in the up. Very large modern last-stage L P diaphragms have
(1 blades, and cracking near changes in section
stream face of the locating spigot. massive sections for the rims and centres and can be
.ss cooling rates are very carefully controlkd. Also,
Temporary support pads may be fitted and adjusted
81cc the welds penetrate only part way into the inner extremely heavy if made from solid castings. The rims
t o achieve the correct positioning of the diaphragm and centres are therefore sometimes fabricated from
d outer half rings, a circumferential crack exists
in the cylinder. The packing bush radiai clearances
fbe middle of the rings. Radial cracks also exist plate into semicircular hollow box sections. Weided
are bored to a charted size and checked with the
Iween each nozzle section where they butt against constructions are always heat treated t o remove iocked-
rotor in position. If necessary, the temporary pads in stresses and allowance must be made for distortion.
c another. These cracks weaken the assembly and
are adjusted t o optimise radial ciearances. When the
II provide initiation points for fatigue crack propaga-
desired alignment has been obtained, the thickness
rn. Investigations are being carried out t o develop
of the temporary support pads is gauged and the final
sided diaphragms, using full-penetration electron
support pads ground t o size.
welding. This will largely avoid the problems 5.6 Blading m a t e r i a l s
tcrnal cracks or voids.
A more modern method of construction is to
5.5.3 Diaphragm c o n s t r u c t i o n ~ctrochemicaiiy machine each complete half ring 5.6.1 12% Cr s t e e l s
H P and I P diaphragm nozzles may be individually I of a solid stainless steei blank, thus obviating Turbine blading alloys are chosen for their ability to
machined or cast and the inner and outer blade up- l e problems of welding and casting. provide properties particular t o the mechanical and
The steam turbine
ca\~irnnmental service u,liicli tlky must cndorc. One
o i thc first considerations of 1.i' biading, for exampic,
is the ability to rcsist cosiosion and scaling in fast..
flowing wct steam. This generally roles out low alioy
steel and blades are made froin either stainless steel
or titanium alloys. A sccond icqiiiicmenl Is adequatc
tensile strength to resist steady centrifugal and bcnd-
ing stresses. Sucngth without ductility Is not desirabie;
ductility is needed to accommodate stress peaks and
concentrations. Ductility aiso is needed to resist rub-
bing, and, in the case of shrouded blades, t o permit
the peening of tenons to secure the shroud. Impact
strength is also necessary, since contact with foreign
objects is sudden. Water slugs can produce impact
loading.
Since most blade failures are due to fatigue, ade-
quate fatigue strength is a crucial property. The blades
are under steady centrifugal stress while operating,
and this must be incorporated into the fatigue strength
considerations. Since L P turbines can see wet 'aggres-
si\,e environments', the fatigue strengths upon which
- are based must account for environmental
designs
degradation.
Material damping is also considered of high im-
portance. The vibratory stress devclopcd in a turbine
blade is inversely proportional to the damping. One
of the reasons 12% Cr stalniess steels are so widely
used in blades is due t o their superior marcrial
damping.
Notch sensitivity also affects fatigue response and,
since Stress concentrations are unavoidable, parti-
culariy near the root, a low notch sensitivity is very
desirable for good blade life. Unfortunately, whereas
high tensile strength desirably Increases fatigue strength,
it also increases notch sensitivity.
The short blades in the H P turbine work at tem-
peratures near to the maximum steam temperature,
so creep strcngth is vitally important in this region,
with the amount of permissible creep usually restricted
t o 0.2% deformation in 100 000 h.
The conventional 12% C r steels have an ideal set
of properties for turbine blading as long as the
temperature does not exceed about 480°C. Austenitic
steels have been tried but, in general, have not been
satisfactory, except for the short blades in the HP
turbine where damping capacity is not as crucial as
it is for the longer blades in the later stages of the
L P turbine. Austenitic steels, however, have relatively
high coefficients of expansion and tend t o be avoided
because of this. Ferritic steels of the FV 520 type
have been used for last-stage LP blading but have
now been generally superseded by steels such as FV
566, which were designed for applications where good
impact properties are required at medium-to-high
strength levels. Mechanical properties have been im-
proved by the addition of molybdenum and vana-
dium, and suitable heat treatments t o give adequate
creep resistance in the short hlgh temperature blades,
and adequate proof strength in the long low tem-
gcsatuic bladcs. Aii siccis of lliis type ieqiiive tlic
addition of an nustcnite-forming clement to pl-eveol
the fol.m;itioo of ?ones o f delta ferrite in thc material.
Nickel is employed for this purpose but its conlenl
is limited in ltigli temperature blades becaiisc liighci
percentage additions reduce creep strcngtli. T11e addi.
lion of niobium to the 12% Cr Ma V steels increases
stress rupture strength and creep strength in the short
term, but the strengthening effect falls off with time
so that the long term properties are no better than
those of the 12% Cs Mo V steels without niobium.
Typical British steels for high temperature blad-
ing include FV 507, a ferritic casting alloy with good
tensile and crecp properties combined with low thermal
expansion, and Esshcte CKM 12 from British Steel,
a heat tieatabic martensitic 12% C i steel alloyed with
molybdenum and vanadium. Both tltese alloys havc
good long term creep strength at temperatrives up
t o 650°C.
The intermediate blades, wlticll are neither highly
stressed nor very hot, can be made from 12% C r steels
with leaner alloying content and lieat-tl-eatcd to the
appropriate hardness. A typical steel is FV 448, an
11% Cr, 0.6% Mo, 0.25% V, 0 . 3 % Nb steel with good
creep resistance up to 550°C.
The corrosion and scaling resistances of the latest
so-called 'Super 12% Cr' steeis are at least equal to
those of the simple 12% Cr steels and In many cases
significantly better. General corrosion resistance In
steam is better than the grades containing less than
12% chromium: the ferritic grades are much lcss
prone to stress corrosion cracking than the austenitlc
steels.
Welding is considered the mast complicated fabri-
cation process lor the Supcr 12% Cr steels because
of their high hardenability. The martensite formed
in the weld metal and heat affected zone (HAZ) is
hard and brittle and must be tempered. However,
when temperature recommendations outlined by the
various producers of Super 12% C r steels are fol-
lowed, welding does not present any unusuai problems.
Information concerning production, constituents,
properties and application of the Super 12% C r steels
is given In [81.
5.6.2 Titanium
Because of its hlgh strength/weight ratio and excellent
corrosion resistance, titanium has been considered as
a n alternative t o 12% Cr steel for low pressure lur-
bine blading. Since the density of titanium is aboul
60% of that of steel, a titanium blade nearly 40%
longer than a steel blade can be substituted, assuming
comparable stress levels in the blade root.
T h e corrosion resistance of titanium makes the
material highly attractive for blading subject t o pit-
ting, stress corrosion and corrosion fatigue. Laboratory
tests have also shown that certain titanium alloys are
superior t o 12% chrome stainless steel in erosion
irhiliancc but in01 as good as Sleiliic 6 , whicli is
cc>i~iinoniy!ired as an erasion shicld on steci I,['
lilii<ii~ig.
'i'lic yield sticrrgth o f a typical titanium alloy in
l11r anncaled condition is approxirnatcly 50% bettel~
l11ii11 standard 12% chromium stainless steel material,
sil<leven slightly superior to the Super 12% C r steels:
I l l ? ductility is somewhat lcss, The fatigue strength
01 iilanium alloy is, however, generally higher than
tltr 12% Cr stecls.
'Titanium alloy is not as readily forgeable as 12%
VI inaterials. The titanium alloy has to be forged at
a lower temperature which means that more energy
i b re~iuiredto forge a certain amount. Also, since all
tlililliilln alloys are very activc chemically at high
I~~liipcratures, surface contamination is another pro-
I,Iclii encountered when forging.
hlnchining is possible, if slow speeds are used,
1 ~ 1 1 1 :I propensity for cmbrittlement by contamination
clld lack of heat penetration make welding difficult.
I I I L , ~gasI welding is the normal solutio!~ but this is
lltiie consuming and costly.
'l'llc main problems of titanium are high cost and
I!I,O~ vibration characteristics. The cost of titanium
~ l l l l y is several times that of standard 12% C r blade
I~li~lcl-ial and a row of titanium blades normally costs
l\so la three times that of a steel row. all factors
, material damping of titanium is very poor,
g from 10% t o 40% of that of 12% Cr blade
' I. Thus there is a potential for higher vibratory
when opera tin^ the titanium blade a t o r near
tarl~ilance.Also Young's Modulus of titanium is low
brill, since the flexibility is relatively high, natural
111':iiirncies arc depressed and harmonics are more
t'ln\i'iIed in the running range.
111 view o f the lower cost and imoroved ~ r o n e r t i e s
ril llir Super 12% Cr steels, it is'unlikel; that ti-
iilli~ltiialloys will supersede tltese steels for L P mov-
blading on UK steam turbines in the near future.
waver, because of its hlgh strength/weight ratio,
' Irn is used extensively for lacing wire and for
landing and shrouding.
Blade vibration control
Natural f r e q u e n c i e s a n d excitation
of the large number of blades in any turbine
nc, the existence of unavoidable sources of
ilion excitation and the serious consequences of
l'itiiure of just one blade, an intimate knowledge
Iri~dcrstandingof the vibration characteristics of
Iblitdes in their operating environment is essential.
'Tlic vibiaiioii clr;iiacteiistics of t u ~ b i n e iniicl~iix
blades, as lnicasiised n,,clci- opciating condiliol~s, ;air
usually found to be cxtiemely complox and oiici,
quite different from tl~eoretical predictions. There
are several reasons for this.
First, in spite of tlte advances in finite element
computatio~i in recent years, the intricate geometry
of a blade, whlcli is denlanded for aerodynamic pes-
farmance, makes it a very difficult component to
analyse theoretically. Consequently, predictions for
the modes and freooencies of a sinale cantilevered
biade may not always be very accurate. Then, a second
factor which compounds the problem, is the existence
of muitiple interactions between each blade and all
the other blades in the same stage due to coupling
through the disc and shrouds or lacing wires linking
adjacent blades. These interactions lcad to the predic-
tion of a muitiplicity of modes in the working fre-
quency range, where for a single blade there are only
two or three. Thc vibration of a fully-bladcd disc is
therefore much Inlore complicated than is suggested
by the characteristics of a single cantilever blade.
An individual blade, cantilevered at its root, has a
set of natural frequencies in the operating range which
arc classified in three groups: 'flap' modes, 'edgewise'
modes and torsion modes. The disc carrying a set of
such blades itself possesses several natural frequencies
within the same range, each one of these being associated
with a mode mode shape having n nodal diameters
(and possibly one or two nodal circles as well). The
complete bladed disc has a very large number of
modes of vibration in the same frequency range, and
each of thesc will constitute a unique mix of the
individual blade and disc modes. Some of thesc as-
sembly modes will be identified as being 'prcdo-
minantly disc' modes, while others will be Immediately
associated with one of the biade cantilever modes,
in both cases by virtue of the iespectivc natural
frequencies.
Other modes exist which are associated with tlrc
fully-bladed wheel assembly and arc quite distinct from
disc or blade modes. When there is additional inter-
blade coupling provided by some form of shrouding
either at the tip or part-span, then most of the modcs
of the complete structure will tend t o be wheel modcs,
and small modifications to the shrouding or lacing
can result In significant changes in the pattern of
wheel natural freauencies.
5.7.2 S o u r c e s of vibration excitation
Vibration excitation can arise from a variety of sources
but principally involves the following categories:
(a) Non-uniform pressures, velocity or changes in the
angle of steam flow resulting in a periodic fluc-
tuating force on the rotating blades. This may be
caused by:
Tlie stearn Turbine Chapter 1 Turbi~icl~laiiiii(i
..

slcan1 soiati,,g ia,,s or.ci o,iiy 3
par~ioilof its circolal- path (liariial admissioll).
cxis,;,, of some
l i p turbines but not in LP stages.
c A change in the direction of' flo\v, partico-
larly from axial t o radial a1 exit from moving
blades. Good aerodynamic design shouid mini-
mise the magnitude of this non-uniformity
and ensure that multil,le I~armonics o f the
. synchronous speed are not produced.
Flow
of extraction
by the prcse,lce
passages for feedheatel
1 1 1 ~stationa~yS i o \ ~passages, tliese call incItIdC:
e Acoustic resonances in inlct \>assages, erlractio~l
lines or other cavilies, excited by the fio\l past
thein.
r Voiler-shedding fr,om stay bars, etc.
e unsteady flaw separation from stationary bladcs, etc.
m Unstcady shocks in choked stationary blade pass-
ages.
8 iiI:iil~,ii or inaliiial Srcqoencie can be clicckcd. IPio-
viili'il ilia! cantileuci vihi-atioii tcsts confirm that tlic
..lii,:lc-blade rrequincies are in accordance a,itl~ re-
~(ili!cinents,a complete bladed disc is manufactu~erl.
I l l i . bladed disc is thcn tested by fitting piezo- VI~HFIIIt i ~ ~ o <or
i r ~,,<!~C,,,OI$IC
t
(.lcl.l~iccrystals at selected positions on the wheel and
icruiding the modal shapes and natural frequencies.
Siilce the natural frequencies o f all blade rows,
t~ircilt llie last few L P stages, arc generally above 9
e i ~ l l t h engine order (400 Hz for a 3000 i/min 2

e Surface p~.essurciluctuatioos, due to impingement

tappings.
(b) Periodic effects due to manufacturing colistrainfs
or structural feattires. These can include:
of turbulent flow out0 rotating blade shrouds, discs,
lrliine), static testing is usually sufficient to confirm
ssible resonances will bc well removed from
11s which the blades will experience in service.
3
8
etc.
onal frequency below the eighth order. Also,
1, the blades then~selves, flow instability, flexibility of longer twisted blades changes

e Incxact matching of stationary blade geometry

at horizontal joints. Blade-pitching at diaphragm
ltorizontal joints be ,,,,iform and {],is
.
and hence excitation, can arise from:
Boundary layer pressure fluctuations.

e Vortex-shedding from blade trailing edges, causing

1)' with speed, the bladed discs must bc tested
running range to ensure that natural frc-

can to excitation at even multiples unsteady aerodynamic force. Also windage, particularly near the blade I'l~i. 1.90 1'1,~icnl'Carnpbcii Diaginsi' fo, a
of rotationai frequency. r Recil.culating fla%', particularly in last-stage LP xiid cause overheating and make tlic results loir' pressare blade

Leakage through gaps in stationary blade
shrouds and diaphragm discs at llorizontal
joints. The current arrangement o f diaphragm
support precludes this effect.
Eccentricity of diaphragms and other station-
ary elements with respect to the rotating blade
assembly. Again, current design practice should
minimise this.
.
unsteady condensation shocks, caused by SUperSatUra-
in diverging passages,
* necessary condition for high resonant "ibratory
is the coincidence between the frequency of a
harmonic component (of significantly high magnitude)
and tile natural frequency o f a mode of vibration of
a blade, or a blade group, or bladed disc assembly.
l i l l lo interpret. For thesc reasons, the complete
ti disc is run in a vacuum wheel chamber, whcrc
i~il;~)'of magnets is used to stimulate impulses
I f a wheel mode and a harmonic of rotatiollal
1~ 011 each blade as it Passes. The disc is r u n U P
fl.equeitcy coincide below the engine order,
('yo synchronous speed and the blade vibration selected modes may be 'tuned out, by adjusting the
lcctcd by strain gauges or crystals. Signals are blade mass,
11 o ~ either
t through slipi-ings on the shaft or,
near the tip. ~h~ geometry
of tip ties ol. coverbands can be altered, or material
reccntl),, by telemetry and the frequency and added to/removed from material
o f these components may be changed. Altering the
i. rr'ilmining particular resonances, it is possibie position of shrouding change
modes over the speed range.

.
0 Ellipticity of stationary parts, such as end
walls, seals, etc.
in the gauge tl,ickness of
stationary blades, Modern quality and
this effect
Moisture removal slots.
All the above sources give rise to excitation fre-
quencies a t the rotational frequency or low multi-
ples (harmonics) of that frequency.
(c) Nozzle wake excitation caused by the aerodynamic
force.fluctuations seen by the rotating blade as
it passes each stationary blade or traverses each
stationary blade pitch. hi^ is seen by the rotating
blades as excitation at the nozzle passing ire.
quency (rotational frequency x number of stationary
blades) and its multiples.
A number of sources can also give rise t o excitation
having n o direct relationship t o rotational speed. In
With a continuously-connected blade row, a resonance
lilt drawl1 011 a 'Campbell Diagram' similar to
condition is associated with a multinodal standing
wave pattern around the circumference. This, how-
ever, is not always a sufficient condition. It is also
necessary that the distribution of vibratory deforma-
tions and the distribution o f exciting forces have a
relationship that permits a net input of energy into the
vibration.
For example, consider a long blade vibrating in a
mode with one displacement node (point of zero dis-
placement). The upper portion of the blade deflects
in one direction when the lower portion deflects in
the opposite direction. If the distribution of exciting
force along the height o f the blade is essentially
uniform, then the upper portion of the blade wants
t o respond a t a phase angle 180' different from that
of the lower portion. The net response of the blade
to this exciting force would therefore be very low.
5.7.3 Verification of estimated natural frequencies
a n d w h e e l c h a m b e r tests
After a prototype blade has been designed on paper,
a single blade is made in mild steel so that the cal-
''$1 in Fig 1.90. Radial order lines througi~
1 rellresent events that occur a fixed number
resonance occurring dur-
It is usual t o confine attention to within
speed (i.e., 2820 t o 3180 r/min).
tllis speed range, the specified requirement is
n o resonances up t o the eighth engine order.
M e t h o d s of vibration control
1111 lacti tical to 'tune' blades to avoid reso-
ill~o\'cthe eighth engine order. The harmonics
'lorc together and natural frequencies cannot
lli~lcd or controlled to sufficient accuracy.
luly, excitation forces at these high frequen-
illill and are incapable o f exciting complex
frequency of modes and it may eve,l be pas.
~ i b kin certain
to adjust the blade
profile. Experience has shown that a continuous lacing
or tip tie arrangement is less likely to form complex
inodes of vibration than blades connected in groups
or packets, and is more predictable. Complex modes
are likely to be excited by high frequencies and are
almost impossible to 'tune outx,
The damping afforded by 'loose' pins, tip ties,
lacing wire, etc. and the choice of blade material,
minimises the effect o f random or broadband exci-
tation which is difficult to quantify. Damping re-
duces the response to resonances as erosion or impact
damage changes the natural frequencies of particular
modes and bring these natural frequencies into closer
coincidence with harmonics o f rotational speed.
5.8 ~~~~i~~
protection
5.8.1 Erosion m e c h a n i s m
The last stages of large condensing turbines operate
in the wet steam region, where the steam contains

74 75
 Tlie steam liitbine
5 iZO1O ioi\arel. 'l'iirbiiie biade eiosion is initiated by
a reiativcly stuaii proportion of the water dropiets
in tlic steain separating olit and coiiecting o n tlic
concave prcssure facc of thc diaphragm biades, where
a film is formed which is drawn towards the trailing
edge by the drag of the steam. Here the filni grows
and passes around the trailing cdgc an to the convex
facc wilere, usually in a region of strong secondary
flow, droplets move back and forth increasing in
sire until they are torn away by the shearing action of
the main steam flow. Relatively iargc drops (50-200
pm in diameter) are produced and have t o be acce-
lerated fro111 rest by tlie steam. These laigc drops
arrive at thc inlet plane of the moving blade row at
only a fraction of the absolute velocity of the stcam
and arc subsequently struck by the convex surfaces
of the moving blade r o u ~ ,This causes the abrasion
on the leading edge of the blade known as erosion
Fig 1.91.
SIATIONRRY DIAPWRAOM
a
IMPACTVELOCITY
J i'.ahcll design (Figs 1.92 and 1.93). This has
-----(--===*----
-----------&--DROPLET VECTOR
TRIANGLE
STEAM VECTOR
TRIANGLE
I'lci. 1.91 Relative inipacf relociiy onto iari-stage
lnovilis blades
5.8.2 Erosion progression
When a drop impinges on t o the blade surface, a
very high pressure shock is generated for a short
period. The pressure wave causes plastic deformation
of the material and repeated plastic deformation
leads t o an increase in the internal stress. After a
certain time, the stress concentrations in some areas
exceed the tensile strength of the material, a n d cracks
form. During this incubation, o r primary period of
erosion, there is little or no weight loss. When the
cracks spread and join, however, the result is material
breakdown. Tiny pieces of surface material are re-
leased and, during this secondary period, erosion rate
increases t o a maximum.
After the surface has become uniformly pitted,
76
there foliows a tcstiary period during W I I I C ~ ) l i i i
lerial ion by erosion falis logaritillllicaliy nil\.
arid after about a year iniay almost ceasc, 'it!
babie explanation fur this is that thc poirr
surface ai' the blade where erosion has
are partly-filled with water. This cushions llic ii111
o f the drops sti.iking thc blade and the impacl
are only transfericd to the material in a
form.
5.8.3 Protection a n d erosion shield materlo
Methods have been investigated for collecting
from thc stationary blade passage, including rein
by suction through slots near the outer edge
low fixed blades or by bled-steam belts
before tlie last stages. These methods have 11,
advantage that they autoinatically reduce perfoiln
The adoption of higher heat drops in the iasl
together with higher mass flow loading and i
pressure at inlet to the moving blades, can lea<
smaller droplets whose velocities more rapidly t
proach that of the entraining steam. This can icr~t
in reduced imnact velocitv and erosion effect.
It bas been the practice for inany years to pro1
tlle leading edge and part of the convex surfa
the last-stage moving blades by surface harde
or by the attacliment (by silver soldering, or $11
recently by electron beam welding) of a shield m
from a hard material such as tungsten, chromium t
steel or Stellite 6 0 .
Attachment is always followed by the most stringet
non-destructive examination of the joints. Erosion
thc original biade material around thc shield ci
lead to undercutting of the shield material and eventi1
shield detachment. Coverbands, blade upstands $31
tip ties can also suffer from droplet erosion. It
therefore considered prudent to inspect the blad
during overhauls. Even if tlie erosion shield do
not become detached, the shields wili erode in tin1
and will probably need t o be replaced at least oil
during the life of the machine.
6 Turbine casings
6.1 Forms of casing construction
A turbine cylinder is essentially a pressure vessel wit
its weight sunnorted at each end on the llorizonta
centreline. l t i s designed to withstand hoop stresses
in the transverse plane, and t o be very stiff in the
longitudinal direction in order t o maintain accurate
cieatances between t h e stationary and rotating parts
of the turbine.
--
., r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l > l ib!c! ; t111e
! c ~need
i f o r intcrna
iilp lhciiili splil along their liarizolll;iI
i i t i j ~tlic lolor to he inserted as a colil-
t $1-. Sul~sii~iitialfianges and bolting arc
2 wllliiti~~iti the ~liessuscforces at llie lioii-
'I Ill. ~clalivelyniassive flanges respond
11s ielnl,urature cilangcs Illail thc rest
t i l t , resulting in different rates o f expao-
hcilinjpog of temperature stresses and
Itl~oi~yh rliese are minimised by the ap-
litingr warming steam. Further stress
Ir sct up by the gland housing and steam
c i ~ s i n gare of cast construction and are
i i,rirrs-section to minimise non-membrane
inl,)rr!,, bolting, steam penetrations and other
8th l i ~ ras possible symmetrically arranged
ir11ni~1 asymmetry and hence distortion.
ti~tly be fabricated or a combination of
I,! li~brications.
t i t it11 ipiessurc vessels, the integrity o f the
cukeil after manufacture with a hydraulic
o 150% of the highest working pressure.
Nigh pressure c a s i n g s
oilctti 1~1l-bines,with steam pressures over 100
i!~licigsgreater than 100 MW, have H P casings
plcrl because of the difficulty of designing a
!;it18 lo withstand the thermal and pressure
IKI yct be capable of flexible operation. With
ili,rliell casing, the space between the shells is
v,illi sleani at exhaust conditions, allowing each
to bc designed for smaller tcmperature and
1. ililfcrentials. A baffle is farmed between thc
ii..in>:s near the exhaust end as part of the innei-
i.;isiii~g.The baffle extends almost to the outer
docs not seal against it. The turbulent cr-
is directed by the baffle to the exhaust
nd prevented from cooling the inner casing;
uces the tcmperature differentials and hence
,!I the inlet end of the inner casing. Steam leaking
tl?e gland between the inner casing and the rotor
nlet end is piped away to the exhaust connec-
the space between the casings contains
xhaust conditions with a gentle flow being
~ l i ~ i n eby d leakage through the outer casing giand.
rriialier Dressure differential oermits a thinner
~\,liich,combined with the larger surface area of
\hiecasing, allows quicker warming of the turbine
iirt-up. Thinner shelis are also easier t o cast and
kcly to have fewer defects.
11 sornc machines. reversed flow blading has been
, where the steam is diverted b a c i between
ngs part way through its expansion, continuing
the final stages in the opposite direction.
rangement gives a higher inter-shell pressure
temperature, reducing the stress on the hot inner
Turbine casiogs
sliell at tlie capciise of the ouler sheli, it also perinits
siniplc blcd-stcaln tapping ;it !he iotcr-shell conditio~li
and reduces the net tliri~slon l11c 1-11' rotor.
Tiipic casings have bcen used on some modern
toshines to fuillicr reduce the stresses on the hot
inncr casing, and hence reduce therillai distortion.
The inner casing is enclosed in a ba~.rel-iike sleeve
wiiicli has no lhoiizontal joint. The inner casing is only
lightly stressed and can be relatively thin with light
flanges, whilst the barrel casing which encloses it is
more highly stressed. 'The barrel casing, however, having
no flanges and bcing of uniform thickness, can easily
be designed to accornmodatc the strcsses whilst also
remaining iciativciy thin. The pressure between the
inner casing and the bal-iei is controlled by small
radial passages tlirough tlie inner cylinder wails and
piston ring seals between the innei and barrel casings.
One disadvantage o f this form of triple casing is
the dilficuity in assembling and dismantling tlle HP
cyiieder. On assembiy, the rotor has t o be fitted into
tlie inner and outer lower half, the inner casing boited
up, and then the rotor and innei- casing lifted and
mounted in a special jig to allow the barrel to bc
threaded over them. Thc assembly can then be lowered
back into the bottom half of the outer casing, and the
top-half outer casing added.
The steam inlet pipes pass througli the outer casing
and deliver the steam into the inlet belt o f the inner
casing. The inlet belt is formed by a n extension to
the main casing which ensures that the inlet steam
cannot come directly into contact with the rotor but
must first pass out through the nozzlcs and the first
raw of moving blades. T h e inlet belt is often blanked
at the casing joint t o reduce the pressure on the joint
face, although care must be taken that the admission
o f stcam to the first stage is not interrupted.
With steam temperatures at inlet in excess of
538"C, separate nozzle boxes of heat-resistant steel
are sometimes used t o protect the casing from the
full temperature. These take the place of the inlet belt,
delivering steam from the inlet penetrations t o the
first stage nozzles.
Some overseas units have nozzle governing instead
of the throttle governing employed on all large CEGB
machines. With nozzle governing, the inlet belt is
divided into sections, each controlled by a separate
valve opening in sequence, resulting in a more com-
plicated casting and the need for stronger first-stage
moving blades.
The stationary blading is carried in diaphragms
which are supported and guided in the inner cylinder
by keys near the horizontal joint and vertical centre-
line, permitting concentric expansion. O n modern
machines the tip seals and shrouding for the moving
blades are usually carried on an extension of the
adjacent diaphragm. Earlier designs had separate
sealing strips supported between the diaphragms.
H P cylinders o n wet steam machines, such as those
on PWR stations, are different in design, being more
77

like standard IP cylinders. Further details are given
in Chapter 2.
6.1.2 I n t e r m e d i a t e p r e s s u r e c a s i n g s
In modern reheat machines, the design considerations
for IP cylinders are similar t o those for H P cylinders,
the steam being a t a similar temperature but lower
pressure, which allows 1P casings t o be thinner. In
general, machines over 300 MW rating have at least
a partial double-casing covering the first few stages,
subsequent stages being supported by carrier rings
constrilctioli wiili a n iniicl casing containing d i ; i ~
piiragrn siipporis, blcd-steam and water cntraclio~,
beits, and a n oilier casing directing the exhaust la
thc condensers and providing sui~ctuialsupport for
the inller casing (Fig 1.96). This is not always so,
Ihoweves, particularly with pannio condensers where
a single casing may bc employed. The large size of
LP outer casings combined with their low pressure
loading favours a fabricated rather than cast con-
struction, Inner casings which are more complex can
be fabricated or cast depending on economic consi-
derations. All casings have boited horirontai joints.
L P cylinders are virtually all of double-flow design
but vary greatly in layout due to the different can-
denser configurations. The latest practice for con-
densers is similar to early 'undcrslung' designs with
separate condensers underneath each cylinder, tubed
transversely, allowing easy access t o both condenser
and LP cylinder. Foundation columns, bearing and
cylinder supports are located between condensers.
However, during the development of 500 MW ma-
chines, variations of thc turbine and condenser ar-
rangement were tried, both to simplify the L P casing
support arrangcmenls, to increase the area and shorten
the exhaust connections. The four arrangements used
.
were:
The oxiol condenser, which permits the L P turbines
t o be supported o n two parallel walls. Space has
t o be allowed beneath the generator for tube
withdrawal.
The bridge condenser, which bridges the gap be-
tween the I P turbine block and the generator. It
is constructed in the form of two deep girders,
which carry two parallel rigid solepiates for the
LP turbille support. The condenser tubes are
mounted transversely. This construction uses a lot
of stccl.
The pannier condenser; here the tubes are mounted
axially with the condensers themselves mounted
on either side of the turbine, so that the steam
is exhausted horizontally into the condensers. The
advantage of this arrangement is that the exhaust
steam flow from the turbines is facilitated, which
cuts down the hood loss; in addition, construction
savings are made by having a reduced basement
depth.
8 The integral condenser, which is a development of
. the pannier type; the condensers and L P turbine
altllcr end; this keeps the outside of the casing and outer casings are combined in a single structure
!llC bolts cooler, allowing smaller diameter bolts to containing internal ribs t o give it adequate stiffness.
Irr tlsed. Access t o the bearings is obtained via wells, and
access t o the turbine inner shells is obtained by
removing the top cover plates. Here again, the
8.1.3 Low p r e s s u r e c a s i n g s basement depth is small and there is direct support
1'1' cylinders (Fig 1.96) are often of double-casing beneath the bearings.
18
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The steam turbine Chaplet 1 Turbine
-.

l.'lci. 1.96 Axial sectioo 01 an Ll' iurbiiie cyli8lder

Fealuies include: fabricated inner and outel cylinders. bled.sleam bclis i n ille intier cylinder, turning vanes ar iilc exllaust.
and glands rupporied by bearings wit11 a bellows connection lo the olrfei casing.

6.2.1 Flange design
The forces taken into account in flange design are
illustrated in Fig 1.98. The flange is assumed to seal
at the inside edge, with the faces subject to a contact
pressure greater than the internal cylinder pressure.
T o minimise bending stress on the flanges, the bolt
centreline is arranged tangential to the siieli as can
be seen in Figs 1.93 and 1195; this produces the typi-
cal thick narrow flange seen on H P and 1P cyiinders,
The seal is obtained by simple metal-lo-metal contact
of the flange faces, after careful bedding on initial
assembly.
after a period in service, they are often found to
have distorted so that they no longer fit, typically
leaving a gap between the fianges on the inside face.
Thls is due to temperature differences through the
casing on-load causing thermal stresses which relax
by creep. When off-load, opposite stresses are then
induced which distort the casing. This is generally
confined to inner casings as there is very little tem-
perature differential through a n outer casing on-load
! I .7 \\ rb < . . < , . o l ! . I I I I ~ : . : , l P . : . ~ : . . ~ : r ~f.a~.. \l\<'~.rt,#fu: 1 . h ~ I > h ~ r ? t l.IN>.
! :<>J: L . : ~
due to the external lagging. i n addition, distortion . > : r... 1 I . . I .:I! ,1>...1,::., < "<.J. ! : , c ] 1,: ,,.:L">b~.ol<~8r
can occur due to relaxation of residual casting stresses.
If distortion causes a small flange leak on an inner
A .

L,,. ,,..;,.>..,1;r,.,\.,,: .,.; rc , : . , , , , 3 ' , .,."C, . Il:,, V ! . "j.,. <,E<'I.,,>.#,<be,.:,*!,,. 1c:

When flanges on H P and IP cylinders are unbolted casing, it may not be noticed unless large enough to
The steam) turbine Turbine casin(j!:

lhead of the inill or enlircly ciicolai nuti a,itii siii;iIi
holes diilicd in tllerii, aliowing then, lo be lurned by
tommy bars. Bccarlsc of f~.iction,ihc iiecessal.y bnlt
tension could not be achieved in the large diaincic~
casing baits simply by turning the nuts, even if lolgc
flogging spanners could be used. Instead, the i i l t l s
are first tightei~cdby hand; the bolts are then heaicil
t o expand them, and the nuts again tighteocd thy
hand tilrough an angle calcuiated t o give the correcl
bolt-tension after the bolt coois down. By measurin
rod into a thin hale drilled down the centre of ea
bolt, thus heating the bolt without sig~tificantlywar8
ing the flanges (Fig 1.99). Tlic same method can i
used for undoing or retightening the bolts.
An alternative method of tightening the bolts
riaiiii I>ul ihas uic ;adi,antagc of alloa~ingimmediate by lhc barrel casing, i t is lpossiblc lo lhavc exiiaiistr
r l ~ i - c l . i of
~ , ~the bolt lellsioil ~ ~ ~ i l h owaiting
ot for ten^ ;it ail four bolla,n corners of liic lawel- casing.
~ w ~ ~ : ~ l ~stabilise,
t w s t o agaili by measuring the cxteosion
iiiici cylinders are assembled with the lower i~alf
11,c casing rcsting in its final position insidc tile 6.3.3 IP e x h a u s t s
ili:i czising. It is thtis awkward lo usc norniai bolls
11' cylinders gcnel-ally have two or four inlets ar-
llii! inner casing and studs are often used instead,
ranged in a similar manner to the H P . The IP exhaust
: screwed into the lower casiing and then tight-
positions are detcrmilied by the positions of the
in the normal manner. Alternatively, a square
crossover pipes to the LI' inlets. With underslung
on the bolt a t the horizontal joint a l l o ~ , sthe
condensers, the LP itlieis and crossovers are usually
nut t o be assembled and tigittened before the
o n the top half, hence I P exhausts are also at the
top. However, arranging IP exhaust and LP inlet
pipes in the lowcr half casing reduces the amount
lernal flange, but L P casings may also be bolted
af pipework to be disconnected when cylinders arc
IIP some of the internal webs if access through
opened, and is thus easier if thc condenser arrange-
~ilioiesis possible. Thc bolts used on L P casings,
ment allows it.
~ l iof smail diameter, are tightened by spanner
ilic conventional manner to a controlled torque.

6.3.4 Use of thermal s k i r t s and piston rings

the fiange or adjacent bolts, instead of by therm
expansion. Thc hydraulic equipment is more cumbe
FIG. 1.98 Diagra811 oi forces 0s casing flallgei
The reaction at Ole nangei is lligher at ihe oulside oi tile
caiins ilian the insidc. The pressure betweexi the naiiges a1
~ i l eiliride jniurt exceed llic inleriial cyiindel piersure lo
prcvcnt steam leaking between the joint racer.
have a n effect on the measured efficiency of thc
turbine, unless it is a wet steam turbine, when rapid
erosion of the joint face at the leak may occur.
L P inner casings may also distort substantially due
t o their complicated design of webs, bled-steam belts,
etc., and to the substantial temperature differences
between different parts of the casing. This can lead
t o crushing of the webs and distortion of horizontal
joints, though leakage can be minimised by incor-
porating spring sealing-strips in the half-joint faces.
6.2.2 Bolting
The design of bolting on HP and 1P cylinders is
complicated by the need to place the bolts close to-
gether to get the necessary distribution of stress in
the flange. Special nuts are used to allow close spac-
ing, either cap nuts with faces cut o n the reduced
Fo.1 9 g Thermal-lightening of nange baits
The heating element is inserted into the lhollow boil
to oxpand il. The nut is then hand-tightened by a prc-
determined amount and the bolt is allowed to cool, taking
up its full lension as it contracts.
steam at the joint, typically after 30 000 11
bolt iailurc. A record of the history of all high
the creep ductility of the material; this often
is changing steam chest cover bolts, hut this is
,I!, necessary for turbine casing bolts.
0.3 External connections
1 in order to minimise inlet losses. Usually either
or four inlets are used; with two, the pipes are
icai, making it easy t o wilhdiaw the inlet pipe
11 the casing; with four, all the pipes enter a t an
8,3.2 HP e x h a u s t s
141' exhausts are arranged in such a way as t o keep
Il~ccold exhaust steam away from the hot inner cas-
Ill0 lo reduce temperature differentials and stresses.
Hcnce, o n double-casing machines, a baffle is used
and all the exhausts are a t one end. They are usually
In the bottom half t o facilitate dismantling. On triple-
raring machines, where the inner casing is protected
To allow for differences in temperature where the
inlet lpipes enter the cylinder, the H P and 11' pipes arc
attached to the outer casing through flanged thermal
skirts (Figs 1.92 and 1.94). Thc skirt, which is bolted
lo the outer casing, reduces the conduction o f heat
from the inlct .~ i. o cto the casinc.and accommodates
the differential expansion between the hot pipe and
the cooler casing by elastic deformation. It also carries
the pipe forces into the outer casing: minimising the
load on the inner. The outer casing is reinforced t o
minimise stresses and thermal discontinuities at the
joint. Piston rings are used t o seal the joint between
the pipe and the inner casing; these allow for differ-
ential expansion in the radial direction between the
casings and a srnall degree of transverse movement.
The piston rings may be of tiic conventional split
type, housed in a groove, or unsplit rings in the
'stacked' ring design. The split type may be 'outspring-
ing', housed in grooves in the pipe and springing out
against the casijlg; or 'inspringing', which are housed
between spacers in the casing and spring in to seal
against the pipe. The 'stacked' design uses unsplit
rings stacked in the gap between the pipe and the
casing. They are not sprung against either surface
but are a close tolerance against the pipe and the
casing alternately (Fig 1.100). Several rings are used
in series to reduce the pressure drop across each,
and hence reduce steam leakage; however, there should
no1 be too many rings, as a lightly loaded ring can
vibrate and wear excessively. The split rings are made
of a high temperature creep-resistant material, such
as Stellite or a Nimonic alloy, in order t o retain their
springiness; the unsplit rings are made from a low
alloy steel. Stellite-coated bearing surfaces or Stellite
inserts in the casings reduce wear.
The exhaust steam connections are attached directly
t o the outer casing. When attached to the lower cas-
ing, where they are unlikely t o need disconnecting,
they are simply welded t o stubs o n the casing.
85
 systems

Viscorily, hiacala~ica< 4n°C, eill?/r ("$1) rili8, 28.R 41.4

~rax 35.2 50.6
Viscoilii i~,dex lllili 70 70
1:lasll~oiei. closed. 'C. I'cnskv-Maricnr ox,,3 16s VAR

Pour point, 'C

Total acidify, nig KOH/g ~ ~

Coppui corrorios, classiricaiio~~ (3 houvs at 1 0 0 ~ ~ ) mah 2 2 2 2 ,$

:$,a
llull-preventing ~llaiacieri$~icr rusliilg vusting rusting ttwi810 4

Foain, mi, a 24'C >mar 450 450 600

at 93.S°C
211 24'C ariei icst rl 9 3 . 5 ' ~ ma* 450 450 600 6011
Foam rlabilif), after 303 s
Toan,. ini. ai 24OC mar Nil Nil 100 ill0
ai 935°C nlax Nil Nil 25 25
at 24'C after terl a, 93.S°C rnax Nil Nil 100 I011
A i l ieleasc propercier, imitiutei to 0.2% air content a, 5nDc 6 7 I0
Oxidation ciinracterisiicr:
Total oxidation products (TOP) will? sludge lirnited ,a
40% of the derer8niiied TOP
N o catalyst. % max 0.1 0. I 0. I 0.1
Solid copper catalyst. % duration or tests 164 iiours niax 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Solubie metal catalysts, oh max 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

The oil pressure used to lift the rotors is around

300 bar and with the use of mineral oil in close pion-
imity to high temgerature comoonents. this reoreseots
a fire hazard unless special precautions are taken.
Older units used a single pump with long pipelines
..
components include:

to feed each bearing and with this arrangement oil
leakage does occur. On modern units, the high pres-
sure pumps are mounted in or on the bearing pedestals
(see Fig 2.66). Details of the pumps used are given
in Section 6.2 of this chapter. A pressure relief valve
is fitted in the discharge line from each pump in order
to prevent over pressurisation and overload damage.
lacking oil is also provided to the turning gear journal
bearings during start-up and shutdown.
The pipework systems use Class 1 welded pipe joints
and all the high pressure pipework is contained within
the pedestal. Figure 2.67 shows the arrangement used
for the turning-gear jacking oil pump, but is typical of
these installations.
6.10 Greasing systems
Various components require greasing in operation to
ensure smooth linear or rotational movement between
components; oil lubrication is not appropriate. These
pedestals'baseplatea.
Steam valve gear pivots.
Previously, attempts were made to provide autom;,.
tic greasing systems, using a motor-driven multi-
piston pump with long pipelines conveying the grease
to the various components. Unfortunately, separation
and hardening of the grease constituents in the pipe-
lines resulted in frequent blockages and inadequate
lubrication.
Modern plant uses bearings consisting of a sintered-
bronze matrix, impregnated with PTFE, on a steel
backing strip. These bearings are now used under the
main pedestals and are provided with manual greasing
points. The greasing channels are provided with suffi-
cient area so that the total grease pressure can over-
come the deadweight and allow the grease to spread
over the bearing surfaces. Grease leakage 'tell tales'
are provided so that the effectiveness o f the greasing
operation can be checked. In order to prevent the ingress
of grit and foreign matter, the pedestals are provided
with dust shields.
Examples of the greasing points provided on the
main steam valve gear pivots are shown on Fig 2.68.
Turbine plant svsteins Gland sealing system
-
7iiis priocipie can bc extended to a greater iiumbcr
oC iaise diameter fins, bu! !he iiombev of effeciivc
restrictions pel. i i r r l t o f axial Ieiigth becomes progres-
sively less and it beconies preferable to adopt a simpler
form of seal, such as those shown in Fig 2.69 (a), where
the larger number of restrictions compensate for the
decreased efficiency compared with the stepped gland.
Another design of giand that is independent o f
differential expansion is the vernier gland shown in
Fig 2.69 (d). Both the shaft and seal ring are finned,
the pitch of the fins being slightly different on the
two seal components. This has the advantage that some
of the fins will always be directly opposite, providing
a -areater restriction.
Figure 2.70 (a) shows a form of labyrinth gland with
axial as well as radial fins which increases the number
o f restrictions in a given length of gland.
The tip thickness of labyrinth glands is made as
i:l(i. 2.67 Sllatl luvriirig gear, jacking oii pump
thin as piacticabie so that if a n accidental rub occurs
between thc shaft and the gland, the fins will rub away
with little heating of the shaft. A heavy rub would
quickly generate so much heat that the shaft would
7 Gland sealing system
bend and become unbalanced.

7.1 Function and system layout

Giands and seals are used o n turbines t o prevent or
reduce the leakage of steam or air between rotating
and stationary components that have a pressure
difference across them, for example, where the turbine
shaft is extended through the cylinder endwalls t o
the atmosphere. When the cylinder pressure is higher
than atmospheric, there will be a general steam leakage
outwards: if the cylinder contains steam below atmos-
pheric pressure, the tendency is for air to leak inwards
and the sealing system is designed t o prevent the air
from entering the cylinder and the condenser.
As most of the steam leakage from glands does not
pass through the turbine stages, a loss of power output of grease poilils
is invoived and every effort is made to reduce this ICl Double stepped Iabyi8nlh
power loss by an efficient arrangement of seais and
glands.
In the more recent larger steam-turbines, the labyrinth of pressure energy; ideally, when the steam enters the
gland is in general use, although the carbon ring gland expansion chamber, the kinetic energy is converted
and the water seal gland may be found in old& tur- by turbulence into heat with n o recovery of pressure
bines. The labyrinth gland acts as a restrictor to both energy. In practice, as the steam is throttled a t suc-
steam and air leakage. cessive restrictions a t approximately constant enthalpy
the pressure is progressively reduced.
T o ensure that the maximum kinetic energy is con-
7.1.1 Labyrinth glands verted in the expansion chambers, the finned ring and
The labyrintli gland has superseded the carbon ring the shaft are usually stepped as shown in Fig 2.69 (b).
gland o n large steam turbines because it can withstand This type of gland can only be used where the axiai
higher steam conditions. The labyrinth gland consists differential expansions between the rotor and casing
of a ring with a series o f machined fins that form a are small. Stepped labyrinth glands may have an alter-
number of fine annular restrictions, every restriction native arrangement with two o r more large diameter
being followed by an expansion chamber. A simple form id) Vernier labyrinth {b) Spr~ng-backabyrinlh
fins as shown in Fig 2.69 (c). This arrangement is able
of labyrinth seal is shown in Fig 2.69 (a). to accept a larger change in relative axial dimensions
As steam enters the restriction, the velocity in- since, under all conditions, a t least two of the three
creases and kinetic energy is developed at the expense fins per pitch form effective restrictions. Fic. 2.69 Plain, stepped and vernier labyrinth glands nc. 2.70 Axial radial and labyiililh glands

198

Turbine plant systems
The radial clearance and diameter 01' thc labyrinth
gland is made as slnall as possible, since the leakage
f l o , ~tiirough the gland is directiy proportional to the
leakage area. In praclice, the niinimuni radial clear-
four or nlore segments.
velocity through the final restriction cannot exceed
mass flow will occur. Thus for a gland with a given
number of restrictions, there is an associated pressure
ratio that produces the maximum leakage through
Tlie gland sealing system is designed to supply
steam to seal the turbine shaft glands at all operating
conditions and to extract leak-off steam from thc
7.1.2 S y s t e m layout
A typical gland sealing system is shown in Fig. 2.71.
leak-off steam produces a useful thermal gain over
the permanent use of live steam. The changeover from
one source of sealing steam to the other is entirely
T o ensure that the steam is supplied to the glands
at a suitable temperature, it is cooled by desuper-
heaters. An H P desuperheater regulates the tempera-
ture of the steam of the HP/IP glands and an LP
desuperheater regulates the temperature of the steam
to the LP glands. Some systems also employ a third
desuperheater to cool the steam which is bled to an
LP heater during on-load operation.
In order to reduce the loss of energy in external
glands at the ends of the H P and I P cylinders, and
to promote a gradual temperature gradient along a
shaft, it is usual to divide such glands into sections,
Gland sealing system
leading slcain back lo iu, appropriate stage iii
turbinc or to a feedheater after each sectio~,.
result, heat is returned lo the cycle.
The arrangement of the final glands section l t i i
glands is connected to the gland steam cond
through the outboard gland section.
At low loads, live steam enters the system thic
a motorised isolating valve and a pressure redu
valve to the U P dcsupc~hcater.Here the steam is m i
to a temperature suitable for the H P / l P glands. I
then passes through a inotorised isolating valve to 111
HP/IP glands or, via a separate ~notorisedvalve, lo $11
LP desuperheater which further cools the stcam to
LP desuperheater and is used to seal the LP glan
ATMOSPHERE
desuperheater,
CLEAN
DRAIN
F,G. 2.71 ~ ~ ~ igland
c a tsealing rsrtem
7.2 Temperature and pressure control
7.2.1 Temperature control
The temperature of the steam supplied to the glands
is controlled by two desuperheaters; one for the HP/II'
system and the other for the LP system. The waterspray
type of desuperheater is generally used although thr
tube and shell type of heat exchanger may be in usc
on some smaller units. A typical desuperheater is shown
in Fig 2.73.
201
 Gland sealing system

WATER

COYER PLATE
PACKINGILEAK-OFF
STMM
NOZZLE

BAFFLE TUBE--

BOTTOM DOOR

(bl LPgiandi
FIG. 2.73 Gland steam desupeihcatei
FIG. 2.72 Final gland arrangementr

drain connections on the desuperheaters glands progressively reduces and eventually reverses,
allow ,drainage to pass to the clean drains tank as leak-off steam becomes available. Consequently,
The dnuperhieaters cooling water which
is the reserve feedwater tank through heater is cornpenate. by tb automatic or ing valve, a strainer and a drain trap, the rise in pressure at the glands causes the live steam
a motOrised closing of the valve to admit the amount of wale,, pressure regulating valve to close progressively, thus
valve. The water supply is then necessary to maintain the maintaining a constant supply pressure at the glands
controlled by regulating valves. Each valve is ad. outlet
perature, -up and shutdown, when live steam is and eventually closing completely. The L P glands are
justea by a on receipt of a signal from a
The steam temperatures are in the con, the pressure at the glands is controlled by the now sealed by steam leaking from the H P and I P
?"'Or in the desuperheater outlei. ~ n y t r o ~
Increase Or and locally; high and low temperature re reducing valve in the live steam supply line. glands, and the pressure at the glands is controlled by
in temperature at the desuper- alarms are included to indicate a fault condition, creases, the steam flow to the H P / I P a leak-off valve which dumps steam to a n L P heater.
203
 Turbine ~ l a n svstems
t Flange heating system
l'ilis arsaligelnenl cllsuies ilia1 oiily able icgulat-
iog valve is in control a1 any one tiine and tlrat the
clraiigeover from livc steam lo leak-olf steuni is fully
automatic.
The steam lplessure i11 tile sealing line is indicated
in the control room and locally; a f ~ u l tcondition is
indicated by low pi-essu1.e alarms
7.3 Gland steam c o n d e n s e r
The function of the gland steam condenser is t o main-
tain a sub-atmospheric pressure at the outermost leak-
off belt of the glands and thereby prevent the leakage
o f steam from the glands into the turbine hall, where
it would condense on the walls and plant.
The condenser is vented to the atmosphere via a
blowc~.. The small vacuum cl.eated by the blower is
sufficient to draw air into the glands where it mixes
with steam leaking from the cylinder; the air is se-
parated in the gland condenser and passed back to the
atmosphere via the vent fans. The steam is condeiised
and the condensate passes to the main condenser. A
typical gland steam condenser is shown in Fig 2.74.
Thc condenser typicaily consists o f a steel shell
closed by a dished-end warerbon cover incorporating a
tubeplate into which are expanded U-tubes. Cooling
water, provided by local river water or seawater, is
WATER WATER
OUT IN
STEAM
PIC. 2.74 Gland Elearn condcnser
204
slcaili is i)rwenlcd from cscaping inla tile
by o1)erating the vent rails.
8 Flange heating system
8.1 F u n c t i o n and system l a y o u t
of each casing arc bolted loge the^. at the hoii?o
flange (see Fig 2.75).
During turbine starting, the relatively thin
the H P and IP casings tend to heat up more
thali the large masses of metal in the horizonta
flanges. The function of the flange heating systci~j
t o pvovide steam heating (at app~.opl.iatecondilit~j
10 the HP and IP outer cylinder flanges, theichy I
ducing the difference in 1emperatul.e between eacii
the cylinder casings and their associated flange
boits. This prevents excessive thermal stressin
cylinder distortions.
function and layout and a typical flange heating syslcl~
is shown in Fig 2.76.
The flanges on the HP cylinder arc supplied ,,.ill
Steam from after the H P governing valves and I
IP flanges are supplied with steam from after the
CASING
Fie. 2.75 Turbine half-carings joined at
(1
Xr 6 1 1 A N OISCHlRCIL
I ,,OM FLANGES
, cl,Niiiol SIONAL
IPRSSSUREIRhNSM171IR
F ~ C .2.76 T ~ HP alld
~ I P ~tulbiile~
1i;lii;ite top and bottom cross-drillings which provide
imsages enabling the hot steam t o flow freely tlirough
1111. flange. This is shown diagrammatically in Fig 2.77.
'l'he heating steam enters and leaves the flanges a t
irveial points by way of drillings from the flange outer
D I I I ~ R Cinto
~ the bolt holes, the inlets and exits being
nlilably spaced t o give even heating throughout the
Nzingcs. The annular spaces between the bolts and
s are swept throughout their length by the hot
Steam leaves each flange from outlet pipes which
converge into one pipe, fitted with a flow regulating
Subsequently, the combined flows from each side
of Ole turbine are joined and led either to a suitable
reedwater keater or t o a drains receiver.
'The HP and IP flange heating systems are brought
into operation by the remote manual opening, from
horizontal flanges the central control room, of the motorised isolating
nangc
~ ileatins
I system
or, alternatively, when the cylinder barrel and flanges
are heated to about 250°C.
The flow of steam is controlled by preset regulat-
ing valves and orifices. These valves, in each cylinder
supply line, are sized in conjunction with their corre-
sponding flange outlet orifice plates to give maximum
pressure in the flanges. This pressure is approximately
equal t o the pressures o n the inner surface of the re-
spective outer cylinder under full-load conditions. As
steam pressure has a corresponding effect on both
flange and cylinder steam pressures. As a result, rapid
heating due t o condensation heating is maintained at
the same relative levels, thus enabling the difference
in temperature between the casing and the flange to
be maintained within acceptable limits.
Suitable steam distribution is achieved using bal-
ancing orifices installed and set during commissioning.
Once the correct orifice size has been determined, it
remains unaltered.
With the system as described above, the flange
heating steam temperature is always higher than that
o f the steam within the cylinder casing. In some de-

signs, however, the steam supply is taken from inside
tile rekvant casing and hence its temperature is always
equal to that of the steam within the casing.
9 LP exhaust spray cooling system
9.1 Function and system layout
During the low-load running o f a turbine-generator
unit, tlle volume of steam flowing through the last row
o f the L P turbine blades is reduced considerably and
the smooth aerodynamic flow of steam through these
blades is lost. The L P exhaust steam is recirculated
and, as a result, ellergy is transferred from the blades
to the steam, resulting in a significant temperature rise
o f the circulating steam. In addition, if the condenser
back pressure is high, a smaller volume of steam will
flow through the system, causing a significant worsen-
ing of the situation,
The excessive temperature rise caused by these ef-
fects can result in an undesirable restriction on the
length of time that the turbine can run with no load,
and possible uneven heating of the exhaust casings
leading to serious distortion and adverse effects on
turbine alignment.
The L P spray cooling system is provided to ensure
that exhaust temperatures under these conditions are
maintained within defined limits, thereby minimising
the possibility of excessive casing distortion. T
done by spraying cooling water into the exhaust space,
whenever necessary, downstream of the exhaust giii
vanes. The exhaust steam is cooled and then re
cuiated to cool the casing. A typicai L P exhaust coolinl,
system is shown in Fig 2.78.
During normai running o f the turbine, the coildcii.
sate extraction pump supplies the spraywater to lllc
system. The condensate supply, before reaching tilr
spray nozzles in each end o f the L P turbine cyinder
exhaust, normally passes through a manuai isoiatit~g
valve, a pressure reducing valve, a strainer to remoup
dirt particles, a flow indicating switch (~neasurin~watcr
flow to sprays) and a pneumatic flow control valve,
with manual inlet and outlet isolating valves. A pres.
sure switch is usuaiiy fitted across the strainer to mea.
sure any difference in pressure, thus indicating whethe
blocking has occurred. A by-pass, with a manual iso
lating valve, is usually provided round the spray contro
valve and its associated isolating valves.
An emergency spraywater pump driven from a DC
Protected power supply will cut in automatically in
the event of a failure o f the normal spraywater sup-
ply. The emergency pump draws its water from an
auxiliary water tank and discharges into the spray-
water line upstream of the strainer. The emergency
supply line normally contains a manual isolating valve,
a n emergency spraywater pump and a self-activated
isoiatine valve.-
~~u
Each L P turbine exhaust flow incorporates a split
ring of spray nozzles, the ring being located outboard
EMEROENCYSPRAY
WATER PUMP
F ~ G .2.78 LP eriiausi pray cooling
xhaust guide vanes. Initially, a number Of these
may be blanked off, to be used as additional
iozzles if extra spraywater is found to be ne-
during the subsequent running of the turbine.
,r liangement of the spraywater nozzles is shown
11 nozzle is designed t o provide a spray of atomis-
les which will evaporate quickly, thus promoting
]>id cooling of the exhaust steam.
Suitable safety measures are built into the system to
ctly maintain spraywater supplies so that a n effec-
1 , atomised
~ ~ spray is available when required. This is
,orlnally achieved by installing an automatic valve in
lit supply system to ensure that the spraywater flow is
ove a ~ e minimum
t level. This valve is arranged t o
,en or close rapidly near this minimum set point. The
ninimum flow requirement may result in a slow cycle
of valve opening and closing during low load, but this
A temperature detector is located in the path Of the
exhaust steam downstream o f the spray nozzles to
the signal for the automatic start and control
of the spraywater quantity.
9.2 Control
A" automatic temverature control system is fitted to
syiteii,
keep the L P exhaust steam temperature within accep-
table operational limits during no-load or light load
operation. A temperature detector, incorporating
theimocoupies, is situated in one exhaust flow of each
LP cylinder and this measures the exhaust temperature.
In operation, a signal is passed to thc temperature
controller, via a n amplitude selector (this ensures that
the LP exhaust with the highest temperature is selected),
which operates the spraywater control valve.
When any individual sensing element detects a pre-
set low exhaust steam temperature, the controller will
open the spray control valve to pass a minimum quan-
tity of water. Further increases in temperature will
allow proportionally-greater quantities of water, rising
t o a maximum water flow at a preset high exhaust
steam temperature.
The temperature detectors can have an inherent
time lag and, under certain circumstances, an overriding
control is necessary to produce a two-minute burst of
spraywater at maximum flow.
In the event of the condensate extraction pumps
failing, the emergency spraywater pump is brought
into operation automatically, provided that the turbine
gland steam isolating vaive is open. This condition is
detected by a limit switch situated on the isolating
valve. Loss of supply from the extraction pumps is
indicated by a pressure switch located on the supply
line from the pumps, which is able to detect low water
 802
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 Turbine plant systems
COND~NSER
TIC. 2.80 Typical turbine
Of water but limits steam flow.
In other cases, the valves are opened automatically
On reducing load or steam traps are used in place
Of the valves. The steam trap is designed to
allow water to escape. but not steam. There are various
types Of such as ball float, inverted-bucket and
thermostatic traps. The traps are similar in operation
and construction, although detailed differences are
needed to meet the various operating conditions.
As an example, the thermostatic trap consists of
a forged-stee1 body with a removable cover. Inlet
and outlet Ports are divided by a vertical wall. A
ball valve situated on the downstream side of the
210
HP drains system
o r wet steam will pass through to the drains vesse
As soon as steam at saturation temperature (or abov
enters the trap, the ball valve is held tightly on its
seat, thus preventing the escape of live to tl,e
drains vessel. The temperature can
constant, or can be varied depending on conditions i,,
the steam system.
Most steam trap installations incorporate a by.pass,
s o that the traps can be isolated for inspection anrl
maintenance. This by-pass permits the blowdown of
debris or contaminated condensate during commis.
sioning o r subsequent run.ups, and prevents ,,,,due
contamination of the trap strainer,
facilities to mdil-ect steam frolli
tulbine. Thew are several reasons why
~ ~ c d eandd thcy differ, depending uPOo
pli,nt is fossil-fired or nuclear. The one
(and the most important) is
arge loss o f turbine load. For a more UULIISTEP
INTERNAL
n of the reasons for by-Pass systems FRiCiiON DEViCF
, clear and fossil-fired by-pass systems
uallat in design, their fundamental modes
are They both redirect steam from
lilct and pass it to the condenser via a series
,ii valves, pressure control valves and dump
CONVENTiONhl
SlNGLt ORiFCE
VhlVE
I'ressure control valves
,,IVCS are designed to greatiy reduce the Pressure
c,t stcam so that its conditions correspolld
those inside the condenser.
I , P I ~ S I way of creating a iaige pressure drop
is by the conversion of heat energy to
(kinetic energy) by passing the steam through
I.
ENTROPY -
ice. Downstream from the orifice, tur- I:IG 2.81 i'reriure coiliroi valve cl>arreieiiiiics
mpanied by shock waves reconverts the
ange in energy for a
drop, the shock waves created produce a large
I of undesirable throttling noise. Consequentl~,
llavc been developed that produce the same
i drop but with considerably iess noise, Fig 2.82
es a complicated flow path which results in the
,ation of energy through a high loss of head rather
I tlirough shockwaves (Fig 2.81). The flow area
rc8idethe stack is gradually increased towards the
ownstream end. This helps maintain a n almost con-
1 l l n t steam velocity over the expansion caused by the
ressure drop. Generally, these valves are capable of
~~,,i,,~from fully-closed to fully-open within three
c,:conds and from fully-open to fully-closed in five
Isolating valves are not required to create a large
pressure drop and their design is simpler than that of
21.1.2 Isolating valves
the pressure control valve. A typical isolating valve is
,l'hese are usually situated either side Of a
shown in Fig 2.83. The valve is a parallel-slide type,
I,ressure control valve for two reasons. First, 10 en-
the total isolation o f the control valve if it so called because it does not rely on a wedge action.
requires maintenance whilst the turbine is running: Instead, the discs slide over the seat faces when the
valve is being opened or closed, resulting in a minimum
second, to provide a back-up should the control valve
pressure drop.
211

FIG. 2.81 Typical irolaiing valve
The isolating valve downstream from the pressure
control valve has a back-seating arrangement on the
spindle to prevent the ingress of air to the condenser
under normal running conditions.
212
B y p a s s sysletiis
tlic tube section diverges hcrc to act
associated exgansioo o f tlic steam. T
lion known as the dispenser.
11.2 By-pass systems for nuclear plant
A b w a s s system is important in a nuciear phiit
the following reasons:
gellerator safety valves. (The reactor control
Fit; 2.64 1)smp cube
ill the need for system by-pass.)
Stored energy and residual heat can be remc
following a turbine or reactor trip. This ill b nd [he progra,nlned rcactoi-coolant tem- their last held position and control is regained by using
. The controller subsequentiy closes the valves remote lnanual operation. The pressure control valves
the plant to no-load conditions without the ac
tion of the steam generator safety valves.
The plant can be maintained at hot standby coil
Manually-controlled cooldown of the plant can
achieved to the point when the 'residual heat rcmai
system' can be operated. 11.3 By-pass systems for fossil-fired plant
Figure 2.85 shows the arrangement of the by
System for a nuclear plant.
lines branching off it to the three condenser she
via the isolation/controi/isolation valve arrangeme
and the dump tubes. For each pair o f lines, one [ill condition. It is also used to maintain steady
is designated 'Bank alld is used in a modulating mod
that the required conditions can be regulated,
other line is designated 'Bank 2, and is either open or
closed.
There is another bank on a separate line from
manifold (not shown in Fig 2.85) which exhausts
rectly to atmosphere. This 'Bank 3' is used when th
hlcam by-pass control valve is not closed. Thereafter The by-pass scheme comprises two systems - an HP
(lie spraywater flow is arranged to be directly pro- system and a n LP system. A schematic representation
,xw[ional to the steam pressure measured in the dump of the HP system can be seen in Fig 2.86.
[t~he,after the control valve downstream isolating The HP steam is taken from each of the main
villvc and before the first orifice piate. As the flow steam lines after the main steam stop valves. The steam
through the dump tube is critical, the spraywater passes into the cold reheat inlet via four pressure
Slow is proportional to the steam flow. control valves and their associated isolating valves.
In the event of a loss in electrical power or air The correct temperature to the cold reheat is achieved
213
 lliiough the employment of desuperheater spraywater.
'Tlic spraywater supply to the pressure control valve is
litken from the main feed pumps and has its own set
c11 !pressure control and isolating valves. The presence
(11 warming piping and drains in Fig 2.86 will be dis-
LA7ikli
iiivt c~issedlater in this section.
Iluring start-up the pressure control valves are
xned manually until the valves are more than 10%
,en, at which point the system is controlled auto-
atically. When the boiler steam pressure reaches a
xcified value, the by-pass system automatically keeps
ie boiler at that value. In the event of a turbine trip,
ii signal is sent to the control valves to open rapidly.
CONDENSER Alternatively, in order to protect the cold reheat piping
system, the pressure control valves can be ordered to
close rapidly under the following conditions:
o When the spraywater pressure 1s low
D If any spraywater valve falls to open wlthzn three
FIG. 2.85 B Y - P ~ Econfiguration
S for a nuclear piasi seconds of its assoc~atedpressure control valve.
.
If the steam enterlng the cold reheat plpes is at too
hlgh a temperature
If the pressure m the cold reheat system is too hlgh
214
. If condenser pressure is too high.
Unlike the nuclear by-pass system, the pressure control
valves will fail locked in their last-held position if
there is a loss in electrical power. The spraywater
pressure control valves also fail locked in their last-
held position.
The LP by-pass system consists of four lines taken
from the four hot reheat pipes (upstream of the IP
turbine control valves). These four lines are then con-
verged into two. The steam in each line flows through
a n isolating valve, a pressure control valve and then
into the condenser dumo tube. The LP by-pass system,
therefore, is very similar to the by-pass system on a
nuclear plant: it behaves in the same way as the HP
system, the pressure control valves opening or closing
under exactly the same circumstances.
11.4 Problems with by-pass systems
The presence of by-pass systems, as has been seen,
can greatly benefit the plant. Their addition, however,
does result in a few oroblems such as noise, water
Ingress and thermal shock.
 Turbine plant systerrls
11.4.1 Noise
li usas discussed earlier liow iargc pressure drolis across
valves induce co~isiderablc i~oise. Figure 2.87 slio\~~s
ho\v !lie proportion of energy loss converted to noise
(acoustic efficiency) increases with the sizc in pressure
drop. This effect is reduced dramatically by using valves
that employ adiabatic flow with friction, as discussed
eariier. Noise can be reduced further by increasing tlie
thickness o f the downstream piping and covering it
with acoustic insulation. Figure 2.88 shows the ratios
o f pipe thickness to pipe length used to create further
noisc attenuation. Even rno1.e attenuation is achieved
FIG. 2.88 Ideal pipe dirnensiolls
216
O i l tile conti0l v;ilvcs that exil lo almospheie (1i;iii
on nuclcai plant) by includirig n sileilcer.
11.4.2 Water i n g r e s s
With the pressure conual valves shut, a large hoiii1.1
o f condensation wili occur in the steam lines. 11 11
condensation were allowed to remain, water wa
passed through the system when the valves are ai
resulting in damage t o the valves and conden
avoid this build-up, drains are located at strate
tions, for example, in the busmain and upstreiini
each control valve shown in Fig 2.85. Drains arc ill
present on the HP system o f the fossil-fired plant silo\
in Fig 2.86 t o prevent ingress of water from 111
Spraywater system.
11.4.3 Thermal s h o c k
The drain lines at the upstream section of the colit
valves serve a duai function. As well as maintaininlr 11
pipework free from water, the)' also maintain the viil
bodics at a temperature wllicll will avoid any large l i
ma1 shock t o the valves when the by-pass comes i i i l c
operation.
11.4.4 Leakage f l o w s
An almost inevitable problem with by-pass systems,
with most steam systems, is leakage flaws. Leaks fr
valves reduce the efficiency of the plant, so valve
designed t o be as secure from leaks as possible. Du
the life of the plant, leaks are likely t o occur, but
kept in check with regular maintenance. Taking all t l ~
considerations into account ensures a safe, ef
and reliable system which provides flexibility bet\r,ecli
the boiler/reactoi and turbine conditions.
12 Operational flexibility
12.1 T y p i c a l o p e r a t i o n a l regimes
Power station output, and therefore generation, need
to be regulated constantly t o match consumer demands,
Economics demand that the base load should be pr
vided by the most efficient plant, which mainly includ
nuclear and large-capacity coalfield-sited coal-fired st;$-
tions. More expensive, or less efficient, generating plant
(small-capacity coal and oil-burning stations) arc
therefore needed t o vary output t o match demand. The
plant that is required t o run intermittently to matcli
demand operates what is known as a two-shiff regime,
so called because o f the requirement t o run during the
two daytime shifts but t o shut down during the nigh1
shift. Such plant may also be called upon t o shut down
over the weekend. It is now common for 5W MW and
660 MW machines t o carry out two-shifting operations
itilili~iooto loadfoilowing cyclcs, This ici]uiiemeot
l,,,l>ii,ued ficxibiliiy has resulted i t ? all 500 M\h' and
\.lW t u r b i n e - g e n e r a unils on the U1< system
esigned to be capable of operating a two-shifting
i n addition t o thc requirement for high effi-
ase-load operation during early life. Typical
ooal requirements for modern high merit tur-
plant are shown in Table 2.2.
Tnai.s 2.2
T j p i c n l opernrionnl requiie,8ir8ilr
g) viti? iu~>-up lo full-load
iii 30 niiiiutes
8 ii;,r~s starts ioiio~isg> 120 lhoi~s
pvoionged r l l u t d o w ~ ~
I ,,,li~.io~~owi~ip
Clia,>geiof loud iii 50.- iOO0lo
load range. Asruining
of 3
~liiniintn~r hours belwccn
cyciei.
2.1.1 B a s e load
ider normal conditions, all high merit plant would bc
~pectedt o operate in a base load regime. This involves
ng periods o f continuous operation, with infrequent
)i+,ti times' to facilitate statutory testing, inspection
,nil overhaul/maintenance periods. Base ioad units
In inot normally accumulate a high number of hot or
iviixln start cycles or load-following cycles. Figure 2.89
ows typical run-up curves for a cold start on a
MW turbine-gcncrator. In this particular example,
-load is achieved after nearly six hours, excluding
1111. time taken t o achieve satisfactorv steam conditions
iil the turbine stop valves. This long run-up time is
11111 only to limit differential expansion rates and rotor
eccentricities, but also t o limit thermal stresses within
tlic turbine,
12.1.2 Two-shifting
Onc of the most important factors when considering
two-shifting operation is t o keep the turbine tempera-
illies as high as possible during shutdown. This means
Illat the machine needs to be deloaded as rapidly as
possible. Figure 2.90 shows typical shutdown curves
lor a 660 MW turbine-generator, in which the machine
is shut down within 20 minutes, with the last 50%
of load being shed in approximately 2 minutes. Main-
taining the turbine temperatures in such a way ensures
o faster run-up and reduces thermal cycling of the
turbine components. When starting, it is imporlant t o
ensure that the steam inlet temperature is matched to
tile metal temperatures t o avoid cooling the turbine
Operationai flexibiiity
iinoccessasily. Stcani coirditioris at tile stop valves
sliorild alloiv for tlie temperatucc drop due to Ilirol-
tling at steam adn~issiolilo the turbine (sec Section
1.3 of this chapter), It is pal~ticulal~ly
importali1 wIleI1
carrying out hot starts, that thc late of roll-lip to
speed and initial block loading is sufficient to pre\,eol
a reduction in turbine tcmpcratuie. The range of tcnl-
pcratuie cycling should be controlled as far as possible
t o minimise the risk o f thermal fatigue.
Figures 2.91 and 2.92 show typical run-up curves
for a warm start (after a weekend shutdown) and a
hot start (after an overnight shutdown) respectively.
The rapid loading shown during the hot start i~idicates
the importance o f maintaining a steady rate of rise
of temperature. Run-up procedures must be adhered
5000 to in order to minimise cyclic thermal stresses in the
turbine and thus prevent thermal fatigue problems
1000 during the life of the turbine.
200
12.1.3 Load cycling
4000 The amount of load cycling that a turbine is expected
t o carry out (i.e., defined as cycling between 50%
and 100% load) needs to be controlled. In addition
to specifying tlie number of load-following cycles
required during the life of the plant, thc time taken
t o carry out ioad changes should be such as to mini-
mise cyclic thermal stress. This means avoiding rapid
cooling or heating of the turbine when inlet steam
throttling is applied or removed to achieve the desired
load change.
12.2 I n f l u e n c e on m a c h i n e design
The need for flexibility has brought with it inherent
problems which have needed to he redressed at the
design stage of the turbine, with the knowledge of
future operational requirements. The main probleni
is the effect of thermal cycling with respect to thermal
fatigue damage. The flexible mode of operation in-
volves some degree of temperature cycling of com-
ponents, leading t o strain cycling of inaterial in the
critical regions. The damaging cumulative effects o f
thermal cycling (i.e., stress-strain cycling) must be
assessed over the turbine life t o ensure that sufficient
margin exists in the design for the effects of steady state
creep.
Figure 2.93 shows a typical stress-strain cycle as
experienced by the surface of a large HP rotor. The
cycle shows the effects of two-shifting using a typical
'warm' start where the temperature gradients cause
thermal strain. O n heating with steam at 565°C the
surface attempts t o expand but is compressed by
restraint from the underlying material. This compres-
sion, represented by line A-B in the figure, may cause
the surface t o go into compressive yield, represented
by line B-C, in areas of high stress concentration.
Subsequent heating and expansion of the underlying
material then causes tensile stressing of the surface
217
 iiME.rn,"

FIG.2.90 Typical 660 M W turbine-generator rhufdo>vn curves

 Operational flexibility

iiME.m#n

FCC. 2.91 Typical 660 MW turbine.geneiator run-up curves for a

FIG. 2.92 Typical 660 MW turbine-generator run-up curves for a 1\01 start

Turbine plant systems
PIG. 2.93 Typical sfreir-slraiil loop for 1r.o-sliifiisga
large, iiigii temperature rotor
as full power is attained (line C-D). Stress relaxation
(line D - 4 can then occur at the maximum operating
temperature, during which elastic strain is converted
to creep strain and may cause microstructural damage.
Shutdown causes a drop in temperature at the surface,
the thermal contraction being constrained by under-
lying material, resulting in further tensile stressing.
However, this straining takes place outside the creep
range of CrMoV steels used in rotor construction. Details
o f rotor materials and their properties with reference
to creep resistance are given in Chapter 1. The stress-
strain cycle of Fig 2.93 is similar to that experienced
by the inner surface of a high temperature casing
under severe starting transients.
The magnitude o f thermal stresses produced during
two-shifting or cycling, depends on the amount of tem-
perature change imposed in a given time in relation to
the sizes of components involved; for example, casing
thickness or rotor diameter. Stress concentrations in
casings and rotors must be reduced to a practical
minimum by the avoidance of rapid changes of section
and by proper fillet radii. T h e need for flexible op-
. ..
Operatio~ialtlexihility
ciaiioii lhas inilucnced the desilin of iiil-bines in scx~t~ial
areas
12.2.1 Turbine cylinders
Probably the most significant change in turbine desi(tii
has been the adoption of multisliell cylinders, I'lic
advantage of this type of construction is that piessiirr
difference and temperature gradients across each SIII:II
is reduced compared with single-shell construction. 11 i$
now normal practice in one form or another, in lhigl~
temperature machines, for HP and most IP cylindrrr,
and is usual for most LP cylinders. Low pressorc
cylinders sometimes have a larger temperature ranpc
from inlet to exhaust than any other cylinder, and rlie
inner casing may itself be of double-shell canstructio~,
to reduce thermal stresses and distortion. As ratinpi
have increased, component size has increased and wiil!
it the problem of transient temperature gradients witlli!,
a component and thus thermal stress. The use ol'
multishell cylinders has allowed temperature distribution
and gradients to be controlled, thus minimising cyclic
thermal stresses. 111addition, this design allows the heavy
flanges which were necessary on single-shell designs lo
be reduced in size. In some cases, the use o f one-piece
shells, with no horizontal split, obviates the need fol
flanges, thus removing the problem of axiai thermal
stresses due to uneven heating of flanges and cylindcr
walls. The use of flange heating has also contributed to
matching the rate-of-rise o f temperature of the flanges
and cylinders more closely.
The adoption of multishell casings and the separation
of steam chests from the turbine cylinder, has allowed
simplification of the geometry o f each component. This
means that the design has fewer changes in section ant1
more attention is paid to radii to avoid high stresses in
areas where a change in section is unavoidable. Figure
2.94 shows a triple-shell H P cylinder with an unsplii
intermediate sleeve. To further reduce tempeiaturc
gradients, particularl~ in the first staee - of the H-~P ~lietrical rubbing, which bends the rotor even more, requirements of steady and cyclic operation. One
turbine, pure throttling of the governor valves has been cnn cause so much heating that the heated area of the example of this is the rotor bore sire. A large rotor
adopted for load control. Although this type of control rotor, expanding and constrained by the surrounding bore, often with a diameter of half the external dia-
reduces efficiency at part-load, this can be tolerated in unheated material, yields in compression. As a result, meter, gives improved performance for transient or
two-shifting operation, where the machine tends to be when it is allowed to cool, local tension is applied cyclic operation, as the temperature gradients and
operating at rated load or is shut down. The practice leading to a permanent bend. Such 'rubs' are usually thus thermal fatigue is reduced. However, large dia-
of using nozzle control to maintain part-load efficiency caused by distortion of gland seal positions from their meter bores cause an increase in the hoop stress which
has the disadvantage of reduced efficiency at full-load normal concentric location due to rapid thermal cycl- will accelerate creep at steady load. In large modern
and leads to temperature gradients because of the ing. The adoption o f spring-back gland seals allows machines, the requirement to reduce the hoop stress
circumferential non-uniformity o f steam admission. retraction of the seal should contact with the rotor dictates that the bore diameter should be kept to a
This reduces the rate at which load can be changed occur. This limits the damage caused by a rub and practical minimum. The main requirement for rotors
without inducing thermal stresses. Rapid starting and seduces the.risk of a shaft bend. is to reduce thermal fatigue by ensuring that all stress-
loading, which are essential requirements for modern Cylinder expansion and contraction during run-up concentrating features are controlled so as to mini-
machines, are therefore achieved more securely with and run-down, requires that cylinder/pedestal sliding mise the stress levels.
throttle control. surfaces are well maintained, to prevent unnecessary A fracture mechanics approach is adopted to assess
During run-ups and r a d d loading, -. the turbine is
~ ~
external forces on the cylinders due to sticking. the growth of any initial inherent forging defects. The
most at risk from a 'rub' between stationary and rotating repeated application of stress during cycling could cause
components. Apart from localised damage at the area the defect to propagate to the stage where fast fracture
of contact, the resulting heat generated by the 'rub' 12.2.2 Turbine rotors of the forging would occur. With knowledge o f the
can cause a bend in the rotor shaft. Continuous asym- Rotor design is influenced by the often conflicting operational requirements of the turbine and assuming
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Turbine plant systems
to give a cooling rate which allows eccenlricilics and
differential exgarisions l o be maintained within the
manulactuicr's specified limits.
12.3.2 Cooling s y s t e m
The cooling air is provided by a sysreni consisting of
oil-free compresscrs or blowers, distribution and ex-
haust pipework, supports, valves and control gear, and
fillers or air conditionine- olant.
. The svstem shown in
Fig 2.96 employs a single multistage compresser. It is
normal to install sufficient capacity to meet the cooling
requirements of one turbine only, with pipework pro-
vided to enable cooling air to be supplied to any of
the units in the station.
It is important that the air supply is filtered to ensure
the removal of small particles and also that it is free
of any corrosive gases, such as sulphur dioxide and
chlorides, as emitted from the stack of fossil-fuelled
stations. Moisture separators should also be installed,
along with suitable pipework drains to ensure llial the
air supply is dry.
Fieurc 2.96 also shows lockinn double-isolatine valves
from the turbine when not in use
13 Wet steam turbine plant
13.1 Influence of steam on components
The steam produced by a modern light-water reactor,
such as a PWR or BWR, is of poor thermodynamic
quality. The pressure is typically in the range of 65-70
bar and since thc steam is around 3% wet, the tem-
perature corresponds to saturation conditions. It there-
fore follows that the steam mass flow per unit of
generation is about 80% higher than in fossil-fired or
AGR power stations.
The very modest steam conditions at the turbine
stop valves results in a very large volumetric flow.
The turbines consist of one high pressure and two or
three low pressure cylinders, with the steam exhausted
from the H P cylinder being dried and reheated in
external moisture separators and reheaters before be-
ing readmitted to the L P cylinders. A typical turbine
arrangement is shown in Fig 2.97. Unlike high tem-
perature reheat turbines for fossil-fuelled power stations,
where reheat pressure affects boiler design and is
therefore not a free choice of the turbine designer, the
reheat pressure in turbines for light-water reactors is
chosen by the turbine builder to suit the turbine and
moisture separator/reheater design, performance and
economics. Due to the very large mass flow of steam,
it is not necessary to select a low reheat pressure
in order to preserve a n adequately high volumetric
226
Wet stearn turbine pi
flow at the entry lo the L.P cylindeis, and th
adequately lhigh cfficicncy of blading. Higher I
~ I C S S U I C S help to miilimise the sire of the or
segarator/rehcaler, and tlie mean diameter and lriigll
of the H P cylinder exhaust blading.
Thc inlet steam conditions also dictate the scai~tl
of the 1-IP stop and governor valves, which a
similar in arrangement, size and thickness to
valves on a conventional unit. A typical back-I(
arrangement is shown in Fig 2.98. Because $11
temperature (about 280°C) and pressure do n
a material with high temperature strength and, sine
steam at inlet is insufficiently wet to cause er
a low carbon steel is used fox the valve chest
loop pipes supplying steam fro111 the chests l o I I
H P cylinder may also be made from carbon steel
the same reason. The loop pipes are generally ariai!
to be as short as possible to limit the quantity
steam which might overspecd the machine in the i.!,cl
of load rejection.
The H P turbines of large wet steam machines t
usually of double-flow design, similar in appeal;$
to tile IP turbines of conventional units. As ma)
seven stages of moving blades in each flow are ca
by a rotor which, in tlie UK, is nonnaliy of a mona I
construction. Diaphragms or fixed reaction bladitr
are supported by carrier rings bolted to the outer cissill
at the horizontal joint as in conventional macliitl
This effectively forms a double-shell construction
permits moderate casing thickness, flange and bolt
to be employed.
For impulse blading and an adopted rotational.
of 3000 r/min, the bladed wheel diameters tend i r
relatively small and, with the high specific steam .
sumption, the blade lengths become relatively I
The double-flow arrangement serves to keep the . ,
lengths, and hence the blade stresses, to conservat
values.
Care must be taken in the design of the H P c ~ s i
to eliminate crevices and pockets where water 11
collect, otherwise, during sudden load reduction, 110
of standing water could flash-off and overspeed I
turbine.
It is normal practice to pack the shaft end glan
with live steam which has been throttled and 11
therefore acouired a small amount of suverheat. TI
also removes the possibility o f erosion damage to II
rotor and other components in a n area of high mol
ture content at the end of the H P expansion.
The steam leaves the H P turbine with a well1
of between 10% and 15% dependent upon tl
lected crossover pressure. If the steam were then p
directly into the LP cylinder without any form
mechanical drvine . - or reheat. the terminal wetness
condenser pressure would exceed 20%. This would cao
unacceotable LP movina.blade erosion, oarticularly
the last stages, and turbine efficiency would bc i t
paired. Reheating is therefore always employed
saturated steam cycles.
Turbine plant systems
FROM
STEAM GENERATOR
I : , ~ , 2.98 ~ ~ ~ k . t ~ alrailgemoi~i
. b ~ ~ i , or H13slop a#?dgovernor valves
In order t o avoid the complication o f additional
ISWP nrnrtrntions into the reactor. steam is oassed
turbine hail where the wet steam is dried mechanically
before entering a reheater, also situated in the turbine
hall. Here the steam is superheated by the use of live
steam which results in a performance improvement of
about 1.5%. The thermal efficiency can be increased
-,a further 0.3-0.5% bv two-stage superheating, i.c.,
hv
by using b~ed-steamfro; the HP t u A n e as heating
steam in the first stage and live steam in the second
---.-- The
stage. - .
efficiencv imorovement
. ~ a i n e dby bled-
steam reheating has t o be balanced against the in-
creased capital cost, and is dependent o n the cross-
over pressure, bled-steam pressure and the rcheater
terminal temperature differences. The bled-steam rc-
heater improves the cycle efficiency by reducing the
steam demand of the live steam section, but it also
incurs a n additional pressure drop of the reheated
steam through the tube bundle and requires additional
drainaee facilities. Despite these factors, bied-steam
rr.lle311ng 1% bccdmin& increaslngl) c;ansmrally \iable
.ind i s normally dircred on prescnl rlcanl n~a:h~nr,.
- \ulumc.lr(; flon at LP c)llndcr
Bcc;luie o f rnc larac
inlet, the interceptor valves tend to be very large.
This precludes the use of normal plug valves; instead,
butterfly valves similar t o that shown in Fig 2.99 are
normally used for this application. Since there are no
right angle bends and n o restriction t o the flow, they
have the advantage of providing very low pressure
drop in the normal operating fully-open position.
Butterfly valves are used for both stop and governing
valves, the two valves being arranged in a single chest
weided into each hot reheat pipe.
The valves may be used in a reheat governing mode,
as in conventional machines, but in the event of load-
Chapter ?
TO HP TURBiNL
-----.--
F ~ G .2.99 %utterfly type low nreiruie i>xerccntoi valve
shedding to zero load, the interceptor valves cl
rapidly, preventing the steam present in the SeParato
and reheater, together with any water which migh
evaporate off hot walls and pipework, from overspeed
ing the turbine t o unacceptable limits. The valves
designed so that steam forces assist closure as soon
a small degree of rotation is imparted. The valves
fitted with bearings which are capable o f operatin8
relatively high temperatures and have shock absorbi
characteristics.
The thermodynamically optimum choice of the cro
over pressure between HP and L P cylinders, and I
universal application of steam reheat, result in i
conditions t o the L P cylinders which are closely
ilar t o those encountered in a high temperature
heat fossil-fuelled cycle. As a result, L P cylind
for water-cooled reactors are subjected througliol
f Wet steam turbine plant
:ill lileir stages to stcaill ptessllics ant1 1empcratiil.e~
!irtually i d e ~ ~ l i c alol those 1'01 fossil-Coellcd stations.
it is therefore $possible and desirable to use LP cvl-
intieis of identical design to those used in turbines for
ii~ssil-fuelledstations. However, enhausl volume fiow
ii 60-70% greater than for a fossii-fired unit of the
m n e rating. If, therefore, exhaust losses are to be
Ikcpt to a minimum, either the exhaust annulus of each
1.1' turbine must be increased or the number of LP
llirbines must be increased.
In the USA, half-speed machines have been adopted
l'cv use with iarge output light-water reactors. Power
g r ~ ~ e r a t i ois
n at 60 Hz, which limits the choice o f
rotational speed t o 3600 r/min or 1800 r/min. The
ilrcsses in the exhaust blades impose a limit l o their
lul~glh in full-speed machines and hence a limit in
Ihc cxhaust area ner turbine. This. ~,toeether
~ . " with
~~
thr
........
w,idcspread use of 1800 r/min LP turbine elements in
ci,~iventionai power plants, has led naturally t o 1800
~/iiiin as the design speed for PWR turbines in the
hO IHz system.
111 a 50 Hz system the position is entirely different.
h41icb larger turbine exhaust blade annulus areas are
t~vi~iiable and still longer blades are being deveioped;
tr~eking3000 r/min turbines economical for large out-
purs and different condenser pressures. Half-spccd
'hines are invariably more expensive than full-speed
ines. The design of the LP turbine elements can
sed upon extensive experience of identical oroven
llponents for conventional power stations. Howevcr,
clear power generation leads in itself to increases
rlic size of generating units, and it may be necessary
I i'aiisider half-speed machines for future very large
I I ~ I ' . requiring large annulus areas, particularly in
nbination with the low cooling wale,. temperatures
lii;riy in UK plants.
Water extraction devices
the steam enters the turbines wet and becomes
essively wetter as it expands through the H P
~ g arrangements
, are usually made for internal
tlre extraction at each stage. Where appropriate,
aeitls fitted t o stationary components are slotted
ennit extraction of water collecting o n the outer
oundary. This water is either removed with steam
from extraction points between the fixed blade
or, in stages which have no bled-steam tap-
rained through the casing via pipes, drillings
ces t o a stage at lower pressure.
'Illel extraction grooves may also be incorporated
m necessary to assist the feedheating belts in ex-
Iiig additional moisture. These consist of a n annular
' c in the cylinder wail at the trailing edge of the
. lli biades connected to a series of nozzles which
irirge water and a small quantity of steam into
between blade rings and outer cylinder.
111: turbine cylinders should be self-draining; the
HI' cylinder into b l c d s t e a o ~pipes and into the caid
rchcat pilics, whicir are drained at a11 times to llrc
drains icceivcr; the Ll' cylinders into bled-sleam pipes
and lhe condenser. if gockets at each end of the H P
cylinder arc formed in the casting between the coid
reheat branches, these are drained cootinuousiy into
the coid reheat pipes.
Intcrstage drainage introduces considerable quanti-
ties of water to the feedheater system and the provi-
sion of exlra laree drain arrangements in the design of
this system requires careful consideration. In common
with conventional machines, every effort is normally
made ta ensure that there is no oossibiliti' of water
refluxing to the turbine. Present specifications require
individual routing of drains t o thc turbine drains re-
ceiver and prohibit the commoning of drains from
sources at different potentiais.
13.3 Erosion protection
Steam enleis the H P turbines slightly wet and i t be-
comes progressively wetter with each stage of expan-
sion, but the moisture droplets are very small and
are so well entrained in the bulk steam flow that the
velocities of droplets and main steam do not differ
significantly. Blade path erosion is not therefore a
significant problem and the biades can be made from
12% chrome stainless iron coupled t o a NiCr MoV
forged rotor, as in conventional machines.
Centrifugal stresses are generally low and, since the
steam temperature is far below that at which creen has
t o be taken into account, only medium-strength ferritic
stainless iron need be used for the blading.
Where changes in flow directioli are induced in the
casings or pipework, or where pressure differences exist
across joint surfaces or pressure seals, water droplets
can combine and there is considerable potential for
erosion. The H P casings, fixed biadc carriers and cold
reheat pipes must therefore be made from a chromium
alloy steel such as 2.25%Cr 190Mo. Such alloys resist
the formation of the surface oxide layers, which would
be continuously removed and reformed by an erosion-
corrosion mechanism. It is also essential to protect joint
faces subject to a pressure drop against cutting by wire-
drawing erosion, and to protect surfaces which might
be subjected to impact from water droplets flung o f f
the shrouding of the rotating blades. This requires
the use of very erosion-resistant alloys, such as 13%Cr
or 18%Cr stainless steel. Austenitic steel facing can be
provided by weld deposition and 13%Cr inserts may
be located by seal welding.
T o minimise the possibility o f joint jacking by cor-
rosion products, horizontal joint bolting must be ar-
ranged to ensure that water penetration is restricted.
It may be necessary to protect certain joints by placing
short stainless steel sleeves around them and incor-
porating stainless steel barrier keys.
229
Turbine plant systems
Sevcic erosion Ihzii lbecn cxpciieoced by conliiicilial
~nanofactoiers or, loa, alloy axid cal.bon slecl casings
and pipework in wet stcan1 macliines. 'Alstboin' ori-
ginally niade 131' casings in f CrMoV hut, in view of
cnpeiience gained at Muhlcbcrg, Beznau and Oskar-
sliamm and in Germany, intend using a steel with at
least 11% chrome lo luture to give satisfactory erosion
protection. They curl.ently make pillework bends in
2 i % chrome steel and apply a high-chrome cladding
protection on interceptor valves. CEM (Asca Brown
Roveri) protected low alloy diaphragm groove facings
and similar facings for gland groovcs with 13% chrome
cladding but, having found the cost of achieving a
satisfac1ol.y 13% chl.ome deposit prohibitive, now supply
13% chrome castings for wet steam HP inner and outer
casings.
13.4 Moisture s e p a r a t o r r e h e a t e r s ( M S R s )
Separators and relieateis fall into two main types.
Manufacturers such as Westingl~ouse, Asea Brown
Boveri, GEC, etc., combine the two units into a single
vessel or MSR; whereas Parsons, Stein Industrie, etc.,
favour individual vessels connected by large bore
pipework.
13.4.1 S e p a r a t o r s
Cyclone seprrralors
In the. NEI-Parsons design o f separator, shown in
Fig 2.100, water droplets are recovered from the steam
by centrifugal action. The vessels are conveniently located
in the cold reheat pipes from the H P turbines, generally
one vessel pel- pipe. The wet steam is passed from a
SWIRLER BLADES
EYTRACTlON STEAM BAANCII
/
ISWIRLVANES
COLD
REHEAT STEAM
STEM
iNLEi OUllET
PIG. 2.IW Cyclone separator
230
noiinally lbori?.onlal ioicl pips Lliriiilgll a i1ivei.ging c l i l ,
ical channel la a io\r of supirier bladcs. The s w i ~l r ~
blade ring imparts tangei~tialvciocily, or swirl, to i l ~ i
s t ~ a t nand helps to agglon~eiatethe watei- dl-oplcts. 'I'ilr
watei- films forming on tile aerofoil surfaccs o f tlic
swirlel blader are subseqiiently detached as coarsr
droplers by the main steam flow. The droplets are then
centrifuged by the stcam flow and deposited onto tlic
inner surfaces o f a loui,red liner which reinoves and
partitions the free water from thc main steam flow.
The louvred liner is provided with a series o f narrow
axial apertures uniformly distributed around its pcii..
phei-y lo entrain the water droplets. Separated watch.
films then cascade around tile outer surfaccs of tllc
louvred liner. To encourage the separated water lo
flow over to the louvrcs, steam is extracted from tlir
separator vessel and passed to a heater in the fecrl
train. The separated water is also passed from tlil,
vessel, via drain pipes, to a convenient point in tiit.
regenerative feed train.
In order to ensure that steam leaves the separator
with the minimum o f swirl, anti-swirl vanes arc fitted
into the outlet nozzle. These vanes ensure that a low
energy axial flow of steam enters tlle rebeater, mini-
mising the risk of disturbancc to the reheater tube
bundlcs.
The performance of cyclone separators is very de-
pcndenc o n the droplet size of the water entering thc
vessel. Very high efficiencies (of the order of 98%)
can be achieved with a wetness of, say, 12% if thc
droplets are relatively coarse, but efficiency falls con-
siderably if the separator is presented with steam o f
the same wetness with droplets in the sub-micro metre
range. Tests t o determine separator efficiency, using
superheated steam artificially wetted in a spray-type
desuperheater, generally give optimistic efficiencies
since the large water drops produced by the desuper-
heater arc easily separated from the steam. Measure-
ments taken o n site on practical installations have
confirmed separation efficiencies in excess of 95%
for an inlet wetness of 12%, and 93% at very high
moisture contents above 20%.
A major f a d o r in achieving these high efficiencies
is the growth in droplet size from a mean diameter of
about 10 microns at HP turbine exhaust to about 120
microns in the transfer pipe t o the separator. Further
agglomeration of water films o n the surface o f the
swirler blades results in droplets o f about 240 micron
diameter being centrifuged to the louvred drum.
Erosion and corrosion are minimised by employing
suitably resistant materials in areas subject to im-
pingement. At the separator inlet, where moderate
steam velocities and water droplet sizes generally prevail,
2.25%Cr I%Mo steel is used for the inlet pipe and
cone pieces. In the main steam space, where velocities
and droplet sizes are greater, the swirler blades, louvres
and internal cladding o n the pressure vessel are of
12% Cr low carbon steel. The basic pressure vessel
Is manufactured from carbon steel.
Wet steam turbine
I1ii.h ive/oci(,) g'ciotie Se,io~atoi
'I lit' major ~pl-obleol \$,it11 cyclonc or ccntrifogal sc-
jiiii:iiors is the uressuie drop produced by swirling the
iiti.;iiii in a relatively large diametec drurri and then
i;l!;iigl~teningthc flow at exit iron1 tlic scpaiatol. One
iorihod of reducing the pressure drol) through tllc
h~i>;iiatol. is by swirling the wct stem tli1.oug11a nitmbei
01' ielativcly small diameter tubcs or cells arranged in
it bundle in an enlarged section of cold reheat pipe. A
typical separating cell and vertical assembly arrange-
Inciii used in the Stein lndusliie design . is shown iii
I:i$ 2.101.
I n colnmon with the NEI-Parsons design o f cyclone
ruparator, a set of turning vanes at the cell inlet im-
litisls a swirling motion to the steanl/watei mixture.
Inslead of a louvrcd drum, an annular skimmer slot
I!,cinployed t o collect tllc watei and a small flow of
~xlractionsteam is allowed through the slot to improve
liioisture removal. Another sct of guide vanes at the
crli outlet straibhtens the flow and helps recover rota-
tional kinetic energy. Since the flow does' not depart
hif:~iificantIyfrom the axial direction tlirougllout the
hcparation process, pressure drops a1.e generally small.
hlso, because the cell bundle is not mllcli larger than
IIIC diameter of the pipe on which it is fitted, tlle
separator may be retrofitted into existing installations
s'ith the minimum of disturbancc.
In tests carried out a t Bugey I1 power station, the
l>ressuredrop for an inlet velocity of 50 m/s was about
150 mbar and the moisture content at outlet from the
separator was 0.3% compared with 11.4% at inlet.
Ifowever, 10% of the main steam flow was extracted
lo assist water rcmoval.
Stein lndustrie have also developed a horizontal
liigh velocity separator, in which a portion of the
aleam from the bleed-off is passed into the central tube
ill the separating cell and recirculates through slots
i i l this tube just downstream of the inlet vanes. The
,net leak-off flow is thereby reduced and good sepa-
liition efficiencies have been reported from rig tests.
'The performance of this type of separator has not
lhowever been repeated o n site, possibly because the
drainage systems are less than adequate on site and
also because of the difficulty, expressed above, o f
reproducing an a n HP turbine exhaust water droplet
size distribution in a test rig.
Wire mesh separalors
The early designs of combined moisture separator/
rehcater supplied by GEC, Asea Brown Boveri and
Westinghouse incorporated a wire mesh separator.
The water separation characteristics had been sub-
ject t o theoretical and experimental investigation and
was established in a number o f industrial applications.
Brodie [41, who studied the extraction properties of
wire mesh in an atmospheric air/water flow, had de-
monstrated that a residual steam wetness of 0.1-0.2%
could be obtained but only over a narrow range of nc. 2.101 High velocity cycione separator
Turbine plant systems
\,cry lo\+! ilcam velocities of the oldel o f 1 - 2 m/s.
I'iirthes tests carried oul by GEC coniiroied that good
separation performaocc could be cblaincd for cross-
over conditions in w a stcam turbines and gavc good
correlation with thc previously predicted upper limit-
ing velocity. These, and other investigations, showcd
that wltcr is cxlracted when the approach velocity is
siifficient t o cause inertia lmpactio~i of droplets o n
the wires o f tlle mesh. After deposition, the droplets
coalesce and run along the surface o f the wire under
the Influence o f gravity until they reach a point where
two wires cross. This point soon becomes overloaded
with water and large drops fall from the mesh against
the direction of the steam flow.
The wire-mesh mats must be disposed as near hori-
zontally as possible and, in view of the necessary low
velocity, the mats have to be very large (80 m2 for
a 300 MW machine). This, in turn, requires a steam
distribution system capable of coilecting and draining
the separated water falling from tile mesh without
causing re-entrainment, or impairing the uniforrnity
of the steam flow. Different manufacturers achieve
this using different ingenious methods. Figure 2.102
shows a cross-section through an Asea Brown Boveri
arrangement. In comnlon with all mesh separator
designs, the wire-mesh mats are conveniently incor-
porated in the same vessel as the reheater tube banks.
Steam is channelled along the lower side of the vessel
(the left-hand side in the figure) and directed dia-
gonally through three mesh trays in parallel. Water
FIG. 2.102 Wire mesh separator
232
is collecled on llic sloping bas? of each tray aii(l
drained to she base of tlie vessel tliroulih funnels ail<l
pipcwoik.
A scheme devised by GEC is shown in Fig 2.103.
Steam enters froin tile base o f the vessel and is dii
tributed along the length of the vessel by a series ni
perforated plates which also act as water collectols,
Each hole in the distribution plates is provided with $1
raised lip on the upper surface o f the plate t o prevelil
the separated water draining into the steam flow a110
becoming re-entrained. The holes are o f such a sizc
and pitch that they ensure diffusion and downstreain
mixing of the steam. Water is collected in drainage
troughs set into the perforated distribution plates and
is led to the bottom of the vessel. From there, tlic
separated water is piped to a heater i n the feed train.
Chevron or corrugated-plate separators
Although mesli separators arc most effective in re.
moving moisture, their major limitation is the massivc
size imposed by the low iimiting velocity. A mesli
separator which is almost 100% efficient at 1.5 m/s
may only be 60% efficient at 1.7 m/s, since the steam
velocity is then just sufficient t o prevent the watel
falling, and re-entrainment occurs. Chevron s e p a r a t i n ~
REHEATED STEAM
REHEdiER
TUBENEST
Flc. 2103 Croro-seaion of an eariy single-stage MSR
with mesh seDararors
W e t s t e a ~ nturbine plant
i~lenicnts do not lhave a clear uppcr limiting velocity
:ind are tlierefoie moi-c tolerant af possiblc excessive
Irlcal velocities. Chevron separator performance also
leilds to be as good as wire mesli performance at
i~ricetile steam velocity. Modern designs of chevron
aeparator regularly extract 98% of the watei from
12% wet H P exhaust stearn. Because chevron sepa-
rators are able t o give satisfactory performance at
lhigher steam velocities, they require a smaller frontal
iiica for the same steam flow, giving a more compact
;lirangement.
Chevron separating elements are produced in various
fol.rns. Basically, the elements are parallel corrugated
~)ialeswhich induce separation of the water droplets
by inertia and impaction. Earlier types incorporated
Iiooks or stops in the corrugations to induce even
!inore sudden changes in the steam flow. Thcse elements
were complex t o make and the slight performance
in~provementdid riot warrant the additional complex-
ily and expense. Current designs employ simple cor-
rugated plates, sometimes with curved sides or, more
recently, with flat plates in a zigzag pattern.
The droplets captured on the corrugated platcs
coalesce to form a film of water which drains down
Iiie corrugations. If this film is allowed to accrlmulatc
over a large depth of plate it could grow to a thickness
which would result in re-entrainment of water by the
sleam flow. Hence, the chevron plates must be either CHEVRON
o f a limited depth or the corrugations must be fitted SEPARATORS
with water-collecting channels shielded from the steam
Ilow. The design of the final drain-collecting device, at
the bottom of the vane, also requires detailed atten- FIG. 2.104 Cross-section of rwo-stage MSR with
lion to ensure that it does not induce re-entrainment. ellevion separators
A typical MSR design using chevron separators is
shown in Fig 2.104. After general steam distributioi~
within the vessel, the flow through the separators is structure is supported a n two integral tubular sup-
controlled by perforated plates located in front of ports which penetrate the shell and provide support for
tach packet of chevrons. the tube elements and integral framework. The tube
In order to avoid any problems from wet steam elements are therefore allowed to expand vertically from
erosion and off-load corrosion, components used in this tubular support near the base inside a sliding
tlle construction are normally stainless steel. Separator linkage arrangement. The tube elements are also posi-
plates, for example, may be in austenitic stainless steel tioned centrally within a support frame which locates
and the distribution plates in 13% chrome ferritic the elements inside the shell and ensures that the shell-
steel. Internal supports for these elements are designed side steam does not by-pass the tube elements. A full
l o avoid resonant vibration and lo allow for differ- diameter bolted joint is provided near the top of the
cntial thermal expansions. shell t o allow the upper dished end to be removed for
access t o the tube elements.
Each identical tube element contains a number of
13.4.2 Steam-to-steam reheaters straight externally-finned tubes welded into similar up-
per and lowei headers. Welding is done with an auto-
matic TIG welding system, using a two-pass technique
Vertical reheaters
followed by full NDT. The headers are rectangular in
Vertical reheaters have been developed in recent years section and trough-like in shape, the side opposite
by NEl-Parsons for Canadian machines and by Deutsche the tube sheet being in the form of a coverplate or
Babcock and Wilcox for machines in Europe, parti- lid. The covers are bolted t o the headers and a soft
cularly in Germany. metal gasket is incorporated between the cover and
A typical NEl-Parsons deam-to-steam reheater is the trough section to ensure a leak-tight seal.
shown in Fig 2.105. The shell consists of a large ver- The tubes in each element are arranged in a narrow
tical cylinder with dished ends top and bottom. The rectangular pattern with the long span being perpen-
233
Titrhine uiant svstelns Chapter 2 \Met steam turbine plant

rather tiiaii the heal transfer coefiicico1 o f the exiendcil
tube surface.
On recent wet steanl machines, economic factoii
dictate two stages of reheat. The exhaust steam from
the external separators is directed across the outsidc
o f tile tubes in a single pass in a manner which is very
close to pure crossflow. The reheating steam is supplied
t o the upper header of each tube eiement and condenses
on the inside o f thc tube. The condensate is piped fro111
the bottom header and passed to the feed train. The
heating steam supply t o the elements through which the
separator exhaust steam first passes, is obtained from
iiEhTED
STEAM
a tapping o n the H P cylinder. The shell-side steam, then
INLETS passes through fiirthci elements, which derive their
heating steam from the live steam pipework upstream
o f the H P stop valves. The healing elements impart a
small degree o f superheat t o the shell-side steam, whicli
then enters the LP cylinders through the LP inter^
ceptor valves in a condition almost identicai to LI'
inlet conditions in a fossil-fired plant.
Occasionaily a smail percentage of inlet steam from
the separator exhaust is allowed to pass on either side,
and also around the top and bottom, o f the tube hailk
and finally exits with the superheated outlet steam.
This by-pass steam cools the reheater outer slleli and
minimiscs the vessel deformation which can be caused
-u by the temperature rise in the sheli-side steam as i t
BLED
STEAM
LiVt
SIEANI
passes from one side of the vessel to the other.
DRllNS DRAWS On NEI-Parsons reheaters in Canadian machines,
all components, with the exception of the tube elemen
FIG.2.105 Vertical type relleater header-gaskets, are made from carbon steel. In orde
t o protect the heat transfci surfaces on the inside
and outside of the tubes from rusting during pro-
longed shutdown periods, heated air is blown througll
dicuiar t o the direction of the shell-side steam fiow. the reheater elements on the sheil side to keep tilc
This results in the minimum shell diameter, and faci- ambient internal temperature above the dew poinl
litates element interchangeability and ease of nlanu- This prevents rust forming on the outside o f the tubes
facture, erection, leak detection and replacement o f and the shell internals. The tube bores are protected
elements, if necessary. during shutdown periods by nitrogen blanketing. Ex-
Steam condenses as it passes down the tubes and ternal erosion-corrosion of the tubes, tubeplates and
ii1:lles most bc Silted w'illi carc la ensure lhai no
ll;linage occurs to the lube fins on assembly. By ad-
.iiisiing the sPacill'2 01' these plates, the vibraiionai
~:ll:~~acteristics of the tube can be arranged to be
clcay o f damaging vibrations, w~hether rnccl~anicall~
r18 Slow-induced.
Oil-load detectioi~ o f tube leakage be deter.
milied by isolatitlg each tube element and comparing
lllr internal 'settle-out' pressure with the prevailing
i;l~cll-sidepressure.
l1 Canadian units, in the event of any tube leak-
the particuiar tube element is isolated until it
be replaced by a spare element at a convenient
i!;ige: the leaking element tubes are then plugged.
1 1 ) ~ elements are removed by taking off the shell
~'r\'ei, cutting the tube-side stealn supply and drain
l>il)rs (jive or bled), and iifting out the tube element.
I l l c i.cplacetncnt o f a tube eiement is sitnpiy the re-
rcrrc o f element removal.
A tnrobienl wit11 vertical reheaters is tiiat the maxi-
!!Iliili height of the crane hook has to bc sufficient
it1 tile heating elements out vertically. TO reduce
1111: ;llnount of cutting during dismantling, the live
iitlii i'lcd-steam pipework normally enters the shell
:Ir lhe side wall rather than through tile shell
This pipework from the sheli wail to the ele-
'led on its own foundation from the basement
HOT REHEAT
floor. Shell-side relief is normally accornlllodalcd oil
vcsiical schcaters by a coinbinatioii of burstillg dia-
phiagins and pressure vali,cs i n the blot le],cat
lines between tiie re~,eate,.a,ld tl,c interceptor
I I ~ ~ I separaror rehealers
~ ~ o I ' ~ z omoislure
The overail size of the MSR vessels incorporating wire
mesh separators was originally governed by the Ilro-
vision of sufficient area of horizontal mesh. It was
most convenient to dispose the vessels horizontally
and position the heater elements above the mesh. The
steam distribution system was beiow the mesb and the
steam inlets were therefore positioned in the bottom
of the vessel. The hot reheat connections were posi-
tioned on the top the vessel.
With one vessel located each side of the L P cylinders
at engine room floor level, the cold reheat pipework was
routed from the H P turbine exhaust to the bottom o f
the MSR and the llot reheat pipework from top of
the vessel t o the ~p cylinders.
With the adoption of inciined separators,
it was no longer necessary to limit the stealn distl.i-
butio,, system to the lower section of vessel. A
typical schematic of a two.stagc MSR is
shown in Fig 2.106. he steam is introduced into $he
and the separator eiements, TO op.
L ~ VINLET
ESTEAM

the vertical tube arrangement obviates problems o f
slug-water flow that can occur with horizontal con-
figurations. Complete drainage during shut down or
eiement isolation is also ensured by the vertical
arrangement.
The heat transfer coefficients are very different o n
the inside and the outside of the reheater tubes. On
the inside, where the heating steam is condensing, the
heat transfer coefficient is much higher than o n the
outside which is in contact with the nominally dry
steam at low pressure. Externally-finned tubing is
therefore used to enhance the heat transfer capability
on the shell-side and hence reduce the total number
of tubes, reheater size and shell-side pressure loss,
compared with an unfinned tube arrangement. The
length and number of tubes and the fin profile are
chosen o n the basis of a cost optimisation. The critical
variabie in this cost optimisation procedure has been
found t o be the pressure drop across the reheater,
vessel at full and part-load is minimised by limiting
the venting and flow velocities. Wet steam erosion of
thc tube bores is minimised by using low reheating
steam velocities o f the order of I m/s and a downward
flow direction which results in a steady annular flow
pattern.
The tube length or support has to be arranged to
ensure that the natural frequency of the tube bundl
is clear o f machine frequency, low harmonics of m
chine frequency, flow-induced Karman vortex sheddi~
frequencies and acoustic standing wave frequencie
Tube diameters are normally chosen t o ensure th
the tube natural frequencies are clear of aeroelast
frequencies, but tube first-mode natural frequenci
have been found close t o acoustic standing wave f r
quencies. In a n attempt t o avoid this, horizontal su
oort olates adjacent t o and within the tube element ar
FIG. 2.106 Typical horizontal two-stage rnoisluic separaiorrelleatci
Turbine plant sysrems
elation, i t is ncccssary la segregate llle incoining caul
steain from tiic reheated steaol. A close-fitting slil-oiid
is theieforc often provided to guide the stcan) from the
relieatel to the outlet connections. Where the hot shroud
is in close proximity to tile outel. shell, it lmay require
a thernlal shield t o prevent local heating and distortion
o f the shell. T o cater for temperature differentials, which
could cause unacceptable distortion, the earlier shroud
designs were divided into a number of panels held in
place by clamps, which permitted relative movement
without significant leakage. In a Swedish unit, a com-
bination of pressure differential, thermal distortion and
discontinuity of shape was sufficient to cause a section
of shroud to collapse away from the clamps. The
section then vibrated in the steam flow and failed by
fatigue. Shrouds are now designed t o avoid similar
failures.
Current designs of MSR lhave an outer shell welded
together from cylindrical plate sections and dished
ends, designed and constructed in accordance with
pressure vesscl codes, The vessels are generally mounted
o n two supports, one o f which is anchored to the
foundations. The other support is free to expand
longitudinally but is restrained from moving in a
transverse direction by means of a longitudinal key.
MSR vessels are always provided with manholes
for access and inspection, and penetrations through
the shell for connections to the tubenest headers are
normally provided with devices to allow for relative
thermal expansion. The number of reheated steam
outlet connections from the vessel is governed by ex-
ternal layout considerations and the number of L P
turbines.
With precautions taken to avoid high velocity wet
steam, especially at the steam inlet, mild steel is a
satisfactory material for the containing vessel and the
internal support frames. It is obviously desirable to
limit the need for erosion protection and therefore it
is necessary t o avoid high velocities within the sheli.
Any areas of the shell and main support frame which
are exposed to wet steam erosion are always protected
by stainless steel.
An internal support provides a framework for weld-
ing the separator sub-assemblies and a support for
the tubenests and steam shroud. Longitudinal mem-
bers which add stiffness t o the frame often serve as
runners for rollers which assist in the insertion of
tubenests into the frame. These rollers also allow the
tubenests t o expand longitudinally during operation.
The costs of the separator and reheater are governed
mainly by the reheater bundle, in other words by the
size o f the heating surface serving the heat exchange.
The residual water after the separator must be eva-
porated before reheating. This requires additional
heating surfaces and both live and bled-steam re-
heating.
T o determine the type and the size of the reheater
heat-transfer surface, it is necessary to establish the
heat transfer and pressure drop correlations for both
236
sidcs o l tiie ii~bcs. The relatively l o x iatc
translei between superheatcd sleanr and the tii1,c ti
el.aIly dictates llic use o f extci,lally-finned tnhe!,.
Early designs of MSR were based on p~ii,li
predictions of the ircat transfer and prcssure d l
flo\$, across tubes. However, the condensation j i
inside tile tubc produces a two-phase flow wli
the time was not fully understood. The con
were therefore simulated in tests which showcil I
the flow was initially stratified and progressed lhv
wave-flow and slug-flow to plug-flow a t the tube
Eaiiy designs of reheater in the UK, using I
tubes in carbon steei, suffered extensively from e
of the inside of the tubes, particularly at the I
bends, and the impact of high velocity steanl
leaks in these tubes caused consequential darnaiic
adjacent tubes. Major retublng with erosion resisl
material was necessary in certain reheaters, w
strictions on internal steam flow and hence perf0
Some rehcaters had to bc scrapped completely.
Some early American MSR designs used
nickel tubes but, at elevated operating temp
this material produced high levels of coppe
reactor feedwater. Since carbon steel tubes si
from crasion and had to be protected against rusl
during shutdown periods, 18/8 stainless steels \
provided in some continental units. This optioi~
expensive, particularly when compared to carb
and occasionally suffered from cracking caused
which leaked out of the condenser. Seawater cou
carried around the feed circuit and since the reheat
the only significant drying unit in a wet steam
sodium chloride was ultimately deposited in the reh
The reheater tubing in present machines is
18% ferritic stainless steel. This has a greater tole
both t o the deposition of salts and t o general cors
and erosive conditions. Since tubeplates contin
be made from carbon steel, the tubeplate sur
normally clad with a layer of Inconel to fa
weiding of the tubes t o the tubeplate. Both the t i
plate cladding process and tube welding are foilo
by full NDT procedures.
Present designs of reheater are sized using
transfer and pressure drop data obtained from I
o n existing units for both the internal and exte
surfaces of reheater tubes under operational conditi
These tests have enabled higher operating veloc
to be used without impairing the integrity of the
wall. Higher velocities lead t o enhanced heat trans
coefficients and consequently permit a more compac
and economic MSR design.
Current reheater tube banks are based on hair
tubes arranged in rectangular-shaped nests as in earl
designs. In earlier machines, the limited length of lob
available from the manufacturers resulted in multl
ple-nest arrangements and central headers. Since tub
manufacturers can now provide longer tubes, hea
can be placed a t the ends of the vessel, making m
tenance and withdrawal of tubenests more convenient
i llic vessel to perinit lubenes! replacement:
i i l ~ l hc a rare occu1,rencc and might not be
ili the life o f the plant. Leaking lubes de-
rncleased lheating stearn flow woi~ldnormally
oiit of service by plugging.
obes are suppoitcd by drilled plates spaced so
,ithe most cxtrcme conditions of operation
>noharmful vibrations. The distance between
jpiiits is such as to limit any vibrationaliy-
.tresses and the effect of the gas flow across
to acceptable levels.
llural frequency and mode shape of the tube,
ilcd in the nest, are caiculated to avoid the
nodes. It Is not possibie t o eliminate all forms
\sibration, as successively higher modes occur
I frequency intervals and the actual frequency
icnced by factors such as alignment of the tube
plates and the amount of clearance in the
]plate holes, both of which are variabie over
.wtional life o f the unit. In order t o avoid
of the tubes in their support plates, which
tube failure in some MSR designs, it is es-
that the plates maintain their alignment when
Ihenest is subjected to operational temperature
temperature difference between the cold and
i steam, as it flows across the hot tubes of the
, produces temperature differentials which are
imes greater in the first tube row than in the
ube row at full-load, with even greater differ-
11 part-load. By arranging the heating steam flow
hairpin tubenest such that one leg has a low
densation and the corresponding leg a high
possible t o achieve a reasonable balance in
condensed per tube. Even so, a sufficient
tial exists to induce the steam, which has not
condensed by the inner hairpin, to flow via the
section of the header into the lower leg of the
hairpin. Obviously, whilst operating in such a
,I, the outer tubes are not adequately drained
11ed and a section of tube is intermittently de-
of heating steam. This section would then be
ltly cooled by the external steam until the
g steam flow is re-established. Such a cyclic
i~tionhas been shown t o be capable of causing
ile failure o n MSR tubes.
arly designs, this mode of operation was avoided
iting sufficient steam from the drain section of
leader t o ensure a continuous flow through ali
lobes. T o vent such a flow external t o the reheater
uld result in large thermal losses, so the reheaters
fitted with a vent element. This comprised a
el of tubes, located prior t o the main tubenest, which
iilensed the necessary flow of steam. The vent was
ependently vented and drained.
'urrent designs incorporate the simpler solution of
11l-olling the distribution o f steam into the tubes.
table restrictions are placed at the inlet t o appro-
Wer sreain .turbine plant
piiatc tubes, to balance the plessilic drop lliiougli
thc incst to the extent tilat, wilir a slllall veot flow, llic
titbe temperatiisc diffcreirtials are maintained at an
acceptable level and thermal st~.ainsare minimised.
Vent lines are normaliy ied to healers in tiie feed
trains for thermodynamic recovery, but on start-up
and low-loads it is sometimes necessary to provide
a slightly enhanced vent flow. An additional line is
then provided which is usually routed to the condenser.
It is possible for conditions to arise which cause
a pressure rise in the H P turbine and consequently in
.
the MSR, these are:
A turbine trip from full-load, resulting in the entrained
steam between the stop vaives and the interceptor
valves settling at a pressure ievel between normal
. pressure and the H P cylinder inlet pressure.
Operating with H P feedheaters by-passed and MSR
. reheating tubenests isolated.
Leaking tubes in a live steam reheater tubenest
allowing steam to by-pass the turbine stop valves.
Leakage across the turbine stop valves in excess
of corresponding leakage through the LP turbine
valves.
Closure of all six LP turbine interceptor valves, whilst
an HP turbine stop valve and governing valve remain
open.
The MSR is, therefore, fitted with a relief capacity
sufficient for the full reactor steam output. Relief
valve capacity is pl.ovided t o cater for a nominal
number of burst tubes, with a setpoint above the
maximum normal operating pressure, and bursting
diaphragms to cater for the total steam flow at a suit-
able higher pressure.
13.5 Steam supply and drains systems
The heating steam for the majority of modern re-
heaters is bled from the H P turbine t o the first-stage
reheat and supplied from the live steam pipework for
the second-stage reheat. Reheater steam temperature
control is designed t o be completely automatic and
requires n o intervention from the operator. A typical
diagrammatic arrangement of the live and bled-steam
supply and drains system for a combined separator/
reheater is shown in Fig 2.107.
13.5.1 First-stage reheat
The bled-steam t o each reheater is conveniently sup-
plied from a bleed-off (usually the first) from one of
the flows of the H P turbine. Since the bled-steam is
wet, the supply lines usually incorporate some form
Turbine plant systems
WLVE I\ lSOLhiiNG VALVE CLOSED BY HlCiH WATER LEVEL SIGNAL
IN ASSOCIATE0 HEATER
VhiYt B NOAMALDRiiiNTO HEATER FLASHBOX
VALVE C ALTEnNATlVt DRAlN TO CONDENSER
-
---
STEAM iiNE
ORltiN LINE
CONTROL SiGNAl
FIG.2.107 Steam supply and drains system far a combined
of water separation device, close to the H P turbine:
to safeguard the H P turbine from any possible ingress
of large slugs of this water, non-return valves are
normally included. On the most recent machines, these
non-return valves are often power-assisted and close
in the event of a turbine trip or a load rejection.
They may also be triggered to close from a signal
initiated by an extra high water level in the associated
reheater drains tank. Bled-steam lines to the reheater
Chaptei ?
senaratoi/ietieaIer
are rarely fitted with safety valves, but motor-operated
isolating valves are always included which close if
the water in the reheater drains tank rises to the extra
high water level.
13.5.2 S e c o n d - s t a g e r e h e a t
The live steam supply to the second-stage reheater
tube banks is obtained direct from the main steam
pipework immediately upstream of the H P stop valves.
'1.0 prevent excessive 11
.' turbine kick-cod tempcra-
tiiicr during lrrw-load operation when the hot ~.eheat
t.li.iiill flow is low, tlie live steam reheat supply is
~.'t)~iirolledby a valve which icgrilates the live steam flow
iii:~:ol-dingto the temperature of the hat reheat stcam.
l i t certain designs, this control valve does not open
11i11il the machine has reached a particular load. At
fiill-load, tlie valve is fully open and could be subject
tci wear. A by-pass valve is therefore sometimes pro-
vidcd so that the temperature control valve is not
iii use during full-load operation. At a hot reheat
tclriperalure slightly below the normal full load tcm-
lrcrature the control valve closes as the by-pass valve
opens. A small warming connection may also be
plovided to enable the pipework to be pre-warmed
to reduce the degrce of thermal shock to the rcheatcr
iil~il pipework when the temperature control valve
,~I,C,,S.
In common with the bled-steam supply, isolating
!'kiives are always included in the live steam pipework,
l i t i t non-return valves arc generally not fitted.
13.5.3 Performance monitoring
'The most satisfactory method of detecting tube leaks
ill steam-to-steam reheaters is by monitoring the live
ilnd bied-steam flow rates. Both live and bled-steam
slipply lines to the reheaters are therefore usually fitted
\\,ith flow measuring devices, such as orifice plates
or pitot tubes. Tube leaks are identified by a sudden
increase in the heating steam flow rate. Thermocouples
are sometimes fitted to tubenest headers to ensure
liiat start-up procedures produce acceptable thermal
stresses; and thermocouples are also sometimes fitted
lo reheater tubes to confirm that the tubenest is not
aiibject to unacceptable thermal cycling.
13.5.4 S y s t e m drains
130th the live steani and blcd-steam supply lines must
bc adequately drained at all times. Drain lines usually
include a dirt trap at the take-off tapping and some
form of steam trap arrangement. Under normal con-
ilitions, water is drained away via the steam trap to a
drain vessel. However, steam traps have a history of
poor reliability and, in the case of the bled-steam sup-
ply line, are often inadequate to cope with the water
flow at low-loads. Water traps are therefore always
provided with vaived by-passes, sized to pass the
maximum possible flow under all oberating conditions.
13.5.5 Separator drains
130th cyclone separators and MSR internal separators
ale normally situated close to engine room floor level.
'This provides sufficient height to accommodate the
drains tank, sufficient net positive suction head for a
separator drains pump (if fitted) and a falling drain from
the drains tank to the condenser.
Wet steam turbine plant
Separated wales from each scpaiatoi vcssel, or from
each MSll shell, and from the cold reheat pipes is
drained by gravity into tlic separator drains tank.
Carnmoning of drains pipes before the drains tank is
not acceptable, since pressure differences between
individual pipes and vessels can cause water to back-up
in the pipework. Water levels can become unstable and
oscillation or hunting can occur in the drains system
leading to vibration and sotnetin~esfailure, particularly
of the pipework supports. It is normal practice there-
fore to provide an individual separator drains tank
and drains control system for each vessel containing a
Sevarator.
Horizontal drains tanks are often chosen for economy
but vertical tanks have the advantage of a constant
surface area and have greater hydraulic stability in
level control. The layout of the drains pipcwork to the
drains tanks should be chosen with care, particularly
where loop seals are included. The lowcst point of
the loop must be far enough below the floor of the
vessel to permit free drainage during any tank transient
pressure rise. Any transition in the bore of the drains
pipework should also be well below the floor of the
vessel to inhibit any tendency to flashing at this point
o f sudden pressure reduction. Drains tanks are nor-
mally fitted with vent pipework, level indicators, high
level switches and pressure indicators.
Water from the drains tanks may be discharged to
a heater in the feed train via a flashbox, or pumped
to the de-aerator, in which case the pump flow is
regulated by a level controller on the drains tank. A
recirculation valve is then necessary to satisfy the mini-
mum flow requirements of the pump and to guard
against cavitation. Forward flow may be prevented
completely in the event of high level in the de-aerator
by a motor-operated isolating valve in the pump
discharge line. In this case, drains are routed to the
condenser. Drains are also normally routed to the
condenser during start-up to prevent contamination
of the de-aerator inventory. Pump discharge lines are
always provided with isolating valves and non-return
valves.
13.5.6 Reheater drains
The location of the drains receivers, control valves
and the routing of the drain pipes, requires careful
consideration to ensure stable and safe operation o f
the system.
Condensate from each bled-steam tubenest header
is drained by gravity to a bled-steam reheater drains
tank. One tank per vessel is the usual arrangement.
In the case o f multiple headers, as in NEl-Parsons
type vertical reheaters, drains pipes are not commoned
but individual pipes lead the condensate from the
headers to the drains tank, thus avoiding the problems
o f instability mentioned above. Similarly, drainage
from the tubenests in the MSR vessels are kept quite
separate and are not cross-connected.
1-urbins plant systeins Chaptr!! %

Conderisalc froin the drains ianks is normally routed 'The a i r a n g e m c n i and control of thc livc steam diiii,r
to a heater Slash vessei or drains cooler Sor tiie1.- is ver)' si~iiilar to the bled-steaai drains exccpl 11i;ii
inodynamic gain. If liowcvei the heater bank is aul of rile condensate i s finally r o i l l e d l o a ihealeu flash v c ~ . i l
scivice, either a three-way valve routes the drains to further along llre fccd traio.
rhc condenser Slashbox, or a motoiised valve in the
Iilie to the heaters closes and ail emergency drain
valve in the line to the condenser flashbox opens in
response to a high level signal from the level controller A P T E R 3
in the drains tank. This emergency drain valve also
14 References
opens in response to a high water level in rlie heaters. ill Heilbrone. F. S.: Lffeeis of noscd steslii and ~ a l e upo,,
i ii~i
All valves and drain pipework must be sired to pass
ovenpeed or lavge siealii luibiiies alter sitddell loss of io;$ii:
P r o c 1Meci1C. Volume 180. Pall 3J: 1965-66
Feedwater heating systems
the bled-steam drains at maximum turbine capacity.
I21 Kcailon, W. I.: Srealli Iltrbirie llleory and piactice: Pitman
Drains tanks are sized such that the time taken to fill
131 Nel~oil.W. (i. and Walennai?. A. \\'.: Advances i ~eomirci.
?
the volume bounded by tlie tankwalls, and the upper cia1 aeroplane 1i)~drauiicfluidr: SAE Camniiilce A6, Aerosjiarr Ililrodu~tio" 64.1 Length of U-tubes
and lower limits of the control band, will be several I'iuid Power and Control Tcclinologies. Uostoii: 1974
1 Feed system design 6.4.2 Tube siipport plates
times the control valve stroking time. 141 Urodie. J. K.: Ealrainmeiii studies Phi) ~heiis: Herio~-W;,li 6 5 Bled-steam inlet
Non-return valves are usually provided in the line Usiversiiy: 1969 I.' Introduction 6.6 Ti>cirnal design
1.2 Functional needs of the system 66.1 Desuperheafing section
t o the heater flashbox to prevent possible refluxing 1.3 System configuration 6.6.2 Condensino section
of water during transient opc~.ation, or backflow to 1.4 Component design parameters
the condenser flash vessel from the heaters in the 1.5 Compon~nflevels
1.6 Maintenance 01 system water content
event of valve malfunction. Since MSR vessels are 15 Additional references
situated at or near engine room floor level, sufficient
1.7
1.8
Protection against usc of contalninaled feedwater
Protection against ingress of waterlateam to
- , ~~~~ ~

Uergscxarrer. G.:Reii~ioicerlconcrete Soi~ndacioiisroi sican? tarbil~c. 6.9 Alternative designs of heater construction
height is available underneath tlie vessel to accommo- Elekt: ib,irir, Volt~nie59 pp 805-809: Nove#l~bei1960 turbine$
1.9 Summary 7 De-aerating feedheafers
date adequately-sized drain tanks and pi.ovide a falling 1:iiiI~eibcrl. W. A and Barncil, J. H.: Causes oS movcnlenf i8, 7.1 Introduction
drain to all possible destinations. The base o f a vertical reiniorcetl concrete turbo-blocks and dei,elopme~>rill turbo-bloc!. 7 HP feed svstem 7.2 TiieimaIIhydraulic design
reheater, however, may be low in the turbine hall design and coiirirudio81: P ~ OIhlecLE.
C VOI~IIII~ 181. Par, I No 22, 7.3 De-aeietor construction
and a positive static head may not be possible for all pp 589-614: 1966-67 8 LOW pressure heaters
2.3 system configuration
operating conditions. In this case, it might be necessary 1:iinl. I.J.: Plasl arpccir o f lurbine generator rouiidniiooc: Pror. 8.1 lntrodu~tion
2.4 HP heater drains system
IMechE, Volurile 181, Par, I No 22, pp 567-578: 1966-61 2.5 Pipewoik arrangement 8.2 Surface type low pressure heaters
to provide a pump which would have to be sited in the 8.3 Construction of iow pressure heaters
basement, or even in a pit, in order t o provide the itaupi. L. and Frobs1 P. H.: Civil engineering and vibratioa aspect, 3 De.aeratof System 8.4 Water header, tube bundle and sheli
or steam iuibinegeneiaioi foundations in Germany: Proc. IMechE. 8.4.1 Tube thickness
appropriate net positive suction head. Otherwise par- Volume 181. Par1 I No.22, pp 579-588: 1966-67 3.1 Introduction
3.2 De-aerator heater 8.4.2 Fiow srea thickness
8.4.3 Tubeplate
ticular drains might have to drive against an adverse
Piaefckc, R. 0.: Steel foundations for tile suppoi, o f high-speed 3.3 De-aerator storage tank
static head. snachinery: i'rac. IMecliE, Paper C7: 1983 3.4 De-aerator elevation 84.4 Wafer header wall thickness
3.5 Piotecfion systems 8.4.5 Wafer header branch thickness
3.6 Protection valves 84.6 Compensations for openings in the waterbox
,a 3 7 Plpework 8.4.7 Shell and dished end thickness
8.5 Heater tube lenglll and fube supports
i 3 8 Boller feed pump sucfton f~lters
85.1 Tube support plates
2 4 LOW
41
pleESUre feed system
Inilod~~ilon
8.6 Bled-steam inlets and drain outlets
8.7 Thermal design
42 Low pressure system configurat8on 8.8 External drain coolers
43 Plpework and valves 8.8.1 Thermallhydraulic design of a fiashing drain cooler
88.2 Thermallhydrsulic design 01 a water-to-water drain
5 D B S ~ S o~f Sfeedheafers Coder
6 Hlgh PIBJSUrB feedwafer heater* 8.9 Direct contact low pressure heaters
6 1 Functronal needs 9 EvaporafOrS and other means d water treatment
6.2 Con~trucfionof high pressure heaters 9.1 lnirodu~tion
6.3 Wafer header, tube bundle and rheii 9.2 Types of bied-steam evaporator
63.1 To find tube thickness 9.3 Sulface type evaporator
6.3.2 Area required for flaw through the tube bundie 9.4 Flash type evaporators
6.3.3 Tubeplafe thickness
6.3.4 Water header wall thickness 10 Future developments
6.3.5 Hesder branch thickness 10.1 HP feed system
6.3.6 Compensation for openings in the water header 10.2 Ds-aerator syslem
6.3.7 Shell and dished end thickness 10.3 LP feed system
6.4 Heater tube length and tube supports 11 References
Feedwater lieatirig s y s t e m s
Introduction
llcgeoerativc fccdl~calinglhas long beco iccogilised as
a means of improving turbine-generator plant effi-
ciency and the first practical installation was on a
3 b1W set in a British gower slatioii at Rlaydoii Bul.ii
near Newcastle-upon-'Tyne in 1916.
From this modest beginning the modern fcedheating
systeni has evolved, a typical feed system consisting of
sin to eight heat exchangers, each bleeding steam from
the appropriate turbine cylinder.
T h e economic justification for the use of a parti-
cular configuration of feedheaters is given in Chaptcr
i of this volume, in which it is explained how the
theory of regenerative feedheating is combined with
the economic information the purchaser makes avail-
able to the manufacturers to determine the most
appropriate number and disposition of feed stages.
When the ideal cycle has been evolved, it is tho] used
as a basis for tlie determination of a practical design.
The economic need to replicate proven turbine and
feed system components, whenever practical, places
restraints o n the manufacturer. Usually these are o f a
minor nature and will only changc the ideal blccd
point pressures by a few tenths of a bar. Thc minor
loss in efficiency is accepted in return for the use o f
proven plant and the lower cost resulting from the
replication of existing designs.
The main parameters for the feedheating systems
of a range of typical modern 500 and 660 MW units
are shown in Table 3.1. T h c corresponding heater
arrangements are shown o n Figs 3.1 to 3.6.
The turbine/boiler main cycle parameters of stop
valve pressure (SVP) and stop valve temperature (SVT)
have been standardised for all modern fossil-fired 500
and 660 MW units.
Sl01,
Sil" valve
pressure
(bar)
Oil
Grain Oil
Oil
Drax
Coal
Heysham 2 660 Nuclear 159.6
Projected
PWR unils 660 Nuelear 66.77
De-aeralor not iticluded in number given
+ 0.25% wet a1 stop valve
Introduction
1:oi all slationi, tllc SVI' is 160 bar; thc ill ' I I' llcalci syslellis a,hicli weie 1iiL.n current!? route was pruvidcd for tlie B1:P'T enhaus1 to tlle coo..
565°C for coalfired hoilers and 538°C for oil 1 dcnsci, llie BI:I"I' wiild also be itin-up will1 llie alaiii
boilci-s. 'The cold rclieat pressure vai-ics b c l ~ v r i ~ ~ i concluded from the review, tllat r u b ~ ~ i asui-
r unit. 0'1 irrcreasc cycle efficiency, lhcalcr bleed poillts
atid 44 bar. As all feed systems for these onil, I I P lheatei feed systems weie more cost on the BI:I37 are provided. However, more Illail onc
cold reheat ( H P turbine exhaust) to stlpp lnd they have been used for all subsequent healer attached lo the BFPT can cause difficulties
tlle final licater, the final feed tenipeiatiire ( in the fccdlieaters downstreani of the heaters from the
only vary by a small amount doc t o the c f i il size increases, so does the power needed BFPT. The manner in which the BFPT bas been
small variations in cold reheat pressure and I llle boiler feed pump (BFP), which is about integrated into the various feed systems is show11 in
ininal temperature difference (TTD) o f the fin;il I 01 main unit output. Multiple electrically- Figs 3.1 t o 3.6.
heater. 1ll;l's could have been used but a more cost Cooling of the generator by condensate is not
Because of the economics of the advanccd I,C solution at the time was to provide a tur- employed for the latest units. The complex and costly
cooled reactor (AGR) cycle, a lower final feed Iiiving a full-duty feed pump. From Figs 3.1 arrangements needed to ensure maintenance o f prime
perature o f about 156°C was specified (see Chal~t ii is seen that each system uses a back pres- and freedom from boiling o f stagnant condensate in
which has resulted in a feed system having thi. ltithine as the BFP drive. Steam is taken from generator coolers on cessation of condensate system
aerator as the final heater. I l l cnlraust, expanded through the turbine and flaw was the reesan why a simple cooling package,
Thc relevant cycle details for the feed system I to the main turbit~eor t o a heater. A live with indirect coolers using condenser cooling water
pressurised water reactor (PWK) are also shoi\il ru,ply from the main boiler is provided on (CW), was developed and is now used. Thc loss in
Fig 3.6. ation o f boiler feed pump turbines efficiency is accepted in return for increased opera-
The steam caaditions for the 660 MW PM'I' to enable the turbine to drive the feed pump tional integrity and simplification, with consequent
67 bar, 0.25% wet, result in the stop valve flow I, dl conditions of unit load. As an alternative reduced maintenance costs for the condensate system.
approximately twice that of a convention
unit and, in consequeiice, all flow c o m ~ o n e n t sini
be approximately 1.5 times tlicir normal size I
coinmodate thc doubled flow. The I'WR feed
is also more complicated than conventional f
fired units as provision has to be made to a
reheater a n d separator drains into the feed system
all conditions of operation, as shown in Fig 3.6.
Table 3.1 shows that the latest stations, such
Littlebrook D and Heysham 2 , are provided witli
bular surface type heaters t o the exclusion o f
'direct contact' (DC) heaters (i.e., feedwater and h
steam in direct contact within the heater shell).
changc in design philosophy was the result of a
view, in the early 1970s, of the cost effectiveness
-
Final Number of Tyne o f Fig ref
feed stages 1.P
lenip heater
(OC)
DC
DC
Surface
Surface
538 45.2 156.4 0 4 Surface 3.5
+ 5.86 226.7 3 4 Surface 3.6
Feedwater heating systems Chai
.... Introduction
Feedwater heating systems Chaptai :I
Feedwater heating systems
1 F e e d system d e s i g n
1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
'Thc feedheating systciii associated with a turbine pro-
vides tile means by which the steam condensed in tlic
main condenser is fed lo the boiler, It must also heat
the feedwater by use of a series o f heal exchangers as
demanded by cycle dcsign. T o provide both these ser-
vices requires a complex arrangement of heat exchangers
and pumps, with hundreds of valves interconnected by
many kilometres of pipework.
Such a network of valves, pipes and heat exchangers
1laS many possible flow paths. The determination o f flow
paths and eliminatior~of unwanted routes is critical for
the design of a successful system. In this respect, tlie
system design is analogous to electrical circuit design.
The configurations which have beelr developed ovcs
the last fifteen years to mcet the functional needs of feed
system design in the most cost effective manner are
described in this section.
1.2 F u n c t i o n a l needs o f t h e s y s t e m
T o play its part in the boiier/tuibine-generator cycle,
the feedheating system has to perform the following
functions:
Provide the required amount o f feedwater t o the
boiler at a temperature dictated by cycle design.
Maintain a stable suction regime for the boiler feed
pumps.
* Contain a buffer store for water to allow for a short
term mismatch between boiler demand and available
feedwater.
In the longer term, t o keep the water content con-
stant.
Supply water t o the boiler with a n acceptable oxygen
content.
8 Automatically cut off the supply of contaminated
feedwater to the de-aerator, and hence to the boiler,
in the event of ingress of chlorides due to inleakage
o f the condenser cooling water o r chemicals fiom the
polishing plant.
In the event of a turbine trip or sudden reduction of
unit load, the stored energy within the feed system
must not overspeed the turbine-generator.
Be so engineered as to protect the turbine from
possible reflux of water or water/steam mixture from
the feed system under all conditions of operation.
'y,e al>aucioiiciio~isare llie principal ainis of feed iy!,lciii
'lesigii: lhow they have beeti achievcd b y llre s y s i r l l ~ ' .
innailed in rnodeiil CF.GI5 powcr statioiis is dewii1,viI
in the following seclions.
1.3 S y s t e m c o n f i g u r a t i o n
The riiunbcr of ieediieaters is determined by the applic!~.
tion of the relevanl economic factors, as explained i l l
Chapter 1. However, the theoretical bleed point pits.
surcs are seldom obtainable because of constrainls i l l
blading design. Thc actual points used are determinetl
by what is possible with current designs of blades aild,
ill some cases, by standard cylinder modules. On sill
modern large reheat units, final feed temperatore i r
determined by cold reheat pressure as in all prcirill
fossil-fired plant the ultimate H P heaters are fed frilin
the HP cylinder exhaust (i.e., at cold reheat pressoic).
A typical tubular surface type L P and H P feed systrnl
is shown in Fig 3.7.
1,) this system, the Condensate formed in tlie condeiisi'~
is pumped by the condenser extraction pump thro~lg!~
the gland steam condenser (GSC) and the L P healcli
to the high level de-acralor. The elevated positioii 01
the de-aerator provides the net positive suction lhe;id
(NPSH) needs of the BFPs. In this context, the NPSII
needs of the BFP are defined as tlie head equivalcol to
the pressure necessary, over and above the temperat11
dependent saturation pressure at the inlet to the pulnp,
to prevent the feedwater from flashing into steam witlii
the pump. The capacity of
to meet any flucluations i
pumps draw from the de-aerator and discharge throupl~
the feed regulating valves and thc H F heaters lo tllc
boiler.
An alternative system with DC L P beaters and tubiiizil
surface H P heaters is illustrated in Fig 3.8. 'The coli.
densate is extiacted fiom the condenser and pumpcil
through the GSC and the generator coolers up to t l
first LP DC heater. The condensate cascades from 1.PI
t o LP3 DC heater via LP2. A DC heater extractio\
pump, pumps the water from LP3 heater up t o the hi
level de-aerator. The BFP draws from the de-aerator 1.
and discharges to the boiler via the feed regulating val
and the H P heaters.
I .4 Component design p a r a m e t e r s
T o determine the physical sizes of the various col
ponents used in the feed system the flows, pressures and
temperatures must be known. These are provided by t l l C
turbine manufacturer in the form of a series of hcsl
balances which cover the whole o f the range of expected
cycle operation. As the de
may be other than consta
conditions, it is i m ~ o r t a n tthat the whole spectrum a
IFeedwatei heating systems
component is designed. Pronl the heat bal-
llii:
most appropriate design conditioiis for each
le
system are determined, and thc value and
S special provisions to maintain unit output
bnormal conditions is evaluated. Tlie physical
I of the individual components is discussed in
in Section 5 of this chapter.
Component levels
eration must also be given to the elevations at
the various feed system components are placed.
lative elevations are of prime importance as they
ce the ability of components to meel the func-
41 needs of the system. The levels at which the various
ponents are installed for a feed system using sur-
type heaters are shown in Fig 3.9.
liking the L P turbine horizontal centre line as the
n i , the vertical height of the condenser and its
sition piece, between condenser and turbine, com-
a with the NPSH needs of the condensate ex-
on pump, determine the basement depth needed
,\, the machine. The water level in the condenser
well is fixed by the individual condenser design.
inling a transverse condenser for each turbine LP
~nder,the water level is set at a convenient height
the condenser bottom. As the traditional split-
g design of extraction pump usually stands on the
lent floor, the basement depth has to be set to
vide the head of condensate needed to satisfy the
traction pumps NPSH. However, current practice
lo use a vertical multistage condensate extraction
11npo f the 'caisson' type, whicli is sunk into a local
I in the basement floor. Use of this pump design
~ w the s basement floor to be set just below condenser
lorn-plate level as the pump impellers can be placed
below floor level as needed. The principles in-
d are illustrated in Fig 3.10. It is evident that the
f a caisson type of extraction pump reduces the
ent depth and thereby reduces station cost. A
d description of the various types of extraction
smps used in CEGB power stations is given in
n the latest stations with all surface-type heaters
ding the de-aerator), a horizontal heater attitude
opted as opposed to the traditional vertical posi-
allows the heaters to be placed below the
)!torn of the turbine cylinders but above the con-
nser water level. The heater levels are set with suffi-
cicnt static head for them to cascade by gravity from
Ihc highest pressure H P heater to the lowest pressure,
lund then to the condenser. Even when set at these levels,
Ily using horizontal heaters it is possible to arrange the
bled-steam pipework to have a continuous slope from
llte bleed point on the turbine down to the heater. The
hnnie arrangement is also possible with horizontal L P
hcaters. This has the important advantage that the
bled-steam lines can drain towards the heaters and the
Feed system design
heater drains can cascade by gravity to the condenser,
as denicted in Rr 3.11.
Gravity drainage allows opeialion at low unit load and
unit start-up without alternative drainage arrangements,
". .
"sine ournus or snecial ooeratiollal nrocedures.
On those stations which use direct contact LP heaters,
the method of fixing the heights of the heaters is more
complex. A typical DC heater level diagram is shown
in Fig 3.12.
The elevation between two adjacent DC heaters is
arranged to accommodate a column of condensate which
forms a seal between adjacent heaters. The seal is
provided in the form of a loop. The condensate column
counter balances heater differential steam pressures,
pipework and waterbox/spray losses.
The height of the condensate column at full-load is
about half the vertical separation between heaters. Thc
loop seal must be of sufficient depth to withstand the
most severe turbine load changes envisaged; for if it
were ruptured by a temporary reversal o f condensate
flow, two turbine stages would become directly connected
and there would be the possibility of steam and water
being transferred to the lower stage.
Further information on the detailed dynamic be-
liaviour of DC feed systems is to be found in the paper
by Dartnell [I] and the hydrodynamic aspects are
examined by Kubie, Rowe and Jones 121.
The height of the de-aerator relative to the boiler feed
pump is important as this provides the static head on
the BFP suction to satisfy its NPSH needs under all
conditions of operation. Tlie other considerations which
can influence de-aerator tank height are discussed in
detail in Section 3 of this c h a ~ t e r .
1.6 Maintenance of system water content
The de-aerator tank provides a reservoir o f water on
which the feed pump can draw should there be a
mismatch between the feed requirements of the boiler
and the condensate flowing into the de-aerator tank.
There is typically 7-10 minutes' worth of constant
maximum rating (CMR) feed waterflow stored in the
tank. To allow for normal gains and losses to the
de-aerator tank content, insurge and outsurge systems
are ~ r o v i d e dto maintain the tank content as near to a
constant value as is operationally necessary. As illustrated
in Fig 3.13, the insurae and outsurge connections to
and from the reserve feedwater tanks-(RFTS) are made
to the L P feed system to allow adjustment of the
total cycle water content. During normal operation,
the large content of the tank smooths out any sudden
small changes in demand and so allows the insurge/
outsurge valves to respond in a controlled manner to
restore the tank level to normal.
I n the event of a low level in the de-aerator tank, the
insurge group feeds into the condenser from where
it is pumped forward to the de-aerator tank by the
condensate extraction pumps. This continues until the
253
 IZeedwaler healing systems C i l a ~ l ~3 ? ~ Fuel system) desigii

I:IG 3.10 Delcrminaiion of basement dcplli

(a) uircancc fio#?iceiiireiine of LP (urbine lo bouoir of caring - deiern~ined by ~niai>iifacfaierto aiiow room for casing, etc.
(b) Depth of condei?se~>neck - deie~milledby tile ,need lo uniforrniy distribute steaiu from rile LP fi8rbi~ieexhaust l o llle
iubepiate ends of the condenrei. Angle of narc is fixed lo give mir~iinuixilheig1,i conducive witti unifornl $lean, distribution.
(c) TI~~CIICSId e ~ l l iib dcsigi>cd i o B C ~ ~ ~ Coplin\im
YE il~ermalpcrfoimacice by tile tubenest colluniensuiate \uith tlie distance
beliveen 1.1' cyliiiders.
Id) Sufficielil space must exist a, the boiionl of the tubenest lo allow slenm access lo ihc bollosn lubes.

water level in the tank is restored to its normal work-
ing level. If the dc-aerator tank level is higher than the
setpoint, the outsurge valve is opened and the excess
- from the svstem to the RFTs until
water is dischaired
normal working level is restorcd. The method by which
lilese systems are integrated into the L P feed system is
iiescribed in Section 4 of this chapter
1.7 Protection against use of contaminated
feedwater
Siiould there be an inleakage of cooling water into
the condenser, the feedwater to the boiler could be
contaminated. Contamination of feedwater can also
result from the inadvertent release of chemicals from a
polishing plant.
Modern boilers can sustain severe damage from
contaminated feedwater. T o prevent feedwater of an
unsuitable quality beinp fed to the de-aerator storare
tank and f'om there to
the boilers, or outsurged t o
the reserve feedwater tanks, protection valves which
are tripped shut on high conductivity levels are placed
upstream of the outsurge connection and downstream
of the polishing plant (if provided), as illustrated in
Fig 3.14. The hardware and detail design is discussed
in Section 4 of this chapter.
against ingress of water/steam
FIG.3.9 Piclorial iepresenlation of the relalive levels of heaters and feed pumps for a po>vei station using horimnfal to turbines
HF and L P tubular surface type feedheaters
Many well documented instances of damage being
254
caused to turbines by the ingress of water or a water/
steam mixture from the feed system have been reported
[3,4,51.
There are scvcral potential sources of water within
the feed system which can flow or be induced into the
turbine. The potential sources are as follows:
(a) High water level in an H P or L P feedheater. The
high water level could be caused by a tube leak o i
failure of the drainage arrangements.
(b) High water lcvel in a de-aerator. If there is a
mismatch between inflow and outflow the vessei
can flood.
(c) Undrained bled-steam lines. When the bled-steam
is wet, tlie water in the steam is deposited on the
pipework walls or is separated when a valve or
bend is encountered. Condensate is also formed
on start-up, while the lines are being warmed to
operating temperatures.
In the case of items (a) and (b), if the rising level is
allowed to continue unchecked, then it could flood
into the bled-steam line and back to the turbine.
With regard to item (c), if there is continual fall from
the points where the water is accumulating towards
the extraction point on the turbine, it will most cer-
tainly flow against tlie steam flow towards the turbine.
The other means bv which water o r a water/steam
mlxture can be induced into the turbine is by a pres-
sure reversal between the feed heaters and the turblne
bleed ooints. A oressure reversal is caused bv a unit t r i ~
or a sudden load reduction.
 Feedwater lheating systems

"aL"e8 A,#oPeN#%
SPI1INTCLOS,MG

-- "AL"clo"AINT*IY
~ C O W ~ A W , ~ " ~ . ~ ~
LlYlilNCONDiNSliiB

,
, f
~~Cm~~~, ,
To9IULO(ooPrNT#m

nc. 3.14 Devices installed ar nrotection against the use of caniarninalcd feedwater
~*~S"UlilYALI1.

~-
~-

FIG. 3.13 Typical ilisurge and outsurge system
return valve, the bled-steam isolating valve is also
arranged to be shut on unit trip.
Reverse steam flow can also carry quantities of
water from heaters and undrained low points in the
bled-steam lines into the turbine and cause damage,
particularly to the large LP turbine blades. These
'back flows'can induce cooler steam into hot cylinders,
with the consequent risk of thermal distortion.
This is an example of how a system must be
designed to allow for all conditions of operation.
Ir1SULGI"ALYE
Flow in both normal and reverse direction must
be considered and, where provision to prevent flow
in one direction is provided, care must be taken to
ensure that there are no 'sneak' paths to bypass thc
protection. It is evident that the protection system
must contain flooding and also prevent back flow of
steam.
The following provisions (illustrated in Fig 3.15)
have been made on all 500 and 660 MW units withi,,
the CEGB to prevent these possibilities:
((1) A non-return valve is placed in the bled-steam line
as close to the turbine bleed point as practicable.
For the de-aerator and H P heaters, these are
power-assisted non-return valves. For the LP heater
bleed points, free-acting valves are normally pro-
vided. On very low pressure heaters, the omission
of the non-return valve is permissible if the con-
ditions given in (g) have been satisfied.
(b) Power-operated bled-steam isolating valves are
provided on each line between the turbine and a
heater, as close to the heater as is practicable. Again,
on very low pressure heaters the isolating valves
can be oinitted provided the conditions given in (g)
have been satisfied.
(c) Feed or condensate isolating valves are provided,
where appropriate, to shut off the supply of water
to a heater or group of heaters.
(d) Duplicate level sensing devices are provided on
each heater, either of which will actuate trip cir-
cuits to close the protection valves.
In some instances the pumps which discharge to
a particular heater are tripped.
(f) All bled-steam lines have an adequate fall towards
a drainage point. Each drainage point is capable
of draining by gravity t o the drain receiver vessel,
which is at condenser vacuum. Any pockets of
water which can be formed by the closure of valves
have drains,
(g) In the case of very low pressure heaters such as
turbine moisture extraction condensers (which ex-
tract a steam/water mixture before the last blade
in the LP turbine), the pressure drop caused by
the isolating and non-return valves as specified
in (a) and (b) may be unacceptable so, instead,
duplicate unvalved drains (which can drain the
heater by gravity alone) are provided between the
heater and the condenser. The feedwater flow to
the heater is also isolated in the event of a high
 UP feed syslenl

FIO.3.16 Diaillaee airanaemenrs for very low oresrure l>eaters without valves in bled-seam lines

b%, these principles are expressed in terms of detailed 2.2 System parameters
stem design, the feed system description has been The final feed temperature (FFT) out of the ultimate
,lit into three sections, viz: HP heater is fixed within a few degrees by the bleed
pressure and steam temperature available to the heater.
HP feed system. On all current 660 and 500 MW units, the bleed point
is the HP exhaust or 'cold reheat' pressure.
De-aerator system and associated plant. The feed temperature out of a heater is conditional
on several factors. First, a bled-steam pipework tem-
LP feed system. perature loss, usually l.l°C, which is subtracted from
the saturation temperature equivalent of the bleed
FIO.3.15 A typical feedheating plant - rhowing proteetion eauipment point pressure. The resultant temperature is the sat-
uration temperature equivalent to the pressure of the
HP feed system steam entering the heater shell. The heater thermal
performance and hence its heat transfer surface is
water level in the heater. The protection provided of protection relay and associated tripping circuils determined by the values of the temperature terminal
is illustrated in Fig 3.16. are described in Volume F, which deals with control differences (TTDs) on the steam and drain sides.
and instrumentation. 2.1 Introduction The steam TTD is defined as the temperature dif-
The HP feed system is defined as the group of heaters ference between the saturated steam temperature at
Recause of the short tlme scale in whlch the com-
~
and associated equipment whlch is situated in the feed entry to the heater shell and the feed water leaving the
mencement of water feed back to the turbine can pipework between the boiler feed pump (BFP) dis- heater. The drain TTD is the temperature difference
occur, all protection measures are automatic and the 1.9 Summary charge and the boiler. Their function is to accept water between the feedwater entering the heater and the
~-~each tvne The ~revious sections give an outline of the maill from the boiler feed pumps and raise the feedwater drains leaving the heater. To achieve optimum HP
hmrlwnre nrnviaiona
r.......... for , of heater is detailed
-~~~~~
~
r

in the appropriate section of this chapter. The types principles for overall feed system design: to explain temperature to the final feed temperature heater performance, it is usually necessary to partition
B
 ~- ....

Feedwater heating systems IHP feed system

is fully explained in Section 6 of this chapter.
By applying tile line temperature drops to all NP
heater bled-steam extraction pressures and the steam
TTDs, the feed temperature out of each o f the H P
heaters is determined. Once the temperatures out of
steam T T D is larger than that of the ultimate heater
which has more superheat in the bled-steam.
-
Considering the functions of Llie feedwater isolating
lii:;~dess are subjected, tliey are placed dowo- \,aivcs under naimai conditions of operation, water
01' the feed regulating valves. As thew arc no flows from the boiler feed pumps through the heaters
surface. i,alves between the HP heaters and the boiler lo the boiler. The by-pass is in the closed position, as
lhcaters in this position, the maximum pressure the spiing-loaded valve is set such that it does no1
commence to open until a heatcr bank is isolated on
the water side. Assuming that the feed flow is to be
2.3 systemconfjguratjon proportioned so that 60% flows through the remain-
which results in a typical 50% heater water ing active bank and 40% through the by-pass, the
ell thickness of about I20 mm and a typical redistribution for a typical pair of H P heaters is
c thickness of 350 mm. shown in Fig 3.20. Representative friction losses for
each heater are used to d ~ m o n s t r a t ehow the head
n drilling the holes through the tubeplatc. loss across the spring-loaded by-pass valve is deter-
mined. Sllould the pressure loss across the by-pass
valve be larger than needed, the flow through the
active bank will increase to balance the pressure loss,
which leads t o excessive steam flows. The larger steam
flows could lead t o damage of the external tube sur-
face from greater than design steam velocities within
the heater. The topic of steam-flow-induced damage
to lheater tubes is discussed in Section 6.3 of this
ilcd by reference to Spence, Ryall and Mc- chapter. There is also the possibility of erosion damage
[GI. T o date, even using the gun drilling to the internal surface o f the tubes from high velocity
diameter, the feed flow is divided between two 1 , tubeplate thickness bas been limited to about feedwater due t o the excesslvc flow through the active
banks of heaters. bank.
The spring-loaded by-pass system is the simplest
by-pass system in current use; but in the past, diffi-
culties in setting and maintenance of the by-pass
ssuming a typical feed system, where each line valves led t o the use of alternative designs of by-pass
system. Systems using motorised parallel slide valves
9 ~ BARA8S for both H P heater isolation and by-pass have been
7 " TcuPeRAT"me
~ ST"RAT,ON ,EuPEnAT"*E
provided. This requires a complicated control sequence
a 8. s~rosrinuriNe~i~P~nXumiDmoP to be provided, using many electrical relays and valve
$Ti0 " ITI*YlrUPE"A."ilTinhlN*LOIIIR~NCE
OTTO. L8,i i"lNCL
L)IIINII*~e~~,"illi"UN*0 limit switches. A typical isolation sequence would be:

n accept both of these conditions, there is Open by-pass valve

uent loss in cycle efficiency for the lower
When by-pass valve is fully open, allow sequence
to start closing the isolating valves. (A system which
allows by-pass and heater isolating valves to act in
antiphase has also been used.)

Close isolating valves

Opening the isolating valves is the reverse of the

*..>UATHEA,ER
,as* - ,> .,n<,<
11 -1132. i, "ZIilC w
P . <,.e5AT"s&,Es closing sequence:

Open Isolating valves.

When isolating valves are fully open, allow sequence

t o start closing the by-pass valve.

Shut by-pass valve.

e bled-steam isolating valves close o n all heaters In the event of sequence malfunction, it is possible to
have both isolating and by-pass valves shut a t the
~ ~

same time. T o allow an alternative path t o the boiler,

c feedwater isolating valves for the bank are an emergency by-pass spring-loaded valve is sometimes
FIO. 3.17 Application of temperature terminal differences to heaters to find the temperature of feedwater and drains provided to act if all normal routes t o the boiler are
262
Feedwater heating systems
-

"lGIIW"TERLEYELTR,P
HIOHWATLIIICVEL ALARM

N O W L L WORKINCIIEVEL

- IROMFEEDPUMP

1 BLEDSTEAMNONREIUI~NVAIVEHP"IISPRINGASS~ST~DCLOSINC.I
2 B L L D ~ E l M N O N R E i U i l N Y A V E H P W SPRNGbSSiSTEOCLOStNCi]
3 BLLO~EAMISOLATINC-VALVEnnA(M&noPmATaa,
1 BLEDSTEA~ISOlA-IIN(.V*IV~~P~lMOPilROPERmEo
6.
I BhNYNLEIIELDWATERISOLAT<MOVhLYE
BANKNLLTIECOWA~ERISOWT<NOV~LVE~IPN~VALVE MO/OROPER~~~~)
MOTOIIoPEbATLD
I WNKOUTLEIFEBDWAICR1SOLhitNCiVALVE(MOIIIROPEkATECI
8 SPRINGLOADEDBIPbSSVALVES

Tic;. 3.19 i l i e A bank of heaters at Drax Co$npleiion powcr slaliorl

18) l h c even1 of a liish water level i n either lhealer being delecfed by the duplicated sensing devices (float switches), air i r
ii.lr;lsed f i o m tlie non-return valves I , 2 and the rpiings asrirl valve ciosure. Feedwater and bled-itearn isolnting valves, 3, 4,
>, 7 C I O Sand ~ water flows forward lo llie boiler via the by-pass valves 8. Tile lieaters are lhus isolated on the bled-steam and
feedwater rides and tlie turbine is proreeled against reflux of water from the HP hearers.

a1 When fop healer bypassed Ieedramr
temperelure to mils, -mvc
Pic. 3.18 Configuration!
11 118 the spring-loaded by-pass valves. rate of flooding, the time for the water to rise from
Another principle in current use is to utilise the the normal working level (NWL) to the bottom of
n the high pressure feedwater to close the the bled-steam connection is about 8 s. T o provide a
olating valves. The use of feedwater energy margin, a factor of 2 is used to allow for the valve
bl One ban@bypa$reddue
IOfBYIlon lop hsafer
in bank-
€0 x2517 + 40 x 185.4 asons why medium-actuated valves were con- meet these needs, valves with a closure time of about
= 2,5ec
1w : reliability and speed of actuation. 4 s are required; however, the flooding time of vertical
single
lor-operated parallel slide valves o f the size HP heaters can be extended by making the steam
double hanks o f HP heaters
ircd for HP heater isolation duty have a mini- pipework loop vertically to a suitable level before
265
Feedwater heating s y s t e m s

~pioduccwhatevel- closing force is nceded to cloic

val\,e as swifliy as lhe sysiem hydraulics will ;illin
However, lhe svslenr is comniicared and costiv. iii~il

The bled-stcam lines to the 11earei.s are isalaivil

motoiised parallel slide valves. T h e power-assisic~llit
r~tu1.11valves are given the signal to close but u'iii
main open until the closing spring can overconic
reducing steam flow tending to keep the valvc opc
When the heater bank is isolated o n the steacii i
feedwater sides, small heater shell drains are opcrit
which discharge to the condenser. Due to the
of the hearer vents, assisted by the shell drains,
pressurc in heaters and the associated steam and drs
pipework within the isolation valves will fall to
denser vacuum.
The duplicate water level sensing devices \ ~ I I
initiate a bank trip due to a H W L are float switi:
manufactured by Mobrey t o meet the plant man
factul-ers' and CEGB needs (see Fig 3.23). Also ilht
trated arc the methods used for testing the duplictt
float switches with the beaters in operation.
The overall electrical control scheme is descsii
in Volume F. This gives full details of the duplicii
electrical supplies from the 110 V DC system wl,
powers the duplicate high integrity master tripp
relays. The master tripping relays initiate all protect
valve closures except for the autonomous action o
bled-steam non-return valve due t o a pressure revc
In the event of a turbine trip, a separate signal
the master tripping relays which shut all the prote
valves o n both banks

FIG.3.22 Dei$,rance medium-acluated valve. 2.4 HP heater drains system

ouilec valve shown
U'heii feedwaler ir reieased froiil thc tinderside of
fiie piston. the fuii feed pressure causer the piston
10 move down l o close ti,? valve. As tile roindle movcr
dawn, tiie flow is restricted by the increasing sire of
,he tapered portion of tile spindle eilreiing the cylinder
iinei exit poi$ which is concentric with the spindle. This
progressively siows the valve head as il appioaelies the
seat, 50 allowing swift closure without seat impact damage
This feaiure also helps prevent hydraulic shock caused by
swift valve ciosure.
from Figs 3.21 a n d 3.22 are the provision for the
system t o fail safe (i.e., t o isolate the feedwater side
The combined H P heater drains should be disch
t o the de-aerator under all possible conditions
simplest method to achieve this is to use the pr
differential between the lowest pressure HP heat
and t h e de-aerator t o overcome the static head an
friction between the H P heaters and the de-aerat
tank.
Figure 3.24 illustrates a typical drains system, show
FIG.3.23 Mobiey float switches and 011-ioad test facilities for heaters
ing the control valves and relative levels of equipme,
A system with the HP heaters in a horizontal attitu
is shown. As the unit load decreases, the p r e s s
(a) Mobiey float swilcli
The rising water ievel lifts the noaf i and causer ihc
permanent magnet 2 la repel the other pcrrnanenf magnet 3
. .
CLeck ILat test lamps indicate that float switch
actuates correcliy
Open valve o
differential between the H P heater and the de-aerator
decreases to a point where there is insufficient pr
on the srvitdl-actuating mechanism. The repulrion force
moves magnet 3 in the direetotl of the arrow causing the
switcli-aetjatian rods 4 to open and close the contacts. The .
Cheek that rest lamps indicate that water level is now
belo\%,trip level
Switch C O I U ~ and
~ S iepea~procedure

of the heaters), a n d the slowing down of the closing
stroke over the last few millimetres to ensure that
n o hydraulic shock can occur due to sudden valve
closure. As the feedwater isolating valves have a
protective function, high integrity is important. T h e
use of the feedwater as a medium to close these valves,
ensures that a pressure source to actuate the valves
is always available and the actuator can be made t o
sure head t o raise the drains t o the de-aerator stora
tank. The drains are then diverted t o the condens
T h e converse applies o n increasing unit load. In this in
stance, the level in the heater is used t o determin
standpipe or flosf switch chanlber by the back flange 8.
t h e destination of t h e drain water. A rising water level
in No. 6 heater opens the control valve to the No. 5
heater flashbox or t o the de-aerator storage tank. Th
destination chosen is under the manual control o
contacts are houred in 5 and 6 in the terminal block. The
switch assembly is mounted in a waterproof housing 9
which b attached to the "on-magnetic siainless steel
diaphragm nange 7. The whole assembly is ciamped to the
(b) Mobrw float switch arrangement using vaeuim to
.
(c) Mobrey float switch arrangement using condensation
method. To on-load-tesc column 3:
. Switch ~olumn3 to IICSL' state
Ciose valve g
Wait untii the rcrt lamps indicate that float switch

. .
lift the water to on-load-test the switches. To on-load-test
eoluinn 1:
Switch column I to 'lest' state
Close vaive a
. . ~CIUBICS correctly, typically up to 30 minutes.
Open vaive g
Check that test lamp indicates char water level ir liaw
below trip level
Switch columni and repeat prac~duie
268

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~e~uoz!ioq a q 'la~eaq
~ lea!llan e 103 LZ'E 8!d pue i n o ~ e l
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uo ylomad!d aql %uole l d a ~ sBu!aq ~ a l e mJO slaysod
SWa~alds ! q ~'pau!elp ale pasola aq plnoa qa!qm sah~en
uaamlaq suo!laas leql alnsua 01 uayel s! ales fe!sads
.yiomad!d aql u! lu!od
uo!laallos le~nleuqaea le pap!noid are sdeil u!eip l o
sas!J!lo Lq p a ~ ~ o n u osau!!
s u!ev ql!m slod u!elp 'pua
s!ql 01'dn pawlem %u!aq s! pup plea s! y ~ o m a d ~ d
aql u a q ~luasaid aq Kluo plnoqs atesuapuoa ' y i o ~
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pau!eip Llalaldwos ale Laql leql osle pue papaasxa IOU
ale saaueu au!qlnl aqi pue ialeaq aql uo swamow
Pue slsnlql alqemolle aql leql arnsua 01 iueliodru!
SJaleail !eJ!lisn lo) UalsLn ru!elp
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luawa6uelle y ~ o ~ a d ! ds.1
palunow saqal!ms leou Lq 'papaau se 'pa?le)s piia
paddoas ale sdmnd aqL 'Ilamloq lasuapuoa aql o i ~ l
sdwnd su!eip Lq padwnd ale lassah qseu lasuapuon
aql 01 pa%mqas!p su!erp aqL .rua~sLs10116oa [anal 3111
sa!J![dm!s qs!qm 'sanlen [olauos aql 01 sleu%!s qs~!.,~
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aql Lq pale!l!u! aauanbas anleh e Kq pau!mjalap
laleaq d~ uv ST( .OPJ
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p 01 sliaha,
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lo 01 leu%!s e spuas ia]lolluos lanal SI! [!lun as!, 01
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s
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aql 01 au!l aql u! g anlen aql ' y u e ~io~elae-apaql
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 FIG. 3.27 ~rrangerncntof HP heater bled-swam pipework for vertical heaters at Drar Cornpietion power station
3.3 De-aerator storage tank
3.2 De-aerator heater The main function of the de-aerator storage tank is
A cross-section through a typical de-aerator heater to provide a reservoir of feedwater whicj,
272 273
 PIO.3.28 Section f l ~ r o i i g l la iypicai de-aerator lhcntel
can be drawn upon by the boiler feed pumps when
needed.
The capacity of the tank and the quantities o f feed-
water stored at the various Levels within the tank are
determined by the following functional needs:
(a) To store sufficient feedwater to meet the re-
quirements for flexible operation.
(b) T o provide control levels for the operation of the
insurge and outsurge systems without exceeding
the hieh water level.
(c) Even when working at the top of the normal
operating level control band, to accept the con-
tents of the condenser hotwell in the event o f the
condenser level control valve failing to the open
position, without exceeding the high water ievel.
(dl From the same initial working level as in (c), to
accept half-a-minute's-worth of CMR flow without
exceeding the high water level.
(e) From the level indicated in (c), to accept water
accumulated in the condenser hotweil after a unit
trip when the extraction pumps are restarted with-
out exceeding the high water level.
Figure 3.29 shows a cross-section through a typical
de-aerator tank for a modern 660 MW unit. Indicated
are the various levels and the resultant actions which
are initiated.
274
The highest ievel to which the condensate can
is determined by the manufacturer, such that t
maximum velocity o f the steam flowing across t
surface of the water will not cause water pick-up
'sloshing' of the tank content. In this context, w
pick-up is defined as water which is stripped fi
the tank surface and transported to the de-aer
head by the action of heating steam. Damage to
de-aerator head internais can be caused by the iml
of the water which has been carried over. The lien
can also become flooded due to the drains being II
able to cope with the extra water burden.
'Sloshing' of the tank content is caused by tl
formation of waves in the tank which close the stea
pathway and are then propelled the length of t h e t a
by the force created by the heating steam bei
tracted to the head. For a more complete expla
o f the mechanism, reference should be made
paper on the subject o f de-aerator tank inst
by Cranfield and Wilkinson [7]. On the latest
of de-aerator, only a fraction o f the steam is
over the tank surface, the majority being introduc
local t o the head. The small flow across the tank
retained to scavenge any oxygen within the tank and
transport it to the head. The head is vented to remov
any accumulation of non-condensable gases.
The rest of the working levels in the tank are dete
mined applying rules (a) to (e), above. From Fig 3.
it will be seen that the insurge and outsurge valv
have been provided with separate control bands.
dead band is placed between the two control ban
PIG. 3.29 'Tyi>iciil de-aerator lank lei'els
i, allow the insurgc and outsurge system to operate
niiel~eiidently without hunting.
De-aerator elevation
elevation of the de-aerator must be such that
ction head requirements of the feed pumps can
isfied under all credible modes of operation.
cal de-aerator tank and suction pipework con-
ji~urationis.shown in Fig 3.30, the tank content, pipe
lcngths and component elevations being indicated.
la addition to the static head indicated, there is
+Is0 the pressure head within the vessel. Under steady
f a t e conditions, the water within the feed pump suc-
ion pipework is at the saturation temperature equi-
valent to the pressure within the de-aerator. T o ensure
hat boiling within the pipework cannot occur when
8 sudden pressure reduction in the tank takes place
during a transient, the water travelling down the suc-
tion pipework must gain sufficient static head to pre.
vent boiling. The important factors are the rate at
which tank pressure reduces o r decays and the rate o f
flow down the suction pipework. The limiting case
found for CEGB plant is a hot restart of a feed pump.
In this case the extraction pump is lost, the standby
fails to start and the feed pumps draw down the de-
aerator tank until the unit trips or is shut down. On
unit restart, the water in the condenser which has ac-
cumulated after the extraction pump trip, has to be
pumped forward to refill the depleted de-aerator.
Assuming that the tank is at full-load conditions but
only partially full, the 100% cold condensate inflow
into a hot depleted tank produces a rapid pressure
drop within the tank. The feed pump is started on
leak-off, so the feed velocity is at its slowest and
hence the time for the column of hot water in the
suction pipework to gain static head is at its greatest.
275
F e e d w a t e ~hearing systems D e ~ a e r a t o rsysten?

provided in the bled-steam line between [lie dc-aclator

and the bleed point on tlrc luibiiic. As t11c amount of
steam evoivcd would overspeed the tuibirie, tile
return valve is o f a high intcgi.ity type specially dc-
bled-steam isolating valve is tripped so that it also
closes. In the evelit of an NWL in the tank, the blcd-
steam and power-assisted non-return valves are shut.
In addition, a high integrity valve in the condensate
line to the de-acratoi is also shut. The route to tile
3.6 Protection valves
The bled-steam non-return valve is 1)
non-return valve.
The actuator is there primarily t o give tha vll
positive closing fovce t o overcome any stiffo
the bearings, etc., when the valve is comalsn
shut. 'The valve is shut by dumping the air iroi
1st thc full differeiitial between heater
3nd turbine condensei pressure to keep it
a is needed as the IP/LP turbine pressure
~ ~ j ~ ~ d e back
n s e r pressure in approximately one
u.Iiell the interceptor wives close due t o a unit
ir 11eater pressure remains constant for seconds
according l o circumstances, and then re-
wly, hence the isolating valvc must close
e full differential pressure.
at each natural drainage point, witli a side take-off
which is led with a continuous fall to a suitable iow
pressure disposai point. The drainage is controlled by
orifices or traps, wit11 by-passes t o allow for cold start
conditions when drainage requirements are at their
maximum. The steam traps, if used, are set so tllal
they discharge a few degrees above saturation tem-
perature to prevent condensate build-up. Attention is
also given to those sections of pipe which arc isolated

isolation on a high watci level is no1 needed arc the
HP heater drains and the feed pump leak-offs. This
is because the feed pump leak-offs are purely circulatory
flows between the tank and the boiler feed pump, and
forward steam flow falls to a low value. This is I
cause the steam fio\v on the underside of 1111. 11
creates an opening force w l ~ i c l is
~ greater tl~itli I
spring-closing force. The hied-steam isolating

AIR OPENING SPRlNG RETURN ACTUATOR. IMAXSEALI

.VALVE CLOSES ON LOSSOF AIR SUPPLY
SOLENOIDVALVE

FIG. 3.32 A ~ower-a~~i~ted

"an-return valve m ~ 3.33
. A bled-steam isolating valve ~ i t hair-opening, spring-closing acluator
187.
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 Feedwater lleati~igsystems

s Uecaiise of tile vertical sepal-ation ieqiiiied bctwecn

1lC Iicatcrs, aiicady iliostrated i i i Section I or tliis
chapter, long coiidensale and bled-steanl liiics were
ineeded. lixlensive steelwork was also necdcd to
soppo1.1 the lheaters at the reqoii-ed ievcls. 'Thesc
cxtl-a costs were foulld to outweigh the cast differ-
eiice betwecn VC and surface type LF lieaters.

As it was evident that a revision of traditional prac-

tice was cost effective, a complete review of previous
practice was undertaken by the manufacturers. A new
conceis evolved which followed international practice
o f using surface LP heaters in the horlzontai attitude.
Figure 3.36 shows the position finally adopted, which
ailowed easy bled-steam pipcwork drainage and makes
use of the entire beater shell to contain condensate in
a flooding situation. Another important factor is the
compact layout, which allows the heaters to be factory
built, complete with pipework fittings, etc., and ship-
ped to site as a onit. The only site work necessary is
to connect to the system on the steam and water sides
and to provide air and electl-icitv to tltc valves anti
~ ~~~~

instruments as needed, with consequent savings in

erection costs.
The cost o f modificatioii and upgrading of plant
after or during construction has vindicated the de-
cision to change to surface L P heaters for future
units: however, there are forty-nine 500 and 660 MW
units in operation with DC heaters. T o complete
the picture o f current plant, Fig 3.37 shows a typical
D C three-heater cascade a s employed at Hartlepool
and Heysham I, both AGR stations.
Water is pumped from the condenser hotwell via
the condensate system up to DC 1 heater. From this
heater, it cascades into DC 2 and then cascades into
D C 3 heater, from wheic it is pumped by the D C
heater cxtractior~ pump to the de-aeratol. heater. A
60% capacity by-pass is provided to prevent the unit
tripping on low de-aerator water level in the event
of a D C heater train trip.

4.2 L o w pressure s y s t e m configuration

Figure 3.38 shows the L P feed system for Littlebrook
D which uses tubed LP heaters in a horizontal atti-
tude. The heaters are by-passed in two banks, the
first group being LP1 and L P 2 heaters and the second
LP3 heater. Steam is supplied t o each of the three
L P heaters from the L P turbines. Each bled-steam
line contains a free-acting non-return valve and a
bled-steam isolating valve.
T h e drains formed in LP3 heater are cascaded to
LPZ drains flashbox, from where they are drained
into L P I drains flashbox. The combined drains from
L P 2 and LPI flashboxes cascade to the condenser
fiash vessel. The drains from L P I heater are also cas-
caded to the condenser flash vessel.
the malfunction of associated equipment d o e s n o l
result in the forced isolation of the heaters which iirc
drained by the drain pump because of lack of as F , 1~. 3 6 A typical of horizontal-aiiiiude LP heaters
lo lhC
Pic,orial view ofhorizonta~.afliiude LP heaterr showing tl~eprinciple$ adopted to determine their position
alternative destination for the drains. T h e short teinl level in condenser. The bled-seam pipework is sria.8ed lo from
loss of efficiency is accepted until the drain pump is bled.rteam ex,raclio,, poiets and
ellraction to heaterr cascadeby gravity from L P to ~ LPI heater and thence lo the flash dram cooler.
returned to service. m e drains illen cascade la the condenser.
Distribution of bleed point pressures and hence en.
thalpy rises over the heaters, determines the gair ill
efficiency by forward pumping of the drains of each
 Feedwater lheatiiig systems
heaters will result in isolation on both steam and
condensate sides, with the condensate by-pass valve
opening to supply water to LP3.
Also shown in Fig 3.38 is the portion of the LP
feed system which connects the condenser to the L P
feedhcaters. Part o f this system is the insurge group,
by which means feedwater is admitted lo the con-
denser. Water is Fed into the condenser from the
reserve feedwater tanks (RFT) under the control of
the illsurge group.
There are three routes by which feed can be ad-
mitted via the insurge group:
A fixed orifice which allows I % CMR flow on a
continuous basis. Any small leakages and water
losses are made up by this quantity.
Via the control valve which receives its signal from
de-aerator level. T h e capacity of the valve is usual-
ly about 2 - 3 % and varies according to the static
head available from the RFT (especially relevant
for a low level tank).
A manually-operated by-pass valve which can pass
an)thing from 5-770 and is only used for start-up
o r in a n emergency.
The outsurge valve and associated equipment is con-
nected to the condensate system downstream of the
sectionalising valve. The rate of discharge through
286
ihe roalriil \ral\rc is dcieiinii~edbp lhc sigoal i ' i < i t v I
Icvei conisoilel- oil ilic dc-aclatoi, l l i c rnaxii~~iiii:
by the opcrator as needed.
T o supply the de-aeratoi- with feed from the I
under emergency conditions a 30% make-up pi
may also be provided. The pump can also be used I
fill the de-aerator, avoiding ihc use of the extractio
pumpr for this duty wben initialiy filling the la,
Upstream of the make-up pump and outsurge coi
~lectiolls is a sectionalising valve, wllicli is useci I
isolate the coadcnsate systcm during system flus1,iiili
and clean lip.
Ali o f the systcm components upstream of 1111.
isolating valve arc primarily concerned with c o n ~ ~ o l .
ling the flow through the condensate system to rn;iiw
tain a constant water level in the condenser.
The prescribed level is required to give surge iiiiil
cavitation-free extraction pump performance anti it
inaintained by tl~l.ottlingthe extraction pump flow,
A level control device on the condenses, typically it!,
manufactured by Fisher and sold vindci the tvailc
name 'Level-Trol', is used to give an air signal wliicl,
control signal, thus preventing a unit trip due t o I
loss of feed t o the boiler.
The position o f the controi valve is immediately
upstream of sectiollalising valve. Its functiotl in triii,.
ming the pump discharge head to suit tlie systeiii
resistance is sho\%,nin Fig 3.40. T o protect the extrac.
tion pump from damage due to low flows, the pump
manufacturcl. specifies a flow belous which the ex.
traction pumps should not be operated. T o meet tills
need a recirculation connection and a control valvc
is provided and is commanded t o onen as the maill
control valve goes below the 25% flow position. Thc
way In which the recirculation valve operates in ant).
phase to maintain a minimum flow through the ex-
traction pump is also illustrated in Fig 3.40.
Between the condenser level controi valve and the
sectionalising valve, a dump connection is provided,
which is used t o discharge contaminated condensate
from the system during system clean up.
T h e non-return valve upstream of the control valve
prevents accidental discharge o f water from the de-
aerator tank into the condenser in the event of an
extraction pump trip with a faulty discharge non-return
valve.
T h e gland steam condenser is placed upstream of
the recirculation connection to ensure a cooling con-
densate flow a t all times. The extraction pumps are
i:l(l.3.40 LP feed rysicrn rcninrance curve and function or
iecirculalion loop at tow flows
valve A , condenser levei control valve - maintains a
~011~tanl levet in fhc condenser and hence NPSH on
the extrnccioii .oumn. bv throfttinc nos to lnialch inno,!,
to ibc condciser.
Valve B,recirculation toon coiiiiot valve - when valve A
is passing leas than 40%, cl~envalve B opens io antiphase
such tiia?the combined discharge from A and D is a
constant 40% ar illiistraled by curve in (b).
provided with isolating valves o n both suction and
~lischarge to allow isolation for maintenance. Non-
teulrn valves are provided o n the discharge of the
pumps t o prevent backflow of water tl~roughan idle
Low pressure feed sysleni
I,,imp Svoiii the disc1,;irgc of tlle dilly l ~ t ~ m l ) .
O n all 500 h4W iinils and 111rcarliei 660 M W iilllls
will1 DC lhealcl-s, cooling o f tlic gcnclalai by con-
densate was incol~poralcd in !be reed rrain immc-
cliatcly after the extraction pump, as illustrated in
Fig 3.41.
The ieason for placing it in thc feed system was lo
reclaim lbe generatar losses as heat input lo thc reed.
lo practice, it was round tllar for large rnodern power
.
stations the following difficulties were experienced:
On extraction pump trip, the residual heat in the
generator could boil the condensate in tile system and
cause theimally-induced hydraulic shock 1101.
e To provide an acceptably modest condensate pres-
sore within the coolers on the generator, two pres-
sure stages arc needed. Two pumps are used and
the condensate is discharged from the first pump
through the generator coolers and tben into the
turbine moisture extraction condenser (TMEC) with
consequent cornplicatcd pipework ariangcment. The
TMEC extraction pump then discharges t o the lo%,est
. pressure DC heater.
Ta Drevcnt limitations on unit output during tile
summer when condensate temperatures may be too
high to cool the generator adequately, coolers to
reduce the conde~lsatetemperature before it passes
through the generator may be required in the feed
system. The introduction of raw water coolers in
the condensate system carries the risk of leakage
of the cooling water into the system.
Whilst these problems can be overcome, the resultant
plant is expensive and needs special care to operate.
Consequently an auxiliary CW system using indirect
coolers has been developed by the main manufacturers
and is fully described in Chapter 6 .
O n all modern feed systems, protection against the
use of contaminated feedwater is provided. On some
units, this takes the form of visual alarms t o alert
the operator of high conductivity levels in the feed
leaving the extraction pumps. In this case, the opcra-
tor has to use his judgement as to the subsequent
actions. for enamole. to close sectionalising valves
and unload the unit.
For AGR feed systems, as illustrated in Flg 3.5, a
full-duty polishing piant is provided t o ensure high
quality water for boiler feed. As their boilers need
special protection against chloride ingress, valves are
provided upstream of the polishing plant but down-
stream of the outsurge connection.
In the event o f a condenser tube leak, the conduc-
tivity sensors close the protection valves and trip the
extraction pumps; should there be a n accidental re-
lease of chemicals from the polishing plant, the sec-
ond line conductivity sensors also close the protection
valves. The valves used for this duty are butterfly
 Fit. 3.42 Arrangemenl of LP heaten, showing bicd-steam pipeu,ork

FIO. 3.41 Diagrammatic arrangement of generator coolers is an LP feed system
valves of the spring closing/air opening type similar
to those used for bled-steam isolating valves.
pipework is shown in Fig 3.42 and shows cle
the principle of the heaters being below the cylin
bottom level and above the condenser Level.
iiiisisted-closing devices as these are not manda-
101 LP heaters.
ibim of feedheater design is to provide a heat
liigel- that will raise the temperature of the in-
IV feedwater t o a specified outlet temperature,
I d~.awinga predetermined amount of steam from
,bine cycle. There are four groups of heat ex-
used in the feed system to fulfil this function:
Ir pressure feedwater heaters.
erator heaters.
w pressure feedwater tubed heaters.
R, pressure feedwater direct contact heaters.
lcsign of each type of heat exchanger is deter-
i by the thermal, hydraulic and structural needs
average overall heat transfer coefficient has to be
found and used to determine the heat transfer surface
area needed. From the tube size and feedwater flow,
the tubenest diameter is found. With the tubenest
diameter known, the heater diameter and the main
structural details of the shell and water heater can be
determined by use of the appropriate design standard.
The length of the heater is a function of the heat
transfer surface needed. A detailed explanation of
thermal/hydraulic design is given in Section 6 of this
chapter.
De-aerator head and DC heater sizes are deter-
mined by the need to accommodate the sprays or
trays used to create sufficient water surface area to
transfer the heat from the steam to the water, as
needed by the cycle. The vessel diameter and length
is determined by the need to contain the requisite
number of sprays or trays.
There are long established British Standards for the
structural design of feedheaters and these are used by
the CEGB to specify a uniform design standard for all
components, materials, welding and testing.
Until 1976, the standard used was BSlSW 'Fusion

In 1976 BSlSW was replaced by BSSSW 'Unfired

4.3 Pipework and valves used in the de-aerator bled-steam pipework. The tubular heat exchanger to raise the tem-
I Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels' Ill], which conso-
The general arrangement of LP heater bled-steam return valves are also similar but are not prov 11.e of the feedwater by a defined amount, the lidated and expanded the previous standard. BSSSW

288 289
Feedwater liealilig systelns
)has bee11 used for ;ill liealeis ordered since 1976 and
will be used for all iiitoie piaot, I-'or a specific heal
cxcbanger size, the standard is used to determine thr
lhichness of all giessuic )parts sricli as shell, lubegiaie
and Naatcr header, branches, etc. 'The materials, weld
details and procedures, as well as relief valve capacity
and vessel pressure testing, are also defined.
In certain specialist areas, such as heater internal
design, the 'Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manu-
factol-ers Association (TEMA) 1978' [I21 can also be
applied.
The lieat transfer cocfficients are determined by a
manufacturer's experience with a particular design of
fecdheater. However, a good approximation to the
design values for surface type heaters can be obtained
by reference to the 'Guide t o the Design o f Feed
Waler Heating Plant (BEMA) 1968' [I31 or 'TEMA
1978' [12].
6 High pressure feedwater heaters
6.1 Functional needs
The structural design of high pressure (HP) feedwater
.
heaters is determined by two main needs:
T o contain the steam and H P feedwater at the ap-
propriate cycle conditions.
T o provide the heat transfer surface to raise the feed.
water temperature by the specified amount.
Y/UBE
F ~ G .3.43 ~enlpciat~re
rise of feed
nicans by !+iricll lllc cooseqiielll lheiil liailsfcr su1'f;iCi.
areas are foiiiid is shown in Seciioii 6 of this chaptel.
Figure 3.41 iilust~atesthe way in which the kcri
temperalore increases as i t passes through a t!'l~ic~il
two-pass horizontal heater of the U-lobc lype. 'i'lir
heater has both integral drain cooling and d e s o l ~ i ~ .
heating sections as shown (Fig 3.44).
The desuperheating section is placed on the oullcl
end o f the U-tubes in order that the incoming super.
heatei steam can raise the feedwater near to or abovc
the satiiraiion temperature of the body piessuie be..
fore it leaves the heater. 'The drain cooling section
is placed at the inlet end of the tubes to allow lllc
outgoing drains to be cooled t o as near to the ill.
coming feedwater temperature as needed. Steam entelr
the desuperheating section and is reduced in tenl.
perature by transferring its heat to the feedwater l(1
within 27OC o f the temperature of saturation of ill?
condensing scction pressure. The steam then flows lo
the condensing section, where it leaves as water at sal.
"ration temperature to enter the drain cooling sectio~i.
A watec seal is niaintained at the inlet to the drziin
cooling section by a level control system lo preveirl
loss of prime in the section.
in the drain cooiing section, the condensate ir
cooled to the drain outlet temperature and then dis.
to the next lowest pressure heatci,
Each section within the heater is provided with
baffles to ensure flow across the outside of the tub
by the heating medium.
As the heating steam is condensed in the heate
"on-condensable gases are released. unless corre
vented these would rapidly blanket the heat tran
surface and would impair the heater thermal perf01
/<nmn
water as it passes ~ i ~ o u ganh HP healer
liigli pressure feedwater lieafers
<WX"",,., ,mALe:,r, -,,or STCAL,
" " ~ " ~ D L I U Y L i 3 i l i i i l r riiC:lO\
FIG. 3.44 Steam axid water Flow nalhs iii u typical lhaiizo~~tal
H P lheatei
lining cost due to the loss of cycle cfficiency, !heaters Z CONRT S
~ R ~T L~O. ,~S ~T S
, S
~ SR~OT ,~O ~ O ~ C
II be constructed without drain cooling sections or _,DE~UPLR~~E~INGS~OO~
!parate desuperheating sections.
Vertical H P heaters employ the same basic layout
,it11 regard to disposition of the dcsupcrheating and
1':lin cooling sections. However, there are some poinrs
difference in construction which are highlighted
n the following section on construction of specific
Figure 3.45 shows a typical arrangement of a ver-
I H P heater. T h e desuperheating section is below
lhc working water level in the heater. T o prevent water
olrakage, seals are provided between the tubes and
Ill? e n d plates of the desuperheating section, trunking
I5 :hlso needcd t o carry the steam from the dcsupei-
lieater t o the condensing section if needed. These
~vovisions can be avoided by placing the desuper-
Ihcating section in thc dotted position shown in Fig .~
X~RI(AIIv~I191rYtl
3.45 but, as it is not now adjacent to the tubeplate, ,~,,,o,,,,_
?s%?&~'NCoo''Nr
llir fccdwater must travel through tubes immersed
o be cooled back down t o saturation temperature.
lie horizontal design of heater does not suffer from
his problem as the desuperheating section is above
hc water level by virtue of the heater attitude.
The reduction in the complication of heater internal
ilstruction is another point in the favour of hori-
%ontal attitude H P heaters.
As the high pressure feedwater heaters are on the
>contain this high pressure, various designs of water
nto the back of the tubeplate by the 'Foster Wheeler method of tube attachment has been used for many
Feedwater heating systems
TIIEPANNED SPIGOT
STEAM SiOEOr
TUBEPLATE
I'IC 3.46 Foster-UJl?eelermelhod of but,-weldisg HI, theatel tuber
method o f tube attachment.
welded joints wherever practicable, as bolted joints
maintain heater internals, the heater shell has to be
cut off and likewise any defective valves, etc., have to
be cut from the pipework. The subsequent re-welding
of the heater shell has proved to be less difficult than
the reassembly of complicated bolted joints, which
require special techniques to ensure precise bolt ten-
In the following section, examples of current H P
heater construction are given for the two main con-
tractors who have supplied heaters for 500 and 660
MW units, which shows how their designs meet the
feed system needs.
6.2 C O n ~ t r ~ ~ t iof
O nhigh pressure heaters
The construction o f the pressure envelope o f vertical
and horizontal H P heaters is very similar and the
only differences are the arrangement o f the heater
internals, support feet, etc.
desuperheating sections. In all cases, BSSSOO [ l l ] is
used to determine the thickness of the water header,
tubeplate, shell, etc. The U-tube wall thickness can
be found by application of BS1113: 'Design and manu-
facture of water tube steam generating plant' [14],
292
ARGON
FLOW
to iubcplale
plates with a forged steel or cast stcel hemis
alternative which has been used in the past
piece forged low carbon steel water header
'bottle' type with welded-on feedwater branches.
cal examples of these methods o f constructi
shown in Figs 3.47 and 3.48. The tubes used
carbon manganese steel suitable for fusion
plate.
The following sections outline how the design ci
are used to determine the physical size of a typ
H P feedwater heater.
6.3 Water header, tube bundle and she
The dominant influence in determining the thick
of various parts of a water header for an H P heatel
a given pressure on the feed side is the tube bu
diameter, which is governed by the liumber of t
needed to provide the flow area for the feedwate
and flows.
6.3.1 To find t u b e t h i c k n e s s
All modern CEGB H P feedheaters use 19.05
(0.75 in) outside diameter low carbon manganese
7 Typical casl and Forged HP iheatei water tieaders
o f the hemispherical t),pe
1'1G 3.48 Typical forged H P Ihealer 'bottle' water
Iti.iider - monobloc consiriiefion wirh we1ded.o" branches
Tube thickness is found from application o f
Clause 3.7.1.1 but using the same notation
e = pD/(2f + p)
Iiigh pressure feedwater hearers
where c = minimum thickness of suaight tube, mm
p := calculation pressure, ~ / m m ~
f = allowable dcsign stress, i\'/mm2
D = outside diameter of tube, mm
For a typical 660 M W unit
I = 217.2 bar or 21.72 i\'/mm2
D = 19.05 mm outside diameter
The heater tubes are manufactured to conform to
ESI Standard 23-4 82 [I51 (which supersedes GDCD
Standard 56-80 1161).
The tube material conforms to the 'Type 400' which
appears in the allowable design stress Table 2.3 (k) in
BSSS00 [ I l l , giving 96 N/mm2 at 300°C and 88 N/mm2
at 350°C for this material.
If the temperatures used to determine the allowable
stress in the tubes are taken as that experienced by the
ultimate heater, then the worst case is considered.
Steam temperature (assumed) 370°C
Outlet feed temperature 253'C
Average temperature 312°C
By interpolation f at 31ZPC = 97.8 N/mm2
Then tube wall thickness: t = (21.72 x 19.05)/
[(2 x 97.8) + 21.721
= 1.90 mm
From BS1113 Clause 3.7.3, the thickness (eb) allowing
for bends is given by e b = 1.125 e, so e b = 1.90 x
1.125 = 2.14 mm.
Using the nearest standard tube thickness of 203 mm,
tube bore = 19.05 - 4.06 = 14.99 mm, say IS mm.
Having determined the tube thickness and hence the
bore, tlie area for flow per tube is known and so the
number of tubes required for a specified H P feed flow
can now be calculated.
6.3.2 Area required f o r f l o w t h r o u g h t h e t u b e
bundle
As all H P heaters employ U-tubes, the number of holes
to give the flow area needed is equal to the number of
Us. Taking a typical 660 MW feed flow and two-
bank heater configuration:
Flow/heater = 273.5 kg/s
Heater feed inlet temperature = 19IPC
Internal tube diameter = 15 mm
Average feed temperature = 22ZDC
From ERA 1967 Steam Table, = 1.17 x l~-~m)/kg
specific volume
Feedwater lieating systems
Tile missing parainelei i o rind the flow arca is ihc
velocity of the feedwater in the tubes.
For tile pul.pase of this spccimcn calcolatiorr, a ivalei
velocily 01 2 m/s is taken, but the actual value va1.i"~
with individual maoiifacturer's practice; lhawevei,
the 'Standards for Closed lieedwaler Healers (HEI)
1979' [I71 recommend not more than 2.4 m/s (8 ft/s)
at maximum flow conditions.
If, lor inslance, one bank of H P heaters is by-
passed in a two-bank system and the feed split is
60/40, with 60% through the active bank, the feed-
water vclocity will increase to 1.2 times normal ve-
locity, which would give (1.2 x 2) = 2.4 m/s (i.e.,
the HE1 maximum recommended feedwater velocity).
Area per tube = (a/4)(14.77/1000)~
= 1.713 x I O W ' rn2
Volumetric flow = 273.5 x (1.17 x
= 0.32 m3/s
Required area = 0.32/2
= 0.16 m2
Number of holeslflow = 0.16/(1.713 x 10.')
= 934
The heater needs 934 U-tubes and the tubeplate has
1868 holes. If a tube pitch o f 25.4 mm is taken with a
60" triangular pattern, then allowing for a typical
minimum U-tube bend and gaps for internal fittings,
etc., the tube bundle can be assumed to have a n
ovcrall diameter of 1300 mm.
6.3.3 Tubeplate t h i c k n e s s
'The tubeplate thickness is found bv. ao~lication
.. of
BS5500, the calculation being shown in Fig 3.49, using
- .
the suggested working form for U-tube tubesheet desien.
page 3/96.
The values of the coefficients, which are given in
Table 3.9 of BSSSOO, are also shown in graphical
form to demonstrate how they are obtained during
the course of the calculation. If a single bank o f H P
feedwater heaters is considered in place of the double
bank, for the same velocity of water in the tubes, the
flow area would have to be doubled.
If it is assumed the area required to accommodate
the doubled number of tubes is twice that previously
needed, then the tube bundle diameter will be J2 times
the original diameter, with a consequent increase o f
tubeplate thickness to 550 mm.
6.3.4 Water h e a d e r wall t h i c k n e s s
For the purpose of finding the wall thickness of a
294
. f e e d w ter heaters
thickness c = pD,/(?f - g )
'Tile bore of the branch must be found first: if a
city of 3 m/s is assumed, the cross-sectional a )
0.32/3.0 = 0.107 m2, giving a 0.37 m bore. Thcr
!
The thickness calculated is that needed for pressit
considerations alone. In practice, the branch wali tlii
ness is increased to compensate for the opening nee
(see Clause 3.5.4 of BSSSOO [ I l l ) and also to ensu
that it is adequate to withstand the forces imposed (
it by the pipework to which it is attached. The eirrl
o f the branch is reduced to a thickness suitable SOB
weiding to the H P feed pipework, which has a typical bC*h*P"NO,oNoll
;*,,,,i,>> " N D E I O I I T U B . S " . ~ ~ ~ . * ~ D ~ , , F ~ " " ~ " " ~ ~ " ~ E ~ ~ ~ ~ L " ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
.<,.I, :~rn*,,orr*a"i"srsniir
~ ~ U ~ L " S U P ~ ~ ~ E O
wall thickness of 32 mm (see Figs 3.47 and 3.48).
I',c. 3.49 Suggested working form for "-tube iubeshect design froin MIIW, rllowing worked exaspie for cypicai NP beater
6.3.6 C o m p e n s a t i o n f o r o p e n i n g s in t h e w a t e r
header
The thickness calculated for the hemispherical par1
of the water head is based on a vessel wall without
,.1 Heater tube length and tube supports AvelaEe Umbe length between tubeplates
openings. Any openings, such as the branches a = 1450/(0.06 X 934)
access door, have to be allowed for by thickening he thermal performance needed from the heater fixes
lic heater surface in accordance with the methods = 25.9 m
walls adjacent to the openings (Figs 3.47 and 3.4
later in Section 6 of this chapter. Aueiaselube bundle length = 12.94 m , which deter-
The amount o f the compensation is found by
Assuming a heater surface o f 1450 m2 as typical
plication of Clause 3.5.4 of BS5500 [ I l l . Since t shell length,
of the highest pressure heater for a 660 MW unit, the
amount of compensation will vary with individ
I~~.atcrlength and tube bundle support-plate pitch is
manufacturer's designs, a specific example is not give11
I'ousd as follows.
here. 6.4.2 Tube s u p p o r t plates
!& The lubes are supported by a series of tube support
6.4.1 Length of U-tubes plata in the form of mild steel drilled with the same
6.3.7 Shell a n d dished e n d t h i c k n e s s pattern of holes as the tubeplate. The hole size is a
Number of U-tubes = 934 (as calculated previously)
The shell thickness is calculated from the formulae close fit over the outside diameter of the tubes. The
used to determine branch thickness. The dished end 'The tubes are 19.05 mm outside diameter so the ciearance between tube and tubeplate varies according
thickness is found using the method detailed in [ I l l surface area per metre length is a x 0.01905 to the manufacturer's practice, but general guidance
Clause 3.5.2 'Domed Ends'. = 0.06 m2/m is given in TEMA 1978 [IZ).
 liigh pressure feedwater heaters

6.6 T h e r m a l design
Earlies in this section i t was explained how thc tem-
' guide the
Ol- water across the lubes to
'The drains water is guided tiiioiil,
section by anotiler
perato1.e of tile high pressure feedwater varies as it
bai.,.l,~s,
1)rovide efficient heat transfer.
,,
1)ermissibIe values of baffle l)itcil ; , , r
passes ti~rouglian HP heater. Tlic heater temperature
limits, coiilbined with the physical size of tube bundle
from a design code, such as TEMA I);'/, diameter, shell diameter, tube size, etc., are the factors
which determine tile heat transfer surface area of a
wllich is used to predict if coilision heater.
Figure 3.51 (a) shows typical heat balance informa-
tion for the ultimate stages of feedheating for a 660
desuperheating section.
MX' unit. Also shown, is the associated temperature
orofile for the ultimate stage of feedheating (Fig 3.51
(c)). The basic equation used to find the surface area
(A) for each section is A = (q,,,h)/K(LMTD):
and desuperheating flow area and therefore increases tile
the tube
The sketch illustrates
plates act as baffles to dis-
because tubes are long
certain conditions be
objects, t i , i. i n turn influences thermal design. For where A = heat transfer area, m2
by randoll, q,, = mass flow rate, kg/s
h = specific enthalpy change through zone,
J/kg
K = oveiali heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
LMTD = log mean temperature difference, as
tubular spacers at appropriate illter- defined in Fig 3.51 (d)
~ e i d i n gthem t o a structure within the
,ich is anchored t o the heater tubepiate. Figure 3.51 (a) and (b) illustrate how the heat
e close together in the desuperheating balance information is used to find the enthalpy rise
ling sections, but wider apart in the through each section in turn and the resultant tem-
perature profile.
From this information, the surface area for each
section is calculated in the manner described below.
I aspects o f the thermal design are found
11 6 of this chapter. 6.6.1 Desuperheating s e c t i o n
The bled-steam has a high degree of superheat which
allows the feedwater at the exit of the desuperheating
section t o approach very near to, or to be slightly
above, the saturation temperature equivalent of the
pressure at inlet t o the desuperheating section.
must also be given t o ensuring that local T o prevent erosion due to wet steam flowing through
e ~ ~ c i t i eare
s not present at the steam inlet t o the exit of the desuperheating section it is established
eater. There must be ample area to ailow the practice to retain about 28OC of superheat at the end
of the desuperheating section, so T 2 is made equal
t o the saturation temperature equivalent t o the pres-
sure in the condensing section plus 28'C. Figure 3.51
~,is based on this assumvtion.
(c)
The temperatures in the desuperheating section are
used t o evaluate the LMTD as shown in Fig 3.51 (dl,
so the only unknown in the equation to find the
or baffle to protect the tubes in terms of the surface area is the heat transfer coefficient.
lilllitingvalues o f e(v,,)2 where e is the steam density The methods of calculating the heat transfer co-
(kslm3) and ,v,, is the velocity o f dry steam (m/s), as efficient for a particular tube bundle are given in
detail in BEAMA 1968 [131 or T E M A 1978 1121: for a
typical desuperheater in the last stage HP heater its
v,,(max) = J(2250/e) m/s
value is about 500-600 w / m 2 K .
The heat transfer coefficient increases with the in-
If a velocity greater than this value is t o be en- creased velocity across the tube bundle. The higher
countered, even for short periods of operation (e.g., the velocity, the greater the pressure drop across the
Fa' Typicai arran&!emenr of tube supporl Plater in the desuller~eaiing, and cooling seclionr desuperheating section, which in turn reduces the sat-
of an HP heater
previous heater by-passed), the provision of a larger
branch or some form of impingement plate is needed. uration temperature within the condensing section.
296
297
Feedwater heating systems
SI<" 001,100:
N I
C o ~ ~ I O E P I s , ~ T 5 ~ . T , o l Y ~ , T ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , L o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ E ~ T ~ N ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
CoollN9SL",OnS
I N I ~ ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~ l l N ~ ~ ~ L 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i o ~
,dlOaioim,"r,m*iMTD
t exchanger dcsignex lras to reach a cosl
i-ornise between increased condensing
rainst decreased desupei-heating surface
ve ocity being dependent on the pitch of tbc
i ilic desoperheating section lo]. a given tube
. Once an acceptable compromise liar been
i\ ilcscribed earlier in this section).
aiirface area can now be calculated. From the
iu~nberof tubes and surfacc area/metre iength
I,?, ihe length o f the desuperheating section is
'The baffle pitch may need slight readjustment
tile overall length requirement.
'ondensing s e c t i o n
~rgsection. The effect of thc 28°C of supcr-
I lbo found by reference to BEAMA 1968 1131
l A 1978 1121. The baffle pitch is determined
iecd lo distribute the steam throughout the
, ~ , ~ ~ m m , ~ , u , e p ~ o ~ , 9 ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ , , m ~ , ~ ~ c ~ t ~ t I I section
~ and is usually about the maximum
,ic without the risk of tube vibration. The
hc per unit length and the number of tubes.
~ ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~ ~ U ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I N ~ ~ t ~ l ~ l : ii '~\\~o-flowU-tube heater, as illustrated in Fig
llic condensing section inciudes the return bend
r 'ti' and p a n of the bottom return leg.
Drain cooling s e c t i o n
11s section the condensate formed in the con-
section has further heat removed by transfer
~coniingfeedwater. The equation for the calcula-
the surface area is as before. The LMTD is
using the temperatures shown in Fig 3.51 (c).
lent transfer coefficient is found by the methods
1 BEAMA 1968 1131 o r TEMA 1978 [12]. The
f the drains condensate across the tubes is im-
n determining the heat transfer coefficient, so
fflc pitch is important and the subject of an
'c iwocess during- the design."
~icalfigure for the lieat transfer coefficient in
n cooling section will be about 19W W/m2 K.
Ill, tube length is found from the drain cooling
FIG. 3.51 Thermal design
as explained above
Other f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e r m a l d e s i g n
,181 length o f the heater U-tube is the sum of
lyills of the three sections. This length is taken
High pressure feedwater heaters
as the nieair effective lcngtli of a U-tobc i n dctei-
~i~inirig ihe lheater siieli length.
The baffles within the lheater shell, which forol lire
compal.tmcnts tlixougii which thc steain or condensate
flow, have windows so that the fiuid can pass longi-
tudinally, Tiie area used is equal lo, or greater than,
that available for cross-flow.
From the ieferences given to find the lieat transfer
coefficients 1141, it will be seen that the theoretical
values arc modified to allow for leakage through the
tube/bafflc plate clearances, lack of true cross-flow and
the stagnant areas in the corners of the compartments
formed by the baffles.
The lieat transfer coefficients obtained by using
these references, assume that the condensing section
within the healer is adequately vented to the condenser
t o avoid the accumulation of air or non-condensable
gases withi,? the section. The lieat transfer coefficient
used to determine surface area is significantly infiu-
enced by "on-condensables which tend to form a
gaseous muff around the condensate film on the out-
side diameter of the tube. The slowing of the diffusion
o f vapour into tile condensate by the non-conden-
sables, significantly affects the condensing section per-
formance. This is a most imporlant factor in heater
performance, and an unexpectedly poor performance
from a new heater can be usually traced to incorrect
air venting. The usual vent rate is about 0.5% of the
bled-sleam flow t o the heater.
Accumulation of air can also occur in the drain
cooling section and cause pockets in the corners local
to the baffle plates. This reduces the available heat
transfer surface which again reduces heater performance.
For an overview of the complete thermal/mechanical
design of HP heaters, reference should be made to
the Heat Exchanger Design Handbook 1984 [19].
Should cycle economics dictate a low first-cost feed
system, then H P heaters can be used with n o drain
cooling section and/or no desuperheating section. Where
no desuoerheatine section is orovided, a small section
local t o i h e steaminlet is baffled to help t o absorb the
superheat, but is not allowed for in the calculation of
the surface area.
The omission of the drain cooling section means
that the drains are discharged from the heater a t sat-
uration temperature and there is n o need for a fixed
water level in the heater shell t o protect the drain
cooling section from erosion. The design procedures
to determine the surface area o f each section is the
same whatever combination of sections is used.
Vertical-attitude heaters differ slightly in the inter-
nal arrangement of components but use the same
design principles for mechanical and thermal design.
6.7 Horizontal high pressure heaters
An HP heater, as manufactured by GEC for the
Littlebrook D 660 MW units, is shown in Fig 3.52.
299
Feedwater iheating systems Chr?l
-
laths for feedwater, hied-steam and drain
ndicated. 'The lheater illustrated has a steel
al water head with mild steel iJ-tubes weid-
tubeplate by the Fostei-Wheeler method. Tlic
es, etc., are all made froin mild steel. The
of all-welded construction, except for itenis
spection doors, etc., which need regular
The heater has desuperheating, condensing
cooling sections provided in the form of
.- affled compartments. T o provide a steam
all1 in the condensing section above the top
ubenest and also a space below the tubenest
11 flow, a segment at the tap and the co1.-
rig segment at the bottom of the tubeplate
uld be used for tubes is left blank. This
a 'flat' on the top and bottom o f the gen-
lar tubenest. A dividing baffle is placed
ater head to pro\,ide the two-pass flow path
Ilorizontal dividing plate which runs the full
f the tubenest is used to support the baffle
~d also to carry the air extraction ducts.
lesuperhcating section is in the form of a
lui over the return half of the water flow adjacent
Ilc tubeplate encompassing nine baffles. A platc
idcd to seal the bottom to form a steam-tight
nent. The steam inlet is at the top centre of
uilerheating section. A diffuser is provided to
l t direct impingement of steam on the desuper-
ction tubes. The steam flows in both di-
'om the central entry point, the baffles having
lustrated in Fig 3.52 (b)) to provide as
flow o f the heating steam as attainable.
fles have no cut-outs and form the end
n. The end baffles are also thicker than
have combined sealing and anti-
i c ips fitted in the clearance between the
LI the holes through which the tubes pass. A
I>le bellows piece connects the steam inlet of
:iIlcr and the stub branch on the desuperheating
piece being welded in place after
is in position over the tubenest. The steam
c desuperheating section by four windows cut
o u d as shown in Fig 3.52 (b). The condensing
affles have no cut-outs but take advantage
ace between the tube bundle and the shell
te the steam over the length of the con-
ction where it is condensed, the condensate
Ilp to the bottom of the shell. A drain water
Is !maintained in the shell by the external drain
Ilr iIl.;lin cooling section occupies the space directly
Ihe desuperheating section. It comprises 13
11 cut-outs suitable to promote cross-flow of
, all enclosed by a semicircular shroud, with
affles at each end forming the end of the
ing section. A plate is provided to seal the
11s section. The end baffles have combined
and antivibration clips fitted between the tubes
Iiigli pressure fecdwater heaters
and thc holes tlil-ougb which thc tubes pass.
Figure 3.52 (c) and (d) shows how the 'dip tubes',
which forin tlie seal between the condensing and drain
cooling sections, arc welded to the drain cooler shroud.
The dip tubes and the bellows piece which seals the
drain cooler outlct are welded in position after tlie
shell has bccn placed over the tubenest.
The space below the tube bundle in the condensing
section is used to maintain a fixed water level above
the drain cooling section dip-tubes by means o f the
drain water level control system.
The drains from the bottom of the condensing sec-
tion flow via the two dip-tubes into the drain cooling
section, from where they flow to the centre and are
discharged by the central drain branch
The venting arrangements arc illustrated in Fig 3.53
which shows the vent paths within the heater. The air
and non-condensables in the condensing section are
vented by the hollow tubes incorporated in the lhori-
zontal centre baffle. The drain cooling section also has
air vents just above the drain cooler outlet.
The heater has a single relief valve sized in accord-
ance with BS5500 Appendix J [ I l l .
Support feet are provided at each end of the heater;
the fixed foot is at the water header end, with the
other foot being free to slide to allow for thermal
expansion.
A water header manhole door is provided to allow
access to the feed side of the tubeplate for inspection
and tube plugging. The heater internals are not in-
tended to be maintained in sifu, but to have the whole
heater cut out o f the pipework and moved to some
convenient maintenance area for the shell to be cut
adjacent to tubeplate and removed. This is oltly ne-
cessary if a heater has to be retubed.
6.8 Vertical high pressure heaters
A 500 M W unit vertical HP heater, as manufactured
by NEIP for Ince B power station, is illustrated in
Fig 3.54. Because of the economic factors prevailing
when the overall turbine/feed system was evaluated,
it was found that the provision of drain cooling sec-
tions was not cost effective. The heater does, however,
have a desuperheating section. The water header is o f
the all-forged 'bottle' construction, with the inlet and
outlet branches and the support feet welded to the
main forging. The desuperheating section is at the
bottom of the heater surrounding the tubes on the
outlet side of the U-tube bundle. As the desuperheat-
ing section wrapper plate and end section will be in
contact with the drains water, a double-skin con-
struction is used to prevent direct contact between
metal at steam superheat temperature on one side
and condensate at saturation temperature on the
other (see Fig 3.54 (a)).
A baffle plate is provided at the bled-steam inlet
to prevent tube erosion/vibration and, as a further
301
Feedwater heating syslelms
toll1 of tile heater to accoaliilalc in tllat half of the
shell nut occiipied by tile desupcrlieating sectioii. A
ware) icvci is ~iiainlainedin thc buttonl of rile heater,
tllc i)Ul.pose being to sedi tltc drain outlct to prevent
erosion due lo two-phase flow adjacent to thc drains
oiitiet. The air vcnls are placed at the top o f the shell
as all inon-coildensable gases and air wili rise to that
point.
These two short descriptions of current H P hcaters
illustrate how the design principles, explained earlier
in this section, are implemented in practice.
6.9 Alternative designs of h e a t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n
A brief description o f older heater designs is inciuded
to indicate how othei- approaciies to provide cost ef-
fective H P heaters have been tried.
The most expensive cornpotient in the construction
of a conventional hemispherical water headei- type o f
- .~~ .. ~...
FEE0 WATER .,-.
FIG. 3.55 HP feedheaters with cylindrical headers
HP lieatei is tlie watci header, '1'0 i-ediicc
and aiso its tlievmal inertia, designs incorlrili
drum-type !water header have becn constiiicti,
Figure 3.55 (a) and (b) shows two diffu~c~it
lions for constructing ail H P beater witho~u r i
i'entional water head. The heater shown o n
was constructed for Thorpe Marsh power
employed a central header with the mild stccl
radially disposed, the tubes being welded to tlir
by the Foster-Witeeier method. T h e length 01' t i
was such that they had to be constructed frorii
lengths o f pipe butt-welded together. This ICI
tube was difficuit to handle and adequate pr(
had to be made within the shell to support t o t
The only drawback to this design was its higli
canstructioo.
The heater illustrated in Fig 3.55 (b) was co~,.
by GEC and used mild steel tubes manually-weld
bifurcation pieces which were, in turn, weld
superltcate~type headers. Tile bifurcation
~ liom the storage tank with not more than 5
CONNECTlON EYE
-JACKING SCREW
DRAINOUTLET
;illou, a sn~aiicrnumber of artachments lo
to the header to gain access for tile attachment
lo tlie headers.
lieaters suffer from some tube erosion in the
I' the bifurcations but, in general, have been a
11 design. Because of the high cost o f con-
,I,, the development of this design was not
@-aeratingfeedheaters
liom the condenser (condensate) which has
calcd by the 1.P feedheaters is supplied t o the
tior to be further heated and de-aerated
itory to being fed to the boilers by the boiler
urn],, via the H P feed train. De-aeraton on
i large units are designed to provide feedwater
11s per kilogram &/kg) of oxygen.
o n is achieved by the application of Henry's
llicli states that the quantity of gas dissolved in
1 quantity of solution is proportional to the
ssure of that gas over the solution. When
applied t o the removal of oxygen from feed
phere above and around the
ate contains no oxygen, then the dissolved
'I1 escape t o that atmosphere in an attempt
nstruct a de-aerating heatei to release the
amount
~iil~ii of oxygen from the incoming con-
Ir, the following factors have to be considered:
lime for the dissolved oxygen to travel to the
cc of the water.
clwtll time is needed for the steam to heat the
ate and so Increase the equilibrium pressure
en in order to release it.
~ r f a c etension of the water.
lime taken for the diffusion of the oxygen
..
the water into the steam atmosphere.
rlorage tank associated with de-aeration has t o
1 lhc following needs:
xpproximately 7-10 minutes' worth of CMR
tts defined in Section 3.3 of this chapter.
>I the leak-off flows from the boiler feed
>s, when needed. At low loads, when the flow
yli the feed pump would be less than about
a special leak-off system which discharges
De-aorating feedheaters
lo lhc de-aerator tank is used. Cllaptci 4, Section
14.7 of this voiurnc describes the system and lloiv
i t functions.
s Accept the H P lieate? drains,
e Heat tile tank content from cold t o provide hot
de-aerated water for unit start-up.
The following examples of different manufacturers'
de-aerators show how they achieve these objectives
by different design philosophies.
7.2 T h e r m a l l h y d r a u l i c design
Figure 3.56 shows a typical de-aerator and feedwater
storage tank, the head of which heals and de-aerates
the incoming condensate before it drains by gravity
into the storage tank. The design uses spray nozzles
to produce a fine film/spray t o maximise the surface
area of the water available to the steam for heat
transfer and to minimise the distance that the oxygen
has t o travel t o be released. Any residual oxygen is
released while the water is further heated as it passes
over a series of perforated trays, which causes the
condensate t o fall as a continuous 'rainfall' from tray
t o tray.
The heat transfer coefficient in the fine film/spray
zone is about five to ten times the value for the drop
phase of approximately 14 k w / m 2 ~ As
. nearly 90% of
the temverature rise occurs in the film uhase, the
temperature difference between the water drops cas-
cading from the iower trays and the steam is small. The
additional trays, however, arc needed to allow time
for the residual oxygen to escape and also to heat the
water to the saturation temperature equivalent to the
prevailing pressure.
The steam flow path is shown by the arrows in
Fig 3.56. A small flow of steam, along with the oxy-
gen and non-condensable gases, is extracted by vents
o n the top of the head. The mixture of steam and
oxygen, if vented directly to the condenser, would
constitute a heat loss. T o save this heat, a vent con-
denser is provided t o heat the incoming feed by con-
densing the vapour and extracting the heat irom the
.- and non-condensable -gases.
oxveen
The oxygen and non-condensable gases are extracted
from the vent condenser by venting it to the conden-
ser, from where the gases are discharged by the main
air extraction pumps.
The storage tank associated with the de.aerating
function stores about 300 tonnes of feedwater in a
tank o f approximately 4.5 m diameter by 32 m long:
it is accommodated o n an elevated floor in an annexe
between the boiler house and turbine hall.
Diffusers are provided to discharge the leak-offs
and the H P drains into the tank, as indicated o n Fig
3.56.
 Chapti.! :4
Feedwater heating systems
i i 1ic;ited by a large vcnt condensci ~i,l~icli
cootribiites
it11 iir~irl-eciableproportion of the ternjlel.ature rise over
!It,: ticater. This reduces tlic heating requi1,ed during
li;iiisit through the trays.
'I'iie condensate is directed onto the top tray from
w11ere it cascades through tlie rest o f the trays to flow
I,) gravity into the storage tank. The steam/water flow
pslhs are indicated on the figure.
' ' steam flaw to the vent condenser is about
"10 of the bled-steam flow: any oxygen and
in-condensable gases are swept away in this vent
)w. The vent condenser is vented to the main con-
er, as indicated, and the gases are discharged
the main condenser by the air extraction pumps.
'The feedwater storage tank associated with the
lc-aerating heater on Fig 3.57 is similar in size and
; provisions for leak-offs, HP drains, etc., to
described for Fig 3.56. The other features de-
ed for the first de-aerator storage tank are also
sllows a section through a typical Stork iie-aerator,
with the steam and watci paths indicated.
There is no de-aerating head as such, but in tlie
space above thc working water levei in the lop of the
storage tank there is a series of speciallp designed
sprayers, which spray the incoming feedwater onto a
ring of plates which further breaks up the water.
The sprayers are designed to create sufficient spray
area and water droplets to provide the necessary heat
transfer surface t o heat the incoming feed to as near
to the saturation temperature (corresponding to the
pressure within the de-aerator) as practicable. In prac-
tice, the temperature of the feedwater in the tank has
been measured t o b e within 1-Z°C of the saturation
temperature. T h e stored water in the tank is therefore
heated t o the saturation temperature of the incoming
heating steam as it enters the fank through the sprays.
A steam distribution system in the form of a 'rake'
is provided, the teeth of which arc vertical tubes per-

v
forated at their ends. Thc end which is oerforated is
I .0, k~W0

S//A,A1,JPJINB/UB/NL5/SY
\
0,SI"IOulmY ,.,PIS
7a
PUUPIUCTtON I,/
S,E*,IRI~,,NO,"I6XESI
\
510"AGET"N*
A design of de-aerator currentiy intended for use
a,illiin a CEGB power station is the 'Stork' de-aerator.
positioned to be always below the lowest working
feedwater level. The heating steam introduced into
lOlNS"tlrN8XiND
O@TAN<COWTEN. 'Illis type of de-aerator employs a different approach the tank content via the steam 'rake' is nearly at the
lo llle task of extracting the oxygen and other non- same saturation temperature as the tank content and
i~>ndensabIegases from the condensate. Figure 3.58 is therefore not condensed, but bubbles through the
I:!<;. 3.56 Sectio#>illlougl~ a typical ~pra)./truyl y l x dc-acrrcoi niid associaled aiora8e iank

The steam coiis used t o boil and thereby de-aerate
the tank content prior to unit start-up are also shown
in Fig 3.56.
Unless provision is made to induce movement o f
the tank contents, stagnant areas o f subcooled water
will resuit. A distribution system is provided to pre-
vent direct discharge of the incoming heated and de-
aerated feedwater from the boiler feed pump suctioll
pipe connection. By use of a distribution system, ade-
quate mixing of the tank content is ensured.
Vertical baffles are also needed t o prevent possib
'sloshing' of the tank content from end t o end und
conditions of abnormal steam flows across the tal
surface. The transfer pipes between the tank and I1
de-aerator head arc of generous size t o ailow flow
vapour to the head when the tank content boils ill1
to a i.eduction in de-aerator tank pressure.
The de-aerating head shown in Fig 3.57 employs 11
different design phiiosophy, using trays only to obtait~
the de-aeration of the feedwater. The incoming feed

Em. 3.58 Section through a tygkal 'Stork' de-aerator


FIG. 3.60 Seciion ibrougil s lypical lhorironlal LP liearci, Heysham 2 po>!,el
FIG- 3.61 Sceiion tl~rougba typical horizontal
full flow polishing plant is needed, copper-bearing
materials should not be employed downstream of the
polishing plant: so stainless steel is used for ail L P
heater tubes, including the drain cooler and TMEC.
Until 1976, LP heaters were designed to comply with
BS15OO; heaters specified since that date have been
constructed to BSSSOO. The heaters shown in Figs 3.60
and 3.61 are constructed to comply with BS55M) [Ill.
The methods used to determine the physical size of
an L P heater to fulfil a particular duty, as defined
by feed cycle needs, is very similar to that illustrated
for H P heaters in Section 6 of this chapter. Using
the same order of calculation as for H P heaters, the
details are shown in the next section.
blCr,ONl""O"B*
ITSAMNLeT
riac,oll
LP heacei, LirLlebiook D power ststion
8.4 Water header, tube bundle and shell
A significant factor in determining the thickness
the various parts of the heater is the tube bull
diameter. To find this the number of U-tubes need
to pass the feed flow has to be found. Each LP fe
heater passes full feed flow.
8.4.1 T u b e thickness
As the LP heater U-tubes are roller-expanded in
the tubeplate, the tube wail thickness is determi
by the need to have a long term leak-free joint
tween the tube and the tubepiate. Experience
shown that tubes expanded into a mild steel to
oscd for LP heaters, nccd a tube wall thick-
ai ieast 1.2 om to g~.cverit the tube wail
,ifecdwates pressure requirements, it nevei-
iows for corrosion damage and aiso makes
t of the depth of the tubeplate. The light
is to close the gap between the tube and
le, where water could penetrate and possibly
,revice corrosion. The mechanism of rolier-
iig tubes into tubeplates is described in depth
iiation to find the flow area is the same as
660 MW unit, a typical LP heater has about
-tubes with a tube bundle diameter of abour
Tubeplate thickness
Ie suggested working form for U-tube tube-
,sign o n Page 3/96.
calculation is very similar to that shown on
2.49, the only difference being that allowance
;idc for the stiffening effect of the tubes where
xiss through the tubepiate. Using this method of
Ition, a typical 660 MW LP heater tubeplate
ii lube bundle diameter of 1.4 m has a thickness
eliout 200 mm.
Water header wall thickness
formula from BS55M) Clause 3.5.1.2 (a) 'Cylin-
I Shells' [li], is used to find the wall thickness
IC water headers illustrated in Figs 3.60 and 3.61.
corrosion and other allowances, a typical wall
ncss is 32 mm.
w a t e r header branch thickness
ame formula as that quoted above for water
cr wall thickness is used to determine the branch
.G Compensations f o r openings in t h e waterbox
thickness calculated for the various components
Low Pressure lieatel!,
do no1 allow for the effects of openings in the vesscl
walls. Tlie compensations needed around the various
openings to conipeiisate for the penetration arc
calculated, as fox HP headers, by the application ol
Clausc 3.5.4 of BS5500 [ I l l .
8.4.7 Shell and dished e n d thickness
The pressure range over which LP heaters operate
is from maximum bleed point pressure to full vacuum.
i f the shell thicknesses were determined by differen-
tial pressure alone, the thickness of the lower pressure
heater shelis would be insufficient to withstand loads
from pipework or being lifted into piace during the
course of plant erection. In practice, shell thickness
is not made iess than about 12 mm but this again
depends on individual manufacturer's practice. Ex-
ternal stiffening rings are sometimes aiso used to
permit the use of slightly thinner shells. The dished end
thickness is chosen to suit the shell thickness.
8.5 Heater tube length and tube supports
The procedure used is again similar to that already
described for H P heaters. However, for LP heaters,
this usually only involves consideration of a condensing
section. If integral drain coolers were to be used,
the procedure would be the same as that used for HP
heater drains coolers. An average U-tube length between
tubeplates o n a n LP heater for a modern 660 MW unit
is about 18 m, giving an average tube bundie length
of 9 m.
8.5.1 Tube s u p p o r t plates
From Figs 3.60 and 3.61, it will be seen that there is
a divergence of design philosophy in the method of
providing support for the tube bundles. The heater
in Fig 3.60 has a vertically-disposed structure extend-
ing the length of the tube bundle, made of plate
and hollow square-section tube which carries the tube
support plates. Attached to lugs on the periphery of
the tube support plates are radial side support bars,
which locate the tube bundle in the shell. The support
plates also take the weight of the tube bundle while
it is being inserted or withdrawn from the shell.
The heater shown in Fig 3.61 uses six stays, over
which fit hollow cylindrical spacers to maintain the
intended distance between baffle plates. The baffle
plates are cropped at top and bottom, as shown in
the section through the heater, to allow steam to flow
transversely along the top of the shell and drains to
flow along the bottom of the heater. The main steam
and drain flow paths are indicated on the figure. Two
guide rails are provided inside the shell to take the
tube bundle weight via the baffle plates. They also
support the tube bundle when it is inserted or with-
drawn from the shell.
311

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Feedwater heating systems
described far 1iP !heaters. The lhcal balance to detci-
mine the rise ovci the drain cooler is shown in Fig
3.62 (0 and the resultant temperature gradient is
illustrated by inset (e) of the figure. Again, U-tubes
are. roller-expanded into a mild steel tubeplate. The
shell is of all-welded steel construction.
The baffle arrangement, however, is different as
the baffles are required to guide the water across
the tubes and to prevent leakage between the shell
and baffle. The baffles are semicircular and a close
fit in the shell. The path needed to be taken by the
drain water is shown in Fig 3.62 (d).
8.8.1 Thermallhydraulic design of a flashing
drain cooler
The temperature of the feedwatei leaving the heatel
for a specified temperature difference is found by
performing a heat balance over the drain cooler (Fig
3.62 (c)).
The temperatures required to complete the diagram
shown In Fig 3.62 (b) are now available. Assuming
that all the condensate flows through the drain cooler
tubenest, then the tubenest will have the same number
of tubes as the LP heaters in the feed system. The
overall diameter will also be the same. The LMTD
calculation is shown in Fig 3.62 (b). The heat transfer
surface is then found using the same method as for a
normal L P heater.
8.8.2 Thermallhydraulic design of a warer-to-
w a t e r drain cooler
The temperature out of the drain cooler is found by
a heat balance over the drain cooler as shown in
Fig 3.62 (0: however, in this case the drains flow is
treated as hot water.
The heat transfer coefficient is calculated as for an
H P or L P internal drain cooler, using the temperatures
indicated in Fig 3.62 (e).
The tubenest will have the same number of tubes
as the first LP heater for full condensate flow, and will
have the same shell diameter as the L P heaters.
The baffle pitch is determined by the need to main-
tain the velocity of the water across the tubes to give
the needed heat transfer coefficient.
The drain cooler actually used depends on the
manufacturer's assessment of the most cost effective
type for a particular installation.
8.9 Direct contact low pressure heaters
In both thermal and mechanical design, direct contact
(DC) L P heaters are very similar to a de-aerator heater
head. They are cylindrical vessels arranged in either
the horizontal or vertical attitude, equipped internally
with a means to maximise the heat transfer surface
Evaporators and other lneans of water rreatmenr
of the Incoming condensate for presentation
healing steam, 'The rnaximun~heal transfer coc S P R A Y TUBE
droplet flow.
The slielis and dished ends are constructed o i ill1
steel. As the last station to be constructed wit
heaters was ordered before 1976, all the D C h
mined by the need to accommodate the spra
to heater. Figure 3.63 shows a typical horizontal a1
tude DC heater of NEIP manufacture, employiny
system of jets which impinge on plates to produ
a fan-shaped film. The feedwater from the previo
heater is introduced into the channels which run aloi
the axis of the vessel. These distribution chaiin
are bridged by pipes across the inside of the si
water t o the saturation tempeiature coriespon
is extracted. The heater is continuously vented
condenser. The steam inlet has a baffle which
the steam along the axis of the shell.
The drain outlet is at the centre of the heater ail
is fitted with an antivortex device. As discussed earl1
in this section for horizontal LP heaters, a nalor
drainage level in the heater exists dependent on 111
flow rate into the heater, the heater shell diametei
etc.
The DC heater illustrated in Fig 3.64 was milti
factured by GEC. The design philosophy is slnlil
to the de-aerator head shown in Fig 3.57, but will
minor differences to adapt the principles for 1)
FXG.3.63 Tynieal arrangement of a lhorizon~aldirect contact LP Iheater, lncc B power station
heater service.
A water distribution header directs the inconii
condensate through perforated windows in its "nil
Evaporators and other means of water Current practice is to use a chemical raw water
treatment plant followed by filters and mixed-bed
deionisation plant. For the AGRs and for the pro-
jected PWR, a full-flow polishing plant in the feed
pressure.
The illustration shows the provision made to all train is provided to ensure the high quality of boiler
feedwater.
the steam free access to the water cascading
traditional method of producing high quality A full description of the raw water treatment plant,
the trays. Steam flow is directed to the lower
for boiler feed was to distil water by the eva- filters and mixed-bed deionisatlon plant, and a full-
of the heater t o ensure that water cascading f I
ration o f treated raw water. Treated water is boiled flow condensate polishing plant is given in Volume E.
lie evaporators by the application of heat in the However, to provide a complete description of modern
nest of trays from just below the cold water entry n of L P bled-steam from the turbine or a steam plant, the following section gives details of typical
point. ply from the auxiliary boiler. The resultant vapour steam evaporating equipment which is currently in
Double drain outlets are provided to ensure a ndensed and can be used to replenish the reserve use in large CEGB power stations.
quate drainage, taking into account the princip
discussed earlier in this section for horizontal I
heaters. tment by the deionisation method has made it with a daily output of about 3% CMR steam flow.
The trays and perforated distribution inlet window conomic to install bled-steam evaporators for the The water treatment plant has also to provide water
are made o f stainless steel to prevent eroslon/corrosioii. to meet the additional losses of two-shift operation.

I:i(i. 1.64 Typical airnllgernezil of a
the filling of boilers and the feed system after main-
tenance, and the special needs of chemical cleaning
and commissioning.
9.2 T y p e s o f bled-steam e v a p o r a t o r
Two types of evaporator have been used by the CEGB
(discounting the horizontal submerged coil type as
inappropriate for large modern power station feed-
water treatment).
The first is the surface 'Vertical-tube' type invented
by Kestner in 1909. Figure 3.65 shows the arrange-
mcnt of a typical vertical-tube evaporator. The water
inside the tubes is boiled by the heating action of
the bled-steam o n the outside of the tubes and a
mixture of vapour and water is expelled from the
top of the tubes. The water spills into the central
downcomer and the process continues by natural cir-
culation. The rising vapour passes through baffling
to reduce the quantity of entrained droplets thrown
up by ebullition and is then condensed in an external
vapour condenser. Any non-condensable gases carried
out with the vapour are vented.
The second type is the 'Flash' evaporator. A sche-
matic diagram of a two-stage flash evaporator is
shown in Fig 3.66. The raw water is heated near to
saturation temperature of the heating steam and is
then cascaded through the evaporator in series, which
is at a lower pressure than the water. A proportion
of the hot raw water flashes in each stage and is
condensed by the raw water on its way to the heat
input section. The distillate cascades from stage to
316
Future developrne~ils
of the evapoiatoc plant u,Iiich ~pl-o\,idesthe necessary
tempri-aiiil-c variation tllioiigll llle evaporator for cffi-
cicnt heat transfel..
The vapour charnbei a l thc evaporator is connected
to a blo\vdown system which allows a calibrated floiv
of B,ater to be pumped out oftirc vapoul- chamber. This
fixed flow rate maintains the correct body concentra-
tion wileri the evaporator is on-load.
The purified water vapour from the evaporator is
condensed in the condenser by heat exchange wit11
condensate from the turbine. It is then drawn from the
condenser by a distillate pump and pumped through
a cooler/heater to the system discharge point. The
iii. 1.66 Sclieii~aiicdiagram of a L$I.O-SLB~C 'fiasll'
eVIIpolatOl distillate raises the temperature of the incoming feed-
water as already described. After leaving the heater/
cooler the temperature, presswe and conductivity of
the distillate arc checked.
9.4 Flash t y p e e v a p o r a t o r s
Flash evaporators have been available for inany years.
They have only emerged within the last two decades
lioiizo~~rl
direct cori<aci 1.1' Ihcalci. Herrhs8r i lioi\'ez riatioil
li ensures circulation to the heating cham- as a viable proposition for large scale distiliation,
us heat exchangers are also added to increase due to thc fact that multiple-effect or multistage
I efficiency of the process. plant can now be built in the very large sizes required
stage and is finally removed by means of an e feedwater is pumped successively through for potable water in arid countries. Thanks to modern
pump. s/cooiers, a preheat and a vent vessel to methods of raw water pre-treatment they can also
tor. After vaporisation in the evaporator, operate continuously for long periods.
nsed into distillate and delivered to the Large multistage evaporators can be built econo-
harge point by a distiliate pump. mically on the 'egg crate' principle, each stage con-
sisting of a narrow vertical compartment in the crate
with raw water on its way to the heat input section
traversing each compartment in straight tubes. Figure
3.69 illustrates the construction of an experimental
10-stage flash evaporator which has been in service
with the CEGB.
Since heat consumption varies inversely with the
I, evaporator and condenser. number of stages, the flash evapoiator can compete
re vented from the feedwater in a vent successfully with other forms of evaporation plant
by having multiple compartments or stages in a single
vessel. However, even this economic form of water
lporator. It is then circulated to the heating treatment plant is not as cost effective as a modern
polishing plant for the production of boiler feedwater
and no further installations are planned.
or vapour condenser.
MAxE,up,wLE,+
team condensate from the heating chamber, 10 Future developments
-
ludes that from the preheater, passes through The development of feed system design and its asso-
ciated components is dependent upon the cycle steam
conditions and the turbine-generator unit capacity
-
;.:'.:,
.
WLIINCISIEW
IPY~POY~
IlEDWAIIR
CONTINUOUS
8LOWOOWN
chosen for the next generation of power stations to
be constructed by the CEGB. Present indications are
that non-nuclear stations will be coal-fired, with sub-
critical or supercritical steam conditions and a unit
capacity o f about 1.5 times the current 660 MW units.
FIG. 3.65 ~ y p i c a larrangement of a 'vertical-tiibe' 1 lhese vessels and discharges to atmosphere. The need for the development of systems and com-
evanorator IC system maintains a vacuum at the hack end ponents for a number of specific plant areas has been
Feedwater hearing systems Future developments

PIO. 3.69 Diagrammatic arrangement of a lo-stage narh evaporator

identified l o tnicci the increased llo!\,s and ipscssoies
t o be used for llic jprojectcd plant.
plant \\.oilld bc utiliscd.
and LP fecd system: consider each in tiira.
10.1 HP feed system
~h~ increase i n unit size and possible use of
critical steam conditions will increase the H P heater
hcmi-head diameter and thickness. wit11 cuirent ~p
1.5 times that used when steam conditions are sub.
critical, r h e increased tubeplate tl,ickness wi!l also
need further development of. present techniques for
deep-hole (gun) drilling. O n e disadvantage o f thicker
tubeplates and hemi.llead walls is the increased sus.
ceptibility to damage caused by thermal transients
inducing high stress levels.
T h e perforated a r e a o f the tubeplate responds al-
most immediately t o the feedwater temperature change
caused when preceding heaters a1.e by-passed. T h e un-
with the potential of creating high local stress levels.
OWtM
0"TLeT
Tic. 3.70 Ariangemcnt o f HP header-type lheafcr
320
Altl~ailgh thevninl traosieois can be redilci:
ininimoin by i~idiviiliiaihy-passing of jprcccdin!! 1,
the extra equipn~entio\,alved as well as imposiii
typc o l heater can be oveicomc by using a 111
version o f the header type of healer similar i i i
ciple t o that illustrated in Fig 3.55. T h e use n
latest manufacturing techniques l o r a similar
has resulted in heaters which are currently gi\,i!l
factory service in Europe and ~ m e r i c aas s
R E 3.70. T o increase throughput of feed'
of 1.5 times does not rcsult in a header wall 1
which imposes operational restrictions d u e t o I
transients inducing unacceptable stress ievels i
the header. T h e use of header type heaters i h
sidered t o bc a n option for future stations as ail II I
native t o conventional hemi-head HP heaters.
10.2 De-aerator system
size, it becomes increasingly costly t o accomlll
studies indicalr that a decieasetl tank ca-
te of pressure decay (and hence the ability of
t i de-aerator system t o avoid boiling in the feed
soction pipework during transients) depends
, amount of stored heat (i.e., hot water) in the
illd the rate of introduction of cold feed t o the
n has l o be m a d e t o prevent c o m m o n m o d e
lheating steam t o the LP heaters, as this intl-o-
y. Diversity of operation o r the provision of
ergy local t o the valves would be a suitable
iiil techniques a n d suitable sequences t o avoid
11scold condensate into a hot depleted tank.
;!Iternalive solution is t o provide a '!)egging'
sllpply which would maintain the de-aerator
tors being supplied by UK manufactureis
rs o\,erseas, require less suction head t h a n
ntly installed in CEGB power stations. T h e
11 which the de-aerator tank must be placed
l o each boiler feed p u m p depends upon the
I1 in tank elevation. T h e elevation a t which
ion heads, then the combination of a small-
lhavc l o bc deteiii,incd for each case. Iiowcver, in
gciiccal, i t is expccicd thal lank size c a n be reduced
t o aboill 5 miniitcs' IYO~III o r C M l l flow at normal
xsorking level, with thc tank placed at a significantly
reduced elevation.
10.3 LP feed system
It is expected that future large coal-fired units will
use a n LP feed system similar t o that already illus-
trated i n Fig 3.6 for the PWR cycle (i.e., forward
pumping of higher pressure 1.P hcater drains with
the lower pressure heaters mounted in the condenser
neck). These will therefore bc n o significant changes
in existing system design or components.
11 References
Ill Durlseil, L.: 'A review oi the operaiioi)ai bchz~viosia81d
deiign of direct colllacl iced w a l c i lhealiilg plar>ir for iarge
Ihcrlllll poi<'cl slaliosr': Proc. IMecliL.. \?ol 187: 1973.
I21 Kiibie, J . , Koiue, M , and Jolles. E. \v.: 'Hydrodyiiamicaspec~i
or it,c deiigii or reed heateis aiirt rie-aera~or stalsse tailks.:
l'ai~ei CI40179 'Steam Tuibincs for 1980s. IMechE Sym-
l,osium': 1979
[31 Downs, J. E.: 'Forced outages of large steam lurbinos-an
atiaiysis of causes': Vol 32, Proceedings o f the Amciican
Power Conference: 1970
[dl Dickin~on, J . D, and McKiiiiey, u. E.: 'Turbine crfeclr
from steam and water ablloinlal cooling': Proceedings of the
American Power Conference: 1970
i51 Reinhard. K. G. and Schalzsanii, G. P.: 'Teibine watel dam-
age pieventioil': t'iaceedinw or tile Amciicali Power Coa-
feiel,ce: 1972
161 SPence, J . R. Ilyall. M . L. and MeCoiinell, A,: 'Tlte develop-
men1 md produciioil or lhigli pierssie feed heaters ray moderrl
central poivei $cations': Pioc. IMecilE, volume. 182: 1967/68
(71 Craiifield, R. K. and wilkmrun, D. H.: 'Analysis or poivei
plant de-aerator storage lank inriabililies': Proc. IMechE,
Vol. 195: 1981
181 Darfneil, L. M . : 'The liiennal-liydiaaiicdesign of main feed water
pump suction systems for large lherrnai power plant': Pioc.
IMechE. Vol. 199: I985
191 Wilkinson. D. H. and Darlnell, L. M . : 'Ware' hammer
phenomena in thermal power station fwd water rystemr':
Proc. IMechE. Vol. 194: 1980
I101 Dailnell, L. M.: 'Hydraulic and thermal hydraulic iiisiability
ili condcnrate feed systems far large thermal power stations':
Proe IMecliE. Vol. 186: 1972
IIII BS55W: 'Splfieation for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels':
1985
1121 'Slandards of tubular exchanger nlaoufactureis assochion', Sixth
Edition: Addenda Address, Tubuiar Exchanger Manufacluiers
Asrociation, Inc.. 25, N. Broadway, Tariytovn, New Yolk,
30591: 1978 and 1982.
3 'Guide io the design of feed water heating plant': Publication
No. 226, the Brilish Eleciiieal and Allied Manufacturers'
AIsOeiation Limited, 8 Leicerlei Street. London: 1968
II4I BSlll3: 'Derign and mafiuiaelure a i water-tube stcam gen-
erating plant (including superlieaten, rehesuers and steel tube
economiserig: 1985
321
 . .

Feedwater heating systems

~~-

j IS] 12S1 S,n,~d;ivd 21-4: 'Scaiiilcri steel reed wale, lheaiel iiibcs carbon i ~ l o c e s s i ~Prac
~ ~ . 129: Al3ril 1970
lot lhigli prcsaiire a~,i~lratioss':Llcct~icitySapply I#~dusli?: 'lieu,
erd,anger desigl~ lhal?dbook': Hemispbclr I
Mavci, 1982 Corporation: 1984
l i b ) CEGB Standard 234102; GDCD St.psduid 56. lssae 2: 'Carboll e r .C, elid Crow, I. Ci.: 'Onrei o i I
~ ~ ~ . d i iG.
axid Allor Stocl Feed Watcr tieater Tuber': Dcceillbci 1980 supernate8~fFluid is Surge Tasks': Clieiiiicai
. . ,.,.,,,. . <. ,,,\.: ..,' i::i, ,,: .. science, Voli~me26, I'agec 211 lo 219: 1971
.. , , .. I I.. . ,I,. I ,. ,>,>
% ! ' ~ ' , . . , .?> h t
crasrieid, R R.: ' ~ r a i sdischarge chaiacterislics
I,. 1, ,,;. . .
. :: I .I: '.?: j ~ u i n a oi
i Mecl,allicd Engineering Scic C H A P T E R 4
[18j 'Sl~oisgren,I. T.: 'Predict exchanger lube damage': Hydro 23, No. 2: 1981

Condensers, pumps and cooling water

plant

8 Plant testing
8.1 Introduction
8.11 Test codes and practices
9 Future devslopment~
COnden~eisurface area. turbine exhaust pressure and
9.1 Aims and objectives
9.2 Resesrch end development
9.2.1 Tubenest layout
9.2.2 Thermal performance properties of tubing
PUMPS
10 Air e x t r s ~ f i o nsquipmenf
10.1 lotioduction
10.2 Determination of sir extraction quantity
vironmenfsi can~iderstions
10.2.1 The mechanism of air extraction
,1 Cooling weler quality 10.2.2 The condenser air cooling section
Corrosion prevention 10.3 Revisw of air extrsction equipment
Other copper-slloy tube failure mechanisms 10.3.1 Hydraulic air pumps
Matetlal seiection 10.3.2 Liquid-ring type air pump
10.3.3 Air ejectoripump Eystems
10.3.4 Steam eiactoripump systems
10.4 Quick-start plant requirements
10.4.1 Type of plant
10.4.2 Starting times
11 H Y ~ ~ B Y BI S
I cP B C ~ Sof centrifugal pumps
BEAMA design recommendations 11.1 Specific speed
CEGB specifications 11.2 Net positive suction head
nfluence of tubeplate and tubenest geometry on thermal 11.3 Suction specific speed
li.l.1 Subjective design evaluation 12 Circulating wafer pumps
li.3.2 Computer assisted design evsiuaiion 12.1 lntr~ductlon
12.2 Horizontal split-=sing pumps
12.3 Vertical pumps
12.3.1 Veriicai metal-casing pumps
Con~tr~cfionald~veloprnent 12.3.2 Concrele volute pumps
Construction mafarials 12.4 Gearboxes
Design forces and stresses 12.5 Shaft seals
Methods of manufacture and oonstiuclion 12.6 Pump testing
12.7 Materials
1 3 Condenser extramion pumps
Condenser tube cleaning system
Special consider~flon~ 1 4 Boiler feed pumps
14.1 inttoduction
Ollerationsl life limiting constraints
14.2 Feed pump developments
7.1 Condenser sir inleakage 14.3 Advanced clsss feed pump construction
14.4 Axial thrust
14.5 Gland sealing
14.6 Pump layout and drive
14.7 light load protection
14.8 Testing
7.2.3 Bubbler devices 14.9 PWR feed pumpsets
'1.24 Tracer g ~ methods
s 14.10 Future trends
7.2.5 Flame and smoke methods
7.2.6 Uitrasonic method 15 Miacslianeous pumps
1.3 Condenser fouling and 15.1 Sewice water pumps
7.3.1 Condenser fouling 15.2 Chemical injection pumps
7.3.2 On-load condenser cleaning 15.3 Fire pumps
7.3.3 Off-load condenser cleaning 1 6 Reference$
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
CONDEINSERS
1 Introduction
The ultimate heat sink for a Iargc thermal powcr
station is the atmosphere. Ther; arc various options
avaiiabie, using different processes to achieve tlie
mast effective heal sink, and therefore meet the rc..
quirements of the condensing plant and cooling water
(CW) system.
Typical atmospheric heat dissipation systems are
illustrated in Pig 4.1. Those most commonly used are:
Process (a) evaporative cooling, associated with
closed systems (cooling towers) for heat dissipation.
e Process (b) heated water discharges, associated with
direct cooled systems (rivcr or seawater) for heat
dissipation.
When considering a new site for a power station, it
is important at the planning stages to ensure that
it has adequate cooling water faciiities. With increas-
ingly high station output and unit rating, the choice
of location is narrowed by the necessity to match
available water resources. This along with equally
important factors, such as type o f fuel and selection
o f steam conditions, are the major features con-
sidered when assessing the suitability of any site.
In order for a steam power station to operate ail
efficient closed cycle, the condensing plant, CW sys-
tem, and associated pumps must extract the maximum
quantity of heat from the exhaust steam o f the LP
turbines.
The primary functions of the condensing plant are:
To provide the lowest economic heat rejection
temperature for the steam cycle.
T o convert the exhaust steam to water for reuse
in the fced cycle.
T o collect the useful residual heat from the drains
of the turbine feedheating plant, and other aux-
iliaries.
The aim of the C W system Is to maintain a supply
o f cooling medium to extract the necessary heat, in
order that the condensing plant can meet its objec-
tives. It achieves this by the use of effective screen-
ing equipment, circulating water pumps, valves, and
.. cooline- towers.
(where necessarvl
The economics, design, construction and functional
requirements of the above systems and associated
plant components are discussed in detail in the sec-
tions which follow.
Since many pumps of different types and duties
feature in the above systems, aspects of their design
are collectively considered in later sections o f this
chapter. These include condensate extraction pumps,
cooling water pumps, circulating water pumps and
feed pumps.
Econoinics
iigurc 4.2 indicates thc componeni termill<,li
fur thc two iypicai arrangemcnis of thc ei,a)>o,oll
cooled and heated wale, systenis wl~icliwili hc ii
tl~iougl~oul this chapter, and i t is intended to
far reference purposes. I l i c follo\\,ing p
briefly describe the functional requirements
4 ATMOSPHERIC
AIRFLOW
of the plant components.
The screening pirrrii must i-emovc any debris l'rot STEAM
CONDENSER
the cooling water which is large enough to block 11
condenser or auxiliary cooler tubes. It must b ,
to keep clean, even during periods of excessive d ( 8 ) EvainidlVD EOD"S
The cooling ulaler (CW) pumps must circula
water against system resistance, o i pumping
under all conditions encountered at a particula
To ensure efficient and flexible CW pump opera
valves are usually provided to aiiow any combinzit (
of pumps, condensers and cooling towers to opcit~
SEAM
together. CONDENSER
In the healed >voterdischarge dixcl-cooled sysl
the cooling water (rivcr or seawater) is used oncc $11
then discharged. In the evoporative-cooled closed cur
ing lower and mixed cooling systems, the coal'
towers transfer heat from the plant to the atmospl
and the cooled water is recirculated. In this casc
water requirements are for make-up and purge pi
poses only.
In addition to the condenser satisfying the prima
functions, its design must also be capable o f meetit
the failowing objectives:
T o provide the turbine with the most econon
back pressure consistent with the seasonal variatio
in CW temperature or the heat sink temperntlr
of tlie CW system.
T o effectively prevent chemical contaniinatiot~ n
the condensate either from CN' ieakage or (toe
inadequate steam space gas removal and condenssfit
STEAM
de-aeration. CONUENStR
The aim of the designs is to ensure that these ob
rives are met within the framework of the followi PUMP
practical considerations:
Econon~iesof size, space and pumping power.
Ease o f maintenance and construction.
2 Economics
The detailed design of the condenser and its a
ciated CW system requires careful optimisation
parameters which include material selection, coolin
water flowrate, condenser surface areas, and turhin
exhaust pressure, etc., in order to harmonise 111
performance inter-relationships between all t
ferent plant components, and to produce a
14
offering maximum efficiency and reliability, and
mum running and maintenance costs. Flc. 4.1 Typical atmospheric heal dissipation systems
Condeiisers, pumps and cooling water piant Econolnics

lar attention must bc paid to direct-cooled a Cooling water fiowiate

e Number and size of condenser tubes - lhclice tube
length and Slow velocity in the tubes.
r Basement height.
e Scai pit wcir height.

and lake cooled stations (of which thcrc is

ne large example in Britain) take a n intcrme-
.
e Culvcrt flow velocity - hence cuivert size
Culvert length - usually fixed by external con-
siderations, e.&., avoiding recirculation between
inlet and outlet.
position as far as water quality is concerned.
iving identified these technical inconsistencies,
basis of an optimisation study is to achieve a From the culvert velocity and length, and other para-
iilicc between capital costs and operating costs, meters, the CW pumping requii-ements can be detei-
I!, the lowest overall lifetime cost. mined. A typical assessment procedure is illustrated
in Fig 4.3.

Condenser surface area, turbine exhaust 2.1.1 Input d a t a

('1 Heale* aa,sr dlrcllsigo systam
lnccessary to optimise the desigu of the various
riling to its own set of design rules, using 'fixed'
ce parameters based on a combination of pre-
experience and engineering judgement. However,
of these 'sub-optimisations' are in fact inter-
dent, for example, variations in the civil costs
Referring to Fig 4.3, headings 1 to 6 represent the
different items of input data which should be as
representative as possible. Listed under each beading
are the different parameters which collectively con-
stitute the item o f innut data. Relevant information
or cstimatcs should be available on parameters such
as station load factor and seasonal variations in sea-
water temperature, and values must be decided for
parameters such as auxiliary power consumption, and
the capital costs of different plant items. Finally,
pump characteristics and system resistances are re-
quired, from which pumping costs can be input.

2.1.2 Computation
The problems to be solved can be classified into thrcc

eally to calculation by computer. .

basic types:
The first type of calculation is based on a single
set of parameters to determine the predicted per-
formance of the system. This can be used to com-
pare the overall costs of a small number of discrete
options.
It creates a mathematical model of the system,
The second type of calculation is a frue opfimisafion.
The single calculation described above is repeated
many times for a grid of values defining possible
CW flows and configurations of condensing surface
,b, Evaporative maad *"Yf*f
(i.e., number and length of tubes). The program
identifies the lowest overall (capital and operating)
cost at each stage and, after a number of iterations,
1. FOREBAY AND GATE AREA (3. ! N E T E N 0 WATERBOX homes in on the optimum within the applied con-
2 CWIINOWA'IER tCW1 SCREENS 11. OUTLETEND WATERBOX straints. This type of calculation is important for
3, DRAFIIUBE 16. I I I B E P M E ASSEMBLY
4. CWPUMP
5. CW PUMPDISCHARGEVALVES > I . W&TERBOXACCESSDWR
16. TUBESUPPORTPLATES determining the most appropriate CW flow and
6. CWCULVERTS
7. CONDENSER iNLEi ISOWTING VALVE
78. TUBES
19. CONDENSATE OUTLET
condenser size for a new site. Figure 4.4 shows
8. CONDENSERSHELL 20. EXPWSION BELLOWS procedure involved in achieving a realistic typical graphical presentation of the results.
9. CONDENSER OUTLETISOLATING "&LYE 27. AIR EXIRACTION BAFFLE
70SURGECHI\MBER 22. AiR EXTRACTION
in parameters to be optimised are: The third type of calculation is the sensirivify study.
This involves r e ~ e a t i n g the optimisation process
~ndensersurface area - hence the vacuum, assum- for a range o f values of one particular parameters,
FIG.4.2 Terminology for major plant comnonenls g that a n efficient tube layout is adopted. such as power cost, to examine how this affects

326 327
Condensers, pumps and cooling water piaiit
sullcd in consislenr concepts of condcnsiog plaiil
iayout.
Tlie costs incurred in exterisivc design work, and
the development of special manufacturing techniques,
have becn spread over a large number of units which
have progressively benefited from minimised commis-
sioning problems, and increases in service reliability
and maintainability. During this "criod the size of
generating plant bas also progressively increased from
120 MW to units of 660 MW.
Standardisation of approximately fifty machines
was achieved in two stages: first at a unit sire of 120
MW, and later at a unit size of 500 MW. The latest
machines a f 660 MW sire represent an evolutionary
development: at present, there are some 23 machines
at this rating either in service or under construction
in the CEGB.
Certain features associated with 660 MW turbines
have had a major influence on the development of
condenser design and iayout. In order to appreciate
the significance of these features, a slight digression
to highlight the development of their design is worth-
while.
Single shaft turbines running at speeds of 3000
r/min have become increasingly compiex, as set rat-
ings have increased by increasing the steam mass
flow. Increasing the steam mass flow has demanded
a need for multiple L P exhausts with last row turbine
blades approximately 914 mm long, and a n exhaust
area of approximately 6.7 ma.
While the turbine n~anufacturers (each of which
has developed its own blading design) have made
improvements to details such as aerodynamic pcr-
formance, erosion shield vibration characteristics and
exhaust blading has increased the operating capability
to very much higher specific steam loadings.
Economic considerations have also favoured substan-
tially increased turbine exhaust specific loadings. This
is reflected in the 660 MW machines at Littlebrook D,
where a four LP turbine exhaust design - .(of aooroximate-
.,
I! 7 . 3 ni2 annulu, area per r \ l ~ a u , t )h3s becn adopted
S t r ~ c t u r arela~ioltchtp~
. bctueen turb~neand ~ ~ u d c n c r r .
and the method of overall support, have also developed
as unit ratings have increased.
Three main phases of design exist within a period o f
development which covers early 120 MW plant right
through t o the present 660 MW plant design. Justifica-
tion for these various changes are now discussed.
3.1 Phase 1
In this phase, which covers about half the total num-
bet o f 500 MW turbines, the underslung condenser
arrangement used on previous 120 MW and 200 MW
units was retained. The reinforced concrete turbine-
generator foundation block was kept, but develop-
330
liistorical developinent viid layout
..
mcnls were niade in sevciai other aspecli.
feature of these coridcnsers was that they a
singlc-shell design; otherwise they differed cai
Tlie most obvious differences relate to thr
arrangemenr. Figure 4.5 (a) illust~.ates e
arrangement, and Fig 4.5 (b) an axial a i .
Each o f these has advantages, as will be
latel. sections. When considering thernlal p
the transverse design is simpler and easier i
A difficulty with the axial condenser is thsr t i
tubes naturally result in a rather large dificrclt
thermal performance between inlet and ooilel
so making the effective extraction o f non-con'
more difficult.
The axial arrangement, however, has a c;lpiii~l <a,Am,," ude'nung
advantage because o f the smaller number of (I
rubes involved. This results in a saving in $11
of manufacture of the expensive tube piarcs.
allows a simple turbine-generator foundation i
ment in which the LP turbines are suppoi
parallel foundation walls, one along each sic
process of tubing the condenser can use ti1
under the electrical generator, which is kept
major plant items for this purpose.
Again, due to the length o f tubing involvc~l
an axial design, it becomes necessary to
sures to avoid large scale axial migration o
towards the cold end, which may invoive ado
opposed cooling water flow. This can be don
having two separate water passes with the Fi<
opposite direction, as illustrated in Fig 4.6. Sc
arrangement can complicate the culvert layout, r
water pipework and valve layout, and result i>
ditionai costs. Desienine the condenser as ;I
tion and is now standard British practice for: ;ax
condensers.
3.2 Phase 2
This phase covers the remaining 500 MW units 1,
all excevt the most recent 660 MW units. Conlnilt
~ ~
with phase 1, it is characterised by a radical
ferent design: the axially-tubed side-mounted coil
ser. The develooment of the side-mounted cond
coincided with a general move towards the us
steel foundations.
In some arrangements, this becomes a 'pan~i'
design as shown in Fig 4.5 (c), in which conde
and turbine are seoarated and connened
~. ~ ~ to .~
. . . ~ ~
other by short ducts (either rigid or with fl
bellows, deoendina. upon. the details o f the tur
and condenser support arrangements). In other case (dl """I" P'""8e'
,E,And,iy ,nlBgrBl
the condenser and turbine are combined to form ti
'integral' condenser design (Fig 4.5 (d)) in which 11
condenser shell encloses both the condenser tubes art
the low pressure turbines. FIG.4.5 Condenrcr eonfiguratianr for recent British 5W and 6W MW units
 Coi~densers,pumps and coolihg w a l e , platv
BOILER I~OUSE
SINGLE PASS UNI OIRLCT~ONOL,:LOW
CW PUMPS
BOILER HOUSE
SlNGLE PASSP-DIRECTIONAL FLOW
PIG. 4.6 The effcci of undirectionai and iwo-directional condenser cooling water
The side-mounted and integral design styles have
several advantages. Compared with the equivalent
underslung condenser, the steam flow path between
the turbine exhaust and the condenser inlet is wider,
and the losses smaller. Because of the reduction in
exhaust casing length, the overall length of the ma-
332
BOILER HOUSE
now an syrtcm layout
chine and condenser can be reduced quite significa~~
(typically the condenser tubes are about 20 m 10s
The turbine centreline height above basement, and he,
the crane height and overall turbine house height, c
also be reduced by, typically, 4 m. However, 111
advantages are partly offset by other factors. 7'11
Illc turbinc hall, and tlic question of acces-
ti llle LP turbine for maintenance.
lhcildy mentioned, economic considerations have
111s led to a preference for increased turbine ex-
tionship between condenser and turbine. Othcr
have also promoted a move away from the
,tinted condenser towards an arrangement in
i i each low pressure turbine is combined with its
1i;insversely-tubed underslung condenser. This
llic advantage that it allows the development of
xliilar LP turbine/condenser design so that one,
three modules can be combined to cover a
ingc of possible ratings, for example, 200 MW
IC module, and 600 MW or more with three
thcse few remarks, it is clear that the choice of
nser for future large turbine-generator plant
to favour the transversely-tubed underslung con-
his seems unlikely to be reversed in the
Environmental considerations
)ndenser relative to the turbine, another very
to prevent premature corrosion and erosion of
components, due to dissolved and suspended
1 Cooling water quality
e and erosive effects of the cooling water. These
ects are discussed in more detail in the subsections
The demand for substantial quantities of cooling
lter leads to an increasing tendency for large power
lions to be located on the coast and on the estu-
Enviroritncntal considerations
aries or major sivcrs. Corrently, o\iei 40% of opcrational
statioiis are placed in silcli locations and are therefoi-c
subjected la a wide variety of cooling water conditions.
A typical water analysis can coiuain abrasive sand
particles and marinc life. Debris and cyclic tidal var-
iations affect tube velocity and promote two-phase
flow under syphonic conditions: this is particularly
damaging to condenser lubes and CW system ma-
terials. It is against this background o f operating
experience that a broad knowledge of materials has
been accumolated.
Fortunately, the position is less severe with the
operation of inland power stations, where cooling
water quality is generally satisfactory. There arc, how-
ever, instances of condenser tube corrosion due to
products of biological decomposition and operation
ill polluted waters.
It is important to secu1.e information concerning
C:W quality as early on in the planning stage of a
power station as possible, since it forms the basis
upon which material selection will be made later. A
survey o f other industries using the same water sup-
ply, along with the local water authorities, is o f
tremendous value in identifying the history of CW
quality. Meanwhile, systematic monitoring and dis-
cussions with Local authoritics yield information on
the current situation, and on possible future develop-
ments which may influence water quality.
Lack of attention to this type o f detail often leads
to the wrong choice of materials. In condenser tubes,
for example, tube perforations and condensate con-
tamination levels exceeding the boiler water chemical
requirements [I] can have serious economic conse-
quences. If leakage of CW into the condensate per-
sists, costs can be incurred from tube replacement,
loss of availability and consequential damage to other
sections of the plant, such as boiler tube failure from
feedwater chloride contamination.
These problems can be avoided and the associated
costs minimised by combining the detailed knowledge
accumulated on CW quality with that associated with
tlle known corrosion performance o f condenser tube
materials, which forms the basis o f material selection
strategy discussed later.
4.1.1 Corrosion prevention
Copper alloys form the basis o f traditional condenser
tube and tubeplate materials, typical chemical composi-
tions of which are given in Tables 4.1 and 4.2.
Copper-based condenser tube alloys rely for their
corrosion resistance on the passivating action of a
protective film of corrosion product which forms when
the tubes enter service. Under conditions of turbulence
and excessive water velocity, this protective film can be
corroded/eroded from the tube surface, exposing the
bare unprotected surface and thus promoting further
attack. Such unfavourable conditions can occur in
condensers operating with high water velocities or
Condensers, puinps and cooling water
Environmeiital considerations

ions wbicli lead to air relcase (e) IlTirroi)uni~debrir.

i!lcatly increased local ivater velocities due to
cilce. For each material, tliel-e is a threshold if) M"sseiJouling.
velocity above wlriclr attack of this type will
( a ) General in?pinge,ricrir allack Inrpinge~nent attack
le breakdown velacitics for the
is characterised by an overall surface roughening
film O n brass and 70/30 cupso- slid horseslloe.sllaped undercut [he extent o f
5 re 2.5 m/s and 4 m/s respectively, compared
-
S 'i
G
z sign water velocities o f the order of 1.5 m/s.
which depends upon the extent of local turbulence
(Fig 4.7). The attack is aggravated by water con-
most common tube failure event is corrosion/ taining a high suspended.solid burden, as is the
5 ement attack, which develops case with condensers operating in con.
'Z0 'I v ses. These are dealt with under ditions ,,,llere lligh tidal rates are experienced, r h e
0 a lollowing headings:
i resistance t o impingement attack of conventional
(i<,neral irnpingemenl ulrack.
copper materials is illustrated in Fig 4.8. They all
Y exhibit a threshold water velocity value, and are
c
e$ c.,mz: liable to suffer from attack under conditions of
2 high water velocity.
(b) Inier end impingement urrack Inlet end attack is
Iron oxide scale.
s -5
a localised form of impingement attack associated
- - $
2
:..?
2 -
F9$2
.e z
.$ -
O O O Z : :

LOCAL IMPiNGEMENi ATTACK ON

ALUMINIUMBRASSIUBES

FIG.4.7 Condenser tube impingement attack

INCRChSING PROBP*IILI1Y
OF PRFMATURC FAILURE i N
SEAWATER (MP4NCIEMENI
ATTACH

NORMAI. W h i t " VELOCITY m - s

Fit. 4.8 ~'robabiibiyo r ii~ipinperneritattack in seawasel

with high inlet water velocities and air release. If impingement attack cannot be controlled EXAMPLESOF TUBE
PLUGGiNG
The attack has the same characteristics as general ventive maintenance, consideration can be g

suspended-solid burden. It has been suggested throat inserts (Fig 4.9). These are nylon inserts 1

lance of the material to impingement attack. the insert initially absorbs water and effectively
itself into the tube.
(c) Impingement arrack af iodgcddebris General debris Thelc is a 0,24 m,n feather on the
causes 11artial blockage of the condenser tubes
edge of the closely to the tu
and gives rise to high local water velocities of thc
to pl.event significant disturbance to the waleilio
Order Of m/s. This the threshold value Tests confirm that erosion problems from debris loci
for conventional copper alloys and causes severe
in these inserts are contained and cause no dama!?c !
highly localised impingement attack.
the tubes.
Tube failures caused by general debris can be
minimised by concentrating attention on removing
the source of the problem.
4.1.2 O t h e r copper-alloy t u b e failure mechanis
(d) Iron oxide scale This is produced from the cor- Other types o f copper-alloy tube failures can oc
rosion of carbon steel waterbox and CW pipe- and these are briefly reviewed under each of the
work components and is prevented by applying lowing headings:
cathodic protection or by protective coatings (see
Section 6.2.3 of this chapter). The oxide scale (a) Deposil nflock.
which forms as easily dislodged 'plate-like' sheets,
becomes lodged in the tubes and causes failures (b) corrosion.
due to highly localised impingement attack. (c) Stress corrosion cracking.
(e) General wolerborne debris This is produced from Corrosion ,ofigue, FIG.4.9 Condenser tube reduced lhioal inserts and rubc piugr
ineffective screening plant allowing shells, wood
and marine debris to pass, in addition to debris (e) Steamside ommonia corrosion.
from the culverts in the form of concrete spoil.
(f) Mussel fouling This is caused by ineffective (a) Deposit attack Deposit attack on condenser tuba
use of low level CW chlorination or bio-fouling occurs under conditions of stagnant or low watc
equipment. velocities, generally less than I m/s. Depositio~
Condensers, p u m p s a n d cooling water plant
o f iocil materials, such as sand and sill i,articics,
causes oxygen depiction at the particle-to-tube ma-
teriai interface, leading to diffeicntial aeration and
anodic dissoiution of the tube material. The pre-
sence of decomposing biological materials and pol-
luted water, particularly sulphide-containing water,
accelerates this type of attack. Deposit attack call
be experienced in both inland and coastal power
stations, particularly in Iocatiol~swhere polluted
waters are used.
By maintaining the cooling water velociiy in
the tube above I m/s and avoiding stagnant con-
ditions in aggressive media by flushing and peri-
odically refilling the condenser with town water
during shut down, major deposit attack may be
prevented. However, a permanent solution can be
achieved only by the selection of a more resistant
material. Such materials are the 70/30 and 90/10
cupro-nickels (of which the 90/10 is claimed to
have the better iesistance) and titanium. Titanium
offers the best solution, as it is immune to this
type of attack under normal condenser operating
FIG.4.10 Pitting resistance of titanium
conditions (Fig 4.10).
No1 spar co,7osiu,i 'l'liis rorm o f locali
Colrosiol7 occurs at 'hot spots' a n lllc
tube wall which can occur because of i
velocity and/or high heat fluxes. Thesc coil
can be caused by paor stcam distribinioii
absence of water on the cooling water sid (2,) 1.OCill Iligl, l",l,pela,,,les 01, i l l C ",,,side of iilbes
can lead 10 abl>or~iialirrapid currosioi?al coiieipondilip
tube. The cupro-nickel alloys are less resisl ipositi081~081 i l ~ eillside (cooliiig water ride) of tile tubes.
aluminium brass t o this typc of attack. !lo! Hot S I > O ~ ~oirobioiitakes the form o f a highly locatiscd
this form of attack is rarely experienced ' ~ i t t i i l gattack, a eliaracieristic feature being 11,;ti t l ~ cpiii
often coniain meialiie copper. he iilosiiatioii shows a
steam condensers as the steam side tern arclion illlougha pit filled witti s,elallic eopilez produced
are not high enough (Fig 4.11 (a)). by a iiol sliof attack in a copperf100lo >nickel alloy tube.
Problems can be exoerienced in the dullll~al#&im@$%j.
sections of the condenser or in sepalxic
steam condensers with high superheat, where
steal11 impingement o n the tubes occurs. l:el
in titanium tubing can provide a satisfacl<
tion or, alternatively, an engineering sol
avoid direct steam impingement such as re
of steam flow can be found: the introduciio
effective steam desuperheating is also con
t o be a satisfactory option.
(E) Failure of rubes by cracking can occur as a roruit of
the combined action stress and corrosion. In coriosion
corro~ioncracking and ~orrosianfatigue cracking in tubes
339
Condensers, gumps a n d cooling water piant
(c) S1res.s corrosion oockiiig Failure of colbdeiises
tribcs by cracking ondci the combined action or
tensile stress and corrosion has occurred in !he
pas1 owing to high residual tensile stresses inad-
vertently remaining from the tube making process.
However, with modern coadense~.tube production
practice, such failures are now uncommon (Fig
4.11 (b)).
Cracking can result from stress corrosion at
the tube-to-tubeplate expansion joints. The cracks
initiate at the edges of the expanded regions on
the CW side of the tube and propagate into the
tube wall under the influence of residual stresses
remaining from the 'rolling-in' operation. The cor-
rosive medium is suggested to be ammonia, formed
from the decarnposition of oiganic slime, and con-
centrated by evaporation during outages. Effective
media control such as washing with cleaih water
before prolonged outages or fitting protective sleeves,
appears to provide a solution to this problem.
- can occur
(d) Corrvsion .fati,eue
. Coirosion fatiaue
in any tube material and is caused by steam buf-
feting, or structure-borne vibrations, in association
with inadequate tube support. Generally, failure
occurs at midspan where tube thinning occurs due
to excessive movement and contact with adjacent
tubes (Fig 4.11 (c)). Additional support plates or
the fitting of antivibration damping equipment
solves this problem.
(e) Stearnside ammonia corrosion Aminonia corrosion
usually attacks brass alloy air cooler tubes in the
form of pits on the external tube surface, with
grooving at points adjacent to tubeplates and sup-
port plates [2]. Titanium and the capper-nickel
alloy tubes are highly resistant to this form of
attack and the problem can be solved by retubing
in an appropriate material.
4.1.3 Material selection
The need for a materials selection strategy has been
touched upon briefly in the consideration of CW qua-
lity. The objectives of such a strategy are to ensure
that the costs associated with leaking condenser tubes
are minimised throughout the life of the plant. This
can be established by studying the following technical
and economic considerations:
The estimated life of candidate tube materials from
test rig trials, manufacturer's literature, experience,
etc.
The predicted number o f outages and associated
costs.
The number of retubes required.
The capital costs of materials and retubing costs.
340
ei'fecls.
e Compatibility with other CW sysrein mateli;ilr,
Experience has indicared lilal studies of 11
yield materiais which initially appear to bc an
sivc choice, hut because of their inherent11 I
corrosion-resistant properties show a higher ccoi,<i~
return when plant availability and retubing cosls
taken into consideration.
Copper-based malerials
As previously illustrated in Fig 4.9, the copper-b
tube materials are liable to varying degrees
pingement attack, depending upon the operatin
ditions. Thcse matel.ials, however, can be o
employed providing that a good margin of
is maintained between operating conditions aoil
impingement attack threshold, and providin~!, I I
steamside corrosion conditions are satisfied. M'll
freedom from erosion or steamside corrosion ctizii
be assured, it is necessary to use a matcrial s~lclt
titanium.
Titonium
Over the past twenty years, work has progressed
tile development of titanium for use as a condcn
tube material. Its major attribute is a tenacious o
film, which rapidly repassivates if ruptured under
ma1 condenser operating conditions. Jet impingem
tests on both welded and seamless titanium tubing
water velocities of 10 m/s for 60 days have slio
the material to be immune to attack. Under tb
conditions, aluminium-brass and cupro-nickel tub
failed rapidly. Titanium tubing manufacturers (Imp
Metal Industries Ltd. [3)) quote impingement at
threshold values of 20 m/s in clear seawater ar
m/s in water with a high sand content. Thus, even
localised tube blockages where water velocities
rise to 6 m/s, the tubing retains its resistan
impingement attack, whereas this velocity woul
beyond the reliable range of the copper-based mat
(Fig 4.8).
The use of titanium tubing in condensers desigl
for conventional copper-based tubing materials, 11
ever, poses a problem of incompatibility between tu
tubeplate materials.
Couples of titanium and naval brass, and titanium a1
iron/steel have junction potentials of -288 mV nt
-660 mV respectively, in relation to a saturated cal
me1 electrode (SCE) [41. This creates the potential p
blem o f anodic attack of the tubcplate material wh
could lead to penetration of the tubeplate within
design life of 30 years. Where naval brass tubeplat
have to be used, such as in retubing situations, 111
practice has been to coat the tubeplate and waterbo
Tliertriai design
the iemperalilre diffei-encc between the turbinc ex-
isuiating against galvanic action. haust steam arid the cooling watci is as low as pos-
construction, tubeplates manilfaciiired sible if the bcnefils o f the Rankine cyclc ate to bc
realised, providing tlial the ~neclianics used are con-
iilotninium bronzes ASTM-BI71 Alloy D, and
M.lil7l Alloy E, have couple potentials with ti- sistent with previously discussed economics o f platit
bes of -215 IIIV (SCE) and -133 mV (SCE), optimisation.
ly. The co~.rosioilrates of aluminium bronzc
tes are therefore low enough to allow their use
IOIXI any protective coating. The waterboxes, how-
tile still protected with suitable coatings as in a
5.1 Theory
The condenser is the beat sink for steam power plant.
vice trials have been carried out at a number
The condensation process is accomplished by the
r stations, listed in Table 4.3, under various
transfer of heal from the steam exhausting from the
conditions ranging from the particularly
turbine to the water used for cooling. Steam is con-
sand-laden waters of Bristal Channel power
densed at substantially constant pressure and its heat
lo the pollutcd environment experienced by
content (enthalpy), which is given up, raises the tem-
de power stations.
perature of the cooling water as it flows through the
lowing the satisfactory performance of the ti-
tubes (Fig 4.12). Referring to Fig 4.13, which illus-
1111 tubes in these trials, two condensers were
trates a basic heat flow diagram, there are three factors
rllcil with titanium; one with seamless tubing and
which determine the enthalpy of the steam at the
ill, seam-welded tubing. Results from these
.
turbine exhaust:
onfirmed that the tube installation procedures
sequent service has been satisfactory.
The conditions and heat content of the steam leaving
11years ago, titanium was considered extremely
the boiler.
c and unlikely to become economic.
st constraint on the use of titanium tubing The efficiency of the turbine in converting this heat
.
bu minimised by a reduction in the required energy into work.
wall thickness, This, coupled with savings ex-
I lrom leak-free operation, establishes the use The selected heat sink temperature
anium as a n economic material for power sta-
z >ere aggressive attack is either experienced or
5.1.1 Heat rejected
result of the favourable in-service trials and Equating the total heat per kilogram o f steam leav-
~g economic competitiveness, titanium tubing ing the boiler 11, wit11 subsequent heat losses 11,. h b ,
h,, and the heat equivalent of turbine-generator work
I tittack of the condenser is considered possible. output h,v, then the heat at the turbine exhaust 11,
tests, which are carried out at new power can be represented by the equation:
oil sites prior to the ordering of titanium, confirm
I in all cases the corrosion resistance is good, and
1 no operating problems arc envisaged.
The heat flow rate rejected to the cooling water @,
is found from the equation:
Thermal design
c preceding sections outline the functional require-
of condensing and C W systems, and illustrate
ciivironmental studies into cooling water quality where q, = CW flowrate, kg/s
tiiken into consideration when choosing the geo-
lhical location of a new power station, and how
Added to this is any heat rejected by drains from
aspects, in turn, affect the economics of plant
feedheaters, etc., which may be discharged within the
4 ,hasis has been placed on the importance of condenser.
selection of materials in order to avoid un-
bly high availability a n d maintenance costs.
eration has also been given to the choice o f 5.1.2 H e a t t r a n s f e r
le and condensing plant arrangements. The heat is transferred to the cooling water across
Ihc objective of thermal design is to ensure that the condenser tubes (Fig 4.14).
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant

FIG. 4.12 Typical steam now pattern in a condenser

~nyheating or cooling process, the resistance to the outlet.

transfer determines the relative temperature of
nted and cooled fluids.
total resistance of the tube to heat transfer is
ned by the sum of:
. [he resistance of the condensate film on the
steamside of the condenser tube, m2 K/W
lhc tube metal resistance, m2 K/W
Wet steam enters the condenser and condenses
completely at a constant temperature t,K, as it passes
over the condenser tubes. These processes are re-
presented in Fig 4.16.
Consider an element of tube length dP where the
cooling water is at t, and the condensing fluid is at
t,. The temperature difference is (t, - 1,) = 8, and
a small amount of heat, dm, is transferred across
the element. From Newton's Law of cooling,

the waterside film resistance, m2 K/W

a = UA (t, - t,) (4.1)

and therefore
al resistance to heat transfer RT of the tube
d.P = (aD dP)U0 (4.2)

RT = R, + R, + R, m2 K/W
where D = mean diameter of tube.

overall heal transfer coefficient U, is inversely

The coolant increases in temperature dB, along element
ortional to RT therefore:
dl, and the heat received is

U = l / R T w/m2K
d+ = q,,c, dB, (4.3)

hmic mean femperature difference (LMTDJ

where q, = mass flow rate of coolant, kg/s
msider Fig 4.15 which represents a condenser. The
oiing water enters the condenser tubes at tempera- c, = specific heat of coolant, kJ/kgK
re t W l K ,and its temperature is raised to tW2K at do, = temperature increase of coolant, K
343
 -
I herinal design

B,, .. (L2 I )/Iiog,,(i\ I \$,i)/(I, iu2)1 (4.9)

TOTAL IIESISIANCL $3.
.....-.----4
O,,, is kno\!,n as lire Iogaiitl~mic mean tempeiatlll'e
differcncc (LMTD).

Finally, tire total surface area o f the tubes can be

capressed by

A = 4,/UO,,, (4.10)

where A = total mean surface aiea o f the tubes, n12

4, = rate of flow of heat, kW
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, w / m 2 K
O,,, := LMTD, K

5.2 Design codes. standards and

,:Our ,NcMlaiE nS,oE specifications
Dacunlents exist which are based a n the design theory
outlined above. They arc generally used as a guide in
CWI.ING WATER
establishing condenser size and design, Tile validity
of these documents is sufficient to ensure that coo-
CONDENSATE
EXTRACTION PUMP denser selections will meet specified performance. They
include:

The Heat Exchanger Institute (I-1EI) Standards for

- TOTAL HEAT OI STBAM LEAVING THE BOIiER

.
I>
-THE RADIAT~ONHEAT LOSS Steam Surface Condellsers [ 5 ] .
-THE BEARING HEAT LOSS AND MECHANICAL LOSSES
b, "4EGtNER"IORClASAND LiOUIOC001.FR HEAT LOSSES
nh,, H E A T ~ TTURBINE ix~nusr
T O T A L HEAT OF THE CONOENSATE FIG. 4.14 Ilea! tlal3riei reiisiancei vlld fillni The Brilisil Eiectricai and Aliied Manufacturers
n, .- ~ ~ a r ~ a u v a ~ t i r i o i r u nGsEi Nr Er R~~ O H ~ Y O R K O U T P U T
Association (BEAMA) publication 011 the Recom-
mended Practice for 1be Design of Surface Type
I'iC 4.13 Basic heal flow diagram Steam Condensing Plant [ 6 ] .
1/q,,c, = - O*)/Q.

These documents provide a comprehensive treatment

rce substituting into Equation (4.7), o f surface condenser perforlnance and describe levels
Let the incremental increase in fluid A temperature Substituting this in Equation (4.2),
of performance which can be obtained from well de-
dt, = dB, then substituting into Equation (4.3,
signed condensers.
dO/(l/q,,c,) = (aDdP)UO log, = aDPU(Ol - 82)/Q The objectives of thermal design procedures will
be reviewed in relation to the relevant codes and
dB = dQ/q,,,,c, (4.4) standards.
therefore d8/8 = a D U ( I / q , , , c , ) d P
icrefore 4, = aDPU (el - 82)/Yn(%i/82) (4.8)
Integrating Equation (4.4) between sections 1 and 2
5.2.1 HE1 Standards
(Fig 4.16), Integrating Equation (4.6) between sections I and 2
'3 = These standards [5] use four basic equations in sizing
rature condensers:
02 - 8 1 = @(i/qmwc,v) (4.5) log, O 1 / O 2 = sDPU (I/q,,c,) erence, Om, is given by
Mean temperature dgference The logarithmic mean
temperature difference is expressed as follows:
Also from Equation (4.4), (where P is the total length of the tube) 8, = (el - @2)/logn(@l/82)
t2 - t l - 8, (4.11)
8, =
d* = dO/(i/q,,c,) From Equation (4.5), nce O l = (I, - t w 1 )and 82 = (1, - t,",) 0 t -I -t log, (81102)
344 345
Condenseis, pumps and cooling water p l s i ~ t (
- ..
o.f/feot trc,,zsj>r'I'hc coefficicnl of ikal
>il%iniendedby l i l l is cnprcssed by rhr
U = F , F 2 F, C (I1)'?
C = correction factor for tubc diameler,
\J = tube water velocity, m/s
,,trier Equarion The Fourier equation for
tional heat transfer is used lo express the
lieai flow in terms of heat transfer surface
cacfficient of heal transfer and meari teni-
lii. difference and is written as follows:
q,,,L = AUO,,,
CONDENSATE
OUT
=
11,,>~ mass flow rate of condensed steam,
1. = specific latent heat, kJ/kg
linionce Equation This equation is usually
qmsL = q,,,,cor
<I,,,,, = mass flow rate of cooling water, kg/s
c = specific heat of cooling water kJ/kgK
In can be established for a given performance
ed on eight principal variables, which are:
111 heat transferred, which is a function of:
\4'cigi1t of steam to be considered.
i(i1tllalpy of steam less enthalpy of condensate.
lilili~aipyloss or gain of drains and make-up.
li$,oil1lestatic Steam pressure.
,111ing water flow rate.
Fio. 4.16 Graph of steanllwater cemperatuie vaiialion againsl lube Ienglh ,ling water inlet temperaturc.
6 Cooling water i~elocilythrough lobcs
(4.12) 7 Effective ileal transfer surfacc, which is a hinc
tion oi:
e Number of tubes.
e Tube length.
a Tube diameter.
9 Tube thickness.
0 Tube material.
e Number of cooling waler passes.
8 Service conditions:
r Tube cleanliness
(4.13)
r Air inleakage.
5.2.2 BEAMA design r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
The thermal design procedures set down in the BEAMA
design recommendations (61 are very similar to tilose
followed by the HEI, except differences occur in the
statements regarding tube cleanliness, and the correction
factor for cooling water temperature as applied to the
overall heat iransfer coefficient (Fig 4.11).
The curves for the BEAMA heat transfer coefficients
(4.14) are based on tubes in the brushed-clean condition and
include an allowance for the normai oxide film coat-
ings which are an inherent feature of any tube during
its operational iife, whereas the HE1 curves relate to
tubes in the clean, as-new condition. In addition, the
BEAMA curves for cooling water temperature cor-
rection are based on a mean temperature, and not on
tube inlet temperature as in the HE1 curves.
Taken collectively, these departures have very little
effect on any design, providing due recognition of
these differences is made.
5.2.3 CEGB specifications
Specifications for plant include a requirement for the
contractor to guarantee the thermal performance of
the condenser. The contractor is expected to guarantee
an absolute pressure at the turbine exhaust under the
conditions of design steam flow, minimum cooling water
quantity at the design cooling water inlet temperature
and with the tubes in the brushed-clean condition.
The temperature of condensate leaving the condenser
and the air suction temperature, with the design air
loading, are also guaranteed.
As a way of comparing how the design standards
produced by the HE1 and BEAMA reflect the level of
347
 HEATTRANSFER
COEFFICIENIkWlm'K 30

---- HEI RECOMMENDED

40- 0 HEAT TRANSFER
COEIIICIENI- IF3. 0.85)

- BEAMA RECOMMENDED
HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT-(BRUSHED
0 A TUBES1
0
BEST FIT CURVE

DES~ONCORRECT~ON
FACIOR

0
A
A
0 v
A
8.8..

I
20
VELOCITY THROVGW IUBES -mb

.GI' 4.17 Graphs indicating differences in assum~tionnmadc by HE, 151 and BE^^^ ,61 design documents
FIG. 4.18 Typical condenser test results or ])eat transfer coefficient plotted vetocity in

349
Co~?densew,piimps atid cooling water plant
h4oi-c ieccntly, hovievci. caicuialed v;il,ies of heal
translei- coefficieni, based oii laboratol-y measuremalts
or sleaoi and waterside coeiiicieo!~, iodicatc that con-
denser performances bclter Illan those prcdictcd by
present design codes, i.e., liE1 151 or REAMA (61.
sllould be possiblc ivitli carcfol attention lo the tube-
nesl geometry.
5.3 Influence of t u b e p l a t e and t u b e n e s t
g e o m e t r y on t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e
It has been shown that the HE1 and BEAMA docu-
ments give recomtneitdaiions for the design of water-
cooled surface type condensing plant, and describe the
levels of performance which can be achieved. However,
ooiissioos on the separate treatment of tubcplate
geometry and tubenest ventilation arrangements make
it difficult to use this data when calculating new designs
which have tubenests and venting systems differing
from those for which the empirical dependence was
obtained.
Two methods of design evaluation can be applied
in the assessment of tubeplate geometries; there is
thc general subjective treatment, which involves cval-
ualing the total pressure within the steam space and
tubenest, and there is more recently the rigorous
mathematical analysis using computer-aided numerical
solutions whicl~solve the heat and mass transfer equa-
tions for individual tubenests.
Each method is discussed in turn, the general prin-
ciples Of tubenest arrangement are outlined, and their
practical application illustrated by reference to large
condensers designed over the last IS years.
5.3.1 Subjective design evaluation
'The tubenest geometry and its dispositioi~relative to
the turbine exhaust have a considerable effect on
the distribution of steam over individual groups of
tubes which, in turn, influences local heat transfer
rates, and tubenest ventilation. More perhaps than
any other feature of large condensers, tubeplate and
tubenest arrangements may differ considerably between
one design and another. This can be seen from the
many arrangements employed on the 500 MW series,
Fig 4.19. Each manufacturer of condensing plant ar-
rives at his own solution independently. This high-
lights a point which emerges from exoerience. that
tubenest arrangements which are apparently quite dif-
ferent can be of equally good performance, orovidina
that proper attention is paid t i a number df general
principles.
External conslrainls
In designing the tubenest arrangement, a number of
external influences and constraints have to be taken
into account. The main external constraint has already
side-mounled and underslu~igcondenser dis~lohi
which depcnds lnainly a11 turbine design aiicl ii
l ~ y o u tlacion. Other factors which are also ipcji
fixed at an early stage, without special i
tubenest arrangement, include the condenser
interaction with the turbine support structore, < I,
ing floor height above basement, overall turI>ili
dimensions, CW flow direction, number oi 1111
and the condenser alignment (i.e., axial or trans"
In addition, before the tubenest arrangcnm
developed in detail, the main performance ciitwn
islics of the condenser must be agreed, folio
optinlisation studies as mentioned in Sectioii
this chapter. The main parameters settled at tl,i
are:
Design heat load.
Design CW inlet temperature.
Design CW flow.
Desigrr condenser pressure.
Total surface area.
Tube length.
Tube outside diameters, wall thickness, and m
EXHhUST STEAM
Number of tubes. CONDENSER
CW velocity in tubes
Apart from the performance parameters, the lyii
tube/tubeplate fixing will have been decided, i\I,
. . . . .
In tuln aetermlnes the mnurnurn pltch o f the IlllrM
~
-p
(Section 6 of this chapter), and also design val
the amount of air entering the coltdenser in th
will have been established.
Preliminary considerafions of fubenesl arrungn?irrrf
A number of decisions relevant to tubenest arrangcnr
can be taken at this stage:
extent to which the total number of tubes may
subdivided into separate banks, each associated u
its own tubeplates and waterboxes, air extract
points and cooling waterside isolation. It is coniln
nowadays t o restrlct the number of tubes supplld $@
from any waterbox t o around SGQO, which has b
found through experience t o be a number which d
not inconvenience on-load Leak searching or I U
cleaning. Flo. 4.19 Typical lubenesl eonfibuialionr for 5W M W condensing plant
Subdivision of banks Consideration may also
given to subdividing the individual banks into 1,s
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
or lilorc sub-banks, eacll wit11 its own air extractialr
point (Fig 4.19 (b)).
Cor~zparrme~~tal~sirriow of the condenser. Steani fl.om
each LP turbine can be condensed in two or three
separate compartments, which are baffled from each
other on the steamside and operate at different back
pressul.es, the lowest being at the end corresponding
to the CW inlet. An alternative to this arrangement
is tlie 'opposed flow' concept whereby the CW flow
is in one direction in half the banks, and in the op-
posite direction in the remainder. This avoids the
need for large-scale axial redistributiori of steam within
the condenser, towards the CW inlet end.
Detailed corrsiderations of tubenest arrorrgernent
As a first stage in tubenest design, it is necessary to
choose a basic concept. The two main features by
which the various possible concepts can be mast easily
characterised are the steam flow approach pattern
to the tubenest and the disposition of the air cooling
s~ction:
The steam flow approach pattern to the rubenest The
steam may enter the tubenest from just one direction,
i.e., from the turbine exhaust, or it may be allowed
to pass around the nest and enter it from all sides.
Figure 4.19 (c) clearly indicates that, for side-mounted
condensers, a unidirectional steam approach has al-
ways been the natural choice, since the face area of
the tubenest is fairly large. However, Fig 4.19 (b)
indicates how underslung condensers have a small face
area to a unidirectional steam approach, and a more
common arrangement is for a substantial percentage
of the steam to be allowed to pass round one or both
sides of the nest, thereby increasing the face area over
which the steam finally enters.
The disposition of the air cooling section In most
condensers.the air cooling section is a block of tubes
located between the main condensing section and the
air extraction point (or points), representing some
10% of the total number of tubes (Fig 4.19 (a)). In
other condensers, however, the air cooling section is
arranged adjacent t o the CW inlet tubeplate, and con-
sists not of separate tubes. but of the cold ends of all
the tubes. The steam must travel axially along the con-
denser to reach the air cooling section, and this type of
condenser requires design in three dimensions.
Causes of poor condenser performance
There are a number of possible reasons for poor con-
denser performance, the main parameters being:
High pressure drop in the tubenest.
352
Thermal design
tive usc of the incidcnt velocity of the apli
steam.
c Air blanketing and slognation in the tiib,~iir~ii,
Inundation of tubes by condensate, and (18
ing of condensate.
Three-di,nensiorlal efjccts.
The main options open to the designer will iio
discussed briefly in relation to the various c;iil
poor performancc listed above:
High pressure drop in the tubenest This is i n
concerned with tlie pressure drop in the main
densing section of the tubenest. Once the incoi
sable gases and residual steam have reached 111
cooling section, it might be assumed that tlic
metric flow is small, and that the pressure illal
therefore no longer a significant problem. This
ever can be a dangerous assumption (Fig 4.19 (I
High pressure drop before the tubenest Th
of large condenser design originally tended to
little attention, though its significance is nowz
recognised. If high velocity steam entering the
denser is not travelling naturally in the direcliot
E X H W S T STEAM
which the designer would like it to go, the ef
pressure drop caused by forcing it to turn in ti
ferent direction may be substantial. Figure 4.20 ah
how one condenser designer has developed his i r
nest layout to improve the use of the incident vela
in the steam. This problem is more apparcui
underslung condensers than side-mounted or into
condensers. Conversely, due to irregularities
velocity profile of the approaching steam, the p
drop through the condensing section of the tubet~
should not be too low. A moderate pressure
helps to redistribute the steam flow beneficially
prevent high velocity jets of steam penetrating stra
through into the air cooling section.
Air blanketing and stagnation in the tubenest S
air is a poor conductor of heat, it is essentia
ventilate the tubenest adequately if a thermal
formance, close to theoretical, is going to be achie
Some air blanketing in the air cooling section is
ceptable, but good ventilation will ensure that blan
ing is minimised within the main condensing secti
Briefly, the main function of the air cooling sect
apart from cooling the vapour/air mixture passing
the air extraction equipment, is to ensure that 11
condensing section is properly ventilated. Therefo
the total pressure drop between the turbine exha FIG. 4.20 Compari~onof rubencsi designs lo improve use of the incident velo~ityof ,he steam
 Condensers, pumps a n d cooling wale1 ~18111
anrl the condenser air eatractioii poiiii caii bc envi-
saged as being divided inlo lw'o pails; one across
tlic main condensing seclio~l,ilir othci ;!cross the air
cooling section. Tliis C O I I C ~ I )is
~ ~ ~ i i ~ l ~ l i c by
a t e1111.cc..
d therefore inherently small.
dimeitsional effects whicl? ate discussed later, but arc
llle basis of I\vo imgo~.taiil gelieral principles (see
Fig 4.21):
a The resistance l o steam flou, along all actual flow
paths between the turbine exhaust and the entry
to the air cooling section should be equal. Wig11
resistance paths tend to cause stagnation, resulting
in the poor thermal performance of associated
tubes.
e There should be no major routes whereby steam can
reach the air cooling section directly, without first
passing through the main condensing section. If
this occurs, it may become impossible to maintail1
a satisfactory pressure difference across the con-
densing section and it will tend to stagnate as a
whole. Also the air cooling section will become
overloaded with steam, and will itself manifest a
high plessui-e drop.
Inundorion of lubes This is a problem which is
directly related to the number of tubes in the tube-
nest. Reduce the number of tubes in each bank
(particularly in the vertical plane) and inundation
is reduced.
An alternative is to place collecting trays at key
positions within the tubenest which will catch the
condensate and divert it directly into the bottom of
the condenser (condenser hotwell) through a system
of gutters.
Condensate drainage can cause ondersooling. AI-
though this is not generally a serious problem, it can
be avoided by allowing a small amount o f steam to
enter below tlte tubenest to reheat the condensate
before it finally falls into the condenser hotwell.
'Three-dimensional' eflecrs These effects have a sig-
nificant detrimental effect on the performance of
large condensers. The problem arises from the fact
that, theoretically, the amount of steam which con-
denses at the cold end of the condenser is greater
than the amount which condenses at the hot end.
However, in practice this frequently cannot exist, be-
cause it requires that the pressure drop through the
tubenest should be greater at the cold end than at
the hot end, and this is not possible if the air ex-
traction point pressures are the same at both the
cold end and the hot end.
Although this phenomenon is sometimes accepted
as a fundamental factor in condenser performance,
various measures can be taken to minimise its effect:
354
1 liiiellv mentioned, this is a variation where thc
PLATE
la)eeforemodlllcaton
TUBES REMOVED TO FORM
NEW AIR SUCTION PASSAGES
TUBES REMWBO TO FORM (ORIGINAL SUCTlON PASSAGLA
NEWSTEMLANE BLANK50 OFF)
,PI Alter modillml,m
FIG. 4.21 Ailernalivearrangements roi
steam-nor/iiii.
suction in undcnlung condensers
Use of a /ow CW temperalure rise, and avo1
of close approach between CW outlet tempt
lemperaioie. I'liis jnicaiis 111e diSScvclice
liiili
the tl~eoiclicaicold and 1101 end perSor.m-
iidcnser is divided up into two or three corn-
tnxnts, one corresponding to cach double-flow
turbine, the total C\?' temperature rise is,
eicfore, divided into a number of separate steps.
s compartments operate at different
to achieve balance in tlte air extraction
usual to connect the air pumps directly
end compartment, and then allow the
artments to vent into the ail. suction
II~.via restriction orifices.
of iiiree-di,nmsioria/ design Figure 4.22 shows
i examole of the use of three-dimensional air
>lingsections.
1, addition, 'disc' baffles can be installed in the
AIR COOLING
SECTlON - (li1i1, i lrai axial passage. Steam which is flowing axial-
f~.om the hot end of the condenser is forced
ti-li into the tubebank, thereby increasing the
ce o f the steam flow path froin the ho;end,
lping to achieve correct balance of pressure
n 10 of this chapter, looks at the position
nctional requirements of the air cooling sec-
1011 in more detail, and describes its influence on
lii: design of the air extraction equipment.
C o m p u t e r a s s i s t e d design evaluation
nd and more recent design evaluation meth-
computer techniques to assess the perform-
steam condensers. The computer program
$tl;ites the fluid flow, heat transfer and air con-
lion processes locally through the condenser.
the interaction of these processes is very com-
Ihe program begins by representing the con-
s a series o f parallel slices perpendicular to
flow. Each slice is divided Into a number o f
fro1 volumes so as to represent both the tubenest
I i11c steam access lanes. The program first finds
cam flow pattern, and calculates the local con-
lion rates starting at the CW inlet. T h e laws
servation of mass, momentum and energy are
to each cot~trolvolume to produce a large
I- o f , simultaneous equations for each slice.
program also calculates whether air pockets exist
ic tubenest, and identifies where they will form.
sizes of the air pockets are determined by the
at the air vent points - the higher the vent
re, the larger the air pockets. From the solu-
1 the condenser vacuum can be predicted for given
:a of steam flow, air leakage, condenser surface
coiifigui-ation, arid coaling water flow, togetllei with tiit.
CW inlei lemperaturc.
For a more detailed understanding of llic c o w
poiei lcchniques currently being iesearched, the reader
should refer to a paper presented at tile International
Symposiuni on Condensen: Theory and Practice 181.
6 Mechanical design
6.1 Introduction
Present day power station steam turbines require very
large condensers: the basic problems are those asso-
ciated with translating conceptual ideas into func-
tional mechanical designs. As already discussed in
previous sections, the disposition o f condensers has
largely been influenced by the generic development
of turbines. This has made it impractical to specify
a unique set of design rules which will complelelp
cover thc diversity in constructional desians.
. How-
ever, there arc many features common to all designs,
and thcse will bc discussed in detail with reference,
where applicable, to relevant design codes, standards
and specifications.
6.2 Constructional development
The main areas of mechanical design are discussed
under three main headings, these are:
Construction materials
r Design forces and stresses
Methods of manufacture and construction
6.2.1 Construction materials
The constructiotl materials may be conveniently di-
vided into those used in contact with the steam, and
those used in contact with the cooling water. Gen-
erally, plate materials, hollows and bars comply with
BS4360: 1972 [9] and BSISOI: 1964 [IO].
Details of materials for components, such as con-
denser tubes and tubeplates which are in contact with
the cooling water, are thoroughly discussed in Section
4 o f this chapter. In addition, a n interface clearly
exists between selection of tube material and struc-
tural design. It is important, therefore, to select these
materials early in the design stage in order that tube
support arrangements and the effects on structural
stiffness may be finalised.
On conventional power stations, condensing plant
components which are in contact with steam are nor-
355

-.
iii;iliy co!lstriiclctl froin eitlici reirrous or inon-Scrious
,ii;iiel-isis. Recent specification:, for a Prcssulised Water
ilractor (I'W11) power statioll have indicated tliat
~ioi~-ferrousinictals sliould not be useri, since the
Iwild-up of deposits fro111 con-osionlerosioo effects
ii~sociatedwith non-ferrous materials, could be passed
ihiough the feedheating plant, and jeopai-dise thc
iilvel-ted tube bundle of the stearn generator, The
atearn generator, unlike conventional boilers, has much
Eleater restrictions on the frequency of biowdown
Design forces and s t r e s s e s
main forces acting on condensers are shown in
.23 for vatious condenser configurations.
i 120 MW rating and above have always been shop
d I \, = force due to coohng watei static load~ng,N
1.1 = reaction force on turbine exhaust flange, N
= Sc = reaction force on condenser foundation
steelwork, N
I.$\\ = reaction force due to static and dynamic
loadings from flawing cooling water, N
I = Stc = reaction force on titl.bine/condenser
foundation steeiwoi.k, N
1: = reaction force due to springs, N
= force on waterbox support, N
c = mass of condenser, N
I = mass of LP turbine, N
to = combined mass of LP turbine/condenser
w = mass of waterboxes
n be seen from Fig 4.23, the largest single force
ultimately affects the design of the condenser
is that which results from the vacuum, Fv. Ln
on to the forces illustrated in Fig 4.23, there
external loads which are also taken into coil-
P,Ci 4 22 ,,,,derlluns condenser for 660 MW unlt ehowing three-dimenclonal ax cooltng secuons
Mechanical design
sideration. These include Forces resuitirig fzom \,ariaus
connections, such as CW cannectionr to the water-
boxes, and operational loads of the condenser struc-
ture which must be considered when designing the
LP turbine inountings and supi?ort foundations. Thesc
latter loads are of particular importance in the design
of integral and side-mounted condensers, where struc-
tural stability is necessary to secure turbine alignn~ent.
Design stresses for the structures a1.e given in BS1501:
1964 [lo]. In practice, however, these stress levels are
rarely realised, since the plate thicknesses are usually
optimised well within the limits OF stress to satisfy
minimum deflection criteria, and to conlply with the
economics of manufacture.
6.2.3 Methods of manufacture and construction
The methods used in the manufacture and assembly
of large condensers arc outlined, and the factors
influencing the extent of manufacture carried out at
works and site are discussed.
Traditionally, condensers for British turbines of
manufactured as a multitude of components which
are transported to site for final assembly and tubing.
As already highlighted in Section 3 of this chapter,
however, economic considerations have recently led t o
a preferred arrangement in which each LP turbine is
combined with its own transversely-tubed underslung
condenser. This has allowed the development of a
modular condenser design so that one, two or three
modules can be combined to cover a large range of
possible turbinc ratings. This modular concept has
a high attraction for turbine manufacturers, parti.
cularly where they are competing in world markets.
Now, before dispatch from the works, the condenser
shell sections, tubeplates, Support plates, baffles and
waterboxes are temporarily assembled and carefully
aligned so that final welding of the shell sections can
proceed rapidly and efficiently in the power station
prior to tubing.
There are a number of advantages to be gained
from maximum fabrication and assembly of condensers
at the manufacturer's works:
8 It enables fabrication and erection to be carried
out in favourable environmental conditions, with
ready access to specialised machinery, welding, fitting,
inspection and test facilities.
It provides a location where there is a high density
o i skilled labour and supervision in the various
disciplines.
Conflicting requirements between contractors for
space, access, cranage, etc., d o not exist. These can
lead to reduced productivity which is detrimental to
the overall station construction programme.
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<13Ilil!!i(J 47 aqi 3u!tu1od1oso! ainisnirs a3p!iq J.J!IS j o poqisar ielnpoiii E ps~s!.i~saraxio L[J!LI,-
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 a.
Condensrrs. ~puiiipsand cool~tigwarpi plant Clidp~~
4 2 Mechanical des~gri
- 4 -
 Condensers, gumps and cooling warer plant
Wo'orerho.x~c
1)cpending on tlic nii11,bcr 01' lpasses, Iransversc
ii~lde~sluog colldcilrers ma). have inlet, ootlet and re..
tuiii waterboxn. In every case the waterbox dio~ensions
ate sufficiem lo allow easy access for. ins;~ection via
bolted and hingcd maniioie covers. The major design
objectiucs to be realised in their construction, in ad-
dition lo acccss, are those of pressure and vacuum
loading, and support.
The static and dynamic forces generated by tile
flowing cooling water are taken by the waterbox struc-
ture (Fig. 4.23), which is shaped to promote a smooth
flow of water through the tubcplate and tubes, and
prevent erosion at the inlet. Flange rotation is pre-
vented by selecting plate sizes of adequate stiffness
or, alternatively, the pidtes are stiffened by external
reinforcement, usually in the fornl of ribs.
The waterhox flanges are jig or template drilled to
ensure matching with tile tubeplate and shell flange.
Earlier waterboxes were generally protected against
corrosion in service by cathodic protection, with pro-
tectlon bosses provided to receive anodes. It is now
normal practice to offer protection against iron oxide
scale by means of a rubberised coat, applied to grit-
blasted surfaces pi;or to dispatch ta site.
Condenser shell
The condenser shell forms the boundary of the steam
envelope. The structure comprises a flool, two side-
wails, and end plates with provision for expansion
and location of tubeplates. The build-up of a con-
denser sllell varies between manufacturers. British
experience has shown, however, that the various
manufacturing practices produce end products which
are compa~ablein quality, cost and construction time.
The sections making up the condenser shell are
invariably built up from steel plates welded together,
the only exception to this being the tubeplate attach-
ment, which is arranged for bolting or studding to
shell and flanges. The shell is sometimes stiffelled for
vacuum and structural loadit~gby separate stiffening
members, but more generally the necessary support
is provided by welding the intermediate tube support
plates direct to the shell. After welding, all shell
envelope and major structural welds are crack-detected.
using magnetic particle non-destructive testing or an
equivalent clleck.
Tubenests
The design and layout of tubenests is extensively
covered in Section 5 of this chapter, which empha-
sises how the disposition of the tubes within the shell
is the heart of any condenser design. The present
tubenest arrangement consists of an upper and lower
tubenest, each taking the form of a 'folded band'
of tubes (Fig 4.20 (b)). This design draws not only
on the experience gained during many years of manu-
362
Mechanical design
1'aclnrc o i condenscl.s, hui also oil kiioivlcdgc i is puuely onc of cconomy; porting striictiiic for the plate. Leak-tight slidiilg
iioni inodci tests and fso,ii tests on otliei 1:iiy lready mentiained, it is a icquireolent joiilts are used to compensate for expansion. Vaiiolis
denseis ill Britain, and oreiseas. us makeiiais arc noi to be used for tlle inethods may be used in combinatiori to providc
Clean conditions arc established within the coiiili design. Boll hole drilling ai' cl~al-acteristicsconsistent with tlie design requiremenls
ser shell prior to cominalcemeri! of tubing. ate is carried out either by a jig or template and specific service conditions. Details of configura-
is u s ~ a l i )started
~ at lhc bottom rows, worki iuc ~niatchingwith the %,aterbon and shell flange tions commonly used on large condensers are shown
giessively upwa1.d~.When the bottoni io\vs on Fig 4.27. Figure 4.27 (a) sllows a typical double
plele, it is ~~ossible to remove personnel as tl inner stecl tubeplate and lubeplate arrangement, using a combination of the
tlleil act as supporting &"ides when inserling suhvtji~, ndensei- shell is crucial and requires t articular lined and sliding joint, the inner and ourer tubeplates
rows of tubes. Guide bullets in tlie leading end 01' I it cannot be easily renewed once tubing is being of the same material. This design was extensively
tube greatly assist the tubing operation. Figure 4.26 shows a typical detail of a used on the 500 MW condensing plant.
d flange joint. This joint is sealed with a Figure 4.27 (b) shows another typical double tobe-
roofed fibre cloth and cord-filled dumb-bell plate arrangement, using rolled fixings at each joint;
Tubeplaies
ch is manufactured in one piece. The bolt the tubeplates arc o f dissimilar metals, hence the need
The provision for double tubeplates has been mandti jointed up with a water test for the wide interspace gap to accommodate bending
for UK power station contracts over the past ye81 id a drilling from the hydraulic connection niovements and to reduce shear stress in the tubes.
eliminate any possibility of cooling water enterinp I lbeplate periphery breaks into this groove, This is the method proposed for the PWR design.
steam space of the condenser. Each tubepiate in1 the joint to be hydraulically tested prior lo Figure 4.27 (c) shows a double tubeplatc arrange-
space is drained to a low level drain vessel ivhicli Access for tubeplate inspection may be gained ment of similar design t o Fig 4.27 (b), but here tlle
niaintained at the condenser absolute press, ilic waterbox, which is fitted after all tube fixillgs tubeplates are of similar materials and the need for
means of a connection to the ail- pump suction lin ~npiete.Aftzr completc erection, when all tube the wide interspace gap is eased.
equalisation of pressure on either side of thc it11 invc been expanded and packed, tile space be- Figure 4.27 (d) shows a typical doublc tubeplate ar-
tubeplate ensures that no leakagc occurs across. i ilie tubeplates is filled with a fluorescent solution rangement, using a combination of fixed and sliding
Therefore, any leakage into the interspace will I l~ressure,and the tubeplates examined from both joints, with dissimilar tnetals for the inner and outer
~inilerultraviolet light to prove the absence of plates, as used on the more recent Heysham 2 and
interspace can be hydvaulically tested to a pr Tortless power station designs.
of 0.7 bar during maintenance overhaul via 2 Each of the above arrangements has been employed
water connections on the tubeplate periphery. A successfully. Typical tube sizes are 25.4 mm OD and
is fitted at the top of the tubepiate interspaw 1.2 mm wall thickness; tubeplatc materials are mild
ensure that it is full of water. iclhod selected for securing tubes to the tube- steel and rolled naval brass, Muntr metal or aluminum
The formulae and rules governing tbe sizing l,l-ovides leak-tightness and strength as a sup- bronze for the outer plates (see Table 4.2). Titanium
tubeplates have been based on the following stantlar
and codes which have been progressively amended I
line with tubeplate developments:
EXPANSION
SINGLE BELLOWS
CONVOLUTION
BSI500 [Ill.
,
BS1515 Parts I and 2 (12).
TEMA Standards: Tubular Exchanger Manufaot
Association Standards, Fourth Edition 1959,
Edition 1968 (131.
ASME VIIl Standards: American Society of
chanical Engineers - Boiler and Pressure V
Code Section 8, Divisions 1 and 2 (141.
The wider use of computer techniques in the desi
of tubeplates is presently being researched. An
ample which has been used is a beam element prog
which is based on the theory of beams o n elasti
foundations, and analyses the effects of pressu
edge loading from the waterboxes.
The methods of manufacturing of the tube
vary. The steel (inner) tubeplate is often drille
and used as the jig for drilling the non-ferrous (outer
tubeplate. Sometimes, however, inner and outer tuba
plates are drilled together, even where they are o
dissimilar materials, to ensure accurate tube-1101
matching between the two tubeplates. The reasott f o Fio. 4.26 Dmaiis of beliars and flange joinis
 Cli Mechanical desigi~
Condensers, pumps and coolinil water llialll

liirs of 25.4 null 01) acd 0.7 mni ivall tliickncss

k e n fixcd successfully into a sii~iilaiconfigurn-
lo that sho~rsnin Fit 4.27 lril r-l
I I . ' , I... .. I . . i l ' r ;)I.i51... I . . . . . I . . ill.?,,,
(I,, :1c.,2,1 :'.:c'..t : . , , I . .\,r. I . , . , ! I :,:: .:
. . I : . I : 1 . 1 ,>IJln< \ ' : . : ~ ; t l .
II 8 > : ' n . ~ u ( 1 8 . lc..tll~.t, : ,I ,.I),: , I.!,!
.... e I.,,,, ' 1 ) ~.a!. ~ I). I C ....~ ) , I I . I ~ I . \ . x L ?1,.. . .
1 ,' I J l 11). 1 1 1 ! ) ~ ( 1 I ~ x l (ill[:\\
~ \,!..: L>II.c> I J : i l . >:
- t,.,! ~.lll:r. l ~ , > S C ~ !~l . !Cl C~! ~ l . ~ ,,,.I l , ~ , , , ; , , , , 2,

:I I I , .<a,. L h ..,J\>I>Ic.'
l 4 ~ l ~ ' ~ ~1, ~:d'tlcJ ~ ~ nJu' ~ l3, Jrl,?~ ),..I:,. <.lJ l!,t:c[
. u I , . l 1 t l ~ !:rat, u > l n d . I ~ : t l l . h l . ~ . : ~ ~llc,!
~ ~ ~1 >!I:! .\
ta,v$,l l',~r:~:-l.~c a v \ \ :?.ken 11. ~ c I I ! ~ . ~ ! '.!.
1-1. I: eil.olr. '11;' o \ ~ I . < ~ A P : , o , .IJ.),)I
.I. s ! . J rhe
MlLDSTEEi MILO STEEL
$ 4 ' l..l~:~,l,tc ) < > L > 0 < 2 , . o:.", 0,. ..,".,,l~l,.~,,
BRhSSOUIER INNER iNNER BRASS OUTLR 8 8 I .I t u l ~ c p l ~ l :: (~
I . , l l l ! < l .,.d ,,-,L, ,,l$.,,.d'~
'(I ~'.~.t.cd.>r c\t'.,nJvd d ~ i db:llc! . I , ;$pl,t>
. , . 8 1 1 . 1 :.J:L~,,:< i J < ,.!k,>,,~Ic~ v,,c ., >,,,.,la,
, . ' 111. I . I > L ~ 3 r c 11:I h.ll~tl I U I . I I I ~ I : I U I C I ~
'.I . . I. . . t V ~x:>.~rluir..~! ~>dttc!r:,I , : ,.:I: ~111.1 ? I . ~ (
I ~ ~ . l l ~ ~ . l ?~t~cr!2n:c,
".~l c,o,, :\<,, 6 \ , , C I < ' . L ,
. , I .r.:: :< ,~l!,':l)\ <%d,)~ltcJ I ~ O
I I J Lt ~~ , Ij : I I : . I I H , .
Fit; 4.28 Turbine l a condcascr joint (for underslung
coiidesseirl
, . . .I . , ! : ,. .XI 'I. c ,l,'l., c,,a

8 . , t \,,,,:< ,,,, l
purposes. They support the tubes in order to control
. . I ,.,..I !uhc I I I ' ~ I ~ I I ~ III:~,I:~I
I ~ . x t ~ 3 1 . \ 1 d :+
n vibration, and provide means for bowing the tubes
". ~ v ..,I~ ~ oc InjdrkcJl! d ~ i t e r c n t . :\:cpl ~ I L W to assist drainage. Also, they provide a convenient
. . .1*t0.881 I I arc I C~llc:tl\el). ,u:rlcr rn,rmJl method of reinforcing the sheli against the external
8 -1818 . . I ! ~ I IL ,C 1 u l a 1 I ! 5111 pressure forces.
. ,,1 . : I c r a l o t . S I C 1511 The spacing of support plates is controlled by the
1
.,I.,. td~lurcd! thc Iul>c 1.21n1.'Tw ~ : I I ~ . I -criteria governing tube vibration, but usually the maxi-
a . , > I lb:r~%ecn41ell JLICI ! L ~ C *<I!. I . I ! & ~ mum dimension does not exceed 60 tube diameters.
1 I 1 .l:,l~:, .at1 I>: <>< Ih,&l, LC 22 .#.,,. \ With the intl.oduction of titanium tubing, tilt spacing
. ., ').at; t:\ir.; ilTllllldCII~C111\itnilsl I., 111. 4 2 - can be as low as 35 lube diameters which satisfies
8 m. ,, 11 \ ~,:x:kcJ gl.it~d J , > L , I I , , 3lm; U . I O the criteria of freedom from fundamental frequency
I . < . I . c~;,nllneJa, i ( , o s , ~ b . ~ j~lrri,t,n I., vibration from both machine and steam-flow-induced
' ust, t.11:;111 prdb1''m. bt.1 lans bccll .ibalidonc2 sources.
. I . , ' . t!n!clihbilil>. l h u praai:ai s o l u t ~ d , ~ Where support plates are used as inherent stiffness
,5( .. 1 . . t '11) o $ r the uac of ehpan,t,r b c l l o , ~ ~ members for sheli reinforcement, the plate strength
,$.
;
' iti
j. 1.8
8
.-I1.
. t 1,s.,~I.I.~~t~tl.ln
tttb:plate 1 1 r i ~ rat one cnJ. ~u,ilsll)
typci . <l-iL; 4.26,. and attachments receive consideration as edge-loaded
MlLOSTEEL MlLO STEEL BRASSOUTER s, perforated diaphragms and are stiffened to avoid
BRASSOUTER iNNER
buckline, if required. The plate thicknesses can vary
from 16 mm to 38 mm, depending on the design cri-
PACKEOGUNDS
PACKED GLANIIS
/ I ,,,,,,,< 101, ,I
teria. The tube hole drilling is carried out by multi-
, J I I I I . I C I ~ ~ I . I I L ?: ~ n d c ~ ~ r ci,' r atta:llcd 13 the spindle numerically-controlled drilling machines, and
.*., - '\84,,!, 1,
: *.
, e
,,l,l.t,& it is common practice to 'stack drill' up to seven
, .'. w..! ~ c t d i a sl~ostni n Pii! J . 2 ; l h h is support plates at a time.
.*;, B .:~vrt, .% 3
1.1 . Ir.,tl ucld. srslded t r o n l [he insldc, \ r l t l l
'*?.
...I.., s. ,.'.IN,. m,.,., In$ ,lril'. Aflcr .'Jnlpletion, the aeld I,
. ,**!:11. , # * . I . . ..111, .~;l;k-dcrcaed for soundrlel,. Branches, connections and reinforcetner~f
,.'$
.. '.', 112.8. I. I . O I I , ~ V I I > C ~ >3rc b o l t e d 10 tne turbine Ordinarily, reinforcement may be dispensed with be-
'".s . . I I , ! $ . I llc\~blc~ C I I J W S j ~ ~ n l , . cause plate thicknesses are in excess of those that
;j2$ require compensation. Details of any opening or branch
,.,.
I a
connection to the shell which requires compensation
and reinforcement must comply with the standards
Pm. 4.27 Tubc.to.tubeplate fixing arrangements for large condensers set out in BS1500 [Ill.
 Condensers, pumps and cooling water plani
Nydr-uuiic zests
Theit arc mandatory requirements far hydraulic tests
on the components of tlie condensing piant, and these
are suinmaiised in Table 4.4.
I Waterboxes / 4.1 (liydrauiic)
I Pumps, gipci.orli
a i d ralvcr
1.5 times ma*. woiking
pressare
6.3 Protection and cleanliness of condensers
During plant manufacture, storage, transport to site
and site erection, special precautions are taken to
ensure that all plant items remain clean and reasonably
protected. To achieve this, condenser internal surfaces
are usually grit-blasted at the works and a temporary
protective coating applied, i.e., a type of coating which
does not require to be removed prior to the unit enter-
ing service. Tube holes are protected by a lacquer
which is removed immediately prior to condenser
tubing. External ferrous surfaces are either grit-blasted
or wire-brushed and degreased, and a suitable primer
is applied to the cleaned surface.
In the post-erection period, until commissioning,
deterioration of internal surfaces is minimised by
keeping the condenser surfaces dry. If the condenser
is used and has to be put into storage again before
commissioning, steps are taken to ensure that all water
is removed from the condenser.
In order to operate a condenser at its optimum
level, on-load cleaning methods are used which ensure
the high availability of condensing plant (Fig 4.29).
6.3.1 Debris filter
Coastal power station condensers are more vulnerable
to the intake of debris such as mussels, fish, wood, plas-
tic and fibrous materials, than inland power station
condensers. One solution to prevent the blockage of
condenser tubes is the installation of a debris filter in
the CW inlet side of the condenser.
Ail particles in the cooling water larger than 10 mm
are kept in the filter and rinsed away through the
debris discharge. Throttling of the filter inlet isolating
valve causes a change in flow direction near the screen,
creating a rinsing effect. The discharge water quantity
366
Operational life limiting constraint$
Siolll the filtei ranges from 3 lo 10% of lllc i
CW flaw, over a riiising period of 5 to 10 tnliinii
6.3.2 Condenser tube cleaning system
SPONCIE RUBZEli
Figure 4.29 shows how oversized rubber ball,, /ani.LsnisinisurEo
(NCIRCULflING WhlER
continilously pressed through the condenser lii1,rh
the water flow. Screens located downstream al
condenser waterboxes extract the bails from thc it
CW discha1,ge flow. They are then drawn oSl'
pumped through a collector to be subsequently
i charged into the CW inlet to the condenser.
SCREENS FOR
ilnu RECOVERY
otherwise lower the neat transfer charact
the tubes, with a resulting loss in condenser ef
6.4 Special considerations
in addition to the normal function of cond
the steam which is discharged from the LP i ~ i r
condensers on ntlciear power stations are design,
provide a heat sink for the removal of heat fron
reactors. These condensers are fitted with steam
water dumping facilities of the pressure breakd
type. The condenser structures are suitably rcinl
account of the steam and water dumping requirrl F ~ G4.29
. On-load condenser cleaning system
on nuclear power stations is covered in Chapters I
2 o l this volume.
reasons why it is desirable to minimise air 7.1.1 Locating air leaks
7 Operational life l i m i t i n g constraint Air leakage can occur in any part of the condensing
The main constraints which limit the operatiottal system which operates near or below atmospheric
of a condenser are summarised under the follo loprove condenser heat transfer performance. pressure, and is often caused by failure o f joints, at
headings: flanges, and also by weld and material failures. Whet;
]educe the capital tost of the air extraction the turbine is off-load, detection of air leakage is
Condenser air inleakage. ~iipmentrequired. made in some parts of the system by flooding with
water. Water seepage from sections normally under
Cooling water inleakage. reduce air extraction plant running costs.
vacuum indicate leakage areas.
Condenser fouling and cleaning. When the turbine is on-load, however, different
An awareness of these problems at the design stage
significantly reduce lifetime running costs I
maintenance costs. Operational experience of thc
ious techniques employed for each of the thre
straints listed are now discussed.
traction equipment. The last method is the most
tional levels of air inleakage, however, vary common technique employed today.
7.1 Condenser air inleak
and methods for measuring the rate of air inleaka
condensers are described. scrs and direct-contact feedheating plant. are capable of detecting low concentrations of halo-
367
 Condensers, pumps atid cooling wator planT
genaled compoonds in ;in air stl.ealn, 1'0s iiiiiiimuin
toxicity and maxirniln sensitivity thc lialoge~iatedconi-
poonds cl~iorofluorocarbon and dichloiofloaro-
inethane (trade narlles Freon 12, lsceon 12 or Arcto,?
12) are itsed.
Of the leak detectors mentioned above, only the
LEYBOLD equipment tias a detectol. probe which can
be immersed in the gas to be tested. This equipment
is used by irlstalling the probe in the air extraction
pipe from the condenser, whereas the other detectors
sample from the air extraction system discharge.
Most leakage points are found at flanges and joints,
and are usually small cracks or holes. These can nor-
mally be sealed with any of a number of proprietary
metallic resin or rubber-based sealing compounds.
7.1.2 Measurement of air leakage rate
Apart from the air extraction system (see Section 10
of this chapter), air leakage measuring equipment is
generally not insrailed as permanent instrumentation
on British power stations. As in locating the air leaks,
there are several techniques available to measure the
I.ate of air leakage.
Operational techniques are used to determine whether
a reduction in condenser performance is due to con-
denser fouling, or air inleakage overloading the air
extraction equipment. The operations carried out, which
only require measurement of condenser back pressure,
are:
Isolation of the air extraction equipment from the
condenser on-load, and monitoring the subsequent
rate of vacuum decay.
Changing the number of vacuum pumps in senice,
and establishing the effect of this on the vacuum.
Typical unacceptable vacuum decay rates are 4 mbar/
min and above, as compared with expected rates of
approximately 1 mbar/min.
Wllere these techniques are not either favoured
or practical, other diagnostic techniques are often
employed which require measurement of:
Air temperature in the air extraction line from the
condenser; increase in air quantity handled reduces
the mixture temperature because of low water vapour
partial pressure.
Undercooling of the condensate outlet from the
condenser; high air partial pressures give increased
undercooling in some conddnsers.
Differential pressure between LP cylinder exhaust
and air extraction plant; low differential pressures
indicate that the air extraction plant is controlling
the vacuum and not the condenser heat transfer
performance.
lion lo make divcct measuicments of air leaha
a i)eriociic basis, or i\,iien a condenser peiioit
problcm exists, The metliods employed ilicl~iiii:
use of Pitot tubes, anemometess, lhot wire 8811
meters, rotameters and orifice plate assernhii
Measurements are made both a n the air
pipe and at the air extraction plant discharge.
necded at bath locations. The assumption nlad
measuring in the condenser air suction pipe is I
water vapour present is satura:ed. When lneast~r
the air extraction plant, if more than one piis
opcrating, the flow between the pumps is no1 iii
evenly distributed.
7.2 Cooling water leakage in condens.
The methods employed in British power statioi
the detection of leakage of cooling uaater inl
condenser, and of the conseque~~t pollution of
condensate are:
r Condensate conductivity.
* Sodium contamination.
Location of condenser leakage is influenced bg
following factors:
CW supply, i.e., fresh, estuarine or seawate
Condenser design, i.e., underslung or pannier.
Experience bas shown that the techniques us.
locate the region of leakage in fresh water cond
a1.e not sufficiently sensitive to locate leakap
Seawater condensers. Also, the introduction of p
type condensers for the 500 MW units mean] I
flooding the steamside with fluorescein solutioli,
most popular method of off-load detection
underslung types, was no longer possible. Undersit
transverse condensers, however, have an advanta
that they can have up to six separate sections w
can be isolated and monitored using condensate c
ductivity probes. This means that on-load location
elimination of leaks is considerably simplified,
without output loss.
The method of locating condenser CW leakage !r
a unit on-load has three separate stages:
Location of the affected tubenest by condens
conductivity measurement (desirable conductivity
condensate approximately 0.1 pS/cm).
Location of the physical level of the leakage with1
the waterbox.
Location of the leaking tube or joint.
ge is oot usilig coiidoctivity )probes
il oil-load. l.11~ tubenest causing tile pro-
identified by an increase in condensate coli-
his is si~nplificd in transversc underslune
, wilere multi-seclioning local
i n condensate conductivity will be signifi-
11 the location of the leak, and therefore easily
~ i n gidentified which condenser tubenest is at
tiic second stage is to determine the level of
iikage in that nest. This can be found either by
,g the cooling water level in the waterbox and
ring the condensate conductivity or by intro.
trace,. gas the waterbox, dropping the
water level, and monitoring at the air extrac.
n l For the appearance of the gas as the leak is
[Cresting are
that these two
I , ble for all power stations, e.g., the former
s satisfactory at sea-cooled stations, but, it is
lble for freshwater-cooled stations wilere the
,thod is adopted.
procedures are adequate for narrowing the
search to within two or three rows of tubes,
!* ingc three provides techniques which will precise-
T ~ I Cthe source of the leak.
techniques used include:
,rescein metllod; the side of the colldenser
looded with a fluorescein solution.
I or film methods; the condenser tubeplates
overed with a foam or thin film material whilst
vacuum is maintained o n the steam side.
~bbiecdevices; air bubbling through a jar of water
used to detect a tube leak.
gas methods; a halogen gas detector is
11icd at the air extraction equipment and the
xct tubes sprayed with gas.
6
FIG.4.30 Tube leak deteclion by foam/filrn method
Operational life limiting constraints
s i'lamc and siuokc techniques; the flil~nc from a
taper (or smoke) is uscd to indicate a flow of air
into a leaking tobe.
e Ultrasonics; the 11oisegenerated by air !lassin&tll~ough
a leak is detected'
The sensitivity and application of these techniques
are discussed below.
7.2.1 Ffuorescein
The steam side of the condense1 is flooded to above
the tubcnest with a 10 mg/kg solution of the sodium
salt of fluorescein. A search is carried out in the
waterban using ultra-violet light to detect traces of
fluorescein. The tube which is leaking is therefore
identified. There are, however, disadvantages of this
.
I~ is restricted to underslullg off-load.
The reverse action of water pressure on the tubes
c o n ~ p a ~ cwith
d normal operation is known to close
up the leak in some cases.
The water pressure is low at the top of the condenser
and small leaks may escape detection.
Residual fluorescein can affect feedwater and boiler
water analysis, and impair judgement as to whether
repair of the leak was successful.
This method requires an operator to carry it out.
7'2'2 Or methods
The principle of this method (Fig 4.30) relies on the
development of a vacuum in a leaking tube. If the
tube is then sealed at each end, the vacuum draws in
a foam blanket or a film of polythene or paper, and
thus identifies the location of the leak.
M
WATERBOX
Condensers, punips and cooling water plarii
Generally two ogeralois, each with a ihilni generator,
arc required. Pill-hole leaks wilh a leakage rate of
400 mi/h can be located, and 5000 tubes/lioiii can bc
tested.
The success of ibis method relies on being able lo
establish a vacuum of 330 mbar.
7.2.3 Bubbler devices
Figure 4.31 shows the two different types of bubbler
which are used for tube leak detection.
Figure 4.31 (a), the conventional bubbler, monitors
the flow of air through a hole when the leaking tube
is under vacuum. The method will detect leaks down
to 175 ml/h, and an arrangement is adopted where
I0 tubes are monitored simultaneously, enabling 700
tubes/hour to be checked. Two operators are required
for this method which is suitable for off-load use
providing a vacuum of 330 mbar can be obtained.
Figure 4.31 (b), the MEL bubbler, is similar in prin-
ciple to the conventional bubbler except that the
suspect tube is evacuated with atmospheric pressure
on the outside of the tube. 'This method can iocate
leakage races of only 35 ml/h, the test iate being up
to 200 tubes/hour.
7.2.4 Tracer g a s m e t h o d s
Detectors for halogen organic gases are extensively
used for both air and cooling water leakage loca-
tion; Section 7.1 of this chapter gives details of the
method.
Generally leakage rates of around 1000 ml/h can
be detected with the unit on-load or off-load, as long
as a vacuum can be obtained. One operator can carry
our a search using a transmitterldetector, although
lnore normally two operators arc employed.
7.2.5 Flame a n d s m o k e m e t h o d s
These methods are fairly insensitive and involve the
use of lighted tapers o r smoke tubes. Due to their
insensitivity, these are generally used as primary meth-
ods of detection when massive leaks are suspected.
7.2.6 Ultrasonic m e t h o d
Again, this is a fairly insensitive method which is
not generally used. It involves the use of ultrasonic
detectors to pick up turbulence effects of the air
near a pin-hole. Owing to the noise from the steam
flow, and to a n extent tube vibration, only leaks
close to the ends of the tube can be detected.
7.3 Condenser fouling and cleaning
The types of fouling encountered in condensers, and
Operalional life lirniling consfrainls
metiiods of on-load and off-load cleaiiini! iil
densei's are now described.
7.3.1 Condenser fouling
Various forms of fouling havc already beel! i
in detail in Section 4 of this chapter, wl~icii
at the erosion/corrosion of condenser tubi!s
impingement attack.
Basically there are three aspects o f fouli
arc beyond the scope of the CW scree,,
installed:
Blockage by debris.
Biological siimcs.
0 Scaling.
Blockage by debris of tube and tubeplates \
tensively covered in Section 4 o f this chapter.
Biological fouling refers to marine life wi~icli
tribute to the formation of the slimy deposits
heat transfer surfaces of condensers. These
bacteria, fungi and algae. The slimes formed !by I
micro-organisms adhere to the metallic surface, I
heat flow and form a laver to which other sust,e
matter can adhere to reduce condenser perforill
further. Some forms of marine life, such as ti1 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
and barnacles, can cause by restrictin
and blocking tubes,
Scale formation is caused by the depositio
reaction of inorganic material on heat tiansfi'r
faces. It usually occurs at inland river-cooled stal
using cooling tower systems. The scales are lirtl
calcium carbonate or calcium phosphate, or niix
of both, and arise from variations in their solil
products with temperature and p H changes (Fig 4
The temperature effect is due to the inverse solub
cllaracteristics of calcium salts. The pH changes tt LiUM
I'
by carbon dioxide stripping in the cooling tow
7.3.2 on-load condenser
T~~ methods of on.load fouling preven
are employed to avoid unnecessary costly shuld
of condenser plant, in order that efficient thro
costs are realised:
Chlorination of the cooling water.
TUBE PLATE
Fine filtration, plus tube cleaning using rubber b~
ibi M E L. bubmr
Intermiltenr chlorinalion of the cooling water enlel
the condenser is carried out on all British 110
stations, and forms the accepted on-load foil
preventive technique. It is effective in controlling F ~ G 4.31
. n b e teak detection using bubblers
growth of mussels in seawater systems, and the for
tion of slime in freshwater systems.
Coiidensers, i?umps and cooling water plarit
1'10. 4.32 Graph or soiUbiiili ot caicium phosphate with cilangei iil ~cinpcial!iie and pH
At coastal sites, marine fouling is significantly
reduced by continuous chlorination of the cooling
U'ater. The degree of chlorination required is in-
At inland sites, slime control is maintained by
intermittent dosing of chlorine (a few minutes every
four to eight hours) at a level which leaves a resi-
dual of chlorine of 2 mg/kg at the condenser CW
7.3.3 Off-load c o n d e n s e r cleaning
Although improvements in the on-load techniques
continue to be made, off-load cleaning is frequently
required for various reasons.
when the unit is recommissioned.
tions have experienced stress-corrosion crack-
anded tube ends from acid cleaning.
grit blasting; it involves blasting graded
ineral grit through the condenser tubes.
.it blasting nozzle incorporates a venturi
ncss in cleaning tubes, and requires a charge
I approximateiy 1 tnls.
irlhod uses either high or low water PressuIe,
,dine a n the application.
which becomes irrecoverable when the plant
commissioned.
Late filling of the fine debris filters imme
md is therefore generally not used.
pressure water washing is effectively used to
loose sludge and sediment deposits prior to
Except in a few exceptional circumstances,
load condenser cleaning is done during outages.
techniques used are now discussed.
pressure of 7 bar.
cs by drying internal deposits prior to flushing
Ile former application controls marine fouling by
ng the temperature to 40% for one hour every
veeks. This reslricts mussel growth to sizes which
lot lodge in condenser tubes. The heating is
Acid
This method is restricted to condensers sufferill
Plant testing
8 Plant testing
8.1 Introduction
Condenser thermal performance tests are carried out
for two reasons:
e As acceptance lesfs to establish that a condenser
meets its specified Performance, and is capable
of producing the desired condenser steam inlet pres-
sure when operating under specified conditions.
As routine operalionol fesfs to monitor the con-
denser performance periodically, and to verify that
station thermal efficiency is not being adversely
affected by a deterioration in the condensing plant
heat transfer coefficient.
In both acceptance tests and routine tests, a high
standard of instrumentation is required, particularly
in the measurement of the condenser steam inlet . ares-
sure, and the cooling water temperatures. Routine
tests generally use less instrumentation than acceptance
tests, but only when it is certain that this is not
detrimental to accuracv.
8.1.1 T e s t codes and practices
Condensing plant is the only major item of power
plant which is at Presellt not covered by a British
Standard code for thermal performance testing.
For this reason, the CEGB has compiled its own
test code, entitled 'Performance of surface-type steam
condensers' - Site Test Code No. 3, 1981 (151.
Scope
This Code covers requirements for acceptance, routine
and diagnostic testing Of water-cooled surface-type
steam condensing plant, including multi-pressure de-
signs. It specifies procedures for testing condensers,
and for calculating and reporting the results, so that
the condenser performance may be checked against
contractual obligations. In addition, the performance
of different condensers may be readily compared, and
the operational performance of condensing plant may
be assessed.
Within this Code, reference is made in particular
to the BEAMA design code 161 and to ES752: 1974
Test Code for Acceptance of Steam Turbines' (161.
General outline
The assessment as to whether a condenser meets its
guaranteed performance is based on comparison of
the condenser inlet pressure measured on the accept-
ance test (corrected to specified conditions of CW

Condet?sars. pumps atid cooling water platit
iiilet tenlpeialui-e and flow, Ileal load, tube cleanliness
and tube sii~iaccarca) wit11 tile guaranteed coridcilse~
pressure.
When the test condition& differ fl.om tllose speci-
fied, the Code describes a correction procedure which
relies on validated curves or formi~laeand imposes
closc limits for permitted deviations when these are
not available. The corrections are applied to the rest
logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) and
allowance is made for variation in steam temperature
through the tubenest.
A method is also given for the routine assessment
of condenser performance, in which the actual con-
denser inlet pressure is compared with that recorded
during the acceptance test and corrected for lhe
changes from acceptance test conditions to those
obtaining at the time of the routine test.
A section dealing with test accuracy is included.
The assesstncnt of accuracy is based on tile effect
of systematic errors only, the random errors being
effectively eliminated by the proposed frequency of
readings.
Acceptance test procedures
Before testing, a meeting is held between ali parties
involved to discuss the testing programme, and to
Plant teslitiy
Clini~ic
--
bc deterillioed, as this is lhc ~mostpiacticiil 11
of obtaining thc Pall in temperature throiigi
tilbenest, and also the air extraction pressliwi'r.
(b) T e m ~ e ) . o t ~ ~I.Ie~ C ~ S U I . C I ? I ~Temperatuic\
II~
quired are those of CK' inlet, CW outlci. i
densation outlet, steam and air suction, All
measured directly except that of steam, fo, utlti
it is preferable to assume saturation and to der
the steam temperature from tbc correspoinli
pressure.
The accuracy of the CW inlet ternpei;
measurement equipment is specified as + O
Cooling water inlet temperature to the con
is gelteraily constant across the pipe section
the temperature measurement is made eithe,
thermometer in a pocket or by extracting a
tinuous flow of water tllrough a vessel contain1
a thermometer.
At the entry to the condenser CW outlet
however, the temperature of the water is $11
tified. To allow mixing to occur, t l ~ etempernti
measurement point is sited as far as po~sil
8-----7 v 'A'
downstream
Temperature sampling probes on two diairi
are used in each condenser outlet. The pro!
either thertnopiles or multi-hole probes tlir
a IEMPERATVRE

make arrangements for any necessary preliminary work.
For example, discussions include reaching agreement
with the manufacturer on:
Interpretation of contractual guarantees
(C) Flow measurement The flowrates of cooling \vi
Location, type, and calibration of test instruments
(Fig 4.33).
Means of obtaining the desired operating conditions.
Isolation of the plant for test purposes.
The procedures to be followed for calculating results.
BY agreement, the official report of an acceptance
test may be produced by either party to the test, or
by representatives of the parties working together.
Test measurements
(a) Pressure meosuremenr The test pressure mea-
suring system must give the mean static pressure
at the condenser inlet from each individual LP
turbine cylinder to within $0.3 mbar, Fig 4.33.
It usually consists Of separate sets of pressure
sensing holes linked by manifolds to which the
test manometers or transducers are connected.
The same plane should be used for measuring
both the condenser pressure and the turbine LP
cylinder exhaust pressure, fig 4.34.
In addition, the steamside pressure drop should
374
which water is drawn into a mixing vessel. @ DIFfERENItkI PRESSURE
boles or thermocouples are situated at cetl
of equal areas, one hole or thermocouple to c
0.2 mZ of pipe area.
I:xc. 4.33 Points of ntearuvcslent for condenser test
condensate and extracted air may be requ
when assessing condenser performance. Mrtl~
of determining the CW fiowrate include: ( oridcnser heat load deterf~~inationSite Test Code milar to that o n the rest of the condenser. The
No. 3 recommends that condenser heat load should common inlet temperature and individual tubc out-
Condenser heat balance
bc iierived from a calculation of the heat rejected let temperatures and flowrates are measured, from
Velocity/area methods. by the turbine-generator, preferably using heat rate which the cleanliness factor of each sample fouled
dnta obtained concurrently with the condenser test. tube is calculated according to Site Test Code
Differential pressure methods. No. 3 [IS], Appendices A and B.
7idDe cleanliness and air blanketing Both on-load The off.laad method reauires s a m ~ l etubes to
Tracer methods. imd off-load methods for the determination of be withdrawn from the condenser. In a laboratory,
condenser tube cleanliness are required, and also the cleanliness factor is determined by measuring
(he occurrence and location of air blanketing need the thermal resistance of the fouled tubes and
These are listed in descending order of preferel
lo be identified. comparing this with the thermal resistance of some
and the Site Test Code No. 3 [IS] shouid
Figure 4.35 illustrates the on-load method for of the tubes after acid cleaning.
consulted for qualifications.
iictermining condenser tube cleanliness. Briefly, Air leaking into an inadequately vented con-
Several methods are available for measul
sample tubes in groups of three or four are se- denser will blanket the tubes, impede condensation
the rate of air leakage into the condenser, n
lected such .that operating conditions throughout and increase the condenser pressure. The position
reference should be made to Section 7 of I
!lie condenser are represented. Separate supplies of air blanketing can often be inferred from mea-
chapter which covered these aspects. General
of CW are provided for each sample tube by surement of the CW outlet temperature distri-
the preferred position for measurement is
tneans of insulated pipes passing through the bution at the tubeplate.
air pump discharge (Fig 4.33), because me
\r,aterboxes, and one tube in each group is selected An abnormally low temperature rise indicates
ments at the air pump suction require detert
21s a clean tube which is acid-cleaned before the probability of air blanketing somewhere along
tion of the steam/air ratio, and are made diffic
commencement of the test. the condenser. A more precise indication of the
by the low density of the steam/air mixture. Cooling water is pumped fhrouglt the clean position of the air blanketing can be made by
The measurement of condensate flowra
tind corresponding fouled tubes at a flowrate si- inserting a small probe into the steam space to
described in CEGB Site Test Code No. 2 [I
375
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 I.$(, 4 36 Air blaeiei>~,g
aunveyr by inrerun& a 1,tobe into tiie conden\ci tubmest
i
Optimisation studies have been carried out on a A comparison of the mechanical behaviour betwccn
transverse underslung condenser, using 25 mm OD roped and plain tubing is given in reference [181.
roped titanium tubing, and 22 mm OD plain tita- As far as reliability and availability are concerned,
nium tubing. Water velocities varied from 1.2 m/s research continues in the following areas:
Fio. 4.37 Photograp1 of plain and roped lubilie

.
to 2.2 m/s, and tube lengths varied from 12 m to
18 m. Tube maintenance.
Table 4.5 shows the minimum cost, optimum CW ~~b~ cleanliness,
quantity and condenser parameters possible within
the constraints imposed o n the system being studied, Modular construction. TABLE
4.5
i.e., a CW flowrate of not less than 1.68 m/s and Oj~li,,$i$alionsludy resultsfor plain ond roped lilonium rubing
a CW temperature rise of less than 12'C. In particular, the maintenance of condenser t
Total Hcai ~ube CW nowrate
This suggests, for the two optima in Table 4.5, without access t o the waterbox is being investiga CW
Tube Tube optimum cost transfer veiociry, per set
savings of £200 000 by using roped tubes, however, ienglll (3 sets), areaiscl. m/r kp/s *PC
design
when compared to the existing condenser using conven- m C ~niliion mi
tional tubing materials, savings in the order of £2.6 PUMPS
million are calculated. Plain 15.1 43.2 29590 1.68 17790 11.0
An itnprovement in the overall heat transfer co- 10 f,ir extractionequipment 12.2 43.0 21786 1.68 16379 12.0
Roped
.
efficient of roved tubes is clearlv illustrated bv the
defined reducion in tube length and CW quantity,
and hence the size of tubevlate reauired to achieve lo.' Introduction
these savlngs The objectzves of the alr extraction plant are.

Condensers. ~ u m mand cooiinq water plant
s 'TO icniove air ivhicli has ieaked into the condenscl'
via flanges and glands effectiveh.
e To remove other iiicondensabie gases that are pre-
sent in tlle steam exhausting froin the L P turbines.
It is important that both are removed from the con-
denser, as their presence in any quantity impairs the
heat transfer performance of the condenser. Con-
versely, excessive air extraction capacity should be
avoided, and reasons for this are discussed later.
The air extraction plant must be capable of func-
tioning under two cegimcs: one during normal opera-
tion, the other when raising vacuum on the turbine-
generator unit.
When raising vacuum, the air extraction equipment
is faced with a large quantity of air which must be
removed, and must therefore have the capacity for
reducing the pressure in the condenser quickly to a
level which aliows the turbine to be started.
10.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f air e x t r a c t i o n q u a n t i t y
T o ensure adequate removal capacity under operating
conditions, the capacity of the air extraction plant
must be greatex than the maximum amount of air
and non-condensable gases expected to be removed
from the condensate.
The main parameters which determine the quantity
of air to be extracted from the condenser and, hence,
the design of the condenser air cooling system and air
removal equipment are:
.
r The design air leakage into the condenser.
The degree of sub-cooling of the air/steam mixture
leaving the air cooling section.
r The limiting approach temperature difference
between the saturation temperature B P , T cor-
responding to the absolute pressure p, in the
condenser, and the CW outlet temperature.
Table 4.6 indicates recommended values for typical
fossil-fired power stations of varying size.
TABLE 4.6
Design oir ieokagc roles for typic01 fossil-,ired siorions
Turbine size. MW
Design air leakage rating, kg/h
Design air suction
ienipcrafure at oiltlet. C
' In order to meet the objectives outlined earli
Limiting CW outlei temperature
...~~. "-
'The desigii air lcakngc i;itc\ ~,ici?liliii i ! i
4.4 are known to be lhiglhei I!I~U! I I I O ! , ~ l ~ c i c ~
some othcr countries and, iii ~ n l l m y ill!,il#l
cousidcrably in excess or niv Ic~lk.l$?!.<% l % \ v L <
on British plan1 in practice.
However, experience has sllowll l i l i i l . O i i I'
the adoption of these ratings lhna 1hui:n oc,rllc
justified as a means of countel;irlilI)i lilc i'i,illl
I
High air leakage, duc to val\'e pt~ckii~l>
joint leaks, etc.
Higher than design pressure loss tl~rollal~
Ill
. denser and air extraction pipework.
Excessive steam penetration through lilc
.
system.
Adverse effects of part-load operalion I
cooling water temperature conditions.
The considerable experience gailled, ptllliclil
from 500 MW turbine condensers, h;~slerl 1 0 I!
greater understanding o f the factors iafil~c~~i:i!
inleakage and its effective removal from Iinpo
densers.
The limiting difference between lh '
temperature and the cooling water d
performance. Most large condensers in opernl
temperature differences in excess of this figuic:
thinking suggests that a temperature differen
to 5OC Is desirable if pressure loss on 11
and/or excessive steam carryover to the
equipment is not to become a critical fact<
mining condenser performance.
10.2.1 T h e m e c h a n i s m of air extraction
The mechanism by which non-condensable Bl
transported between the points of entry to I
denser shell and the discharge to atmosphrrc
subdivided into three stages:
Transfer of incondensable gases from the
condensing zone to the air cooling sectioll
condenser.
Cooling o f the incondensable gases and as
steam in the air cooling section.
Extraction and compression of the incondc
gases from condenser vacuum to atmosphert!.
is important that all three stages in the procc
carried out efficiently.
of how this is achieved arc described, and the
quipment types are reviewed.
The c o n d e n s e r air cooling s e c t i o n
lci for the air cooling section to perform ef-
1 I?, its position within tile condenser and the
Il)d of venting must be optimised, and the trans-
01' incondensable gases from the condensing zone
nsures that the air cooling process is achieved
inirnum pressure loss through the condenser,
withoul creating stagnation regions within the
ond den sing zone or introducing excessive steam
ution into the air cooling section.
I different air cooling section designs have been
from the cooling water inlet end of the
the other uses multi-point extraction from
points along the condenser lengt,h; these are
lled for a pannier condenser in Fig 4.38.
I' cooling sections designed on the first principle
lllc basic features of a redistribution passage
lic steam and incondensable gas mixture in the
~rxialdirection, together with a baffling arrangc-
)wards the cold end of the condenser to force
tiire across the tubemst before final extraction.
i-point extraction condensers, the steam and
able gas mixture usually make one trans-
, of the air cooling section tubes, and no
es are provided for reintroduction of the mix-
lo the air cooling section tubenest.
i$icnsers with single and multiple water passes,
will, single and multiple vacuum arrangements
nllopted both types of air cooling section, and
erally operated satisfactorily.
ingle-point air extraction concept generally
higher pressure drop in the condenser to
lisfactory flow through the air cooling section
multi-point arrangment, but it reduces the
I? o f excessive steam carryover t o the air
h the introduction of air extraction equipment
incorporates a direct contact pre-condenser,
over o f steam is not such a critical factor
'rmining the air extraction capacity.
R e v i e w o f air extraction equipment
lia development of air extraction equipment
condensers has evolved through the use of
clion pumps. Steam-jet air ejectors were in
11 use, but, for the higher pressure and
tilrc cycles adopted today, these have proved
lcss economic than air pumps, both in capital
Iv different air extraction equipment designs
en developed, all of which combine the func-
Air extractior~cqiiiji!,ii,i;l
Lions oS vacuunl niaint.aining and vacuulri l i t i , . i m / 8 ,
either in full or in pa1.1, depending upon the v c i l i ~ i i i i .
to be evacuated and the time specified for syiiciii,i
ni~iiigthe machine.
It is interesting to note that the last-row bli~ir,,
o f a 660 MW turbine will overheat if they run ;ii
speed and at iow load in a poor vacuum. Therefor',,
a vacuum o f 677 mbar(a) must be obtained befoir
steam is admitted to the turbine, and a vacuum of
880 mbar(a) for full speed. It is important that the
time taken to bring boiler and turbine plant on-
load shall not be increased by insufficient extraction
capacity.
. The main systems in use today are:
Rotary pumps (e.g., Le Blanc), which use water
.
with separate booster pumps for vacuum raising.
Hydraulic pumps, which work on the water-jet
principle, for vacuum maintaining. Pumps of this
type have reasonable vacuum raising cliaracteristics,
but usually require to be supplemented by liquid-
ring pumps for vacuum raising duties.
A system which consists o f an ejector and a pump.
The ejector provides the first stage of compression,
and a liquid-ring pump provides the final stage of
compression to atmospheric pressure. This system
uses both the ejector and the pump for vacuum
tnaintaining duties, but the pump is used in iso-
lation for vacuum raising.
A summary of the development of air extraction
equipment is given in Table 4.7, wilicll indicates the
number of installations of each type of equipment
associated with 500-660 MW turbines in the UK.
It is quite clear from Table 4.7 that the use of
rotary and hydraulic air pumps has virtually been
phased out in the 660 M W designs. The reasons for
this change in policy are discussed below.
In the initial stages of the 500 MW programme,
orders were placed for two air pump systems on
which there was previous British experience; these
being Le Blanc pumps and hydraulic air pumps. Both
systems, however, could only offer a small contri-
bution during vacuum raising, and relied on supple-
mentary equipment to enable units to be loaded within
20 minutes.
The 'ejector plus pump' extraction systenl was
introduced into Britain during the early 1960s. Initially
this system only used atmospheric air as the motive
fluid in the ejector stage, and incorporated a liquid-
ring pump for second stage compression. This gave
better vacuum raising characteristics than the hy-
draulic air pump, which offset the slightly higher
operating costs of the system for vacuum maintain-
ing duties.
381

X
: 0 . I I Hydraulic air p u m p s
. \ I,,) ..$I Il!draui\i XLI putnp arraopcmrn: !r \i>;\srl
$ .?t I . . .I 39. I'll: l , ) . l r , ~ u lpump
~~ unit 1, a !%a.cr-
r. rccirculating lift pump, and a covered water
ld air separation tank.
watcr tank serves the dual function of acting
___)
il:;it sink for the air and vapaui drawn from the
and providing a suction supply for the lift
cw ~ N L E T recirculate the sealing water.
up water is introduced t o the tank at the
I11 to replace any losses, and maintain the tank at
iy temperature. The tank overflow is controlled
weir, and is discharged to waste.
in8 water from the tank is circulated to the
'
ONE PANNIERSHOWNONLY air pump where it is fed into a series of
Streams of water leaving the nozzles pass
blades of a spinner which is mounted on
11 of a shaft, and is free to rotate. The blades
led so that the sealing water propels the
and, in doing so, is broken into slugs. The
(hi ~ ~ i t , - p oaiiexlra~lon
i~i u'hich ,discharges from the spinner seals poc-
Ol' air in the diffuser, pressurises them, and
illges the mixture into the tank. The tank is suit-
FIG. 4.38 Single and multi-point air eriraciion vcnted, and the sealing water is recirculated to
nir suction line t o the water-operated ejector
[,rates an electrically-operated isolation valve
C-type non-return valve t o prevent backflow
llnd water to the condenser in the event of
failure. Some arrangements also include a
Air extraction equipment
ba~.ometiicloop in the air suction line as a ful-tiler
safeguard.
As aiready mentioned, thc requirement of a 660
M W turbine to reach full speed at no-load withi11
20 minutes of sta1.t of vacuum raising is beyond the
capability of hydrauiic air pumps alone; the inslalla-
tion of supplementary vacuum raising booster pumps
overcomes this problem. On their own, hydraulic air
pumps wiil take in excess of 40 minutes to achieve
desired vacuum levels. In same cases the booster
pumps are supplied on a unit basis, but it has become
increasingly popular to adopt common booster equip-
ment for two or more turbines, therefore reducing
capital costs.
Separate electrical control systems are provided for
the hydraulic air pumps and booster pumps. The op-
eration of the pumps and their ancillary equipment
is semi-automatic and sequence controlled to ensure
that start-up and shutdown procedures are correctly
implemented. When common booster pumps are in-
stalled, the system is interlocked to prevent the pumps
being connected to a running turbine. Booster pumps
are generally arranged to sliut down automatically
when the condenser vacuum reaches a predetermined
level.
10.3.2 Licluid-rintt- tvne
.. air numn
. .
This is essentially a centrifugal displacement pump.
A multi-blade impeller revolves within a n offset casins
which is partially full of water. The rotating impeller
throws the liquid outwards, resulting in a solid ring
of liquid revolving in the casing at the same speed
as the rotol, but following the shape of the casing.
Figure 4.40 shows how this alternately causes the
liquid to enter and recede iron] the interblade spaces
on the impeller. The provision of inlet and outlet
ports enables this pump action to be used for eva-
cuation of air from the condenser. The advantages
of this type of pump are that it is simple and reliable,
with large clearances on rotating parts, and no valves
or pistons.
10.3.3 Air e j e c t o r l p u m p s y s t e m s
Figure 4.41 shows a typical arrangement, using air
as the motive to the ejector. The system comprises
a n ejector stage and a liquid-ring pump stage, which
combines to give two stages of compressio~~ of the
condenser a i r h a p o u r mixture.
Figure 4.41 (a) illustrates the system when operating
to maintain vacuum in the condenser. The a i r h a p o u r
mixture from the condenser is first drawn through
the vapour cooler. This is a direct condenser which
receives recirculated seal water, of towns water qua-
lity. This cooler reduces the vapour quantity of the
mixture before compression by the ejector stage. The
ejector uses atmospheric air as the motive fluid and
compresses the a i r h a p o u r mixture to a pressure of
about 135-170 mbar.
383
 ..

Condensers, pumps and cooiing water plant Air extraction equipment

INIERNALINLEIPORI
(NTERNIIL DlSCHIHCit PORT

lllihiE PUMP OISCHARG LTERNAiE PUMP DISCHARGE No 2

--
.-
--.
-
=--- WATER

FIG. 4.40 Tyjlical 1iquid.ring lype air jpuillp

~c condensate from the vapour cooier and the 10.3.4 Steam ejectorlpump systems

-
- CWLINGAND MOTIVE

&tR "&POUR IQIXTURC

WATER

USUAL NUMBER OF UNITS 3 x 50% OR 4 x 33%%

last vacuum raising, booster Pump arrangements
PIG. 4.39 Typical hydraulic aii pump airangment
'iar to those described for hydraulic air pump
ms) are incorporated, these booster pumps are
iged t o shut down automatically at about 50
is pumped to waste by a cooling water extractor
pump.
The motivating steam for the ejector is vent stekrl>
from the de-aerator which would otherwise be dumped
to the main condenser. Since de-aerator pressure varies
385
----....---

-
-
-
COOL1NG WATER
USUAL NUMBER OF "NILS2 x 700%

-
TOWNWATER OR CONOENSATE
SIEAM
AIR VAPOUR MIXTURE

Fic. 4.42 Steam ejector and liquid-ring pump air airaecio~lmainlainins system

-
- CWLINCI WATER

---- T O W N M T t R OR CONDENSME

-
-
ELECIRICAL
AiR
4iA YAPOUR MIXTURE
I° vacvvm ralrno DPsral,o"

Flo. 4.41 Air ejector and liquid-ring pump vacuum systems

387
Condensers, pumps and cooling watel plant liydraulic aspects of centrifugal pumps

148 5W
DATUM

roi.er pci two puliipi, kW 298.4

I'ower reduction, LU' DATUM
cost saving at IISW/LW DATUM

space occupied, mi DATUM

Cost saving at f12601n1~ DATUM

Cost ~aviiigsin terms of pump

siw. po.iei and space (I), I DATUM

Quick start times, nlin 13

Additioiiai times. !win DATUM

For internal aeeoaiiling

10% DCE is used, i.e.,
XI0 3881min

DATUM

Overail cost saving,

(1) - (2). I I DATUM /
I
64 794 1 134 164

nc. 4.45 rum,, efficiency vers US specific speed and punlp size

is not exceeded. These costs could offset the apparent
cost savings of £134 764.
It would appear that the intermediate vacuum
pump size (pump B) can meet the traditional vacuum
raising time of 20 minutes, and offers some cost
saving, aithough not as significant as pump C.
The extra pumping capacity of the option would
be more tolerant to any increases in air inleakage
above 40 kg/h, and therefore less emphasis would
need to be placed on achieving and sustaining low
air inleakage rates from the associated plant.
11 Hydraulic aspects of centrifugal
pumps
11.1 Specific speed
Centrifugal pumps are traditionally divided into three
basic types: radial flow, mixed flow and axial flow.
The names indicate the direction of flow of liquid
through the impeller. The term specific speed (n,)
can be used as an aid to the classification of the
pump type and is indicative of the shape of the im-
peller and the pump hydraulic characteristics (Figs
4.45 and 4.46), which are taken from Steponoff [19].
The expression involves the three fundamental factors
in pump design - head, flow and speed. All
metrically similar pumps have the same specific
which is calculated in non-dimensional units
the following formula:
n, = 2 ~ n ( q , , ) ~ ' / 6 0 ( g ~ ) ~ ~ ~
where n = pump speed, r/min
q, = flowrate per impeller eye, m3/s
H = generated head per impeller, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
There is no firm demarcation between the \
pump types. Each merges into the next, so
a given specific speed there can be two p
differing construction. However, specific sp
be defined as falling into the following catego
Type of pump Specific speed rang?
(IS0 notation)
Radial flow 0.2 to 1.8
Mixed flow 1.8 to 3.0
Axial flow 2.8 to 8.0
It is evident from Fig 4.45 that to optimise the
draulic selection on an efficiency basis, a spe
speed around 0.8 is necessary. For high-head I
r, pumps, optimum efficiency when using low
i prime movers necessitates a large number of
!s comparison, efficiency optimisation could be
llieved by using single-stage high speed machines.
11 these extreme options, however, can have their
I potential disadvantages. The high speed ma-
' can lead to excessive impeller tip speeds and
equential erosion problems, while the slow speed
Ingernent results in a flexible shaft design unable
'ater for transient operational requirements. Thus
pump hydraulic design is usually a compromise
take account of all relevant factors, including
,hanical limitations and suction head considerations.
le effect of moving away from best efficiency can
en in Fig 4.46. A specific speed below optimum
the peak level of efficiency, but there is a
uential improvement in the spread of higher
cy. This can be of use when plant is required
perate frequently over a large flow range.
oving to high specific speeds is seen to produce
eeper head/flow characteristic. This can be ad-
lnlageous when operating pumps in parallel as it
oiinises the risk of unstable operation. One dis-
vantage of the high specific speed designs is the
npe of the power/flow characteristic which can be
lest at closed valve. This results in excessive motor
ngs to cater for start-up requirements.
11.2 Net positive suction head
The net positive suction head (NPSH) is an im-
portant concept in judging the suction behaviour of
a centrifugal pump. A distinction needs to be made
between the NPSH available to the pump and the
NPSH required by the pump.
The NPSH available is the difference between the
iniet head to the pump and the saturation pressure
of the liquid being handled. As the available NPSH
is reduced, cavitation commences, first at flowrates
away from best efficiency and eventually over the
complete operating range. This is a result of the local
pressure falling to the vapour pressure of the liquid
at the particular temperature condition. Operation
in a cavitating mode for extended periods results in
erosion damage, regardless of impeller material. Feed
pumps with a high head per stage are most liable to
cavitation damage because of the higher energy input
to the fluid.
Cavitation performance breakdown has been shown
t o be directly proportional to (shaft speed12 for a
centrifugal impeller. It has also been shown that the
head drop at which unacceptable cavitation damage
in pump impellers occurs, increases with pump speed.
From these findings, it is evident that the suction
head levels needed for high speed pumps are signi-
ficantly greater than those for lower speed machines.
391
Cotidensers, pumps and cooliiia water alant
EFFICIENCY %
OF NORMAL
CAPACITY % OF NORMAL
EFPlClENCY
BRAKE
$HORSEPOWER%
OF NORMAL
0 21 50 7S >OD 125
CAPACITY % OF NORMAL
BRAKE-HORSEPOWER
The minimum NPSH required can be defined as that
value of NPSH needed by the pump under long term
load conditions to prevent the occurrence of harmful
cavitation effects, in particular that required to avoid
cavitation damage and ensure satisfactory operation.
Normal practice for determining the NPSH re-
quired to limit cavitation damage to a n acceptable
level is based on head drop tests. For high duty feed
pumps, the assessment of visual test data is now also
used as a n additional means o f assessing the adequacy
o f NPSH margins.
The NPSH head d r o p test can be included as
a standard proof o f performance test, with mea-
surements being taken to establish the NPSH a t
which a 3% drop in generated head occurs. From
data available, it is considered prudent to provide
for feed pumps at least 3 x 3% head drop NPSH
392
CAPACIIY % OF NORMAL
HEADCAPACITY
550
to avoid cavitation problems [ZO].
Visual cavitation tests are carried out on a sp
test facility, where, for example, a perspex wind
allows an uninterrupted view o f the impeller eye,
enables visual observations t o be m a d e uni
stroboscopic lighting. This is a n important to
allowing the exact cavitation inception point to
determined, which effectively defines the zero cav
tation damage line. Although observations o f
pressure face o f the blade are difficult, this pr
can be overcome by using acoustic inception
niques to establish the onset of cavitation.
checking NPSH adequacy using the visual techniq~i
current practice requires the available NPSH to Ihtl\
a margin over the visual appearance NPSH, wh
itself is associated with bubble cavities having n
agreed maximum length.
Suction specific speed
cinr siiclioir syccific speed (n,,) cxpl-csscs the
3 1 capability of the piimp iiiipcllcl- and is defined
n,, = 2nn(q,)oS/6~(g~~~~)0.75
n = pump speed, i./min
q,. = fiowratc per impeller eye, m3/s
NPSH = net positive suction head, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
n,, are associated with large
diameters and improved suction capabilities
llnd pump best efficiency (BEP). The large eye
lead to problems of inlet
off-duty conditions, with
hcquential pulsations in the pump and adjacent
()?work. At flowrates away from BEP, incidence
scs flow separation within the impeller. This se-
inled flow is then directed backwards out of the
'l'lic larger the impeller eye, the nearer to the
is the flow at which this recirculation occurs.
1 Prevent the damaging effects of inlet flow re-
lation, leak-off flowrates need to be sized so as
cllsurc that pump throughput is always in excess
ille amount at which recirculation commences.
a applies particularly to both feed pumps and
111 the absence of detailed information of pump
liability at the tender stage, the CEGB normally
iliiires that the suction specific speed bascd on the
Sli available to the pump should be limited to
Circulating w a t e r pumps
,I Introduction
ructural design of main circulating water pumps
EGB has changed over the last 20 years from
tal split casing double-entry designs to the
spindle bottom inlet single-entry type. The
tal pumps, while easy to maintain, require a
floor space, and the weight problems on the
I units necessitated the use of multiple casing
s. The alternative vertical spindle pumps, now
ly specified, have been developed for both
I casing and concrete volute applications, with
clloicc depending on the overall economics o f
installation. They have significant advantages
>pared with the horizontal designs in terms of thc
apactness and cost of mechanical, electrical and
I engineering work.
Circulating water pumps
CCGB experience baa beeti gencsaliy based oil
lhydieuiic designs wliel-e tlic specific speed bas been
limited to 1.6. This iediices the risk of both head/
iiow clial-actcl-istic instability and high gowe~.sat low
- a -cood efficiencv. sol-ead
flows. I t also ri\,cs . over
thc range of operating flowratcs. 'The head/fIou~rate
and absorbed power characteristics are now controlled
.
by the following specification:
Pumps are designed so that the discharge head
falls continuously as the flowratc is increased from
zero to rated capacity by a minimum of 1% for any
15% increase in discharge flow.
The p u n ~ p sarc capable of sustained running at
any point on their hcad/flow curve from 25% to
.
the maximum ~ ~ u n o ucondition.
t
The input power rises continuously as the flow
is increased from zero to the rated flowratc.
Circulating water pump speeds arc normally in the
range 150-300 i/min. Low spccd motors, suitable
for direct coupling to the pumps, are expensive and
it is usually economically justifiable to include a
stcp-down gearbox between the pump and motor.
The combined efficiency of a I000 r/min high speed
motor and associated gearbox can bc similar to the
low speed multi-pole motor. When comparing capital
costs of the two ootions. the costs of extra cranaee -
equipment and the additional civil work to support
the heavier motor have to be added to the direct drive
pumpset costs. The two main advantages of the dircct
drive option are its simplicity, which can lead to higher
availability, and the elimination of any noise control
requirements arising from the high speed motor/
gearbox combination.
For fiowrates over 10 n?/s, main cooling water
pumps arc now bascd on the concrete volute type.
Below around 6 m3/s, it is impractical to consider
concrete volutes because of physicai access limitations
in the mechanical seal area, and metal casing designs
have been used. Between 6 and 10 m v s the CEGB
have so far installed only metal casing pumps, al-
though concrete volutes have been successfully used
elsewhere.
12.2 Horizontal split-casing pumps
Double-entry horizontal split-casing type pumps (Fig
4.47) have been installed on CEGB stations to cover
a wide range of duties up to 18 m3/s and 24 m gen-
erated head. This design of pump has the major
advantage that the top section of casing and the
rotating element can be removed without breaking
either the pipe joints or disturbing the alignment.
While this feature gives good accessibility for both
overhaul and maintenance work, the horizontal design
:ondenscrs, piimps a n d cooling water 111ont
F ~ O .4.67 ~orizon~ai
split-caring extraction pump at Dunsenerr B Power station
chiii,li:
i nomher uf disadvantages apart from the large
area i-cqilired. In ipariicular, the preference for
ling llic uilit with thc iiiipeiler cyc beiow mini-
water level, to eiiminale the need for com-
prilliing equipment, results in expensive civil
ivations. The physical size of thc large metal
has also brought about both manufacturing
lties and fiexing problems with the complicated
Vertical pumps
3 . 1 Vertical metal-casing p u m p s
lute casing designs have been used by the CEGB
iIilmping duties up to around 8 mi/s. On low head
a1 applications, standard gear-driven units have
lstailed, while on the higher liead inland cooling
applications, it has been possible to use a direct
I- drive while still retaining the same equivalent
,cific speed a s the equivalent gear-driven units.
llernative bowl pump designs have been used
iisivciy on overseas applications. With this design,
l u m p forms part of the piping and its intake is
rn a relatively unsophisticated suction chamber;
~nerallyhas a smaller civil engineering cost than
equivalent concrete volute design. There is no
nplicated volute to construct, and as the pump has
nalier overall diameter than the concrete voiute,
pumphouse floor area is smaller. On thc debit
c normally has to bc sized to take the total
I 11111 weight for installation and overhaul. As the
111111) is withdrawn vertically for major overhaul
a suction isolating valve is not required. This
er leads to a relatively long pump to facilitate
I isolation. One major technical disadvantage
the bowl pump is the need for submerged shaft
iring bushes. These are not readily accessible and
lave a relatively short life in silt-laden water.
sting problems have tended to limit the size of
of cast iron necessitates the inclusion of sub-
ntiai allowances on coastal units to allow for
rosion/erosion effects over the life of the station.
C o n c r e t e volute p u m p s
re 4.48 shows the sectional arrangement of a
1 concrete voiute pump, which follows the
e hydraulic principles as the conventional metal
lg designs except for the volute which is formed
ite on the concrete foundations. The pump casing
ists of permanently-embedded top and bottom
'ng rings separated by the cutwater and stay
cs. These are carefully positioned over the inlet
Circulatilig water pumps
duct. Tiic asseinbly then acts as both a sealing ring
for [lie top covci and also as a ccntral location
araunrl which the precision-made voiute sllutleiirlg
framework is assembled piior to concrete pouring.
The volute shotteiing is iiorrnally provided by the
civil contractor to thc pump manufacturer's dimen-
sions, and can be re-used on all pumps on the same
contract. Figure 4.49 shows the various stages of
construction of the volute. From experience, it has
been found that no special protective coating is re-
quired on the concrete to guard against the effects
o f the water being pumped. Both wear and life
expectancy of the concrcte are excellent and no pro-
blems have been reported on CEGB pumps at inland
or coastal stations over a 20 year operating period.
A fabricated steel bearing bracket is mounted on
top of the pump cover and bolted down and dowelled
into position to secure correct alignment. The speed-
reducing gsarbon is !mounted on top of the bearing
bracket, with the unit incorporating the pumpset
forced lubrication system. The rotating assembly is
supported by a combined thrust and journal bearing
which can be located within the gearbox. Access to
the bottom bearing and mechanical seal is gained
from within the tubing.
12.4 Gearboxes
Gearboxes, when included on vertical pump units,
must be of the coaxial type with the pump, motor
and gearbox centreiines positioned vertically above
each other to ensure an equal load distribution on
the support ring.
Coaxial gearboxes may be either of the muiti-
layshaft or epicyclic designs. With recent epicyciic
designs, it has been possible to combine the gearbox
and the pump by mounting the impeller on the low
speed output shaft of the gear unit (Pig 4.50). This
arrangement eliminates the need for one journal
bearing, which in turn reduces the overall height of
the pumpset leading to a more compact arrangement.
A further reduction in pumpset length is achieved
by combining the thrust coliar into the coupling hub,
as shown in Fig 4.50.
The gearbox is equipped with a complete forced-
lubricating oil system to provide a continuous flow
Of oil to the gear internals and the thrust and journal
bearings throughout the pumpset. The oil system
includes both gear-driven and standby motor-driven
oil pumps, and the piping and non-return valve iayout
allows delivery of oil to the bearings and gears,
whichever direction the pump is rotating.
12.5 Shaft seals
Mechanical seals are included to prevent water es-
caping from the casing along the pump shaft. Split
 TACHOGENERATOR C0NCIIEII;INIO
MOTOR srooi
1:iG 4.49 ConstrucLion
I designs are used (Fig 4.51). All the com-
OlL "RAIN
Ipollcnts to be carried out witllout any major
m the pump discharge o r a separate towns
ply. Figure 4.52 shows a typical seal flushing
nt on a coastal station, where the filtered
normally taken from the pump discharge
ng purposes while the pump is running. A
is also available as a back-up supply during
PUMP CASING COY8 i l
'l'lic seal assembly also includes an additional in-
h i e static seal. This is operated by air and forms
Any water which leaks into the access well of the
lcrete volute pumps is removed to the drainage
np by either a small submersible pump or an air-
crated ejector system. These can be controlled
111 float switches o r a n adjustable timer.
FIG. 4.48 Bottom inlet sinde-entry impeiier concrete voiute pump .6 Pump testing
f any large new circulating water pump design.
an economic method of evaluating the likely
F i N A l i Y POSiiiONFD BUT 'IAGE
ONLY IF VOLUTi BASE iS FLAT
or concrete voiuie
performance of the full sire pump and the cost of
itself. Model tests enable the hydraulic characteristics
of the full size pump to be accurately predicted. This
Scale models are also used to verify design pro-
posals for the suction intake to the pumps. The model
normally comprises the forebay, intake screen cham-
ber, draft tube, volute and discharge pipework. Com-
prehensive tests are carried out to demonstrate the
in suction water levels.
laws are applied to demonstrate that the guarantees
on head and efficiency at the rated flowrate, and the
shape of the headiflow and poweriflow character-
T o overcome any contractual problems in determining
head losses at suction and discharge, the pump is
deemed to be that part of the system from the open
water level at draft tube inlet to the discharge mea-
surement point.
Flow measurement is considered the most difficult
aspect of circulating water pump site testing, and
various methods are currently employed. On stations
with long straight open culverts, the current meter-
traversing technique has been found to give satis-
use. For other stations where there are no suitable
open channels, the isotope dilution method is widely
397
 MAINOIL PUMP
ANNULUSRINGS
PLANET WHEEL
FIG.4.80 CW pump gearbox
used. This involves the injection of a tracer of
known concentration at a constant rate upstream o f
the pump and measurement of the concentration at
a point downstream of the injection point where
adequate mixing will have taken place. The dilution
technique is completely independent o f the velocity
of the pumped fluid, or the dimensions of the pipe-
LOW SPEED Hli<i
work, and yields highly accurate results. The prir
disadvantage arises from the strict safety precaul
necessary when using radioactive tracers and thc
sulting inflexibility of the test programme.
An alternative flow measurement technique
developed is the use of ultrasonic flowmeters,
multiple transmission paths being included to
INFLATABLE SEAL
MOUNTING RiNG-
Flci. 4.11 Puo)p $11811 seal
c use of austenitic ni-resist cast irons for the
18 material of cooling water pumps where severe
lilions exist is now increasing rapidly. This ma-
I, particularly in its spheroidal graphite form,
while grey cast iron can be used for inland fresh-
water sites, austenitic ni-resist cast iron is required
for seawater applications.
Circulating water pump impellers are supplied in
stainless steel with renewable eye rings to cater for
the waterways. Special attention is required at the
sleeve/sleeve and sleeve/impelier joints to prevent
ingress o f water onto the shaft surface, which can
cause corrosion fatigue. On horizontal pump designs,
overlapping sleeves and radial O-rings have been
399
FIG.4.53 Horizontal split-casing extraction pump
Condensers, pumps a n d cooliiig water plant
Railer teed pumps
-

impeller inlet, the first stage impeller eye of a hori-
zontal extraction pump should be vented back to the
vapoui space in the condenser, with the vent piping
having an upward slope to the condenser.
In recent CEGB stations, where surface tubular
which can occui on the a l t ~ r n a t i \ ~aliangeillr
e
the punlps are operated significantly awa)' f~-oil3Ill
duty points.
I'umps are specified with a requirement thar
tion erosion does no1 produce mechanical fail

COIlPilNG L D C K N U i
large split-casing pumps, particularly in sealing the is limited to 2.4 (ISO). COUPLING KEY
main joint and withstanding impeller radial loads.
VEHIICALIHRUSTANO
An alternative caisson type pump (Fig 4.54) has now JOURNAIGUlDEULARINC.
been adopted. The multi-stage vertical pump design
has several attractions over the horizontal split casing 14 Boiler feed pumps SPINOLESFIIING
PUMPDELIVCRI
pump: ARRLNGMENIAND
LE*K.OFT SISIEM
COFDELIYERV
The NPSH available is increased by installing the
pump in a pit, thereby reducing the risk of cavita. 14.1 Introduction
tion crosion.

An increase in the NPSH available allows the 1, determining the arrangement o f I

same NPSH margin.

is need take static shaft deflections

effects of loss o f availability. Other constraints n
into account on the vertical pump. Radial stresses are:
should be

. are reduced allowing a slimmer shaft to be used.

Only a single mechanical seal is required which

operates under pressure, providing less danger of
the oxygen ingress that was sometimes encountered
with the older traditional pumpsets. To prevent
oxygell ingress while the pump is on standby, the
inner seal chamber is filled at all tinies with pies-
surised water supplied either from the common
discharge manifold or from a back-up reserve feed-
.
water supply when both pumps are stopped.
There is a facility for a cartridge-type repair which
improves pumpset availability. ~h~ pumps are
designed so that, by disconnecting the pipework
at the discharge branch, the pump element can
be readily removed from the caisson in one piece
The need to ensure that failure o f a single purl
does not impair the start-up of the main 1111
affect output capability. Standby capacity equ
lent to the largest duty pumpset is indicatet
a rapid start-up capability, sufficient to I>
EOI s ~ ~ ~ , ~ ~
the loss Of boiler drum level and cOnseque'
.
to ensure that the plant is able lo
erate satisfactorily during and after a large I >
rejection by the turbine-generator unit. This
quires that the drives for the duty pumps and t
power supplies must be suitable for this opera
condition. Alternatively, a suitable rapid $1
$landby pumpset is necessary.

. following removal of the electric motor.

A more compact layout can be achieved with the

vertical pumps which take less space than the hori.
zontal designs.
The need to provide adequate NPSH margi
taking into account that the Pumps are ~ U P P ~
from a direct contact heater (de-aerator), which
be subject to pressure decay following a redticti
in turbine load.

To ensure that the extraction pumps have stable
head/flow characteristics and are capable o f operating
in parallel over the complete operating range, the
pumps are now designed so that the generated head
rises by at least 1 % for every 15% reduction in
flowrate between the rated duty point and 25% rated
flowrate.
Extraction pumps on CEGB stations have been
operated on either free suction or recirculation control.
402
There should be at least two pumpsets capable
starting the unit. If a turbine drive is to fulfil t LWSE BELLMOUItI
function, then a steam supply independent of
BEARING BUSH
main boiler (i.e., an auxiliary boiler) is requir
If two o r more pumps are required to op
in parallel, then the pumpsets should be able
accommodate run-out duties following 10% of
operating pump. FIG. 4.54 Vertical caisson extraction pump

Condensers, pumps and cooiing water plant
r TIi? pio\,ision of sufficient l>iirnying to
fro,,, ,.equire,,,ents ol)cl-ationai ~ i ~ long
cumstanccs. It is lioililal practice to include a flow
rnaigio to accommodate additional demand by the
turbine above its design rating during transient
flow disuirbances. A margin on pump generated
head is also appropriate to cover for deterioration
from intcrnal wear during periods between
overhaul. In the interests of keeping pumpset sizes
14.2 Feed pump developments
Boiler feed pumps installed on early 500 MW units
ORhYLOC SEALING RING
COYER PUiiE
MECHANICAL SE
CoOLlNG WATER CONNECTiONS
FIG. 4.55 500 MW
were typically a sliou,n iri Fig 4.55; tile!' illcli
. flcxibie shaft witli about sin stages and i l l i
dual t111.ust from the impellers taken by ;I
tional balaiice disc arrangement. The bearin I>III damage, and having s cartridge co~istructiorl
mounted o n separate pedestals which had I <
moved before the $main pomp internals could i)i' V
drawn. Glands were of the fixed labyrintli Or i i ~ ~ l l
ring type, and the main bolted casing joint I specification, means that the pump nlust be
jected t o full discharge pressure.
for replacement of the pump internals. iibstanlial head. After this the pump is enpccted
flexible shaft design of feed pump, and
awareness of overall economic considerations, :i I
concept was developed with the emphasis on ac ' "
maximum availability coupled with a dcsig~l
!!.I. requirements have been met by the develop-
NIISWIRLVANE
SUCilONSiOPPERASSEMBLY
substantially stiffened shaft with the number of
MECHANICALSEAL
Illrrnai clearances enlarged to ensure that the
liiaip is capable of dry running without damage.
lplacement of the heavy externally-bolted dis-
Irge cover by a n internal self-sealing high pressure
11 external oii-lubricated thrust bearing.
dge' design, permitting rapid replacement of
mp internals with a spare element (an alter-
design was also developed using the concept
11' removal and replacement of the complete pump
lllit, having a special bolted arrangement o n the
iiijacent suction and discharge pipework).
. result of the stiff shaft is that, even with the
xlnil~m permitted worn internal clearances, the
r transverse critical speeds in water are well above
mating speed range. This permits relatively high
main boiler feed pump oilal speeds (typically in the range 6500-8700
Boiler feed pumps
?/mill) to aciiicve tlie necessary lhigir licad pel- stage.
Slow speed boostcr pumps arc therefore required to
pravidc sufficient NPSH to linlil cavitation problems
on the main pump.
With regard to NPSH, a conservative design ap-
proach was adopted. De-aerator storagc tank height
and suction pipewark layout were arranged to pro-
vide a substantial margin of NPSH over the measured
pump 3% head drop NPSH, even under the worst
transient situation.
14.3 Advanced class feed pump construction
The pump casing consists of a forged steel barlei to
which are welded the suction and discharge branches.
Extensive areas have stainless steel cladding to give
protection against erosion. Supporting feel are ar-
ranged at the centreline t o give positive restraint to
movement upwards and downwards and yet ailow-
ing for free thermal expansion. Sliding keys control
thermal movement and maintain alignment with the
drive.
The pumps have all their bearings, both thrust
and journal, in housings supported off the pump
casing or internal cartridge. This makes the pump
more immune to the effects of pipework ioads and
minimises the effects of shaft misalignment.
The 'cartridge' inner pump assembly, complete with
integral bearings, is designed so that it can readily
be transported to a suitable maintenance area as a
package unit. The cartridge components are pre-
assembled on a manufacturing jig so that no subse-
quent adjustment is necessary to ensure component
concentricity, and minimal adjustment is required to
achieve the necessary degree of coupling alignment
after the cartridge is installed in the pump barrel.
O n ilisertion into the barrel, the suction and dis-
charge ends are slid apart and located at their res-
pective ends of the barrel. Three joints are made
during this operation; the suction ring section and
main cover joints. Although different designs of
pump have been adopted (Figs 4.56 and 4.571, car-
tridge replacement follows the same strict methodical
procedure.
T o ensure rapid cartridge changeover, the normally
heavy externally-bolted discharge cover arrangement
has been replaced by an internal self-sealing high
pressure joint system. Rapid replacement of the car-
tridge necessitates the use of specially designed with-
drawal gear as illustrated in Fig 4.58.
The impellers are o f high quality precision-cast
stainless steel, with the castings subject to extensive
radiographic inspection and stringent dimensional
control to ensure repeatable cavitation performance.
The first stage impellers are designed to have a ca-
vitation life of 45 000 hours when operated in the
range 80-100% of the rated flow.
405
 "--
<~
"si-
8
.

R
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chaotei 4 i
Boiler feed pumps

SlhllOSIILL Siihl
C""FI1
IIYURO GLAND
BUSH
---
W A i W THROWER
4.60 Labyiinfll gland and siaiidsiill real
F~G.
taken from the condenser extraction pump discharge
and fed direct to the feed pump glands. The injection
pressure would be controlled at approximately one
bar above the gland unloading pressure. T o cater for
start-up conditions and interruptions in the supply
tanks.
Since the leakages through labyrinth seals are
relatively high, it can be desirable to reduce the
leakage flow when the pumps are stationary. This
is particularly relevant to standby feed pumps. There-
fore standby seals are included which operate when
the pumps come to rest. The standby seals consist of
three segments which are held together on the shaft
to form a closed seal when the pump is stationary.
They are opened by centrifugal force at a predeter-
mined speed to minimise rubbing contact during pump
operation. For base-load feed pumps, it is possible
to replace the centrifugal seal arrangement with a n
extended labyrinth. This reduces on-load leakage losses
at the expense of higher leakage while the pump is
stationary. A labyrinth bush outboard of the injection
point controls leakage of water t o a clean drains
vessel, from where it can be recovered to the system.
Problems with labyrinth glands on some earlier
to mechanical seals. These reduced the risk of tem-
perature stratification problems in the labyrinth area
of these long slender shaft designs, in additic
minimising running and standby leakage. As a
of the early satisfactory performance of mech;
seals, there has been a progressive developmrlil
mechanical seal systems up to the high speed viil,i
feed pumps, while retaining labyrinth arrangcnic
on the main feed pumps. For a 3 x 50% pumi)
rangement, mechanical seals are accepted whei~:
can be demonstrated that the seals have a design ll
of at least I5 000 h.
A typical hish duty mechanical seal arrangem
is shown in Fig 4.61. The 'cartridge' design enill
it to be assembled as a complete unit into the puin
thus minimising installation errors. A pumping rll
is incorporated into the rotating part of the sco
which circulates water around a closed loop, throu
a heat exchanger and returning to the seal face nlr
This recirculation enables the correct seal face
peratures and stable face conditions to be achie
The heat exchangers are normally positioned abi
the seals in order to obtain a good thermal sypl
effect during hot standby conditions. An inner co
ing jacket is also included to reduce the heat
into the seal chamber. In certain designs, the e
thermal syphoning. A simple magnetic separator
also installed into the seal pumping loop t o enso
SHAFT SLEEVE
ROiAliNG FACE
SIAIIONARY FACE
FLANGE
1'lG. 4.61 Meel~aocalacal
I ;any magnetic particles, which could abrade the
laces, are removed.
, face materials used on early feed pump seals
lungsten carbide rotating against a stationary
11 face. While this combination proved very sat-
ry on low speed applications, on certain high
rcmature failure. The reliability of feed pump
additives, use o f this material eliminates this
Pump layout and drive
increasing head per stage in the high head boiler
Boiler feed pumps
SEALFLANGE
SPRING HOLDER
feed pumps has resulted in the need for an NPSH
well in excess of that available, even from high level
de-aerators. This can be provided by slow speed boost-
er pumps, driven either separately or in tandem with
the pressure stage pump.
Separately-driven booster pumps necessitate the
prevent vapour locking in the event of failure of
sure stage pump leak-off valves to be closed when the
pump is standing to prevent recirculation back to the
de-aerator.
Tandem sets (Fig 4.63) require less complex pipe-
work arrangements, less complex feed systems and
take up less turbine hall space. Being dependent on
a single drive, they are also more reliable than the
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
'The overail unit (Fig 4.54) cooil~iiscs, witiiiii tile
casing, a nuid coupling and step-og gears. For tile
high oulput speeds required on advanced clasi gomps,
stcp-ug gearing is included on boti, the input and
output sides of tiic coupling.
The fiilid coupling incorporates two separate oil
systems drawing from a common sump. One system
provides lubricating oil to thc fluid coupling and to
and the driving motor. The oil is drawn from the
the second system, oil used as the working fluid is
circulated by the dynamic head generated at the scoop
tip in a closed loop. Make-up for this closed loop is
provided by a gear-driven centrifugal pump dwing
normal operatioll and a motor-driven gear type pump
for startilmg and standby duties. Both circuits include
oil coolers.
14.7 Light load protection
The telnpcrature rise across a pump is caused by
two separate phenomena; the isentropic co~npression
temperature rise and the rise generated by the in-
efficiency o f the pump. As throughput diminishes,
efficiency falls and the temperature rises. If a pump
this, a leak-off system is provided which opens auto-
matically at the minimum safe flow and allows the
pump to discharge to the de-aerator. Pressure in the
leak-off piping is broken down through a pressure
reducing vessel, uahich consists of a series o f orifice
plates, and finally with an orifice plate positioned at
the inlet to the de-aerator and sized to avoid flashing
in the leak-off pipework.
Low throughput can also lead to random pressure
pulsations being generated by the pump. These can
excite low frequency resonances in the adjacent feed
system pipework, leading to unacceptable pipework
The configuration commonly used on CEGB stations
(Fig 4.62) consists o f 2 x 100% parallel slide leak-off
Valves, arranged in parallel, with a separate pressure
reducing vessel downstream of the valves. T h e ini-
tiation signal for leak-off valve operation is taken
from an orifice plate located in either the suction
or discharge pipework. Installation in the suction
pipework is preferred since this location senses total
pump throughput, i.e., the summation of forward
Railer feed pumps
lion. lo #lie boiler and the lcalc-off i?o\v. Aisc,,
prcssore diffeicntiai tappings are not reqoiie<l i t , I
position.
Eiectiically-operated valve actuators have b c i i i I I
on many stations bill as failure of the e1cctric;iI i.
plies woi~ld rendel. then1 inoperative and pomji
tection would be lost, the electrical supply
valve is taken fvom separate station switchh
electropncunmatic systems lhave resulted in a pref
of the pneumatic system is that the spccd of i
tion is readily adjustable.
To provide maximum protection to the pun111
piping system under all foreseen operating COLI
the valves lihust be capable of opening r a p i
the other hand, very fast opening can lead
acceptable shock loadings on the feed systenl
experience, valve opening times of up to IS
been found acceptable, dependent on the feai
times after installation, to suit local conditionr
operating practices.
T o pcrnmit on-load maintenance of the I
system, sufficient manual isolating valves are il
and any parts subject to in-service wear, for ex,
avoid malfunction.
14.8 Testing
CEGU specifications require that the 100@li 8x11
boiler feed pump is tested at a load corieslioi,dl
to turbine MCR to prove conformity with the R I I I
antee, and also at part-load to confirm thal I
pump performance characteristics are satisfaciol
Site tests, however, are of necessity late in the sliill
construction programme, so that any shortfalls
commenced.
For steam turbine driven pumps, it is not pracll
to specify full works testing and instead part-spc
interim hydraulic performance tests are carried oul
the manufacturer's works to d e m o ~ ~ s t r a tthal
e I
pumps have reasonable prospects of achieving 111
specified requirements on site In terms of rated di
and hydraulic characteristics. These interim tests I
followed by full-load acceptance tests on site wit11 I
plant in service.
Condensers, pumps and coolitig water plant
Manofactul-cl-s works test facilities arc gnlcrally
suitable far full-load acceptance testing of electrically-
driven feed pumps. Tire suction and picssuic stage
pumps are first tested individually to canfirin tlic
head/efficiency guarantees, the 3% bead drop cavila-
tion performance guarantees, and the shape of their
hydraulic characteristics. These are followed by testing
of thc complete pumpset, including the motor and
gearbox/fluid coupling assembly. In each case, hydraulic
performance tests are undertaken using the method
of measurement laid down in BS5316 [21].
Hydraulic output control tests are included on
electrically-driven pumpsets t o determine the thres-
hold response, repeatability and input/output char-
acteristics of the fluid coupling arrangement. For
starting/standby feed pumps, tests may also be re-
quired to demonstrate compliance with run-up time
guarantees. Thcsc would include the time from test
to full-speed and also acceleration from part-speed
conditions.
For new pump designs, supporting tests are required
to demonstrate that the plant offered will satisfactorily
accommodate any possible thermal shock, vapour lock
or axial thrust condition that can arise during op-
eration. In addition, a visual cavitation test is carried
out on the pressure stage first-stage impeller to de-
monstrate compliance with NPSH visual cavitation
guarantees.
The thermodynamic method of determining pump
efficiency has now been successfully applied t o CEGB
feed pumps. This method compares the isentropic
enthalpy rise across the pump with the measured
enthalpy rise, and has the advantage over the con-
ventional torquemeter method in that it is suitable
for continuous on-line monitoring o f plant perform-
ance. Accurate measurements of the temperature and
pressure parameters at pump suction and discharge
are required, and suitable equipment is now installed
o n new plant. In calculating the thermodynamic
efficiency, losses resulting from gland sealing, balance
water, bearing friction and heat transfer have all to
be taken into account. These secondary losses can
be derived at the initial commissioning test by com-
paring the conventional torquemeter acceptance test
results with those obtained from the thermodynamic
method.
14.9 PWR feed pumpsets
The feed pump generated head requirement o n a
water reactor unit is in the region of 900 m. This is
considerably lower than that necessary o n a fossil-
fired station and allows the use of a single-stage
double-entry pump. Changing t o the simpler double-
entry design, eliminates the need for any balance
drum to rcdcl against large ~mpellzr lw.rdinp, This
Ic3ds to an tnlpro\.emcnr in pump hldraulic effalen.
cy compared with the equivalent multi-stage pump
41 6
incccssary NPSH, is in line wilh overseas p
use of fixed-speed motors and fluid coull
within the experience of plant already o
Double-entry feed pumps (Fig 4.65) can lei;
the features of advanced class construction,
stiff shaft, 'cartridge' design, with vapour lo
thermal shock capability. The provision of 111
pumpset reliability. The seals themselves are ii
t o have a minimum life o f I5 000 h betu'eu
haul. A 'cartridge' seal assembly reduces do\i,l
for any seal maintenance and minimises instal it^
type faults.
T o prevent any axial shuttling of the shaft, !\,I
could damage the mechanical seals, a delibefiilr
pcllei wear-ring diameter differential is intl-oil1
to create a known unbalanced unidirectional I
which is taken by an external thrust bearing. 7'0
for radial loadings acting on the pump, the
designs can either include radial diffusers or ale
the double volute type.
P","P
CA88"G
,M*SLLS" Ss,,hrl
LSWF
14.10 Future trends TIC. 4.65 PWR feed pump
with 100% standby capacity and substantial sp
necessitated very tight internal running clearallces till
inability t o withstand vapour lock or thermal trar will be continued, but with a limitation on
conditions. ller speed t o minimise risks of impeller erosion
A comparison of operating experience has den11 g off-duty operating conditions. A likely eco- 15 ~ i ~pumps~ ~ l
strated the effectiveness of providing rugged relia c solution is a three-stage machine with booster
feed pumps and highlighted the strong financial
centives of installing spare capacity to maximise f
pump availability. It is now evident that overs
ultilities are moving towards CEGB practice.
When determining standby requirements, the cu
rent trend is t o provide 3 x 50% pumpsets. TI1
arrangement meets the basic objectives listed in II
introduction to this section and achieves them tor with consequent reductions in station civil parate categories, pipeline-mounted pumps and sump
larger fossil-fired plant without any excessive extr
polations of existing technology, by taking maxim11
advantage of UK manufacturer's international e
perience to produce reliable plant.
A 3 x 50% configuration with quick-start variab
speed motor-driven units represents a low capital a
through life cost option for a practical plant arrang
Condensers, pumps and cooling water Illant
F ~ G 4.66
. mod err^ recd jpunlp constiuctior~
assists maintenance activities with no disturbance of
ings eliminates the need for removal of the motor
during work on the pump.
All pumpsets in this range are close-coupled, with
the pump impeller mounted directly onto an extended
motor shaft (Fig 4.67). This arrangement requires a
bearings to carry the pump hydraulic forces. Although
there is an initial cost penalty compared with the
equivalent end suction designs, the vertical pumpsets
take up less floor space and experience indicates
they are more reliable and require significantly less
maintenance. This is attributed to several factors,
including the elimination of coupling alignment pro-
blems which can result in a reduced seal life.
Larger pipeline pumps are of the horizontal split-
418
In the past, sump pumps h
from columns, the impeller be in^
level motor through a long nlull
failure occurred, particularly th
which is difficult and often very
Increasing use is now being mil
dium power outputs. Ease of wit
ment are good and reliability
the arduous conditions often 11
drainage work.
These are used to pump a me
FIG. 4.67 Verlicnl in-line pump cons~ii~ctio~i
tiracy over long periods and po-
I I sililable corrosion-resistant materials.
'"'
'peration of a meteri'lg
" i'lunger a certain
~ c l stroke.
"IgI1 a
l Liquid is drawn into the
and
nO'l-return valve. The gear drawing
; a mechanism for altering the stroke
a "ariation in Pump delivery, there-
Control of the amount of chemical
nosilive displacement action results in
llsations of flow rather than a steady
b? smoothed out, if necessary, by the
15.3 ~i~~
pumps
Fire pumps are of simple robust construction to
ensure high reliability when called upon to operate
in ,, emergency. =he pumpsets are usually self.
contained packages driven by diesel engines with the
start-up motors supplied from a local battery pack.
water for engine is taren from the pump
discharge. Shaft leakage is controlled by traditional
soft-packed glands rather than the more sophisticated
mechanical seals. This eliminates any risk of enforced
shutdown which could arise from failure of a me-
chanical seal.
Condenset.~, pumps arid coalirig wale? p l u ~ i ~
ELECTRICAL TERMINALS
COOLING JACKET
OIL RESERVOIR
FIG. 4.68 Sublnersible pumjl construction
16 References
I11 CEGB:'Chemieal control of boiler feedwater, boiler water and
saiurated steam for drum-type and once-throilgh boilers': Genera-
lion operation mcmoranduni ( 0 0 M ) 7 2 Issue 4: 1975
121 Poppl~welland Barer: 'Corrosion Performance of some Copper
Alloy Condenser Tube Materials in Ammoniated Condensate':
National Association of Corrosion Enginecrr. Paper 102. Cor-
rosion: 1974
131 'Titanium Information Bulletin': Imperial Metal lndustrior
(Kynoch) Ltd.: 1974
I41 Han~on, C . F.: 'Malerials in Power Plant': lnniituie o r
Metalluigirla, 98-103: April 1975
IS1 Standards for Sieem Surfsee Condensen': The Heal Exchanger
lnsiitilie (HEI)
[61 ‘Publiestion on the ror rhc of
surface-type steam condenring plant': The British Electrical
and Allied Manufaciarerr Association (BEAMA)
420
,t!lii I'iesaii~e Yeircl Codc, Seczlo~i8, 13irisio8,r I and 2 of Specific Sp~ctl':'riiil)s ASMII: 1943
c 1:GB: 1'erf~)linasceor Sulfsce-lipc Steam Colideiiserr: Site 1201 <;rirc. E.: ,Nett liosiiive suction lhehd ieqiiiieo~e~?fs for a\,oid-
ierl Code No. 3: 1981 ~ ~ I CofC u ~ ? a c c e ~ l a bal ic- i i ~ t i o terosion
i it, ceni>i(ugaipurni,~':
lJS752: 'Test Code for Acceplaiicr. of S~eairi'siirbiilei': 1974 IMecllI Ci63: 1974
('liG8: 'Steam Torbi~?e-Geseiaioineat ~~i~ T C S ~ ? ' :site I211 US5316: 'Speciiicalioi~ for Accci,rance 'Tests for Ce~?lvirugal.
( o d e No. 2: 1978 Mixed Plow and Axial Pumj>s'
hlnericaa Sooery of Mecllar$ical ~ n e i n e e r s(ASME): 'stvaciurai 1221 855257: 'Specifieatios for End-suction Cenil.ifuga1 13umpr
I'l~nrucleiiriicsof Hclicnl-Corrueated Heat Excliangcx n b e s (16 bar)': 1975
I,? ASME': 1975
1231 BS4082: 'Spccificalian for External Vimciisionr for Vertical
StcPanoff, A. 1.: 'Cenoiiugai P u m p Perfoiniancc as Function In-line Ccnrrifugal Pumps'
I71 Steel, T . F. (CEGB): 'The Thermal Design of Condcl
From rlle users point of view': taken from a report of a I
ing at NEL on the Thermal Derisn of Condensers: Jan
1966
181 International Symposiuni on Condenrers, Theory and Pruc
UMIST Maneliestei: March 1983.
191 894360: ~ ~ ~ ~ i for
f i weldable
~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~l
i ~ , , steels:
.
1101 BS1501: Specification for steeis for fired and usifired pr
ves~cl6.Par1 1 Csrbon and Carbon Manganese SLeelr:
1 1 1 1 B S l s w (Withdrawn), now BSSSOO: Specification For liii
Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels: 1976
[I21 BSl515 (withdrawn), now BS5SW: Specification for lii!
Fusion Welded Prosnure Yesrein: 1976
1131 TubuiaiExchangerManufaclurersAsrociaIion(TEMA)SI~~~
ardr: Fourth Edition 1959, Fifth Edition 1968
4 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) llul
 Types of ti~rbine

Ipiessuie ins!, bc alicctcd b r suilablc locaiioii o l the

turbine in rclaiiali to tlie lailwalei levci. This Iheighi
i i called ihc suction ihead (14,) anrl is govcrocd by lhc
rclatian I i , r 13 - OH.

where B = diffcrencc in head bctween barometer

and water saturation vapoor pressure, m
T E R 5
o = Thoma's cavitation parameter

Hydraulic turbines H, is positive when the tailwater level is below the

pump runner as shown in Fig 5.1 and negative when
above. An indication of bow o varies with 11, is given
in Fig 5.3.
1 Definitions and conceprn ~ From the information given in Figs 5.2 and 5.3 it
1.1 output 3.1 Ffesfiniog power station is evident that for a given n,, the type of turbine
1.2 Specific speed 3.2 The reversible puinp~rurbine employed can be influenced by tlie ability of the ap-
1.3 Cavitation 3.3 Dinorwig power station
1.4 Running speed 3.3.1 The site plication to accommodate the suction head require-
3.3.2 Runner submergence ments. These iiifluences may result from physical,
2 Types of turbine 3.3.3 Operational requirements
3.3.4 Design life performance or cost considerations.
2.1 he Pelton turbine
2.2 The Francis turbine 3.3.5 Machine iayout
2.3 The Kaplan turbine 3.3.6 Vaives
2.4 Tubular turbines 33.7 Testi~lg
2.4.1 The bulb turbine 3.3.8 Some delailr of lhc Dinoiwig pumped-storage ~ f i # i i o , t 1.4 Running speed
2.4.2 The tube turbine 4 References
'This should be as high as possible for economical
24.3 The rim generator design 5 Additional references turbinc design and the generator is the dominant
influence in its selection. In tlie event of disconnec-
'igure 5.2 shows how specific speed and head are tion of electrical load, the acceleration of the com-
plete turbine-generator rotor system is extremely rapid
. led for turbines o f good efficiency. Superimposed
n indication of the range of application of each
the types of turbine i n use. It will be noted that,
and stabilises at a maximum called the runaway speed.
Since water hammer effects would, in most cases,
Illlough there is a consistent trend in the application preclude shut-off of the water supply in sufficient
of these various types, there is considerable overlap. time to prevent the rotor reaching runaway, this speed
1 Definitions and concepts 1.2 Specific speed must therefore be acceptable to the generator which
Turbines vary widely in form and a~nlicatioii, A is the most vulnerable component.
..
one extreme is the pure irf~puise,noclzine (sucli it The ratio of runaway speed to normal speed varies
the Pelton turbine), where the flow is generally lo 1.3 Cavitation between different turbine types as follows:
1.1 Output
The wafer turbine is a device which transforms the
but the head is large.- Reaction turbines. in wllii: I'81uitation is a very complicated physical phenome-
i ~ i ~resulting
~ i from the water flow in the passages Reversibie pump turbines: 1.35 to 1.45
the prcssu1.e drop takes place in both fixed and I
potential energy of a head of water into mechanical taring parts of the machine, cover the remail~i I r l 3 turbine. It can occur whenever the local fluid Francis turbines: 1.7 to 2.0
work in accordance with the relationship: types. These range from rodial flow turbines (so pressure falls below a value corresponding t o the
a,nler vapour pressure at the prevailing temperature. Kaplan turbines: 2.0 to 2.2 (guide bladcs/runner
as the Francis turbine), for medium heads and floi
~ d e rthese conditions, boiling and steam bubble blades linked)
t o axial orpropeller fypes (such as the Kaplan turbirr
for low head, high flow application such as rivers. nrlnation may occur. When these vapour bubbles 2.4 to 3.0 (guide blades inde-
The turbine operating parameters of head, ilo ira\~ctravelled t o some other point in the fluid path pendent of runner
where P = turbine output, kW
e the pressure is higher, violent collapse of the blades)
and rotational speed thus cover a wide range of con
q, = water flow rate, kg/s binations. In order to characterise them for c ubbles can take place. In such circumstances, severe
H = head difference between upper and tail parison and selection purposes, the concept of spe n and loss of metal in pump components and Hence the normal running speed of the turbine can
water levels, m (see Fig 5.1) speed (n,) is used. This is defined as: s can occur, even though materials such as stain- be determined. The final turbine runaway speed is
lcsa steel are employed which are resistant t o cavita- usually determined from model tests.
h = hydraulic losses in pipes, m lioii attack. Cavitation is often responsible also for
- np0.5/~l.21
e = turbine efficiency 5 - isy operation and vibration within the set, and
iy be associated with a reduction of output and
2 Types of turbine
where n P = turbine rotational speed, r/min
Avoidance of erosion damage is the aim of the
design and may require restricting the range of
This quantity is o f great importance in turbil lurbine operation. It is also important t o ensure that 2.1 The Pelton turbine
The efficiency varies considerably between various selection as it is found that, by its use, many o f t lile water pressure is sufficiently above saturation. T h e Pelton turbine (Fig 5.4) is generally used in
turbine types and sizes but is in the range 0.9 to turbine's design and operating parameters can particularly so at the turbine outlet where applications where there is a relatively small rate-
0.94 for large machines. correlated. pressure is lowest. Adjustment of this of-flow at a large head, typically above 250 m.
422
Hydraulic turbines
PELTON TURBINES
SPEClFlC SPEED n,
It is an example of the pure impulse machine in
'hich the whole of the pressure head is converted
1 velocity in one or more nozzles in parallel, the
1s from them impinging on buckets mounted on
Ie runner. Each bucket consists of a pair Of spoon-
shaped lobes; the central ridge which divides them
splits the water jet and guides each of the two flows
through an angle of about 165'. Ideally, for maxi-
mum momentum transfer, the jet would be turned
180" but this is precluded by the need to direct the
425
liydraulic turbilies
HlGW PRESSURE +
WATER INLET
FIG. 1.4 I'elloe
discharged water away from the runner and from
the path of the following bucket. For similar reasons,
the central ridge is scalloped at the tip to give a clear
path to the jet impinging on the working bucket.
Theoretically the maximum efficiency of this type
Of turbine occurs when the bucket peripheral speed
is one half that of the impinging jet. This is im-
required. In practice, the ratio of blade-to-jet speed lies
between 0.46 and 0.47.
The efficiency o f the Pelton turbine can be o f the
order o f 92%.
Water is directed onto the buckets by means of
nozzles, the flow of water, and hence the output, being
controlled by a central needle, or spear, whose bulbed
head varies the flow area as it moves axially within
quired after loss o f load from the driven machine,
cannot be effected by rapid closure of the spear
due to the water hammer effects referred to earlier.
Shutdown is therefore effected by inserting into the
jet either a cut-off to destroy its kinetic energy o r a
deflector to direct the jet away from the bucket. The
jet of water is then shut off at suitably safe rate.
2.2 The Francis turbine
In this type of machine (Fig 5,5), the water is fed
radially to the runner from guide vanes which are
Types of turlline
wlleel turbine RUNNBRBUDE
disposed around the full circumference. The ant
these vanes can be varied to control machine i,
and the water is uniformly distributed to theni I
spiral casing.
After being directed onto the runner, the
flows radially inwards, being turned by the I
blades so that it discharges axially into the i
D R A R CONE
AND D R A R TUBE
maximum efficiency of Francis turbines is 9 4 9
Both horizontal and vertical shaft mounting c;in
I:~c,$ 5 i7raseisiurbine for leu. head applications
employed.
Control of end thrust is important. This
largely from the different pressures between th
and rear shrouds and their respective casings.
rear shroud, the source of pressurisation is so
high pressure at guide vane exit, whereas th
and this water is ducted away by the drain system.
As well as this varying pressure distributioo,
front face o f the impeller also experiences draft 11
pressure over the whole eye (i.e., the area o f
impeller facing the draft tube).
Since the areas involved are often large, the t11re
resulting from even small pressure differences ca
considerable. It is usually reduced by control o
pressures on the top and bottom shrouds, thro
bearings are therefore provided on the spindles pro-
inboard of this latter seal is maintained at d
tube pressure by the use of balance pipes connect , must accommodate shaft axial movement. These Movement of the guide vanes is effected by a
these two regions and/or holes drilled in the ro re either conventional packed glands or ~ r o p r i e - crank attached to the end of one of the spindles,
427
liydraulic turbines
tire oilier end o f t l ~ ccrank bciiig located in a icgu-
laling ring. Rotation of lhc rcpiiialing ring movcs
t l ~ ccranks, and ileiice ilic guide vanes, in syochronism
throi~gb the required angle. This rotation is lpio-
duced by one or, rno1.c usilaily, 1\1,0 hydrai~iicrams
or servomotors acting at eacll end o f a diamctei of
the regulating ring. Some form of slipping device is
normally incorporated in the crank/goide vane con-
nection so that if a foreign body (such as a log)
g a s jammed between two vanes, the remainder can
be closed normally. A warning device is often fitted
to indicate that the slipping device has operated.
2.3 The Kaplan turbine
The essential featore of the Kaplan turbine (Fig 5.6)
is that the water fiow through the runner is in an
axial direction. The inlet spiral casing and the guide
vanes are similar in layout and operation to thc
Francis turbine. After leaving the guide iiancs, how-
ever, the water turns into the axial direction before
meeting the runner.
The runner resembles a ship's propeller whosc
blades (typically four to six in number) are adjustable
in pitch to present the optimum angle of attack to
the water flow. It is this ability to optimise the
runner performance that enables the Kapian turbine
t o maintain its efficiency over a much greater range
of speeds and power outputs than the Francis type.
A peak efficiency of about 94% is achieved in iargc
machines.
The biades are most conveniently adjusted by means
of a lever arm within the hub. Axial movement of
a cross-head connecting with each of the lever arms
rotates the blades. The servomotor system which op-
erates the cross-head can be within the hub o r outside
the machine, connecting with the cross-head by hy-
draulic means (Fig 5.6) or through a control rod
within the holiow shaft. The optimum relationship
between runner blades and guide vane angle is con-
trolled by a cam system in the operating mechanism.
lnstallation is usually as a vertical shaft machine.
This configuration has the following advantages:
Bearing and lubrication system layout is simple.
Electrical generator installation. access a n d
maintenance is made easier.
s Turbine support and secure embedding of parts,
such as the inlet volute, in a heavy concrete mass
are facilitated.
Equipment can be mounted o n the top cover and
is easily accessible for maintenance.
Submersion o f the runner below the tailwater level
t o obviate cavitation is achieved with minimum
civil costs, compared with submersion of the com-
piete set.
428
Types of turbine
2.4 Tubular rurbines
The Kaliiaii turbinc has been uzideiy wscii iii I
and tidal power sciiernes, iuhere a coinpaiaitivlr
GUIDE VANE
OPERATING
lhcad o r wafer is available. Howcver, tlicic : i i i MECHANISM
advaniagcs:
r The submersion of the runner to avoid c
rcqiiires excavation fol. the draft trubc, i
sequent increased civil costs.
Several changes of direction occur in thi. i
and draft tube system which raises hydrauiic i
This led to the development of the t u b u h 1111
in which the Kaplan type of runner is osril,
fixed or variable blades, and installed will1 i r h
more or less horizontal. T h e water path IIIIO,
viates froin the axial direction as iittie as po*%lb
The efficiency of the tubular turbine is siiii
that of the Kaplan machine.
The principal subdivisioxls of the tubular ~ i l i t
.
are as follows:
The bulb wrbine.
Tlle tube turbine.
The rim generator.
2.4.1 The bulb turbine
This derives its name from the 'bulb' in 111
path which contains the electrical generator (I
Normally the bulb is placed upstream of thc I
and is supnorted in the water path by struls \ TURBINE W A F 1
since they arc hallow and large enough to gal
to the generator for maintenance, must be <
designed if unnecessary hydraulic losses a,
disturbances are t o be avoided.
Guide vanes, sometimes called wicket galcr,
located in the annulus between bulb and carin&
control the fiow of water t o the runner.
Several combinations of guide vane/runne~ b
control are possible:
Variable guide vanes and runner blades
This combination provides the best efficiency
the load range. It also allows a useful variaal
tidal power schemes. Thus, as well as operatin]!
turbine in either the ebb o r flow direction, tllc~
the capability for pumping in either direclion
improve the head availabie for the next geneml
cycle. u
Variable guide vanes, fixed runner blades WC. 5.6 Kanlan turbine with delail of the hub mechasisn, far varying llle blade angle shown on tbe insel
Load is satisfactorily controlled over the camp
operating range by varying the guide vane 1111
 Hydraulic turbines

creatc shall whirling and bearing arrangement

ditions and vibration.
s Using fixed ronnei blades, tile cost of these units is
extremely with other types. 'The narrow
2.4.3 The rim generator design

--- methods, does however, detract from the financial

his design is marketed by Escher Wyss under thc

e 'Straflo'. The efficiency of these units is com-
ble with other tubular turbines.
he concept has the following features:
e Generator accessibility is very good and the large
diameter ensures high inertia, and hence stability.
Its design is, however, dictated by turbine
than electrical considerations and balancing must
be rigidly controlled o n these large diameters.
6 Seals a1.e required between the rotating shroud ring
of the turbine and the static casing of the water
passage to prevent ingress o f water to the electrical
generator. These seals have been the subject of
intense development t o enable them to perform
Pumped-storage
pumped-storage offers a means of storing electricity
in the form of the potential energy of water held at
high level. The main advantages and reasons for its
installation can be stated as f0llowS:
. For electrical generation in the 'peak lopping' role.
~~i~~ comparatively simple, it can provide a rapid
start for peak lopping or emergency reserve, with a
higher reliability than thermal plant such as gas
turbines or diesel engines,
On a system containing thermal generating plant
it reduces the requirement for Sets on 'hot standby'
or 'spinning reserve'.

I:!<;. 5.7 U ~ i l bturbine

The low inertia of the rotating parts (small diamel

Fixed guide vane, variable runner blades

gates, must therefore be provided.

optimised. Access t o the generator and gearbox

2.4.2 The tube t u r b i n e considerably improved over the bulb design. Vari
There are two major disadvantages o f the bulb turbine: arrangements have bee11 constructed: one such FIG.5.8 Tube turbine
431
 Hydraulic turbines
FIG. 5.9 Rim generator ('Srraflo')
It provides a convenient form of system frequen-
cy regulation especially during periods of rapidly
changing demand.
It facilitates load curve smoothing by using con-
ventional or nuclear plant to provide power for
432
~:
t~lrbine
pumping at periods of low system deman
coroliary of this is that margins o n system capa
can be reduced.
Operation of the system requires two lakes or we
storage reservoirs. During generation, water is
ivil to thc till-bines froin !lie lop lakc, discharging
lii ilie iower. l'hc scts can be r u n in this mode
i t demand is met or otiici plant can be starled.
oil-peak lxriods the water is pumped up from
lower inlo $he upgei lake ready to meet the next
i e requirements of the set for both a tol-binc
pumping role can be met in lwo ways; either by
1',separate pumps and turbines or by a singie
~l~ii)-turbinewhich combines both duties in one
lo!, and which reverses direction between roles.
F f e s t i n i o g p o w e r station
tation, part of the CEGB system in England
'ales, is an example of the separate pump and
,i!,c system and was completed in the 1960s. The
~ i i j iand turbine are mounted in tandem o n coaxial
iil\s, at one end o f which is a unidirectional motor-
'1'1,~ upper reservoir operates between extreme levels
,1113 and 502 m abovc sea level and encloses a
11iige volume of 1.7 million cubic metres giving a
Ili'iation time of sonlc 4.5 hours. The lower reser-
lcvel correspondingly fluctuates between 182 and
e cross-sectional arrangement of the sets and
relationship to the lower lake arc shown in Fig
). Pour pump-turbines, each of 90 MW maximum
Inciatins capacity, are arranged in an overground
reduce civil costs and t o facilitate flood
disposal in the remote event of a burst.
h pump-turbine is arranged in a vertical con-
on with the pump mounted below the turbine
liar it may have maximum submergence for mini-
ion of cavitation. The piping system, connecting
r lake, bifurcates, as shown in Fig 5.10.
upper branch connects l o the turbine inlet via
I~yilraulically-operatedinlet valve and the lower to
, pump outlet through a similar valve.
I:nclt single-stage Francis turbine runs a t 428 r/min
111 a maximum efficiency of over 93%. The high-
ilc steel spiral casings are constructed in halves
111 site-bolted flanged joints. The variable guide
st stainless steel are operated through a
and link system which is auto~naticallygrease-
icated. The runner is in 13% chromium steel and
a maximum diameter of 1.93 m.
Ihe vertical two-stage pump is of double-entry
. Thus the second-stage impellers are disposed
o-back as a sinale rotor and the first staees
be mounted outboard of it (see Fig 5.11). Suc-
-~~ 3.3
on from the lower lake is therefore via a breeches
ipe which conveys water to the suction of each of
lr first-stage impellers. Each o f the two 2.5 m
meter first-stage impellers and the 2.6 m diameter
nble-entry second stage are manufactured in 13%
romium steel and are keyed to the pump shaft.
Pumped-storage
I'uolp casings iirc in casl steel welded lo a lplale sicel
"Oillt~.
Whilst pumping, the drive imust take lpiacc from the
motoi- through the turbine, wilicli is filled with air to
rcducc pumping Iosscs. The pump is disengaged whilst
the turbine is in opcsatiori in tile generating mode
and a coupling is provided for this purpose. Syatem
iequirernents did not justify the expense of a coupiing
capable of cngagement/disengage~ncnt at full spccd
and so tliesc operations are conducted whilst the ma-
chine is stationary. A toothed gear, sliding-muff type
o f coupling is used, engagement being actuated by oil
pressure and a positive mechanical lock inserted during
periods o f rotation.
3.2 T h e reversible p u m p - t u r b i n e
Such a machine enables both pumping and turbining
to be performed by the same runner or runners. It is
effectiveiy a Francis turbine whose runner geometry is
a compromise between the optimum for pumping and
generation. During generation, the turbine output is
absorbed by tile generator; whilst ptlmping, the geo-
eralor acts as a motor, driving the runner in the
opposite direction.
A desirablc featurc of this design is that it is
considerably cheaper than a type employing a se-
parate pump and turbine and the necessity for a
clutch between the two is also eliminated. Also. since
the same runner is employed in both the turbining and
pumping directions, the need for separate suction and
discharge piping for the two components with the
associated mechanical and civil costs is similarly un-
necessary. Thc efficiency of such a unit as a pump or
turbine is usually some 1 % lower than a corresponding
optimally designed machine of similar size. Typical
maximum vaiues for very iargc machines might be
92-93% when pumping, and 93-94% when turbining.
Subsequent to the construction of Ffestiniog power
station, considerabie worldwide experience had been
obtained with single-stage reversible pump-turbines.
Therefore, for their pumped-storage station at Dinor-
wig, the CEGB decided to install such machines. The
first sets were commissioned in 1982 and, since it
represents one of the world's major pumped-storage
schemes in terms of both unit capacity and operat-
ing head, it is used as an example of modern practice
in this field.
Dinorwig p o w e r station
3.3.1 The site
This station is Located near Lianberis in Wales, in the
Snowdonia National Park; an area renowned for its
natural beauty. This fact dictated some of the design
features of the station.
liydraulic turbines
lo i-cfili the upl,el reservoir by i)uml,iog froiii the lowel
in a six-lioui- period.
A schcnlatic plan and elevation of lllc site is shown
in Fig 5.12 whilst a section tirroug:1 the underground
station itself is shown in Fig 5.13.
3.3.2 Runner s u b m e r g e n c e
As referred to in Section 1.4 of this chapter, the
economics of turbine design improve with increase
o f speed. Since the runaway/normal speed ratio is
smallest for pump-turbines, the running speed be-
comes higher for a pump-turbine than for any other
type operating at similar output and head.
In the pumping mode, the increased speed coupled
with the high head, requires considerable submergence
o f the impeller below tail water level to avoid cavi-
tation. Similarly, submersion was also required in
the turbining mode to obviate column separation - a
condition in which inertia effects can cause cavities
within the water flow with severe water hammer on
recombination. For these reasons, a runner submei-
gence of some 60 m was required. This was obtained
by placing the machines in a machine hail below
ground and within thc mountain itself; As well as
being environmentally desirable, it was found that the
small increase in civil costs was Inore than compen-
sated for by the lower machine costs througli using
reversible pump-turbines.
3.3.3 Operational requirements
In order to meet CEGB system needs the pump-
turbine has a load regime which involves:
Generating in the range of zero to a full-load of 317
MW with up to five hours of continuous, constant
output generation.
Pumping, using one or more units at full-load
Emergency reserve. This provides 1320 MW to the
system in the event that two of the largest units of
660 MW each are simultaneously lost to the grid.
Frequency regulation, which involves operation
over the range o f zero to full-load to correct for
system frequency deviations as they occur.
Associated with the above is a requirement to meet
these system needs within certain time scales. Whilst
it was never envisaged that there would be any de-
mand for rapid adoption of the pumping role it is
essential that the machine is capable of changing
modes within very short time scales as follows:
Standstill to no-load generation 90 s
No-load synchronised to 1320 MW output 10 s
Emergency pumping to spinning-in-air (both
in the pumping direction) 10 s
111 order to nlcel sucli sirol-t loading times,
ccssary for the machine la be kept for ion
at synclironous spced. In the generation
this could be effected by allowing a sinali thrr,\ii! 11
of water to generate sufficient power to o v v i r i i
macllinc losses. This is unattractive since:
e It wastes water and its corresponding piiinl'
power.
At low flows, the water strikes the runner biai
off-design angles, promoting erosion and wcil,,
There is the fear that, in a closed systcn>,
power losses could raise reservoir temperaliili
the long term.
Similarly, in the pumping mode, the churnint:
erated by running against closed guide vanes cil
a loss o f power of about 70 MW.
The problem has been overcome, in both rixi
by filling the runner space with air at tailwatci 8
sure: the windage losses are then reduced to
2 MW. With the main inlet valve (MIV) on I l l ?
pressure side of the pump-turbine and the guide \,,I
closed, air from air bottles is blown into thc rill
space through a connectioll in the t o p covc, I
automatically maintained by a level control valvt
the draft tube. The machine can then be held all
ning at synchronous sueed indefinitely in eithei
pumpiilg or turbining direction (known as s p i n / p ~ ~
and spin/generation modes respeclively). Whilst
runner is spinning in air, a small supply of cool
water is supplied to the seals at the top and boll
shrouds, the centrifuged water being led away to d
from a connection at the runner periphery. Rev,
to pump or turbine operation is initiated by
opening the MIV and guide vanes, and the air
is quickly dispersed by the water flow.
3.3.4 Design life
Each machine is designed to undergo a n u m b e ~$
mode changes per year, viz:
Routine pumping starts and stops, up to three
per day.
Routine generation starts and stops, up to four
per day.
Change from spin-generation to generation and
versa, up to 13 times per day.
Emergency loading and change from pumping I
generation.
Pump and turbine trips.
In total, this represents 7500 loading/unloading c)
per annum. A fundamental consideration is the

during each of tliese cycles tbc MIV shuts, Illus
~.isingthe penstock and turbine casing to [he
oressure of some 6 bar, then re-onens to
uriseihem again to 50 bar. Over its 40-yea; design
:, (lie machine is thus subjected to 300 000 cycies
' ' e requiremelit to design for a fatigue life is un-
in water turbines. In this instance, consequently,
.
s thought necessary to use a fracture mechanics
plr~oachto the design, adopting the ASME standards
licable to nuclear pressure vesseis. Essentially this
lnes that defects present in the steel, which are
ller than those detected by non-destructive test
lhods and cansequently repaired during manufac-
will grow under the varying stress field. Over
llant life, these initial defects must not grow to
approaching the critical defect size, where the
can grow in an uncontrolled manner. Due to
herent uncertainties of crack detection during
lofacture, the design allows for inspection o f cri-
I areas during the life o r the piant. As shown in
14, one such area is the spiral casing, which
--",
c
.-0 11 t been invested in concrete over critical welds
i as occur between the spiral casing and the
"L
'ilg. In turn, this has necessitated placing a rub-
0
n iiiembrane between spiral casing and concrete to
.-an3 b panting and flexure of the spiral casing dur-
i
i: pressure cycle whilst still providing adequate
6 nt of the spiral by the concrete. Provision is
made in the design for grout injection should
B0 ,ap develop with time.
5 the pump casing and inlet spiral are com-
c
.- structures, the stresses in them were deter-
" 0th by finite element methods and photoelastic
5:
-
w
rn
iilysis of a plastic model.
P
UI
6 Machine lavout
nine-bladed runnpr in cast stainless steel has a
Ilum diameter of 3.8 m and an eye diameter of
ti see Fig 5.14). The vertical drive shaft is mounted
ingle guide bearing of tilting-pad design. Lu-
n of the bearing is by a self-contained system with
>il reservoir and integral water-cooled oil coolers
osed within the bearing housing. Oil circulation
ugh the coolers is maintained by the head gen-
I by shaft rotation. The thrust from the p u m p
le runner and motor-generator to which it is
t y coupled is taken by a tilting pad thrust bearing
~nted in the motor casing. It must be sized to
the widely vdrying thrusts achieved during pump
turbine operation and, in particular, those tran-
t i which occur during mode changes. Leakage of
I jlressure water from the upper shroud of the
ley along the clearance between the shaft and
pump inner top-cover is minimised by a balanced
of the type referred t o in Sectiun 2.2 of this
lhnwn also in Fig 5.14 are the pipes between the
Pumped-storage
sllaft and thc upper sllioud seal u,llici> ariinil blo\i-
down air into the s)atern, togettier wit11 the peripheral
drain pipes which arc opened under these conditions to
discharge the cooling water supplied to the ogpct and
lower seals.
Figurc 5.15 shows the guide vane apparatus, in-
dicating the substantial bearings employed and also
the manner in which the reguiating ring rotates the
vane through the lever and locking assembly, which
incorporates a friction clutch. Seals are fitted on the
end faces of the guide vane blade to miriimise water
leakage and both these and the guide vane bearings
are equipped with an automatic greasing systein.
In the turbining direction, the guide vanes are
infinitely variable between fully closed and about 32"
o f opening rotation to achieve the required output.
In the pumping direction, however, the guide vanes
are opened to a notninally fixed postion, although
pump performance can be optimised for varying speed
and head by minor variations in the angle between
20' and 30" o w n .
3.3.6 Valves
The valves piaced either side of the pump-turbine
are similar to those used in many types of turbine.
Those. used at Dinorwig will be described in detail
as an example of modern practice.
The main inlet value (MIV)
Each MIV is a 2.5 m bore rotary valve, interposed
between the main and intermediate penstocks, which
isoiates the turbine from high pressure water at each
shutdown (see Fig 5.16). Tile vaive rotor rotates
within the valve body on two trunnions to which are
attached the operating lever arms and closing weights.
The valve is held open by the upward thrust on the
lever arms from two servomotors (or rams) filled with
oil under pressure. The system is thus 'fail-safe' since
the valve closes under the action of the weight alone.
The rate of closing is controlled by restrictors in the
oil discharge line.
The MIV is closed each time the machine shuts
down and, in this condition, leakage between the
near-spherical valve rotor and body is prevented by
a service seal. This is in the form of a stepped ring
which slides axially in its stainless steel housing to
seat against a ring attached to the rotor on its inter-
mediate penstock face. The seal is operated, as well
as being held on and off, by penstock water pressure
acting on the appropriate face of the stepped ring.
The seals between stepped ring and valve body are
D-shaped to prevent rotation within their grooves:
they were the subject of considerable testing t o ensure
that they met the six-year life required of them.
A similar seal is provided on the penstock face of
the valve rotor but it is only operated to provide
additional safety during maintenance. Under these
Hydraulic turbines Additional references

T/IPdrNJ) I u D ~r,oiee
The d r a h lube vaive (1)TV) (see Fig 5.18), is piaccd
011 the tailwater side of the p ~ r n p - t ~ ~ ~ aiid
b i ~is l ~
d isoiate the machine froill tile lower re-
~ ~ i o v i d c to
sei-voir during maintenance, and to close in the event
of a major burst to prevent station flooding. It is
normally left open and does not form part of any
automatic operating sequence.
Each DTV is a 3.75 m diameter buttesfiy valve,
the rotor being of the lattice type. Integral eccentric
tronnions ensure that should it be inadvertently left
shut during turbining, it will flip open under the tur-
bine flow. Opening and closing is performed by a
servomotor and lever and weight system, in a similar
manner to the MIV.
3.3.7 Testing
I'oli-size testing of tiic installed p o m p t i i ~ l i '
verify efficiency guaiantees, sequircs rneasurell
power, net head and watei flow as devailed i ~ i
1.1 of this chapter. Difficulties and costs
ing for tile accurate measurement of the lar?,
involved make such an undertaking unattraciiuv l i i i
both practicai and contractual considerations.
For this reason the comprehensive tests c a r ~ i i , ~ i
by the manufacturer on the one-eighth scaie ~ I I
logous model of the pump-turbine and cor
full-sized machine values by established means 1 1 1
accepted by the CEGB as evidence of the , ,
ability to meet efficiency guarantees. Howeve
firmation of this and to cstablisb a referel
BWDE
10 enable ipeiformance deferioiatioll to be monitored Stotio,, "Ut,,,,I
tiring service, eacli machine is equipped with tap- Average generated station output 1680 MW
' points in the intermediate and lower penstocks Generating period at coilstant output 5 11
ling thermodynamic testing o f the machine ef-
Average individual pump power input 283 MW
y to be undertaken.
11s method does not require any flow measure- Pumping period 6.3 lr
I r m It measilres tllc internal efficiency of the ma-
Ihii~e by comparing the actuai enthalpy change of
(six ofn
Pu,~~p-T~o.Dincs
Ir water due to the work done in passing through
machine, with that which wouid be experienced Type Reversible Francis
lile water experienced an isentropic change from
I to final pressure 01. head. The ratio of these Turbining (Generating)
iles gives the machine The main probiem
liie method is that of accurate measurement of Maximum output/net head U p t o 317 MWl535.8 m
small temperature difference (typically 1 t o 2'C) Minimum output/net head U p t o 280 MW/487.9 m
111 which cnthaipy changes depend but for this, Maximum flow 70 m3/5
I olher details of the method, see [21. Synchronous speed 500 r/min
Maximum transient
runaway speed

/ S o m e d e t a i l s of t h e D i n o r w i g p u m p e d -
SIIDINGAOINT
800"
I
Pumping
Rated discharge/head 50 m3/523 m
6.7 million m3 Maximum power input 318 MW
634 m Synchronous speed 500 r/min
600 m Min/max frequency 49/51 Hz

4 References
iII 'lnfeiiiational Code for Model Acceptance Tcrrr of Hydraulic
Turbines': iEC Ptkblicalion No. 193
12) Thom. A . S.: 'Tl?eriiiodyi?aaucTesting or'l'urbiner and l'ul,ipi'
IMecllE \'"I. 7 No. 3: 1965

5 Additional references
Gutl~rie.Biown, J. (Ed): 'Hydro-Eieetrie Engin~eiiiig Practice':
Biackie & Son
Headland. H.: 'Blaenao Fferriniogand other Medium-Head Pumped
Storage Scllemei in Oreat Biilain': lMechE Proc. Volume 175
No. 6: 1961
'The Dinorwig Power Station': Papers presented at a major achieve-
ment symposium: iMechE: 1985
nerator
,
130th the pace o f development and the rate of
,]case in unit output has slowed markedly in re-
il years, as greater emphasis iias been placed on
reliability achieved by proven designs, and on
. advantages of interchangeability of major plant
Standards and specifications
British Standard covering generators is BSS000,
i refers to many parts o f BS4999. The corre-
roading international standard is IEC 34. Standards
)ccific for turbine-generators are BSSOOO Part 2 and
!(' 34 Part 3. These standards specify acceptable
aracteristics, values o f temperature, vibration, noise,
unbalance, harmonic content, excitation control
and tolerances, and test conditions, e.g., high
Introduction
Other parameters, such as hvdraulic vressure and
dielectric loss test values, are specified in various
CEGB Standards.
Specific requirements for a new generator are con-
tained within its own specification, which covers items
peculiar to its location or duty, for example, tem-
perature of cooling water, power factor and reactances.
Where necessary, these requirements may differ from
those in the appropriate Standard. The expected op-
erational life is quoted in the specification; this is
currently 200 000 hours, with 104 start/stop cycles.
These values are used in design calculations, e.g., crack
growth rate by fatigue.
The following Standards are relevant:
i E C 34- I : Rolaling electrical maellines - rating and perforisance.
I E C 34-2: Rotating eleciri~almachines - methods for determining
IOSI~S and efficiency from tests.
 Syiicliro~iousgeneratoi i1iiii:i:
..

frequencies are used for special purposes; those whosc

-
- i~ S E ~ ~ V I C C

SUPLRCONUUCTlNG
the rotor rotates inside the stator bore, a con-
c i o r fixed in the stator will be subjected to an
lproximately sinusoidally varying magnetic flux den-
output is rectified for use as an excitation supply
conlinoiliy operate at 150 Hz or 400 Hz.

y, and ujill have an approximately sinusoidal \'oltage

lerated along its length (Fig 6.4). The magnitude
the flux density, which determines the magnitude 2,3 Load, rating and power factor
the geneiatcd voltage, can be changed by varying Root-mean-square (RMS) values of altcrnatillg volt-

voltage/current relationship dictated by the nature of

that load. For any load which is not purely resistive,
OlRLCT G4S OR LiOUiO CWLjNC.
OF STATOR AND O,RECTRO~ORCOOL~NG the sinusoidal voltage and current will not be in
05-
LiOUiO C0011NCi OF SFNOR AND ROiOR

the product of its rated voltage and its rated current,

MY# RAI~NO
I'iG. 6.3 D e v e l o ~ a i e ~of
u genierator sire, weight asid
expressed in volt-amps, kVA or M V A . The rated
f = pri power is the rated output times the rated power factor,
expressed in watts, kW or MW.
\viiere f = frequency, Hz The rated power of a three-phase geuerator is three
n = rotational speed, r/s times rated phase voltage times rated phase current
ariasgemcnts times power factor. Virtually all CEGB generators
12 = number of pole-pairs
have their three phases connected in star, so that:

drical rotor 50 Hz generators have two poles line voltage = J 3 x phase voltage
34- 3: Ratings and characierirlies of )-phase 50 wr turbine 2 Synchronous generator theory peratc at 3000 r/min, or less commonly four and line current = phase current.
type macPiner.
Some basic principles of theory and desigll
IEC 34-4: Metliodr ioi derermi,,ing sy,lcl,ronoui ,nac,,ine qua,,. tablislled in this section in order that the de
tities from tesci. matter in later sections ma). be more easily land

IEC 3 4 - 6 : Melliok or cooling ,otnti,,g muel,ineiy.

Bs4999: General reguiicziienls for rotating eiccirica~mac~iii>es. 2.1 ~ l ~ ~induction

t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t i ~
BS4999 I'Rrl 106: C1B~~ificatioil
of methods of cooling.

BS4999 I'ari 101: Specification for rating and p e r r ~ ~ r n ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .

BS4999 Pair 142: Meclianiesl percom,ance - vibration.

BS4999 Part 109: Noise levels.

B S S W Specification for rotating electrical inachine~of panicu~al.

Iypei or for particular a ~ p t i c a t i o ~ s .

BSSOOO Part 2: Turbiae type n ~ a c h i ~ e s .

892787: Clarsificatiolr o i insulating macerials for electdeal

BS55OO: Specification for llnfired f u i o n welded prcrsure vessels.

= length of conductor exposed to the fI(ix,
BSW: Steel sheets for magnetic circuits o i power electrical appaiatur.
k = constant
851433: Copper for eleetrieal purposes: rod and ber.

BS3906: Electiolytic coq~presredhydrosell. In order to operate synchronously with the in[

connected A C transmission system, the geno.u{
Terdns the ilrsuiation system 01 baa.
ESI Standard 4-1: voltage is requited to vary sinusoidally. The rnaailc[
T h e generator
'Thc MVA sating is tilcrr:
J3 x rated line voilage x sated iiiie current x iO.."
The MW rating is then: rated MWA x w e d power
factor.
The present CEGB rating for iarge turbine-generators is:
660 MW, 0.85 power factor lagging, 23 500 V, 3-
phase, 50 Hz
The MVA rating is therefore 660/0.85 = 776 MVA
and the rated line current is:
The output is specified as a maximum conlhuous
rating (MCR), which implies no guaranteed sustained
overioad capacity. Tile standards specify very short
term overcurrent capability, and acceptable variations
in voltage and frequency. Samc sustained overload
capability may be possible by operating at a hydrogen
pressure greater than the rated value, by agreement.
Although operation at 0.85 power factor (lagging)
is specified, generators on the CEGB network gen-
erally operate at power factors of 0.9 or higher, and
this allows operation at higher than rated M W if
this is available from the turbine, u p to the limit of
rated MVA (see Fig 6.5).
2.4 M M F , flux and magnetic c i r c u i t
Direct current circulating in coils wound into the
rotor poles, causes them to act as electromagnets,
OPBR~TIONABOYtRATED MW
PERMlSSiBLE IN THESE AREAS
FIG. 6.5 Operation at liigh M W and power factor
452
whicir proijidc a source of magneto-i,l<,iiti. I
(MMF); the 'driving foscc' beiiind the niei:iii.iii
The vaiue of MMF depends on the rni~xiiiiii~ii INSTANTANEOUS
VOLTAGE
density required at the stator conductors to iuii
the required voltage and on the rciucta~ici. ill v . "sin (PWO ,
magnetic ciicuit. The magnetic circuit coi\~i!.t+
paths of low reiucldnce in the iron of thc r i > i t u
but that of the iron paths increases a t lhiyli
of magnetic flux density, when the iron b
magnetically saturated.
2.5 R o t a t i n g p h a s o r s
A sinusoidaily-varying voltage has an instantiif
value v at time t expressed by:
v = V sin (2af)t
where V = maximum vaiuc of v
f = frequency in Hz 17i~i. 6.6 ~oiatingphasois
T h e same relationship can be derived by rotatiti
phasor of constant magnitude V at a constant sl
(Fig 6.6). At time t, when the phasor is at an
0 t o the horizontal axis, v = V sin 8, i.e., ti1
jection of V o n t o the vertical axis.
In a synchronous machine, all tile sinusoiilal
varying quantities (voltage, current, etc.) can hr
presented by phasors rotating together a t synchroiiintt:
speed. The rotating phasoi diagram can be tho~ii:I~l
of as a snapshot of a set of phasors which ail i<ititls
together while maintaining the reiationships to r;irll
other.
In a three-phase machine, with balanced ciectricul
output, conditions in one phase are repeated exnclly
in the other two, with time delays of 1/(3fJ an
(30. For clarity, one phase is chosen, a n d its ph
2.6 Phasor diagrams
2.6.1 R a t e d voltage. n o s t a t o r c u r r e n t , open.
circuit c o n d i t i o n s
Let a phase voltage be represented by the phasol
V (Fig 6.7). Since it is the rate of change of fiua FIG. 6.7 Pharors for open-circuit eondilions
density which produces V, the phasor for flux den,
sity, B, is drawn 90' out-of-phase with V. The
MMF, F , producing this flux density is in phase
with B.
 Synchronous generator theory

2.6.2 Rated voltage, rated stator current a n d
rated power f a c t o r
If llic poivcr i a c t o ~is expressed as cos $, y', is thc
angle betwecii the voltage and current phasors, as
shown in Fig 6.8 Sol a lagging power factor.
Current circulating in the stator winding rcsults in
vollage drops: IR due to the winding resistance R, in
phase with I, and IX, due to the winding 'leakage
reactance', X,, lagging i by 90". R is negligibly sinall,
and the resistive voltage drop is neglected henceforth.
An 'internal' voltage E must be generated in the
winding such that after subtracting (phasorialiy) the
Ieakage-reactance drop, the rated voltage V is pro-
duced at the terminals.
In order to generate E, fiux density Be and MMF
Fe arc required, such that the voltage, flux and MMF
phasor triangles are ail similar. Tile pbysicai meaning
o f this is discussed later.
Current in the three-phase stator winding produces
its own MMF, Fd, which acts in tile same direction
as F,,. An MMF, F, must be provided, such that,
when the Fd component is subtracted vectorially,
the resultant is Pe. This is achieved by increasing the
rotor winding current and by the rotor moving ahead
o f its open-circuit aiignment, by the 'load angle', S,
as silown.
This demagnetising effect of the stator winding
current is known as artnolure reaction, and can be
seen from the diagram to be similar in effect (though
much larger in magnitude) to that o f the leakage
reactance. r l i c ierni syrichronolic reoclnnce (X'I ; Xi-)
is used io express this cffect, the IXd drop lbi.irfp
added lo the IX, drop in the diagrams.
As the lagging power factor of the load i8~,i,.rlir:
i.e., cos y', is smaller and 4 larger, the required I\Ihll ,
F, increases, i.e., more current is required i!, l l i i
rotor winding (Fig 6.9 (a)). Conversely, if the lit(q!Jiifi
power factor increases or goes beyond unity i l l l r i llir
leading regime, the rotor current must be re<llir~il
(Fig 6.9 (b)).
2.7 Torque
The mechanical torque provided by the prime nrnrat
is balanced by a n electl.omagnetic torque causcil lij
the interaction o f the magnetic fiux and the ckillrni
fiowing in the stator windings.
The rotor shaft must be designed to transmit li11t.d
torque, and the stator must be abic to withsl;il,ti t i
similar torque reaction. In practice, the design i i i 1 1 6 1
cope with the very much higher torques proiiiscuil
during certain fault conditions.
2.8 Three-phase windings
The voltages and currents produced in each ~ p i i FIG. 6.9 Pliasor diagiaiiis for lagging and leading loads
must be identical, apart from their phase displ

inents, in order to axaoid the damaging effects of
tinbalance.
In this and the next section, a complete two-pole
$:enerator is considered, for simplicity. In a machine
\ ~ i t l l2n poles, a two-pole segment is exactly repeated
11 times, and can be considered as elect~omagnetically
cquivalent to a two-pole machine.
An economic design of stator winding has many
conductors connected in series, so the individual con-
liuctor voltages are additive. Each 'go' conductor is
connected to a 'return' conductor, acted on by the
pole of opposite polarity, and thence to a third con-
ductor adjacent to the first, and so on through the
phase. The 'return' conductors are disposed in a layer
displaced radially from the 'go' conductor, both in
the slots and in the end region.
The usual and most economic arrangement Is for
the winding.of one phase to occupy one-sixth of the
circumference, with a parallel section of the same
phase occupying the position diametrically opposite
(see Fig 6.10).
profile which cannot be shaped to produce a sin-
usoidai fiux density variation (as can, approximately,
a salient pole on a multi-polar slow speed generator).
The flux density variation in a turbine-generator is
of a stepped rectangular form (Fig 6.11), which con-
tains a fundamental with odd harmonica of significant
amplitude. The voltage induced in a single stator con-
ductor would contain similar unacceptable harmonic
components.
In a series-connected winding occupying several
adjacent slots in the stator, the voltage induced in
one conductor will be displaced from that induced
in Its nelghbour by the electrical angle subtended
by the two slots, a in Fig 6.12. The sum of n such
voltages is V + 2Vcos ol + 2Vcos 2 r ~+ ... 2Vcos +
(n - + ) a if n is odd, or, 2Vcos a / 2 + 2Vcos 3a/2
+ ... 2V cos (2" - +)a,if n is even. The ratio of
this to nV is the distribution foclor Kd ( < 1).
The effect of distribution on the third harmonic
voltage is to triple the effective angle, so that the
surnmated voltage is:

MMF PHkS:SORSROTTEOBACK
THRoUGH SOI TO SNOW
SiMlLARiTY Of TRIANGLE 10
V3 + ZV, cos 3 a + 2V3 cos 6 a + etc.
VOLTAGE PHASORS

2.9 distributed and chorded and the resultant third harmonic voltage is very much
winding reduced. A similar argument applies even more effec-
FIG. 6.8 Phasor diagram Eor load conditions A cylindrical rotor generator has a circular rotor tively to harmonics of higher order.
T h e generator
A somewhat similar effect is produced by the
common practice of chording, or short-pitching. Here
the return conductor is at a n angle less than 180"
from its connected conductors. If 0 is the angle by
which this falls short of 180' (Fig 6.13):
the ratio (1 - cos0)/2 is the pitch factor, K, (< 1)
Hence, in the usual distributed short-pitched winding,
the generated voltage is nVKdK,, the harmonic con-
tent is acceptably small, and the stepped rectangular
flux density wave generates a substantially siuusoidal
voltage of fundamental frequency.
h
Cl~i.lllir~ Turhine-genera~orcomponents: the rotor
. .<
3 Turbine-generator components: the8
rotor
The rotor milst carry the excitation winding, l'i,,
a iow reluctancc path for the magnetic flux,
transfer the rated torque from the turbinc 1 0
electromagnetic reaction at the air gap. Steei i.
only material which meets these r e q u i r i : ~ ~ MMF DUE
TO COlL
econotnica1ly. A single steel forging is uscd.
which the centrai cylindrical body and its s u p l ~ o ~ t i
shafts are machined.
3.1 Rotor body and shaft
The high rotational speed produces large centrill
forces in the rotor body, and a high-strengtlt st
necessary. Typical alloying constituents are:
2.5% nickel 0.25% carbon
1.2% chrome 0.2% siiicon
0.6% manganese 0.1% vanadium
0.5% molybdenum
The steel is vacuum-degassed, which minimisei I
possibility of hydrogen-initiated cracking, and 111
forging is hardened by reheating and quenching U I I C
closely controlled conditions. Rough machininp
followed by a stress-relieving heat treatment.
Mechanical properties as high as 800 MN/m2 at iI.Z~/
proof stress, with 940 M N / ultimate
~ ~ tensile stl.eligIll
are obtained in forgings f o r t h e la~gch FUNDAMENTAL
ratings. A reduction in area of 40%. elongation lSci<n, \
Charpy V-notch impact level of 40 Joules, atirl it
fracture-appearance transition temperature o f 20"(',
are typical of this material, though specified tpni
perties are allowed to differ at different parts oi 1111:
forging and in different test piece orientations. S t r c i r t , ~
in a rotor at 3000 r/min limit the practicabk dian~ctp!
to about 1150 mm.
The rotor is examined ultrasonically from the
face at various stages, and any significant d
are reported. These are most likely to occur near I
cylindrical axis, and may be cleared by machining DEVELOPEDVlEW
central axial hole, not usually larger than 100 111 SHOWING STEPPE0 MMF WAVE
AND FUNDAMENTAL SINE WAVE
diameter, through all or part of the rotor. The critic
defect size is established from considerations of
growth by fatigue, recognising that there will be I!
FIG. 6.11 The sleppcd magneto motive force wave
small, but significant, once-per-revolution alternalllt,
bending stress superimposed on the steady stress.
Magnetic permeability tests are carried out at rill
densities up to 2.2 tesla, i.e., well into magricll The shape and size of the winding slots are deter- keeping a low current density to minimise the loss
saturation. lnined by a n optmisation process, taking into account and temperature, as much of the area as possible
The rough-turned forging is further turned by 111 Ole following factors, and considering a radial cir- must be allocated to the winding copper.
generator manufacturer. The winding slots are tlic cumferential section:
cut, using accurately indexed milling cutters workin The winding insulation must be mechanically strong
at a controlled cut rate to minimise residual surf1 c The more ampere-turns the rotor can carry, the to withstand centrifugal and bending stresses, and
stresses (see Fig 6.14). smaller the generator. Together with the need for stable to withstand load cycling. Adequate electrical
T h e generator
PIC. 6.12 Tlie errcc~of disiributing the rlalor winding over rcvcral dois
tracking distances from the winding to the rotor
insulation must therefore be more substantial than
the Operating voltage of about 600 V would require
.
in other applications.
Passages for a n appropriate flow of cooling gas
must be provided in the winding copper section,
and also in the steel body section in some designs,
to ensure that the specified temperature rise is
not exceeded.
no loss due to magnetic hysteresis or eddy currents,
458
-
THE E F i i C i O N i i , !
FUNOAMENIAI V<il I,,,
THE EFFECT0
THIRD HARI4ONIC
0 The whole centrifugal force of the slot conteots,
between the maximum tooth stress at overspecrl
the proof stress of the steel.
The optimisation of these conflicting require!
has led, in the latest designs, to a departure
parallel-sided slots to slots o f trapezoidal section
6.'s).
The winding slots are cut in diametrically opl?i
pendicular axes would produce a twice-per-rev01
/---\
,, I.
PIC. 6.13 The effect of shoil.piiclliC>g Llle slator wilidiiig
i:l~cumfereniial plane, at intervals axially along the
Iluring a three-pliasc sudden short-circut at the
,:rzieratoi terminals, torque peaks of Sour to five
litiies full-load torque are experienced between the
I
I I' turbine and generator shafts. The generator rotor
ali;iSt and coupling at the turbine end must be designed
proportion of the coupling bolts are fitted, the
irers have a clearance to the coupling holes.
lournal and journal-type shaft seal surfaces are
ound and polished to a high degree of circularity.
verall, good surface finishes and absence of sharp
>Itmishes are called for. Radii are made as large as
~v;~cticable
to minimise stress concentrations.
.2 Rotor winding
rtirhinr.yi?nei-aro; componer~ls: liie r o l o ~
EI:liECION
IUNONdEMIbt. WLl"rl(
EiitClON
THIRDHARMONIC
VOLTAGE
EFrECl ON
SIIIINHARMONIC
VOLTAGE
"5
Because the rotor winding slots are cut radially,
i t is not possible to fit a preformed coil into the slots
since the span o r a coil is smallev the iower down
the slot it is, and considerable distortion would be
required to get the coils in. Each turn is therefore
assembled separately, either as half-turns or in more
pieces, with joints either at the centres of the end-
content to improve its creep properties, is used for
the coils. Depending on the method of ventilation,
rectangular sections with grooves and/or slots, or
tubular rectangular sections are used. When a trape-
zoidal slot is used, the sections may be o f several
different sizes. One or two turns in the width of the
slot are normally used. Radialiy-aligned slots provide
gas exit passages (see Fig 6.17).
T h e coils are not individually wrapped with insuia-
tion. Instead, slot liners of moulded glassfibre, or a
composite of glassfibre and a more flexible insulating
459

I:l(i. 6.14 Cutting wiliding rloti in a rotor
(Fig 6.18). Thick layers of insulation niaterial on the
inside surfaces of the end ring and end disc insulate
thein from the end windings. The spaces between
turns in the end windings are partially filled with
insulating blocks, which ensure that the coils do not
distort, and which contain holes and passages for
the transfer of ventilating gas.
Because direct current circulates in the winding,
there are n o eddy current or other frequency related
losses in the rotor winding. The resistance ( 1 ' ~ ) loss,
amounting to 2 MW at rated load, together with the
rotational (windage) loss, must be dissipated, and the
average winding temperature must not be allowed
to exceed 115°C. A cooling system is used, in which
hydrogen is in direct contact with the copper con-
ductors, for optimum heat transfer. The high ro.
tational speed produces a pressure head through the
rot01 Slots which causes hydrogen to flow from both
ends, under the end windings and axially through sub-
slots in the rotor and channels in the coils, whence
it emerges radially through the wedges into the airgap.
Fans mounted on the rotor, primarily to circi
hydrogen through the stator, assist the natural
through the rotor (see Fig 6.19).
The ends of the winding are connected to flexil
leads, made from many thin copper strips, which r,
radially inwards onto the shaft a t the exciter ell
These leads are housed in two shallow slots in
shaft and are retained by wedges. At a point axi
beyond the end windings, the leads connect
radial copper studs and thence to D-shaped col
bars housed in the shaft bore. Seals against hydr
leakage are provided on the radial studs. Fronl
D-leads, connections are taken either to slipri,
or to the shaft-mounted exciter connections in
brushless machine (see Fig 6.17).
3.3 Rotor end rings
Thick end rings are used to restrain the rotor clld
windings from flying out under the action of cen~rlc
MACiNCilC
FLUX
PiO. 6.15 Optimi~ationor a
ilgal force. For electromagnetic reasons, these rings
tnve traditionally been made from nonmagnetic steel,
pically a 18% Mn, 4 % Cr austenitic steel. A 0.2%
oof stress of IMK) M N / ~is available
~ to cope with
lie high operating stresses. A ring is machined from
single forging, and is attached to the end of the
tor body with a shrink fit designed to provide a
iall residual interference at 20% overspeed. The
aterial has proved to be liable to stress-corrosion
cracking at the stresses invoived, and all the surfaces ex-
ept the shrink fit are given a protective finish t o
risure that hydrogen, water vapour, etc., does not
iave access to the surfaces. Even so, it is recom-
,,ended that rings are removed occasionally for de-
ailed surface crack detection using a fluorescent
dye. Ultrasonic scanning is not entirely satisfactory,
Turbine-generator components: the rotor
URRENTCARRYING
CONDUCTORS
rotor seetioii
because of the coarse grain structure, particularly
where the shape is complex.
An austenitic steel, containing 18% Mn 18% Cr,
has recently been developed which has shown virtual im-
munity to stress-corrosion cracking in exhaustive
tests, while maintaining other properties at least as
good as the older material. This alloy is being used in
new machines and for replacement rings, eliminating
the need for periodic inspection.
The end ring is re vented from moving axially
either by means of lugs mating with similar lugs on
the rotor body, or by small spring-loaded plungers
locating into grooves (see Fig 6.20). In both these
designs, the ring must be rotated through a small
angle, when fully home axially, in order to lock. In
a different design, a screwed ring is used t o pull the
The generator clhi%,ll,:,
ti
....,
*8
g
components: the rotor
Tiiibii~e-geneiato~.

4. -
$

s,.,,31,,14,
TERMIN,,, :,I,,,,
END BELL
i

FIG. 6.16 Stiffness eonlpenration

Tho generator Cl~a~!t*!@
---..,
a small taper lo facililatc asscrnblv and reniov;il, I!
~, -
Turbine-geileiaior components: the rotOi

is insitlatcd from the end winding with cittiri B

moulded-ii, glass-bdscd liner or a loose cyliiiii~iiiil
sleeve.
The outboard end of an end ring is partiall)
by a siiri~nk-onannular steel disc which enc
EPOXIDE GLASS STRII'S
end wnding. Clearance between the end win
the shaft allows hydrogen to pass into entry
in the winding copper. No contact between llrc
board end of tlie ring and the shaft is perniirhl
since the shaft flexure could promote fati
fretting damage at the interfaces. The end d
monly contains facilities for adjusting the m
balance of the rotor.
DOUBLE STRAP
COPPtR COlL TURNS

3.4. W e d g e s and d a m p e r s
- INSULATIONSTRIPS
NYLON PAPER
BETWEENTURNS The winding slot contents are retained by a u'iilgc,
which must be designed to withstand the crl~,liii~i
stress on its lands and the bending stress acroar 116
width, bearing in mind that it contains holes at al,!li
through which hydrogen passes. It must also br I,I,II
magnetic in order to minimise flux leakage aro11n11
OUieoARD
the rotor circumference, and to ensure a reasonable ~cili, END

EPOXIDEGLASS
FIG. 6.18 Rotor slot
ring through its final few millimetres, and this also
locks it circumferentially.
The ring must be heated to about 3W°C to expand
it sufficiently for the shrink surface to pass over its
mating area on the rotor. The heat is applied by a
special cylindrical electrical heater. If a gas heater is
used, the ring surface is protected from the direct
flame by a thin metal cover.
The inner diameter of the ring is machined with
tance value.
Extruded aluminium section is generally used,
chined in the regions of high stress. If shorl
lengths are used, the potentiality for localised
initiation in the rotor teeth exists. One c o n t i a i ~ a ~
wedge per slot is therefore commonly used, alli~ollelj
these are more difficult to fit.
During conditions of rapidly changing flux, fw c h
ample, during system faults, or when an altcit!i~l
ing flux links the rotor during unbalanced elcci~ii:iil
loading, when negative phase sequence currents it1111
fluxes occur, current is induced in the surfacr i r l
the rotor. Because the 'skin depth' of the magnrllr
rotor steel is about I mm whereas that of the ino,~
magnetic wedges is an order of magnitude grcalol
current flows preferentially in the wedges, whi
form a 'damper winding' analogous to the rot0 Ihc slits, and prevent hot spots at the ends of the several brushes and holders o n one of several
of an induction motor. The wedges are of slits. movable brackets, each of which can be withdrawn
cient cross-sectional area to carry the curren for brush replacement while running on-load, if SPe-
responding to the expected unbalanced load, wi cial precautions are observed (see Fig 6.22 inset).
damage due to overheating, but the areas of cu Brush pressure is maintained by constant Pressure
transfer into the end rings (which act as the s I 3.5 Sliprings, b r u s h g e a r a n d s h a h earthing springs. A brush life of at least six months
circuiting rings) have to be carefully designed. Thin Connections are taken from the D-leads in the bore, be obtained.
per sheets with 'tongues' fitting under the en ll~rough radial copper connectors (which may have The brushgear is housed in a separate coflPartment
of the wedges form an interleaved ring under tli back-up hydrogen seals) and flexible connections, onto of the excitation housing, separately ventilated by a
inboard end of the end ring, and assist in the avoid. the sliprings (Fig 6.21). For a 660 MW generator, shaft-mounted fall so that brush dust is n o t distri-
ance of localised areas of preferential current transfc~ tlie rated excitation current is about 5000 A, and buted into other excitation components. mall leakages
and hot spots. sliprings must have a large surface area and run cool of hydrogen past the connection seals which might
In pole faces having axial compensating slols, o in order to transfer this current satisfactorily. One accumulate in the brushgear compartments during pro-
similar arrangement is provided. In those with croaa.. design uses two sliprings of the same polarity in longed shutdown periods, are safely diluted by the
pole slits, a few very shallow axial slots are cut lo parallel. The ring surface is grooved and drilled to im- fan on start-up before excitation current is applied. Win-
accommodate copper damper strips, which are rc. prove its surface cooling. dows in the cover permit easy inspection Of the
tained by wedges, t o transfer the surface current acroh!, The brushgear shown in Fig 6.22 is arranged with brushgear.
 i l l c generator
- Turbinegenerator c o ~ n p o n e n l s : t h e rotor

FlO. 6.20 Roloi end ring

Monitoring o f excitation current and voltage and
rotor winding temperature by resistance measurement,
is simply achieved in a generator with sliprings, using
a current shunt and voltage connections in one of
the excitation cubicles. Rotor earth fault detection,
and tile application o f tests such as the recurrent
surge method for shorted-turn detection, are also
simply arranged.
Where no main excitation sliprings are fitted (Fig
6.231, signal may be transmitted from the shaft, via
telemetry. Alternatively, a set o f light current sliprings
and brushgear may be provided for signal monitoring
and protection purposes.
466
It is normal for a large generator t o prodo
on-load voltage o f 10-50 V between its two
ends, due to magnetic dissymmetry and other cat
This voltage would drivc current axially througl~
rotor body, returning through bearings and joorlli
causing damage t o their surfaces, and insulatioil bii
riers are provided t o prevent such current circu1;ttio~
These need only be at one end, the exciter end,
must be present wherever the shaft would otherwise
tact earthed metal, for example, at bearings, seals,
scrapers, oil pipes and gear-driven pumps.
some designs, two layers of insulation are provi
with a 'floating' metallic component between 111 ,
 F
& ~ " ~ b i n e - g e n e r a t ocomponellts:
r the rotor
T h e generator Cl,iiliiiii ti 2
.,., !F' -.
D

1 IiUUBLRGLOVE

INSlllhlCD HANDLE

so that a simpie resistance measurement between the
fioating component and earth confirms the integrity
of the insulation.
While all the insulation remains clean and intact,
ii voltage will exist between the shaft at the exciter
end and earth, and this provides another method
of confirming the integrity of the insulation. A shaft-
riding brpsh enables this shaft voltage to be moni-
tored, and an alarm is initiated when this falls below
;i predetermined value.
It is important that the shaft at the turbine end
of the generator is maintained at earth potential,
and a pair of shaft-riding brushes connected to earth
through a resistor achieves this. Because carbon
brushes develop a high resistance glaze when OP-
erated for long periods without current flow, a spe-
cial circuit passes a 'wetting' current into and out
of the shaft through the brushes; this circuit also
detects when brush contact is lost (Fig 6.24). A
different scheme, in which a current carrying contact

468
FIG.6.22 Slipring brushgear and brushes
JUNCTlON BOX

RESISTORS
--.-

-+
4
BRUSH
VOLTAGE MONITOR BRUSil

LlNK
JUNCTiON BOX

FUSE HOLDER
-_iJ

FIO.6.24 Shaft earthing and monitorins

STCTiON
EARTH
The generam
or sub aiiy\r,Iiel.e along the tui-binc-generator shaft
system can be detected, lhas aiso been used.
3.6 Fans
Fans circulate hydrogen through the stator and coolers.
Identical fans are mounted at each end o f the shaft,
each ventilating half the axial length o f the generator.
Fans are either of the centrifugal type, with many
vanes in one annular assembly, or of the axial-flow
type in which tile propeller vanes may be separate
bolted-on components (Fig 6.25). The diametes over
the blade tips may exceed that of the stator bore,
necessitating the fitting of one fan after the rotor
has been threaded through the stator. Inlet and outlet
conditions are far from ideal, and though stationary
guide vanes are used to reduce swirl, the fan effi-
ciency is low. Noise reduction is not a major concern,
since the massive stator casing is an effective acoustic
barrier.
Chsl,ii.i ir Turbine-generator components: the rotor
.... ..,.
slings lhi.o~igii0111tile operation. 'The use of a siij>jiiiii
t~oliey running on whcels of insulation rnaicii:;~ i i ,
the bore is depl-ecaled because of the co3.e d;ttr,:i!zi l i
can cause. Adequate space for rotor inseitioii t i l i t 1
removal must be provided.
The whole turbine-generator line of rotors is I,C,I,
flexibly coupled together and must be allowv,l i i i
attain its natural catenary shape if the bearinf:, ltitrtl
ings are to be satisfactory. The supports fol !lit.
generator (and exciter) rotors must be set up sc tllal
these rotors form part of the catenary. Cooplln~i
alignments are accurately set by the use of liiiil~l;
gauges and concentricity checks, and the stator i* rei
up so that the radial airgap is approximately coristi~tl~.
The axial position of tlie rotor train is fiar~lIly
the thrust bearing, which is located in the I U ~ ~ I I I I . ,
Axial expansion o f tlie turbine rotors downstreit~tiiil
the thrust face, and of the generatol. rotor, 411,. lli
I,.h.,.
, ,. . . : .:ti-rz:b:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......
I.'
temperature changes, may amount to 25 mm or V ~ I O I G : , b p ' i-J f
and this must be acconimodated in bearings, avr~l!., STAGE 2
fan baffles, oil scrapers, etc.

3.7 Rotor threading and alignment 3.8 Vibration

The rotor must be inserted into the stator bore, which
is about 250 mm larger than the rotor diameter. This
is accomplished by supporting the inserted end of
the rotor body on a thick steel skidplate which slides
in the stator bore, while supporting the outboard end
from a crane (Fig 6.26). The skidplate spreads the
load over its area and prevents high iocal pressures
being applied to the stator core laminations. The
rotor and skidplate are pulled in using jacking ar-
rangements until tlie inboard end emerges and can
aiso be supported in a sling.
Other methods are also in use: short lengths of
extension shaft which are successiveiy bolted onto
the inboard end enable the rotor to be supported by
Rotors for generators of 500 and 660 M W operalili~
at 3000 r/min are relatively flexible, and pass throt~lih
two main critical speeds (natural resonances in bendii
during run-up to rated speed. Simple two-plane b
ancing techniques are not usually adequate to atta
the high degree o f balance demanded at speed and
to maintain reasonable vibration levels during ruli.~rp
and run-down. Facilities for balancing are therciirld
provided along the length of the rotor in the (ovn~
of tapped holes in the cyiindrical surface, as wrll
as in the closing discs of the end rings, and in oi1,el
locations at the ends.
The rotor is balanced at speeds up to 3WO r/nbIl~
in the manufacturer's works. The winding is Illon

Tic. 6.26 Rotor insertion and withdrawal

lieated and the rotor is run at 20% overspeed. This
subjects the rotor to stresses greater than it would
experience in service, and also causes the winding
and end rings to settle into their final positions.
Trim balancing is then carried out, if found to be
necessary.
Some rotors exhibit a relationship between vibra-
tion amplitude and temperature. A few degrees dif-
ference in temperature between one pole and the
other, due to inequalities in ventilation, for example,
FIG. 6.25 Axial flow fans on rotor can cause this. If the effect is consistent, it can usu-
ally be partially offset by balancing, so that conditions
at operating temperature are optimised (see Fig 6.27).
Imperfect equalisation of the stiffnesses (see Section
3.1 of this chapter) will cause 100 Hz vibration to
occur, superimposed on the normal 50 Hz. It is im-
portant to distinguish between these components when
presenting or analysing vibration amplitude readings.
A significant crack in the rotor will have a com-
paratively greater effect on the double frequency vibra-
tion component; 'run-down' traces are recorded and
analysed, to provide assurance that no significant
471
 The generator
SECOND
CRITICAL
lA LoA@
CHIIICAI.
SPEEU. llm#n
6
~ I U
change has occurred since the previous run down.
Oil whirl in bearings can cause vibration at 25 Hz.
Vibration amplitude and phase are recorded at
generator and exciter bearings by accelerometers
mounted on the bearing supports and by proximity
probes which respond to the shaft movements. Var-
ious degrees of sophistication, up to complete Fourier
analysis, are available.
The torsional resonance of the generator rotor
coupled t o the turbine rotors is of the order of
13 Hz. It is important that this is significantly dif-
ferent from the frequency of torsional exciting in-
fluences, of which the excitation and steam governor
control (I - 2 Hz), and transmission system resonances
are the most important.
Transient oscillations in torque occur during elec-
trical disturbances, e.g., during switching operations,
lightning strikes, imperfect synchronising events, etc.
Some of the torque cycles may be large enough to
cause plastic deformation in the turbine-end shaft
and at the generator/exciter coupling.
3.9 Bearings and seals
The turbine-end bearing is located in a common ped-
estal with the LP turbine outboard bearing. The ex-
citer-end bearing is either located in the endshield
or in a separate pedestal. The white-metalled bearings
are spherically seated for ease of alignment, are pres-
sure lubricated and are provided with jacking oil tap-
pings. They are similar to the turbine bearings (see
Chapter I), except that the outboard and exciter bear-
ings are insulated (see Section 3.5 of this chapter),
i i N l \ i HOT
OPERNINGPOINT
INCREASL W I I H
TEMPERATURE
INCRIA!il(
OROiNRL COLD BALANCE
AFTER O F i S E i B A W N C E C O i C
VECTORS RtPRESENTAMPLITUDE*ND PHASE ANCILI
SHAFT DISPLACEMENT OR SINUSUIDAL VELOCiTY
27 R O , O ~ vlbrailon
and are connected to the same lubricating oil systv~~i
Seals are provided in both endshields to prcvclt!
the escape of hydrogen along the shahs. Mosl ir
these seals are like small thrust bearings, in wlr
a non-rotating white-metalled ring bears against
collar on the shaft (Fig 6.28). Oil fed to an an!,\
groove in the ring flows radially inwards acros. II,I;
face into a collection space at frame gas pl.cssiito,
while the radially outward flow is collected i n rti
atmospheric air compartment. The seal ring niuri I>?
held against the rotating collar, and must thrlrltr~,-
be able to move axially to accommodate the thc~iriiti
expansion of the shaft.
Some machines have seals which resemble
journal bearings (Fig 6.291, in which oil is appl
centrally and flows axially inboard to encounlet 11
hydrogen pressure and axially outboard into ail
mospheric compartment. Such a seal does not I
to move axially, since the shaft can move freely in
it. Details of the seal oil system are given in Sec
5.3 of this chapter.
3.10 Size and weight
A rotor for a 660 MW generator is up to 16.5 ili
long and weighs up to 75 tonnes. It is provided I!~III
a cradle for transport. The rotor must never bc 11.
lowed to be supported on its end rings; the weigkl
must be taken by the body surface leaving the old
rings free. Lifting slings must only be used ovcr tlr.
body length. It must be protected from water con.
tamination, while in transit or storage, by the use ol
a weatherproof container with an effective moisti\tr
C I 1; 8.,
88
OILOEFLECIOH OIAPHHhllMOUIEA
RETAINING RiNG
ORIG41"!,i
,,,,,,,,,,,
< i
a
FIG.6.28 Thrust-type sllaff
absorbent.' If left inside an open stator, dry air must
be circulated.
Protection applied to journals, sliprings, etc., must
be removed before operation. Blanking tape and
collars, designed to prevent ingress of foreign ma-
terial into the winding, must also be removed before
operation
4 Turbine-generator components: the
stator
The stator must carry the output winding, provide a
low reluctance path for the magnetic flux, and with-
stand the torque produced, both at rated load and
during faults.
When generators rated 300 MW and above were
first specified,'it was found that the smallest prac-
ticable stator core, assembled into the lightest pos-
sible casing was too heavy for transport by road
in the UK, within the statutory limitation of that
time. Since it is not practical to design a core in
sections for on-site assembly, and complete core
building and winding on site has disadvantages, a
design evolved in which the core and windings were
assembled into a skeletal core frame, which could
. . . ,
NSUlhllNG i i N G S
real
be transported. The completed core and core
assembiy was inserted into a substantlai Outer casing
for in-works testing and finally at site.
one-piece stators for 660 MW generators can
be transported, the two.piece concept has been con-
tinued (see Fig 6.1).
4.1 Stator core
The core provides paths for tile magnetic flux from
one rotor pole around the outside o f the stator wind-
ing and back into the other pole.
As the rotor rotates, carrying its flux distribution
with it, all points in the stator core experience a
sinusoidally-varying 50 flux density. This would
induce a 50 Hz voltage of 700 V mially in a
solid core, and to prevent large circulating currents
with their associated losses, the core is made ,of thin
steel plates coated with an insulating material; the
voltage induced axially in plate 1 s about 50 mV.
The sheet steel from ~ h i c hcore plates are cut
conforms to ~ ~ 6 0 which
1, specifies dimensional lim-
its, magnetic properties, silicon content (normally 3%)
and state of annealing, and test m e t h o d s Sheet thick-
nesses used are 0.35 and 0.5 m m , with a specific
 The generator
total loss value at 1.5 tesla and 50 Hz of 3.55 W/kg,
or better.
Core plates are cut to form segments of an annular
ring, twelve segments per ring being common. Wind-
ing slots, iocation notches and holes for ventilation
(if required) are cut in one pressing operation. The
use of dedicated dies is justified, since nearly a quar-
ter of a million core piates are used in each 660 MW
generator. The punched plates are ground to remove
edge burrs, and are then coated all over with one or
more thin layers of a baked-on insulating varnish.
With the core frame axis vertical, and one core
end plate in position at the lower end of the frame,
a ring of core plates is assembled, located on dove-
tail-shaped keys on the inside periphery of the frame.
The radii1 butt joint between plates has as small
a gap as possible to minimise magnetic flux distor-
tion. The next ring of core plates is assembled so
that its butt joints do not coincide with those of
adjacent rings (see Fig 6.30).
Gaps in the build-up of core plates are created,
Cl~z%!b!t'$
$,
...
where required, for the passage of cooling gas, l i y
building in a ring of thicker piates to which sni;ill
steel bars have been welded. These bars are aligi~cil
in a mainly radial orientation, and serve to distribtltc
the gas througil the ducts. Holes in the plates ;nc
arranged to be in axial alignment and thus form axirll
ventilation ducts in some designs. At intervals durine
core building, heavy pressure is applied to consolidalc
the assembly of plates.
When the build is almost complete, and with prch.
sure applied at the top end, the core is subjected ti,
a peripheral 50 Hz magnetic flux, which causes t l ~ r
plates t o shake down further, following which llio
space created is filled with more core plates and thr
top end plate is assembled and pulled down. Core
flux tests are also carried out on the completed corc,
with a flux density in the back of the core 90-100010
of the rated value, in order to demonstrate free do,^^
from significant faults (Fig 6.31). If sufficient acoi-
dental contacts between adjacent plates occur, il is
possible for current to flow, causing local hot spots.
A n infra-red camera is used to scan the stator bore
Idi areas of higher than normal temperature during
,iich a test.
Some designs include a bonding agent between
layers of core plates to ensure that individual plates,
;and particularly the teeth, do not vibrate independ-
catly. Any wavyness in core build-up is corrected by
111e use of suitable packing material.
Grain-oriented sheet steel, whose magnetic pro-
perties are deliberately made different in the two
perpendicular axes, is used in some designs (Fig 6.32).
];lux in a circumferential direction behind the winding
slots is arranged to coincide with the low loss orienta-
tion, which enabbs the back of the core to be op-
crated at a higher flux density than with non-oriented
core steel, for the same specific loss. The opposite is
true for the teeth, where the flux is radial and the
specific loss is higher than normai. A reduction in
outside diameter should be possible from magnetic
considerations, but the mechanical properties are ad-
.ersely affected. Core piates of grain-oriented steel
,nust be specially annealed after punching.
Turi>inegeneratoi colnpoiicnts: tile stator
The net axial length of magnetic steel presented to
the flux is less than the measured stacked length by
a factor between 0.9 and 0.95, known as the stacking
Jocror. This is because of the varnish iayers (and
adhesive if present), and the air spaces between core
plate layers due to uneven plate thickness and im-
perfect consolidation.
Slots for the stator winding conductors (bars) extend
radially from the bore. These slots have parallel sides,
so that the deep bars can be inserted radially, the
teeth between them therefore increase in section with
increasing radial disrance. The flux density in the
teeth is therefore preatea at the bore, at the tooth
tips, and is usually about 2 tesia for an acceptable
specific loss in the teeth. Since the slots and teeth
are roughly equally wide at the gap, the mean peak
flux density in the air gap is typically 1 tesla. The
peak flux density in the core back is typically 1.5
tesia. Some leakage flux in the end winding regions
penetrates into the ends of the core. The axial com-
ponent of this flux induces alternating voltages in the
teeth, and current flows around the teeth, as shown

1:10. 6.31 Flux test
(see also coloui pllolograpll
in Fig 6.33, causing unacceptable additional losses.
To reduce this effect, one or more radial slots are
punched in the teeth for a few centimetres at the
ends of the core, referred to as Pistoye slots.
The rotating magnetic field results in a rotating
radially-inward force being applied to the core across
a diameter, causing an ovalising distortion moving
synchronously. The strength of the core and core
frame assembly must be able to resist this force with
minimum strain, which is transmitted to the windings
and the outer casing as a 100 Hz vibration. It is also
important that the assembly has no resonances near
to the exciting frequency.
Hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core form
a significant proportion o f the total loss. In UK
designs, the heat produced by these losses is removed
by hydrogen circulating radially in the ducts and
axially through holes, where these are provided (Fig
6.34). Thermocouples are built into the core, parti-
cularly in regions expected to be hotter than average,
to ensure that the maximum detected core temperature
does not exceed the specified value. If a hot spot
exists, or develops in service, it is unlikely that there
will be a thermocouple sufficiently close to it to
provide an unambiguous alarm. An occasional flux
test, when opportunity occurs, offers a better chance
o f hot spot detection. A deep-seated hot spot may
be detectable by observing the rate of rise o f tem-
on eoznplelerl care
between pp 482 and 483)
perature at the bore, as well as the final sl?,iil)
tcmneratu1.e.
As noted earlier, if accidental contacts occl!, li!i
the tooth tips or due to burrs at, or damage ti), llii.
slot surfaces), a circuit may possibly exist for ;! iril
culating current. The current lcvei depends, intcr ; i l i t t ,
on the contact resistances between the back 01 lltr
core plates and the core frame bars on whicii 1111
plates are assembled. In some designs, all these I ~ I I I ~
(except one which earths the core) are covered \\,ill1
insulating material, minimising the chance of c u r r c ~ ~ l
circulation (Fig 6.35). In others, there is no itia~i.
lation, and the contact resistance is not only randoai,
but may vary with load as the torque reactioti I$
transferred, causing a hot spot in the core to 'swilch'
on and off.
4.2 Core frame
The fabricated steel core frame is designed to be ;I!,
light as possible consistent with its required functions,
as previously explained. As well as the function;
already noted, it must be able to resist elastically thc
axial pressure applied to the core.
A core end plate assembly consists of a thick disc
of non-magnetic steel, with (usually) separate no,).
magnetic 'fingers' to support the teeth. Because boiia
Turbine-generator components: the stator
reiicved, thcsc additional weids are not.
Even thoogli the axial framc members arc outsidc
the core diameter, they link with the low level of
leakage flux existing in this area, and voltages are in-
duced axially along them. Near to the ends, elec-
tromagnetic end-effects tend to force the resulting
currents into the core and, if the assembly bars arc
not insulated, core back burning and welding can oc-
cur. T o prevent this, copper short-circuiting conncc-
tions are fitted between assembly bars at the core
ends. Where the bars are insulated, the currents flow
into and around the core end plate.
The outer surfaces of the core end plates are
covered by conducting screens of copper or alumi-
nium, about 10 mm thick (see Fig 6.37, end plate flux
shield). Leakage flux impinging onto these screens
sets up circulating currents within them which prevent
the penetration o f an unacceptable amount of flux
into the core end plate or the ends of the core. The
high conductivity and good surface exposure to
cooling hydrogen ensures that screen temperatures arc
not excessive. The leakage flux is produced by a
DlACRPMMI'ICREPRESENThiiONOi MAONLIICSLUX combination of stator and rotor MMFs, and there-
IN STATOR CORE, 0PLNClilCUICONL)lllONS
fore varies with load angie, or, roughly, with power
factor, the effect on the screens bcing most intense
at leading power factors.
AREAOF The core end plate assembly carries the end winding
MOOERATE
FiUXOENSilY ROLLING OIRECIION support structure, and the design must ensure that
axial forces due to differential thermal expansion be-
tween core and winding do not force the end plates
into a position where core pressure is significantly
reduced.
The completed core and core frame assembly must
be jacked into position inside the casing, where it is
supported on fee: with resilient mountings, or by flat
vertical support plates, either of which provide some
attenuation o f vibration. The holding down bolts must
be designed to withstand the overturning torque pro-
duced during a sudden thiee-phase fault at the ter-
ORIIN.ORIENTtD minals, which may be four to six times the full-load
CORE SEOMENT
torque.
FCC.6.32 Flux in stator core
4.3 Stator winding
The stator winding must be able to carry the rated
passing through the core would have high voltages
induced in them, the only permissible axial members current without exceeding specified temperatures and
be able to withstand the voltage to earth induced in
are located outside the core back: these include the
core plate assembly bars. In order to apply pressure it. The currents and voltages in the three phases
uniformly over the core ends with such a n arrange- must be exactly the same, but with a 2s/3 time dis-
placement for balanced conditions, and so the wind-
ment, the e n d plates are machined with tapered inner
ings associated with each phase must be identical
faces, so that when they are pulled towards each
other they distort until they present a truly plane but separated by 2s/3 around the stator circumfer-
surface to the core, at which point the design pressure ence. It is convenient in large two-pole generators
is being applied to the core (Fig 6.36). to arrange each phase winding in two identical paral-
The core plate assembly bars are loose as the lel circuits, located diametrically opposite each other,
core is assembled, and are progressively welded to and, because they are influenced by rotor poles of
the frame as core building proceeds, using location opposite senses, connected back-to-back with each
other (see Fig 6.10).
plates. Thus, although the core frame may be stress-
477
Turbine-generator components: uie
 .
8- li,e radial conductor dimension becomes about 40 mm,
g with the o<erall radial bar dimension about 80 mm.
3 . - conductor embcdded in a nar-
A current carrvine
low slot in a magnetic material drives magnetic flux
CMMPjNG POSITION
svound itself, mainly confined to the magnetic teeth,
hot completing its circuit by crossing the 'aiigap'
represented by the slot width, further up the slot than
file conductor (Fig 6.38). If the conductor is viewed
EARIHINO POSlTiON
8s an assembly of separate strips, it can be seen that
lhe leakage flux density experienced by each strip
increases linearly with distance from the bottom strip.
'This alternating leakage flux induces alternating volt-
CORE FRAME
ages along the lengths of the strips, in quadrature with
Ihe main voltage, and varying as the square of the
CORE distance of the strip from the slot bottom. If a solid
conductor were used, or if the strips were connected
together at the core ends, these unequal voltages
would circulate current around the bar, causing un-
acceptable eddy current losses and heating.
In order to minimise this effect, the conductor
is divided into strips, which are lightly insulated,
DETAIL SHOWING CLAMPING AND EARTHINO POSlTlONS
VlEWEDFROMiURBlNE E N D O F M R E arranged in two or four stacks in the bar width. The
strips are transposed along the length of the bar by
the Roebel method (Fig 6.39). in which each strip oc-
Pic. 6.35 Insulated core frame bars cupies every position in .the stack for an equal axial
length, so that the eddy current voltages are equalised
and no eddy currents circulate between strips. The
effect is not quite nullified since leakage fluxes occur
in the end winding areas also, and some designs use
a transoosition of greater than 360" in order that these
end efiects shall not be additive.
A differential eddy current voltage still exists bet-
ween the top and bottom of each strip, and current
will flow around it. The loss due to this current varies
as the fourth power of the radial dimension of the
strip, so the incentive is to make the strip very thin.
However, the space required for insulation then
becomes excessive and compromise is needed. Water
is circulated in rectangular section tube, which must
have a considerable depth, and in some designs an op-
timised mixture of tubes and thinner solid strips is
used (see Fig 6.40).
Conductors are made of high conductivity hard-
drawn copper. Each strip or tube has a thin coating
of glassfibre insulation, and is cranked to enable
all the strips in a bar to be assembled with the
Roebel transpositions correctly made. The bar ends
are bent using formers to give the required shape of
end winding. The strips are bound together and the
main insulation is applied: a tape of mica powder
loaded with a synthetic resin, with a glassfibre back-
ing, is wound without breaks along the length of
the bar. The straight part of the bar is pressed In
a heated mould to cure the resin and obtain the
 The generator

Ways restraint. Packers o f i

parators and drive strips, slid
thermo-setting dougll are a i s ~ ,
(see Fig 6.40). Support of tile r
arrangement of connectiol~s ;til.

1-i<i. 6.37 C08c end-place and icieci? are included components due to: Fio. 4.24 ~eyshaln2 condenser - modular construction

AC resistance being greatel

design dimensions, while thc curved ends are con- (skin effect).
solidated using heat-shrinkable tape. Tests are carried
out to ensure that the insulation is properly conso- 0 Eddy currents, as already 11,

OISIkNCE FROM
SLOT BOllOM, X

SLOT la1 FLUX LINKAGE AT X

CONTAINING lbl EDOYVOITAGEI" X
IDENTICAL
CoNDUCiORS

FIG. 6.38 L I I u s ~ I B ~ ~ z ~ $,lie variation o I eddy currents in stator

482 Fzo. 6.31 Flux test on comple<edcore
Fro. 6.90 Condition monitor (NEI Parsons Ltd)

F8o 6 97 Dlnoiw~gmotor-gonoralor during rlio w r n d l n ~
FIG. 6.39 Rocbel fiai~rnosiliolli
e Currents induced in core end plates, screens, and
end teeth.
Harmonic currents induced in the rotor and end
#"
. ring surfaces.
Currents induced in frame, casing, endshields, fan
baffles, etc.
These individual losses have to be assessed so that
the appropriate cooling medium is directed to their
sources, in order to avoid unacceptable localised hot
spots.
4.4 End winding support
In the end windings, bands of conductors are arranged
side-by-side, all carrying the same current although
not all in phase, and considerable electromagnetic
Turbinegenerator components: tlie stato,
forces are produced, both at rated load and parti-
cularly when large current peaks occur duringfault
conditions. The end turns must be strongly braced
to resist the peak forces and also to
100 H
~
7
.. . .- .- ...
.vihratinn ...
The MMF produced in the end winding legion by
the combined effect of the stator and rotor end wind-
ings produces a considerable magnetic flux in the
end regions. Paramagnetic material would tend to
concentrate the flux into itself, and electrically-con-
ducting material would have eddy currents induced
in it, causing both additional loss and potential hot
Spots. Metallic inserts and fastening devices can be
caused to vibrate and loosen, or wear away their
surrounding medium. Consequently non-metallic com-
ponents are used, mainly moulded glassfibre.
Substantial support brackets are bolted to tlie core
end plate and provide a support for a massive glass-
fibre conical support ring. The outer layer of end
turns is pulled onto a bedding of thermosetting con-
The generator CI~;~jiiiai
l3
,,,..
",..
lrable material between it and the support cone,
packers between the bars arcli-bind the structure
EACH DAR COMPRiSFS mfcrcntiaily. The inner layer is treated similarly,
P GROUPSOF BOTTOM INSULATION
2 STACKS OI STRAPS
4 /PACKING STRIP AND
CONrORMRBLE DOUGH
,y through-bolts, completing the very rigid structure.
'ome designs use sheets of insulation material to
lose any spaces and prevent the accidental ingress
CROSSOYEH INSULATION
rly unwelcome, since it can be caused to vibrate
brade, or be heated by eddy currents and de-
the adjacent insulation (see Fig 6.33). Vibration
e end windings must be minimised, since it can
ALTERNkTE SOLID
ANDHOLLOW
COPPERCoNDUCioRS - ROUP BINDING iAPE
lube, since hydrogen will leak into the water circuit.
Resonances close to 100 Hz must be avoided, since
both the core ovalising and the winding exciting force
occur at this frequency. Accelerometers in the end
RlPPLE SPRiNG
winding structure allow any increase in vibration due
to support slackening to be monitored. Vibration am-
plitude is highly current dependent. Any looseness
developing after a period in operation can be cor-
cted by tightening the bolts, by inserting or tighten-
g wedges, and/or by pumping a thermosetting resin
to rubber bags located between conductor bars.
Figure 6.41 shows the stator core and end windings
1
GROUPVERTiCAL
SEPARATOR
4.5 Electrical connections and terminals
13ectrical connections between one conductor bar and
ALL HOLLOW
COPPERCONDUCTORS - MAIN INSULATION WRAP
$he next in series are made differently in different
iicsigns. In one, a common electrical and water con-
1 STRAP INSULATION
iiector is formed by a copper tube bent into a U-shape,
;mid brazed onto small copper waterboxes into which
till the bar subconductors are brazed. In another, the
electrical joint is made by a solid copper bolted joint,
with the water connections separate. It is common
practice to insulate the joint or to enclose it in a
rubber housing.
The conductor bars at the high voltage end (line
end) and the low voltage end (neutral end) of a phase
band are electrically connected t o tubular connectors
I, PROTECTlVE DRiYiNG SiRlP which run circumferentially behind the end windings
at the exciter end, to the outgoing terminals, usually
with line terminals at the bottom and neutral ter-
minals at the top, although other arrangements do
exist. These connectors are internally water cooled,
and must be insulated for line voltage.
Terminal bushings (Fig 6.42) are proprietary paper-
insulated items, with internal water cooling from the
stator winding water system. Their insulation must
be capable of withstanding the hydrogen pressure in
the casing, with no perceptible leakage. It is common
practice to flange-mount the terminals on a plate of
nonmagnetic material, and to arrange for a terminal
lo be withdrawable from outside the casing. Current
transformers for instrumentation and protection sig-
Turbine-generator components: the stator
nals are housed on the external stems of the biishings.
The connections from the genciatoi terminals to thc
generator transformer are described in Volu~iie D.
Phase isolated connections are always adopted, so
that an electrical fault at the connections must start
as a line-to-earth fault, which is much less damaging
to the generator than a line-to-line fault.
4.6 Stator winding cooling components
Water is the best of the commonly available media
for cooling the stator winding, and imposes only one
condition that would not also apply to other fluids: it
must be pure enough to be effectively non-conducting
(electrically). It is continuously degassed and treated
in an ion exchanger, with the following target values
being aimed for:
Conductivity: 100 pS/m
Dissolved oxygen: 200 pgllitre lnax (in some
systems 22000 is acceptable)
Total copper: 150 pg/litre max.
pH value: 9 max
At these levels, no aggressive attack on the winding
copper has been noticed after very many years' ex-
perience. Any erosion of copper is detected by the
monitoring equipment.
Water is passed into one or more inlet manifolds,
which are copper or stainless steel pipes running cir-
cumferentially around the core end plate. From the
manifolds, flexible PTFE hoses are connected lo all
the water inlet ports on the stator conductor joints.
In a two-pass design, water passes through both bars
in parallel and is transferred to the two connected
bars at the other end, returning through similar hoses
to the outlet manifold which adjoins the inlet mani-
fold. This design minimises the number of hoses,
but requires a larger pressure head of water across
the winding (see Fig 6.43). In a single-pass arrange-
ment, hoses connect both ends of a bar to the
manifolds, which are located at opposite ends.
Thin metallic-sleeved components are crimped in-
side and outside the ends of the PTFE hoses, and
these are then attached to bosses on the manifolds
and winding connectors, using screwed-up olives,
O-rings or brazed joints. The casing hydrogen pressure
is everywhere greater than the water pressure in the
winding circuit, so that any leakage is of hydrogen
into water, rather than the reverse, which would be
damaging to the winding insulation.
The loss input into the water circuit at rated load
is designed to raise the water temperature by less
than 30°C. With an inlet temperature of 40°C, there
is plenty of margin before theitemperature at which
boiling would occur, 115-120°C at the working pres-
 %
.

Tlie generator g
-- Clhi$i)r,, 0
........, @ - li~rbirie~generatoi
cornpo~~er~ts:
tlie slator
d,
@
&

RING SEALS

OUTER STATOR
FRAME

AiUMlNlUM
TERMtNAL
PLATE

TUliULhRCOPPER
ICONDUCTOR

PiFE HOSE
,CONNECTIONS

CONNECTION PALM

AIR SiOE

FD.6.42 Gcneiaior terminals

 Turbine-generator components: the stator

circulated for a lcngthy l,eriotl, to waini the winding
bcforc thc generator is excited.
4.8 Stator casing
The casing contains the stator core and core frame,
and must resist the load and fault torques. It must
also provide a pressure-tight e~lclosurc for the hy-
drogen. Historically, casings have been made strong
enough to withstand the pressure developed by a n
ignition of the most explosive mixture of hydrogen
and air, without catastrophic failurc.
Because any mixture of hydrogen and air within
the explosive range is not allowed to occur, attain-
ment of explosion pressure is not a credible condition,
and to specify the casing on the basis of withstanding
such a pressure without leaks, as would be required
by BS5500, is unrealistic. Consequently, the full re-
quirements of the pressure vessel code are not invoked,
though some o f them are applied. This pragmatic
approach has been justified by worldwide experience over
fifty years.
Casings are fabricated steel cylinders o f up to
25 mm thickness, reinforced internally with annular rings
and axial members which strengthen the structure and
form passages for t h e flow of hydrogen (see
Figs 6.44 and 6.45). Internal spaces are provided with
runners lo accornrnodatc the hydrogen coolers. At
the ends, thick r i n g provide facings for ihc separalc
end shields. Internai supports for the core frame, in
the forni of horizontal footplates or spring plate fix-
ings, arc provided, and external feet support the
complete assembly. Lifting trunnions are usually made
detachable.
The design of the welded joints is carefully con-
trolled to avoid the presence of unfused lands wherever
possible. The main welds have to be leak-tight against
hydrogen at 4 bar, which is a very exacting require-
ment. The complete casing may be too large to be
stress-relieved in a n annealing oven, in which case
it must be assumed that stresses up to yield stress
exist in the welds. In one design, the casing is con-
structed in two halves, which are stress-relieved before
being welded together.
Thc end shields are thick circular fabricated steel
plates, ribbed to withstand the casing pressure with
minimal axial deflection. They house the shaft seal
stationary components and, in some designs, the out-
board bearing. Leak-free sealing o f the end shield/
casing joints against the hydrogen pressure, as with
all other casing joints, is effected by gaskets, O-rings
and sealing compounds injected into grooves.
The Completed casing assembly is hydraulically pres-
sure tested, and finally must be demonstrated to be
leak-tight to a level corresponding to a fall from

FiO. 6.43 Stator wiinding waler cooling syrtcrn components

sure. Monitoring the temperature of each bar by
thermocouples, either in the slots or in the water
outlets, enables a reduction o r stoppage o f water flow
in a bar to be detected.
4.7 Hydrogen cooling components
The advantages of hydrogen cooling, and its para-
meters, are described in Section 5 of this chapter.
Hydrogen enters the generator casing through a n
axially-oriented distribution pipe at the top, carbon
dioxide for scavenging being admitted through a simi-
lar pipe at the bottom.
The rotor fans circulate hydrogen over the end
windings and through the stator core, while a parallel
flow passes through the rotor. At rated load, the
hydrogen temperature increases by about 25'C during
the few seconds taken to complete this circuit. Two
or four hydrogen coolers are located vertically or
horizontally inside the casing; they consist of banks
o f finned o r wire-wound tubes through which waccl
flows in one or two passes while hydrogen flows ovrt
them. The coolers are arranged so that their headers
are accessible (for tube cleaning) without degassing
the casing. The tubes and the cooler frame must be
supported so as to avoid resonances close to tllc
principal exciting frequencies of 50 Hz and 100 Hz.
It is most important that moisture does not con-
dense on the stator end windings, since electrical
breakdown may then occur. The dewpoint of the hy.
drogen (at casing pressure) must be at least 2 0 ~ 1
lower than the temperature o f the cooled hydrogcil
emerging from the coolers, and this is continuously
monitored by a hygrometer. In normal on-load op-
eration, the stator winding water maintains the wind..
ing temperature above 40°C; if condensation occurrctl
it would be on the hydrogen coolers first. Durinp
run-up, however, the stator winding water is likely
to be cold, and it is either pre-heated electrically, or FIG.6.44 Outer stator caring
 4
The genelator
CI??I,~<',I ,
.
.
*$
*
2
@ rated hydrogen pressure o f not niare than 0.035 bar
k5 in24h.
a Some of the core vibration is transmitted to the
casing, and rotor vibration is transmitted through the
end shield and the foundations, The casing assembly
iiiust be designed to avoid resonances in the range
of these exciting frequencies.
Drains arc arranged so that any oil or water col-
lecting in the bottom of the casing is piped to liquid
leakage detectors, which initiate an alarm. Distri-
bution pipes for hydrogen and CO, are built-in; a
temperature sensor at the CO, inlet initiates an alarm
if the incoming gas has not been adequately heated
and could chill the fabricated casing locally. Electrical
iheaters are fitted in the lower half of the casing to
maintain dry conditions during outages.
The casing is bolted down to the supporting steel-
work on packing plates which are machined after
triai erection to provide the correct alignment. Axial
and transverse keys prevent subsequent movement.
The weight of the casing, complete with core frame,
coolers and water, is up to 450 tonnes.
5 Cooling systems
A generator of this type has an efficiency o f about
98.5%. Even though the losses are low in terms of
the ootput, tiley amount to some LO MW, ail of
which must be removed by the cooling systems; the
heat lost by convection and radiation from the casing
is not significant.
In some stations, most of the generator (and exciter)
losses are transferred into the boiler feedwatcr system
- condensate in the heat exchaneen.
bv usine, - Whiie
such an arrangement can be economic, there is a
Penalty in the form of added complication, and the
most modern stations do not have this feature.
5.1 Hydrogen cooling
Hydrogen has several advantages over air as a means
of removing heat from turbine-generators:
The density of hydrogen is the lowest of all gases
and is one-fourteenth that of air. Even at the rated
pressure (4 or 5 bar) and with the allowable level
o f gaseous impurities, it is still only half as dense
as air at normal temperature and pressure (NTP).
The large losi due to the gas being churned by
the rotor, and to its circulation through the fans
and cooling passages, is minimised by the use of
hydrogen as a coolant.
@ stator casing through a long perforated pipe, and
The heat transfer capability o f hydrogen is up to
twice that of air in similar conditions, though, as
with all gases, it increases with increasing pressure.
PIC. 6.45 Core frame being inserted into casing
Together with the several times higher thermal con-
8@,
Cooling systems
ductivity and specific heat of hydrogen, thc effect
is that heat removal from heated surfaces is up
to ten times more effective. icsultine- in iower tem-
peratures. Coolers can also be considerabiy smaller.
e The use of hydrogen imposes the need fox hcime-
tic seaiing and condition control, which helps to
ensure that the original electrical clearances are
maintained.
MOW imnporfanfly: the degradation of insulation
by oxidation processes cannot occur in a hydrogen
atmosphere.
The disadvantages are:
Since concet~trationsof from 4 % to 76% of hy-
drogen in air are explosive, hydrogen must not be
aliowed to escape from the stator casing and its
associated pipework in significant quantities and
become trapped in potentially explosive pockets.
The casing and end shields have to be o f rugged
construction and leak proof, demanding meticuious
welding techniques. Penetrations such as the rotor
shafts, and all outgoing connections, must be posi-
tively sealed, the former requiring a sophisticated
sealing system.
A comprehensive gas control system is required.
For generators rated much above LOO MW, air cool-
ing is not practical; more than half the total loss
would be due to fan and rotor windage. At 500
and 660 MW, hydrogen pressures of 4 or 5 bar are
economic; higher pressures than this have little or
no advantage. The only practical alternative at
these ratings is complete water cooling including
the rotor, which has not been adopted in the UK,
and only rarely elsewhere, because of leakage pro-
blems at the very high water pressures produced
by the rotation.
5.2 Hydrogen cooling system
It is necessary to ensure that potentially explosive
mixtures of air and hydrogen do not occur when filling
the casing with hydrogen, or when emptying it.
The usual method is to use carbon dioxide as a
buffer between the two other gases, in a process known
as scavenging, or simply gassing-up and degassing.
Carbon dioxide, stored as a liquid under pressure,
is expanded to a suitably low pressure above atmos-
pheric. It is also heated, because the expansion causes
it to cool and it would otherwise freeze. With the
rotor stationary, COz is fed into the bottom of the
because it is more dense than air it displaces air from
the top via the hydrogen inlet distribution pipe t o
atmosphere outside the station. Some mixing of gases
occurs at the interface. A gas analyser is used to
491
 .e gelrelator
inonitoi the pl.opoi-lioil of C O , in the gas passing lo
atmosphere; when this is sufficiently high, lhe C O ,
inlet i s closed (see Fig 6.46).
1-ligh purity hydrogen from a central storage tank
or electi.olytic process is then fed through a bus nrain
a1 about 10 bar to the gas control panel, where its
pressure is reduced before being fed to the casing
through the top admission pipe (Fig 6.47). Being very
much lighter, it displaces the C 0 2 from the bottom
of the casings via the C 0 2 pipe to atmosphere, again
with some degree of mixing. When the proportion
of C 0 2 in the vent is low enough, the proportion
of air left in the casing will be very low, and if the
casing is then pressurised with hydrogen t o its op-
erating pressure (say 4 bar), the proportion of air
will be reduced to a quarter of this low value. The
complete process normally occupies a few hours.
Separate procedures are followed t o ensure that
other components, such as tanks, are properly scav-
enged, so that dangerous mixtures do not occur. The
reverse of the foregoing procednrc, using C 0 2 and
tllen dry compressed air, is followed t o remove
hydrogen from the machine for inspection or for a
prolonged outage.
In one design of 500 MW generator, air is removed
from the casing by drawing a vacuum, using the
pump normally used to degas the seal oil. The shaft
seals are arranged to seal effectively under this unusual
operating condition. When the vacuum is as low as
can be achieved, hydrogen is admitted, the resulting
purity when pressurised being sufficiently high.
Normally, hydrogen purity remains high, since air
cannot leak into the pressurised system. Some air
may, however, be released from the shaft seal oil
flowing into the casing hydrogen space. Replacenlent
hydrogen to make up for leakage is usually sufficient
to maintain the required purity.
The differential pressure developed across the
rotor fans is used to circulate a sample of casing
hydrogen continuousiy through a katharometer-type
purity monitor, which initiates an alarm if the purity
falls below a preset value, typically 97%. The purity
monitor (and the gas analyser) can he calibrated with
pure gases from the piped supplies. A check on the
purity is also possible by monitoring the differential
pressure developed by the fans, which responds
markedly to the change in density produced by air
impurity.
A Pressure sensitive valve admits hydrogen from
the bus main if the casing pressure falls below a pre-
determined level, while a spring-loaded relief valve
is set to release hydrogen to the outside atmosphere
if the pressure becomes excessive. It is important
that these two pressures are not set so close that
:t,.
s.>
wastage occurs, particularly as the gas temperature
p,,,.:.
F,,', ,
kz
.
,, and pressure changes when on-load cycling. Monitoring
of the hydrosen
. - cansumotion is a reeentlv introduced
b;izi
~,.
feature on some units (see Fig 6.48). .
The temperature of the hydrogen is normally moni-
<:,+
$<
Cooling system5
iored by several thermocouples, wliosc readings s l i ~ ~ i i l i l
be averaged, at the inlets to and outlets fl-olii 111i
TE:cq
~~ .... ~
~
hydrogen coolers. Typically, hydrogen is ciucill;itvil --,-.--"I-
at 30 m"s which, with a full-load loss input af ;$l>i!iit
GENERATOR STATOR CASING END
5000 kW, results in a temperature rise of the olrlvi ($1
30°C. The cooled gas should nor be hotter than lO"1 ,
so the temperature of the gas entering the cooirih
should not exceed 70°C.
Water cannot normally leak into the casing fi-OIII 1111-
stator winding water circuit or the hydrogen coolc~!~,
since the water pressure is lower than the gas pressilir
in both circuits. It can be released from the slinS!
seal oil, particularly if the oil is untreated turl>i~ir
lubricating oil which has picked up water froril t110
turbine steam glands. It is imponant that the ~moie
ture content of tllc casing hydrogen be kepi lor),
enough to prevent condensation occurring on l l i u
coldest component, which may be the water coolcd
winding. The differential pressure is used to circlllutc
a flow of hydrogen continuously through a dryri,
typically of the twin-tower type, using activatetl I ~ I I I
mina, with automatic changeover and regeneratiol~,A
inotor-driven blower maintains the flow througi, 1111
rotor when the rotor is not running at speed (scc ].if:
6.49).
Continuous monitoring of the humidity of the r l l r .
in& gas is provided by means of a hygrometer. i l i i
maximum permissible dewpoint is not less than 20°C
below the cold gas temperature, measured at cusion
pressure. It is i m ~ g r t a n tthat this caveat is observed,
particularly if the dewpoint is being compared with
that of a sample drawn from the casing and measulcil
at atmospheric pressure.
Hydrogen is circulated by the fans through tlic
stator core and end windings, the precise paths biiiii:
different in different designs. The rotor acts virtuzill?
as its own fan, hydrogen being drawn through liii.
windings and exhausted into the airgap, again tiil
ferently in different designs. The hydrogen removr,.
the electrical loss in the rotor winding, the 'iron lirv,'
in the stator core, the windage loss produced by llic
rotor and fans, and most of the electrical losses gcn.
erated in the frame and end winding structures.
Because it is impractical to ensure that potentially
explosive mixtures of hydrogen and air never occur
in the small bore instrumentation pipework, thosu
instruments and devices containing electrical circuil~.
in contact with the gas, such as katharometers, mu*;!
be intrinsically safe in such mixtures. This means thsl
a sudden break in an electrical circuit must not br
capable of providing enough spark energy to ignitr
the gas.
It is impossible to ensure complete freedom f r o r ~
Leakage of hydrogen over the lifetime of the plan:,
and the areas near to potential leakage sources arc ----
classified into zones of differing degrees of hazanl,
described in detail in CEGB Code of Practice 098/311:
- AIR
CO*
'Code of Practice for the Design Principles relating
FIG.6.46 Generator gas system - displacing air with CO?
to the use of Hydrogen in Large Generators'. Zones 0
 Cooling systems
.-

-?@ PERFORATE" AOMiSSlON PIPE

GENERATORSTATORCASlNG
?@ * EXCITER
END
1

FIG. 647 Oeneialor gas systenl - displacing co2 with H, FIG.6.48 Gcneralor gas ryrtem in normal operation
The generatoi Chap11 8 i
F10. 6.49 Oas dryer and blower
and 1, in which explosive mixtures exist continuously virtually impossible to eliminate some potential ignl.
o r occur in normal operation, should not be present tion sources, such as the rotating shaft rubbing a n oil
if the principles outlined above are followed. Zone 2, scraper ring, or sparking at brushgear.
in which explosive mixtures are unlikely to occur Another potential source of ignition occurs wheir
and, if they do will only exist for a short time, covers currents are induced in pipework loops, as may irr.
instrumentation as previously noted; the hydrogen the case when pipes are routed near to main con.
dryer and blower, the detraining tanks, and the in- nections. Here, flanged joints are insulated to break
terior of the control cubicle to which hydrogen is the possible current path.
piped. Also classified as Zone 2 are the areas into If a serious rupture occurs, e.g., the break-up ol
which hydrogen may leak, through gaskets, seals, etc., a shaft seal, hydrogen may escape very rapidly, and
knowing the normal pressure behind the gas and its if it encounters a source of ignition, say the shall
propensity for rapid upward movement. Sources of rubbing, it will burn intensely in the ambient air. 111
ignition are not located in such areas. It is, however, order to vent the casing to atmosphere outside tlir.
station, and to admit C 0 2 to the casing, duplicated
valves are provided, one set being located remcte from
where any fire is conceivable (see Fig 6.50).
Hydrogen has been used universally for 50 years
for high speed generator cooling, and incidents such
as this have been very rare. The meticulous attention
to safely precautions both in design and operation
lhave been largely responsible for this good record.
5.3 Shaft seals and seal oil system
Seals prevent the escape of hydrogen where the rotor
shafts emerge through the casing end shields. What-
ever their design, they are located in the end shields,
and are inboard of the bearings. Two types of seal
have been commonly used: the thrust seal and the
journal seal.
5.3.1 Thrust t y p e s e a l
In the thrust type seal (Fig 6.281, the seal ring acts
like a thrust face, bearing onto a collar on the shaft.
Turbine lubricating oil is fed to a central circum-
ferential groove in the white-metalled face of the
seal ring, at a pressure controlled to be greater than
that of the casing hydrogen. Most of the oil flows
outwards over the thrust face and drains into a %ell.
A small proportion flows inwards, against centrifu-
gal force and with only the oil/hydrogen differential
pressure behind it, into a drainage compartment which
is at casing hydrogen pressure. This oil can release
entrained air and water at this point, thus contami-
nating the casing hydrogen, as noted earlier, and it
is therefore important that the inward oil flow is
small.
The seal ring is attached to a housing which must
lhe free to move axially to accom~nodatethe 30 mm
or so of axial movement imposed on the shaft by
tliermal expansion o f all the coupled rotors down-
stream from the turbine thrust bearing, as they pass
from cold to hot conditions. The housing is arranged
lo move inside a stationary member, using rubber
sealing rings to contain the oil and to create a n axial
pressure at the seal face.
In some designs, an additional chamber between
fixed and sliding components is fed with oil at a
separately controllable pressure so that the overall
pressure at the seal face can be varied. In another
variation, additional pressure is provided by springs.
6.3.2 J o u r n a l t y p e s e a l
llere the seal resembles a short journal bearing float-
ing on the shaft. In this case the shaft can freely
Inlove axially through the seal, and it therefore does
not have to accommodate the thermal expansion of
tile shaft. Again, oil is fed to a central annular groove
Cooling systems
in the white-oietalled ring, and fIou,s along the clear-
ances between the shaft and the bore of the seal,
both outwards to tlie drain and inwards to the hy-
drogen pressurised space. The inward flow rate is
much greater than that for the thrust type, because
it is not inhibited by centrifugal force, and it would
be capable of contaminating the hydrogen purity to
an unacceptable extent. T o prevent this, all the oil
fed to the seals is subjected to vacuum treatment, in
which much of the air and water is removed. Against
this disadvantage, it is claimed that the journal type
seal is inherently better able to withstand disturbances
of the shaft by expanding to provide a larger clear-
ance for oil flow if it is heated by excessive shaft
movement
More sophisticated versions o f tlie journal type seal,
one of which has two separate oil supplies for inward
and outward flow, have been developed to avoid the
need for vacuum treatment (see Fig 6.29). It is also
possible to keep the oil supplies separate from the
main turbine lubricating oil supply, which is the source
of most of the entrained water.
5.3.3 Seal oil s y s t e m
In the conventional seal oil system (see Fig 6.51), the
main seal oil supply is taken from the shaft-driven
lubricating oil pump, with its pressure suitably re-
duced. The pressure is further controlled by diaphragm
valve which maintains a constant differential pressure
above casing gas pressure at the seals. The oil is cooled
in a water-cooled heat exchanger, and finely filtered
to prevent metallic particles gaining access to the small
clearances at the seal faces.
Because it is necessary to maintain the shah sealing
oil at standstill, to prevent hydrogen escape, motor-
driven seal oil pumps are also provided; these act as a
back-up in emergencies, and are initiated by falling
seal oil pressure. They are commonly vertical pump-
motor units mounted on the top o f the lubricating
oil settling tank with the pumps submerged. A battery
fed DC motor-driven pump may be provided as a
back-up in case o f supply failure, but this would
be expected to operate only a few hours while the
hydrogen is scavenged.
The oil flowing to the casing side of the seal is
in a pressurised hydrogen environment and must be
collected in a 'break pressure' tank, which releases it
through a float controlled valve and enables it to be
returned to the drain tank. The possibility of hydrogen
entering the drain tank is recognised; low level alarms
give a first warning (some form of pressure loop is
usually provided) and a blower exhausts the gas above
the oil in the 'hydrogen section' of the tank to at-
mosphere. This blower also serves to reduce the
pressure in the bearing housings (communicated via
the half empty drain pipes) below atmospheric, thus
reducing egress o f oil vapour at the bearings.
497
 The generator
Cha1,ii.l 1.
.

498
FIG 6 50 Generator gas system - emergency scavenging

i
,!
#
FIG 6 51 Seal oil system
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cm

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=.
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o o m m ~
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 8
TI?@generator
~ l i a p i i .(.~ f Cooli!?g systems
Y

DRhlN VALVE \& STRAINER

As noted earlier, it is important that condensation
does not occur o n the windings. Some machines have
a n electrical heating element, or an automatic cooler
bypassing system, to prevent water that is too cold
from circulating in the windings during start-up and
early loading.
It is not easy to measure the insulation resistance
(IR) o f a winding which has multiple high resistance
paths to earth through the water-Xlled hoses, and even
epoxy resin insulation systems d o not absorb mois-
ture, and a low IR is usually indicative of surface
contamination, which can be removed by warmed air
circulation.

5.5 Other cooling systems

draining out the water does not ensure that the inside
surfaces of the hoses are dry. Attempts have been made
to use a specially designed resistance measuring device
which uses the water manifolds as 'guard rings', but
this is not always satisfactory. Fortunately, modern
Casing hydrogen is cooled by passing it through water-
cooled heat exchangers arranged horizontally or ver-
tically in the casing. The heat exchangers consist of
many tubes of non-ferrous metal with either metallic
strip fins or wire loops brazed to their outside sur-
faces (Fig 6.55). These coolers have a double-pass
T h e generator
water circiilatioii, so ilia1 ililct and oiitlct asater con-
~ieclioiisare at the sainc end. They arc equipped wiih
sealing devices so that acccss to the header box can
be gained for inspection, even though the casing is
p~.essuiised.Some form of ail. venting system is also
provided. Tile coolers can be withdrawn from the
casing when it has been scavenged.
Water for tiiese coolers (and other auxiliary coolers)
may be condensate or distilled water in a self-contained
system, or both; it is undesirable to use raw cool-
ing water because o f the danger of corrosion. The
water pressure is arranged t o be less than the rated
pressure of hydrogen in the casing, so that in the
event of leakage, hydrogen will leak into the water
circuit. In the latest machines, hydrogen detectors are
provided in the water circuit (Fig 6.56). Operation
is usually possible with one hydrogen cooler valved-
off; this provides some redundancy. Loss of primary
water is detected by rise of Ilydiogen temperature,
which may be so rapid that the protection is arranged
to trip the unit.
Air cooling systems are provided for the rotating
exciters, and for the slipring/brusbgear or rotating
rectifier chambers. The rotating exciter components
llave a closed air circuit with a water-cooled heat
exchanger; the sliprings usually have open air venti-
lation.
STATOR EN0
WALL
,h,, c7 "h,nm,,,, =,
\ HORIZONTALFRAME
!~%&,TuBEdihiE
INLETAWL) OUTLET /- *
WATERBOX DOOR
LARCE HOLE FIX
504
Chapter (i
6 Excitation
6.1 Exciters
6.1.1 Historical review
When the first AC generators were introduced ii
natural cholce for the supply o f the field systems was
the DC exciter. These direct current commutator ma-
chines were not only used as main and pilot exciters
but later also as a control amplifier, known as a
rotating amplifier or amplidyne.
The DC exciter suffered from commutation and
brushgear problems but also offered certain advan-
tages; in particular, a capability for equal voltagr
output Of either polarity, which was used to improvc
generator transient performance. The main exciter ar-
mature also provided a path for the commutatioo
of induced currents, regardless of polarity, which ap-
pear in the generator field winding during poie-slipping
and other severe system disturbances, thereby limiting
the induced voltage.
Gear-driven exciters were introduced to extend thc
application of these machines, however, increased
demand for higher excitation currents paralleled by
advances in semiconductor technology brought about
CORNERMEMBER
ENOMR i
COVER
PLATE
StCURtNO
SCREW
FIG 6 55 Hydrogen cooler FIG. 6.56 Didlilled water cooling system
i i i e generator
tlie introdoction oi' thc rectified AC excitcr. I'iicsc
!i8crc either stalic semiconductor diodc icctifieis sup-
plying ilic generator fieid winding via siipiings, or
bri~slilesr systems \\.hicli carry llle diode rectifier on
the shaft. l>cveiopmcnts iiavc continued and excita-
lion powers now range from 70 kW for 20 MW gas
turbine-generators to 3500 kW for the 660 MMJsteam
tul-bine-generators.
Where generators are connected to tlie main
transmissioii system ovei long transmission links, it
is necessary to p~.ovide a high response excitation
system capable o f satisfying system transient stability
requirements. In these circumstances, a static thyris-
tor excitation system capable o f step changes in field
voltage is generally specified.
6.1.2 AC excitation s y s t e m s
The excitation requirements o f all CEGB 500 and 660
MW turbine-generators are provided by AC cxcitatioti
systems. A typical AC encitation scheme, showing the
shaft-mounted main and pilot exciters together with
associated brushgear is shown in Fig 6.57.
The CEGB currently operates 660 MW turbine-
gencl.ators with either static or rotating excitation
equipment. Detailed descriptions of these are given
in Sections 6.2 and 6.3 of this chapter respectively,
while this section concentrates on exciter plant which
is common to both.
T o maximise plant availability under 'black start'
conditions, reliance on external electrical supplies is
kept to a minimum by using direct-driven perma-
nent magnet pilot exciters. For many years, DC pilot
exciters were used, but the low currents involved
introduced commutation problems due to brushgear
glazing and, as a consequence, they were supe~.seded
by A C machines.
The pilot exciter provides power for the excitation
AVR control equipment which, on present 660 MW
plant, is of a salient pole design with ratings approach-
ing 100 kW.
Both the main and pilot exciters are air cooled
machines, cooling air being drawn through the ma-
chine by shaft-mounted fans. Temperature measure-
ments are taken at the inlet and outlet of the cooling
circuit to monitor performance.
6.1.3 Exciter transient p e r f o r m a n c e
Exciters must operate over a wide voltage and current
range as ceiling requirements are considerably in excess
of rated full-load conditions. The exciter is required
to respond quickly to changes in excitation at its own
rotor terminals. This requirement for a fast response
characteristic is achieved by the use of a short air
gap and a laminated rotor body.
Exciter transient performance is characterised bv
the exciter response ratio defined in BSSOOO Part 2,
as follows:
CI,?i~~lcv
I,
iixciler icsponsc ratio :~
Tlrr avci-age rate of increase in excilaliol,
oi~en-circuitvoltage (V/s)
Nominal excitation voitage
Typically, exciters are required to incrcasc oulpul roli
age from 100% to 200% in iess than 0.3 s c c a ~ ~ i i ~ , ,
corresponding to a rcsponsc ratio of 3.5.
The average rate of increase o f the excitation opc>t
circuit voltage is given by the slope of AC in Fig 6.51G.
Slope of AC = BC/AB but AB = 0.5 seconds.
Hence AC = 2BC (average rate of increase of c i .
citer voltage) and the nominal exciter response r;iiiii
is given by 2BC/OA.
6.1.4 T h e pilot exciter
A shaft-driven excitation system consists of a maii,
and pilot exciter, the pilot exciter providing the inp~li
power to the AVR. A number o f different types h a w
been developed including salient pole, inductor type
homopolar and heresopolar designs. System requiic.
lnents for complete indcpelidence from external sujl.
plies during 'black start' conditions have led to a trend
in favour of the permanent magnet generator (Ph4<il
pilot exciter design. The salient pole design has gained
favour on all recent 660 MW units and forms the
basis of the following discussion.
The salient pole PMG is a three-phase mediunl
frequency machine, providing an essentially constani
voltage supply to the thyristor converter and AVR
control circuits. A typical salient pole PMG is shown
on Fig 6.59.
The permanent magnet poles of the generator are
manufactured from high energy material, such as
Alcomax. The permanent magnet pieces are bolted
to a steel hub and held in place by pole shoes. The
bolts are generally made from non-magnetic steel to
prevent the formation of a magnetic shunt. In some
designs of PMG, the pole shoes are also skewed one
pole pitch over the stator length to improve the
waveform o f the output voltage and reduce electrical
noise.
The stator core is constructed from a stack o f low
loss sheet steel laminations, assembled within a fabri-
cated steel frame. Radial and axial cooling ducts are
provided at intervals along the core length to allow
cooling of the core and windings. T o facilitate re-
moval, certain designs of pilot exciter can be split along
the horizontal centre line.
T h e stator winding is a two-layer design, each
stator conductor comprising a number of small dia-
meter copper wires insulated with polyester enamel.
The coils are connected together to give the raced
three-phase voltage output, and insulated with Class
F (BS5000 Part 2) epoxy glass material.
The generator
FIG. 6.58 Concept of rllc exciter iesposce ratio
A steel enclosure is fitted over the PMG stator,
whicli provides mechanical protection and serves to
reduce the medium frequency noise emitted from the
PMG to an acceptable level, as defined in 854999
Part 51.
Cooling of the PMG is achieved by drawing air
through mesh-covered apertures in the enclosure; the
air is then circulated by the rotor or shaft-mounted
fans.
Excitation
.- ..,..,
layel' of gunchiogs in ihc core is ,made from a ln~il,i>ti
of tiiesc scgmeiils, coated with insulating varnisl, i i i l i i
iaid side-by-side to form a circle, Ail ihe joiiil~ i i ~ i
adjacent layers arc staggered.
The statoi- winding is of a lhrcc-phase, foiit oi
six-pole design, formed by copper coils whicli :I,,
contained in co~iductorslots io the corc, and rei;ii~ivci
in position by insulating slot wedges. Each coil i a
made from individually-insulated copper strips, coii
tained within a moulded insulating tube. To reslliii
eddy currents in the coil, the copper strips in each coil
are transposed.
The rotor consists of a hollow-bored alloy sruvl
forged shaft whicli carries the silicon steel iaminaiioitb
forming the rotor core. The rotor body is gencrzill)
laminated to reduce polefacc losses in the exciici
The reduction of this loss is important, as in the r i
citer, the ratio of stator slot opening/gap lengtli i,.
comparatively large, a short airgap length being i i i ,
cessary to lighten the burden on the main excites t i
citation system. The stator slots form indentations i i ~
the airgap boundary; therefore, as the rotor flux mar't,i
across the stator teeth, the changing permeance diii.
to the sloi openings introduces medium frequeiiiy
pulsations. These pulsations induce harlno~iicvoltiir:ci
in the surface of the stator teeth but due to iiir
laminated construction, the resultant losses are kcpi
to a minimum.
The rotor windings are retained in position by cylin.
drical rotor endcaps. A fan is mounted on a seatin!!
machined in the balance ring to circulate cooling ail
At the exciter outboard end, two slipring units aic
connected to the endwinding, via radial connectio~r!.
and upshaft leads.

6.1.6 Exciter performance testing

6.1.5 The main exciter
The main AC exciter is generally of a four or six-
pole revolving field construction. The exception is the
revolving armature main exciter used in a rotating
rectifier scheme, which is described in detail in Sec-
tion 6.2 of this chapter.
The exciter magnetic circuit is designed to operate
o n or near the unsaturated part of its characteristic.
This preserves a linear relationship between the con-
trolled excitation of the main exciter and the gen-
erator slipring voltage. The armature is designed for
low voltage operation, with comparatively high current
levels. A typical rotating field main exciter arrange-
ment is shown on Fig 6.60.
The stator core and windings are air cooled, the
ventilation circuit being formed by the end cover
and ducting in the stator casing. Thermometers are
fitted to the casing to measure inlet and outlet air
temperatures.
The core is constructed from a large number of
segmented plates stamped from core plate material of
high magnetic quality and low electrical loss. Each
508
Exciters are required to undergo a number of tea!,
within the manufacturer's works to ensure that iiii
of the functional requirements are fulfilled. Thesr
include open- and short-circuit tests, overspeed bsi.
ancing and HV testing. PMG exciters are stabilised
by applying short-circuits across the stator terminals
to ensure that there is no appreciable loss of outpiit
voltage over the plant life.
The full exciter test requirements are contained witli-
in BS5000 which covers routine and type testing.
6.1.7 Pilot exciter protection
The pilot exciter is now invariably a permanent m a t
net generator with windings only on the stator. These
windings are insulated to 1.1 kV and tested at 3.2 kV,
50 Hz for 1 minute, which is well in excess of the
normal operating voltage of 220 V.
The pilot exciter is only ever called upon to deliver
its full current output during field forcing. Modern
AVR equipment is fitted with a time/current limiter
which allows the pilot exciter to deliver maximuni
i
li(R SCOOP
FIG. 6.59 Salient-pole perlnanenf magnet
current for a pre-set time, after which the current is
ramped back to a safe value.
The result of these measures is a pilot exciter having
a considerable design margin for normal duties. It is
not, therefore, CEGB practice to provide additional
pilot exciter protection.
6.1.8 Main exciter protection
The main exciter, like the pilot exciter, has con-
siderable inbuilt margin compared with its normal
duties, the AC windings being insulated for 3.3 kV,
even though normal working voltages are around 500
V. During ceiling conditions, this rises t o approxi-
mately 1000 V.
generator
The rated current is well below maximum current;
therefore, for reasons similar to those given for the
pilot exciter, no additional protection is provided.
6.2 Brushless excitation systems
6.2.1
The development of the solid state silicon diode, with
its inherent robustness and reliability, made possible
the design of a compact rectifier system that can be
rotated at rated generator speed. This alternative to
the conventional slipring excitation system eliminates
 The yeneratot
COiiii K t "
PIG. 6.60 Main exciter
the need for brushgear maintenance and reduces the
overall unit size.
Basically, the brushless scheme consists of a re-
coupled to the main generator shaft.
The rotating excitation system does not use field
suppression switches and discharge resistors. The main
generator field is de-energised by suppress in^ the ex-
citer field which can be done rapidly by inverting the
thyristor bridge which supplies it. The exciter time
constants are short; therefore the time taken to sup-
press the generator field is only slightly longer than
in a conventional system.
All modern gas turbine units are fitted with brushless
excitation systems, where the pilot exciter, main exciter
and diode wheel are overhung; this arrangement means
the equipment is readily accessible for inspection. The
complete rotating system is balanced as a unit. The
rotating diodes are connected in a three-phase bridge
arrangement, the bridge arm consisting of two diodes
in series, so that if one fails by going short-circuit,
the other diode will continue to operate and hence
b Excitatiori
~:l,,,l~,,.i
. . ,.,
,
poncnts. T i l a ied la a airnplified inechanical
arrangement.
6.2.2 The rotating a r m a t u r e main exciter
The main exciter is a brushless machine which, in
conjunction with the other units of the biusllless ex-
citation system, supplies power to the main geilcrator
rotor. By dispensing with commutators, sliprings and
brushgear, the brushless machine requires less main-
tenance than the conventional machine and there are
no sliding o r rubbing electrical contacts to cause
sparking or carbon dust.
The machine is a three-phase rotating armature AC
generator driven dircctly from the main generator
through a solid coupling. The DC field system is
mounted in the stator and the AC winding is on tile
rotor. A laminated pole construction is used, giving a
field circuit with a short time constant to produce a
fast response.
The AC output from tlie main cxcitei is rectified
by diodes on the shaft and, in order to reduce diode
commutation reactance, a fully interconnected damper
windine- is fitted to the exciter palefaces. Ficurc 6.61
shows a typical rotating armature main exciter.
The stator consists essentially of a fabricated support
structure which carries the laminated magnet frame
and the associated field windings. The support frame
is formed from two steel end plates connected by
rectangular steel axial tie bars. The tie bars are equally
spaced around the bore to form a cage into which
the magnet frame laminations are assembled.
The stator core consists of a laminated magnet
frame with the latninated field poles boited into the
bore o f the frame. The magnet frame is built up from
segmental laminations of sheet steel. Each ring of
the bridge operates normally. In the unlikely c\,i,~tl
laminations is made up of six segments; the segments
of two diodes failing in the same bridge arm, a in~oili
in adjacent rings are half overlapped so that the
toring circuit in the field of the main exciter dutccis
radial joints d o not coincide. Ventilation spacers are
the fault and trips the machine.
inserted during manufacture to form radial ventilation
Because of the high excitation power requirelnen~r
ducts.
of a 660 MW generator, a number of diodes are con. The field poles are laminated and assembled onto
nected in parallel in each rectifier bridge arm. A fiiau key bars which allow the bolting of the poles onto
is connected in series with each diode to isolatc i f the bore of the magnet frame. The poles are built
if it fails. Present CEGB requirements include buiil., up from T-shaped laminations clamped between end-
in redundancy of rectifier components so that, should plates by axial rivets.
two of the parallel paths in each arm fail, full MCI( The exciter armature is formed from laminations
excitation requirements can still be supplied. This of low loss electrical sheet steel, shrunk onto a shaft
increase in components has meant the use of largcl
forged from annealed carbon steel. Each segment is
diameter diode wheels. Diodes and their associalcd thinly insulated on both sides with a varnish, baked
components have therefore to be designed to witit.
on to give a durable insulation. The shrink-fit is such
stand centrifugal forces in the region of 60W g. that the stampings are always in contact with the
Measurements o f essential quantities, such as lo. shaft. The laminations are clamped between heavy
tor earth fault indication, field voltage and current endplates of nonmagnetic steel with strong finger
are obtained via a telemetry link o r instrument slil).. supports for the armature teeth.
rings. Radial ventilation ducts are formed by spacer plates
Recent designs o f rotating diode wheel have taken at intervals along the rotor body. Cooling air from
advantage of continued developments in semiconduc. both ends flows axially along slots machined in the
tor diode technology to reduce the number o f cam. shaft to feed air into the interpolar gap through the
-
radiai veiitiiation ducts.
The armatore windings arc hcid in place by wedgcs
driven into dovetail slots formed when the wi~lding
slots are punclied. The arrnaturc winding overhang is
cooled by axial vents in the teeth in each end packet.
The three-phase two-layer winding is secured in placc
by wedges made from epoxy glass mat. In order to
minimise iosses caused by eddy currents, the conduc-
tor is made from braided strips in parallel. A Roebel
transposition is used in the slot portion to reduce
eddy current losses.
Each of the phase ends of the three-phase winding
is connected to the appropriate phase conductor in
the AC shaft connection assembly by six laminated
copper connecting straps. A copper ring under the
outboard endwinding forms the neutral point.
The AC shaft connections between the exciter and
rectifier consist essentially o f three cylindrical con-
centric conductor assemblies which pass through the
wall of the shaft. Thc conductol. bars are insulated
from each other and from the shaft.
Figure 6.62 shows the rotating rectifier unit of a
660 MW generator which is mounted outboard of the
main AC exciter, Three-phase A C power is supplied
to the silicon diode rectifier from the main exciter
by conductors taken axially along the surface of the
shaft. The components within the rectifier arc con-
tained against the high centrifugal forces by a steel
retaining ring.
The diode modules are accommodated within the
retaining ring in two circular rows, the complete
rectifier being a '3-2- 1-9' connection of 54 diodes.
The notation signifies three A C connections, two
DC connections, one diode in series per arm, and the
last number indicates that there arc nine paths per
phase.
The rotating rectifier includes a 20% standby ca-
pacity, this ensures continued unrestricted operation
in the unlikely event of diode failure. Anode-based
diodes are used in the positive arm and cathode-based
diodes in the negative arm o f the bridge. The diodes
are of a compression bonded construction.
Individual diodes are protected by two HRC (high
rupturing capacity) fuses, connected in parallel, which
isolate the diode should it become faulty, leaving the
remaining healthy diodes to carry the full excitation
current. Each diode moduje has a resistance-capaci-
tance spike voltage suppression circuit and an indi-
cator fuse. The indicator fuse, in conjunction with the
blown fuse detector equipment, is designed to detect
the operation of the main diode protection fuses.
The rectifier retaining ring is shrunk onto the out-
side of the hub. A thick cylinder of insulation is
moulded onto the inside bore of the retaining ring,
and the circular rows of diodes are attached to it via
the diode module heat sinks.
The anode-based diode modules, situated at the
hub end o f the retaining ring each consist o f a heat
sink, diode, capacitor, capacitor fuse and main fuse.
511
 The generator Cllaiiti~,I ,

SUPPLY TERMINALS
CWLlNGWAiER INSULATED CLAMPING
INLET YENTIMION
ROC( HOLES
EXCITER STEELCOUPLING
BEOPMIE SUSHliND BOLT

FIG. 6.61 Rotating armaturc main exciter

Flc. 6.62 Rotating rectifier

The cathode-based diode modules are situated at
the open end of the retaining ring, and in addition
to the anode based components have two indicator
fuses mounted on the heat sink. Figure 6.63 shows a
typical cathode-based module.
The DC output from the rectifier is connected to
copper alloy rings shrunk onto bushes on the shaft,
with insulation between the connection rings and the
bushes. Laminated copper straps connect the positive
and negative rings to insulated radial studs in the
shaft. These studs are screwed into the shaft bore
insulated D-leads.
With a rotating rectifier system, diode condition
monitoring is not as simple as it is on the equivalent
static rectifier scheme. A method of indirect measure-
ment is required to indicate a diode failure. The blown
fuse detector performs this function; it consists of
two main units, an optical detector head and a ter-
minal unit containing the detection equipment, shown
diagrammatically in Fig 6.64.
The optical detector head consists of a unit con-
taining the three photoelectric cells associated with
three separate light sources, two on the bottom face
and one (the datum) on the top face. The light beams
on the bottom face pass over the path traversed by
the tips of the diode failure indicator fuses as the
513

The generator
FIG. 6.63 Negative DC diode module
rectifier rotates. Under normal operating conditions,
these light beams remain unbroken and the light shines
continuously on the photoelectric cell immediately op-
posite, thus maintaining a constant signal. However,
should a diode fail, the associated indicator fuse op-
erates and ejects a striker pin which interrupts the
appropriate beam of light on each revolution. This
interruption produces a pulsed DC signal at the output
o f the photoelectric cell which is fed to the blown fuse
Chii~?ii.ii,
.
detector circuit, where an alarm signal is generated.
T o distinguish between the two rows (positive and
negative) of indicator fuses, the light beams from thc
two probes are offset by an amount equal to half thc
circumferential distance between fuses. Without this
arrangement, signals from the two rows of fuses would
be coincident and therefore unidentifiable.
To establish the angular position of a failed diode
on the rotating rectifier, a fixed datum point is con-
p
$;
5 Exi;it;ntoc~
FUSE PIN
IUNGSTFN HRLOGFN
LlOiiTSOLiRCF
i TIC 6 64 Blown fuse deceilor sysienl
!6
z
tinuously scanned by the third photoelectric cell.
The datum detector output is compared with the
blown fuse detector signal and the relationship be-
tween the two cstabiisl~es the position of the failed
diode.
Generators fitted with brushless exciters employ telc-
metry systems to provide measurement o f generator
rotor winding quantities, including rotor current, volt-
age, temperature and most importantly earth fault
indication.
The equipment uses solid state electronics, some
o f which are shaft-mounted and the remainder rack-
mounted within the AVR. The rotating units are com-
pletely encapsulated and accommodated in transverse
holes in the exciter shaft. Plugs and sockets are used
for connections. The power supply for the rotating
electronics is supplied from the stationary unit at me-
dium frequelicy via windings on the aerial assembly.
T h e overall schematic of the telemetry system is shown
o n Fig 6.65:
Voltage measurement The field voltage is obtained
from a voltage divider circuit connected across the
field winding. This comprises resistors R1 and R2
which have a voltage output of 0.6 V corresponding
to the generator field voltage.
BLOWN
REMOii
OETFCiOR ALARM
CiRCUli CIRCUITS
i."C*iAi*RM
NDICAICJR
LAMP
Current measrrrrrxetit A current shunt is built into
the rotor winding, giiaing a mV outi~utcoriespond-
ing to the 0-5000 A flowing in the field winding.
Earth leakage A DC supply is produced in tlie
rotating electronic equipment, the positive supply
o f which is connected to the negative end of the
field winding via a resistor R3. The negative is con-
nected to the rotor shaft through a high value
resistor 114. Leakage to earth will result in current
flouing through these resistors which is measured
by the voltage drop across R3.
The output from the current channel is fed to a volt-
age controlled oscillator that oroduces a freauencv
. .
modulated (FM) signal, which is then conveyed to
the stationary unit by the aerial assembly. Voltage
and earth leakage signals are treated similarly. Values
o f winding resistance and average winding temperature
are derived from the voltage and current signals.
The signal from the field voltage demodulator is
also fed to an active filter tuned to the exciter funda-
mental frequency. Should a complete rectifier bridge
arm fail, signals at this frequency appear in the field
winding causing the filter output to increase, initiating
a n alarm.
 FIG. 6.65 Rot~tionallclcilielly - overall rcnenlalic
An alternative brushless exciter design consisting
o f a rectifier witii a 3 - 2 - 2 - 8 arrangement o f connec-
tions tolaiiing 96 diodes is also in common use. The
notation signifies three AC connections, two D C con-
nections with two diodes in series and eight parailel
paths per bridge aim. The rectifier is designed to
maintain rated output following the failure of up to
two paths in any bridge arm.
A circular row of fuse modules and two circular
rows of diode modules are contained against the cen-
trifugal forces by a steel retaining ring. The diode
modules consist of anode and cathode units, which are
used in the positive and negative arm of the bridge. In
contrast to the mark 1 systems, the mark 2 is fused on
the AC side of the rectifier and advantage has been
taken of the improved peak inverse voltage capability
of modern diodes to eliminate the capacitor fuse cir-
cuits. A typical mark 2 diode module is shown on
Fig 6.66.
Fusing on the AC side means a reduction in fuse
size, as tlle elements are no longer subjected to the
high induced generator field voltages which occur
during system faults and pole slipping incidents.
diagram
The need for the two diodes in series was deter-
mined from consideration of two diodes failing simul-
taneously in the same phase of the rectifier. If the
series diodes u,ere not present, tlle resuit would be a
short-circuiting of the generator rotor.
Indicator fuses are connected in parallel with the
main fuses as a secondary method of determining
diode failures. When the generator is shut down, in-
spection of the indicator fuses readily identifies failed
diodes.
For cooling purposes, air is circuiated in a closed
ventilation system which contains a water cooled heat
exchanger. Air from the outlet side of the cooler cir-
culates within the main enclosure. The self-fanning
action of the fuse and diode modules draws air from
the main enclosure througll the rectifier.
6.2.3 Telemetry system
T h e telemetry system employed on this design of
rectifier makes use of the principle of frequency di-
vision multiplexing and includes a number of addi-
tional features. The most significant of these is the
D Fla. 6.66 Rectifier nlodule (anode)
9
Q
indication and phase location of up to three blown
fuses per phase, making a total indicating capacity
o f nine blown fuses. The other changes are the use
of a single transmitter, directly modulated by the
field voltage, to which are added sub-carriers contaie-
ing the rotor current, blown fuse and earth leakage
information.
Voltage
The field voltage measurement is taken differentially
at each end of the shaft. as shown on Fie 6.67.
Voltage measurement is made via a voltage "divider
and differential amplifier 1. The output of this ampli-
8
fier is fed via the mixer unit 4 to the transmitter
10 to give direct frequency modulation of the trans-
mitted carrier frequency.
The transmitter output is transferred via the aerial
to a carrier amplifier 16 and demodulator 17 to give a
mean output voltage proportional to the carrier fre-
quency. The output is then smoothed and scaled to
produce a n output corresponding to the DC field
voltage.
Ear'" leakage de'ec'ion
Rotor earth leakage is detected as a voltage devel-
oped across a resistor R6 which produces a frequency
change nt the ootpot o f a voitagc-to-frequency coil-
vcster 3 , This oolpot is added to the voltage signal
in tlie t~ansmittcl-input inlirer 4. TIlc eartii lcakage
signal is isolated from tlle carrier denioduiatoi 17 out-
put by a band-pass filler 22 and pioccsscti t o provide
an earth leakage alarm signal.
Field currenr ,neasure,iie~il
Field curreilt is measured by means o f eight series-
connected current transformers ( T I - T 8 ) in phase A
of the main exciter output. Since each current trans-
former (CT) surrounds a conductor between the fuses
and the associated rectifier in one phase, the total
output from the current transformers corresponds to
the total phase current. The C T output modulates the
voltage-to-frequency converter 5 over a range of field
currents from 0-6000 A DC. The signal carrying the
current information is selected by a band-pass fiiter
20, dcmadulated and rectified to give field current
indication.
Blown fuse indicafio!!
Eight CTs (T9-T16) in each phase, identical lo those
used for current measurement, are each loaded by a
transistor switch (TRSI-TRS8), shunted by a resistor
(K17-R24). The resistors are connected in series but
under normal operating conditions each one is shorted
out by its associated transistor switch. The resistance
of the circuit is therefore low. If a fuse operates,
the associated transistor switches off and the circuit
resistance increases; further fuse failures result in fur-
ther increases in resistance. This arrangement is re-
peated on each of the three phases and connected t o
the summing unit 40 which, by supplying a current
to each of the circuits, provides an output voltage
proportional to tile number of blown fuses in each
phase. The output of the summing unit controls the
output of the voltage-to-frequency converter.
The blown fuse information is selected from the
receiver carrier demodulator 17 by a band-pass filter
21. The signal is then recovered by the demodulator
24. T h e output waveform for the circuit corresponds
t o the number of blown fuses so the waveform is
analysed to give the number of fuse failures. Phase
identification is carried out by a strobe generator 30
which produces three separate pulses that coincide
with tile centres of each positive phase current period.
6.2.4 I n s t r u m e n t sliprings
An alternative scheme is shown diagrammatically o n
Fig 6.68 and uses shaft-mounted sliprings. Connec-
tions are taken from the exciter upshaft leads through
the shaft bore t o instrument sliprings mounted o n
the permanent magnet generator shaft. These slip-
rings permit direct measurement of field voltage. The
rotor earth fault indicator relay is connected t o one
of these sliprings.
Thc hi-ushes arc designcd to opciatc contiotlolisiy i l l
order to acilievc ~lniotei-iuptcdrotor earti? Paul1 ilro-
tcctian. This airaagcmenr is lightly loaded and \ ~ o u l d ,
after a sliort period of operatior at iow current.
develop a high iesistancc contact film, resulting in
incorrect iwadings. T o oveicomc this difficulty, a
constant current is circulated through the two brushes
('brush-wetting'). This continuous flow of current
maintains the interface resistance constant at normal
levels.
A signal propartional to generator rotor current
is obtained from a search coil mounted in tile
quadrature axis of tlie exciter field coils. The output
signal is filtered and converted fronl a voltage to a
standard 4-20 mA current signal suitable for use
with the station central logging computer. The field
voltage signal is similarly conditioned and buffered
to protect the instrumentation from tile high voltages
induced in the rotor field following incidents, such
as pole siipping. The currcnt and voltage signals are
subsequently processed to providc an average rotor
winding temperature measurement.
Continuous monitoring of the rotating diode equip-
ment is considered unnecessary, given the proven
operational reliability of the equipment. This is the
simplest and most robust o f the described schemes
t o monitor essential rotor quantities. It has the added
advantage that generator rotor RSO (recurrent surge
oscilloscope) testing can bc carried out, a facility not
available with equivalent telemetry schemes.
6.2.5 Rotating rectifier p r o t e c t i o n
The main exciter is protected against the effect of
diode failure by the provision o f fusing, either on the
AC or DC side of the rectifier. When a diode fails, it
usually fails to s i ~ o i rcircuit, blowing the high rupture
capacity (HRC) fuse, which in tuin blows an ejector
pin indicator fuse t o initiate an alarm. On the mark I
system, the pin is detected by a pllotoelcctric cell,
and an alarm is raised in the control room. In contrast,
the mark 2 system can identify u p to nine individual
diode failures.
On the basis of the proven high operational reiia-
bility of the rotating diodes, it is not now considered
necessary to continuously monitor the rotating system
for failure. Present practice is t o examine the indica-
tor fuses o n an opportunity basis and during planned
maintenance overhauls.
Should a major fault occur, such that a complete
bridge arm is either short- or open-circuited, major
damage can be caused to the excitation system. T o
protect the unit in the event of such a failure, it is
CEGB practice to provide bridge arm failure prolec-
tion. This device initiates a turbine trir, o n detection
of a failure.
The detector monitors the amount of ripple induced
in the main exciter field, which in a healthy rectifier
 Tlie generator
is the sixtll harmonic of the exciter fundamental frc-
quency. This ripple is associated with the normal
three-phase full wave rectification of the exciter ai-
mature voltage. Should a bridge arm fail (to either
open- or short-circuit), a component of ripple at the
exciter fundamental frequency appears in the exciter
field. This is detected by a band-pass filter tuned to
the exciter fundamental frequency. Once the input is
o f sufficient magnitude to overcome an internal bias
signal, which is set to prevent spurious operation, a
relay is energised which initiates a Category B unit
trip.
6.3 Static rectifier excitation equipment
6.3.1 Introduction
Excitation systems based on the static semiconductor
diode bridge were the first alternatives to the DC
Chaptii~1
excitation system. Early equipment contained diodes
o f relatively low rating, where up to three diodes weir
required in series to meet reverse voltage requiremenls
during pole slipping. This, together with a cautious
design approach, resulted in high spare capacity.
The rapid development o f semiconductor techno-
logy has resulted in a reduced number of simpler,
more compact devices, capable of operating at high
voltage and current levels. Equipment of this type
has a record of high reliability on the CEGB system,
and is currently in use on a number of 660 MW units.
With the introduction o f the thyristor, the role o f
the static rectifier has radically changed. The thyristor
rectifier plays a n active role in the control of excita-
tion power t o the generator field. Like the diode,
the thyristor conducts current in one direction only;
however, unlike the diode, the point at which con-
duction takes place can be controlled.
Excitation power modulation is achieved by con-
trolling the thyristor firing angle, eliminating the need
for a main AC exciter. As the time constant asso-
ciatcrl \ ~ ~ i ttlic
h cxcilcr is ihc lpiincij>al cause of dciay,
its removal greatly improves the speed of cncilalion
system response, enhaticirig generator transient stability
margins.
A feature o f all static excitation eqilipment is tlle
need for sliprings and brushgear which require regular
maintenance. As this is cair-icd out on-load, an inter-
lock system is normally proi'ided so that access to
the slipring enclosure is prevented, unless a safety
procedure has been followed. No further mention of
sliprings or brushgear will be made here, as a detaiied
account of the equipment is given in Section 3 of this
chapter.
6.3.2 General description of s t a t i c diode rectifier
equipment
A static rectifier system is an assembly o f diodes and
diode protective equipment. Typical 660 MW rectifiei-
units consist of up to four self-contained, three-phase,
full wave bridges. The number o f diodes per section are
selected so that MCR requirements can be niet with one
section out of commission. Each section is provided
with AC and DC isolators, and an interlock system
ensures that, during on-load operation, access can be
gained to one section only.
Diode rating is based on the continuous and peak
inverse voltages, together with the current/time rating
on overload. A typical rectifier bridge has a number
of parallel paths per arm (the diodes being specially
selected to ensure satisfactory current sharing) with
one diode in each parallel path.
To dissipate the heat generated during rectifica-
tion, the diodes are mounted on heat sinks. Cooling
is provided by either forced or natural air circula-
tion and alarms are generally provided to warn op-
erators of high temperature conditions which require
investigation.
Busbars are used for the AC connections from the
main exciter, and for the DC rectifier output to the
generator field winding. The busbar system, like the
exciters, is rated for 110% MCR and is capable o f
withstanding the mechanical forces arising from the
worst overcurrent fault conditions.
All rectifier equipments supplied to the CEGB must
meet the requirements of ~ ~ 4 4 1which7 covers both
routine and type testing.
6.3.3 Rectifier protection
Diodes are susceptible to overcurrent, which causes
excessive heating of the element, and to overvoltages
which can pierce the rectifying element and cause com-
plete breakdown. It is therefore essential for system
integrity that both the operating and ceiling voltages
are within the capacity of the diodes.
During generator pole slipping o r asynchronous op-
eration, the peak voltages appearing at the slipring
are about ZMX) V on a 660 MW machine. Since these
l.xcilation
voitages iippeai across the ,cciiSiei in tlic l e i e i h c
diseclioil, i t is CECH lpsaciicc lo use diodes with ;i
peak invnse capability of 3 . 4 ~ 4 . k\',
2 illus providin~
ample margin.
T o protect the diodes against voilage spikes (caused
by diodc commutalion effects and external s\+~itcbing),
each diode is provided wiih a dV/di suppression cir-
cuit, consisting of a capacitor and series resistor. In
addition, each rectifier section has a resistor-capacitor
suppression network connected across the DC output
to limit voltage transients coming from ihc DC side
o f the rectifier to within the peak transient voltage
rating of the diodes.
The rectifier diodes are easily damaged by ovcr-
currents and arc thcrcforc individually protected by
high speed, high rupturing capacity fuses, with micro-
switches for fuse failure indication. These fuses op-
erate for an internal fault ro isolate the faulty diodc
and allow conti~iuedoperation o f the ~.emainingdiodes
in the arm. The ,nost severe fault experienced by the
diode is a short-circuit on the DC side of the icctifier;
this is cleared by HRC fuse operation.
Overcurrents due to system faults or slipring fiash-
overs are ciearcd by DC cir,cuit-breaker operation.
6.3.4 S t a t i c thyristor rectifier s c h e m e s
T h e thyristor has radically changed the role of static
rectifier equipment, as it no longer plays a passive
but an active role in tlle control o f generator excita-
tion. One of the principal features o f this form of
excitatioll control is its very fast rate of response
due to the elimination of a main exciter. A typical
thyristor excitation scheme is shown on Fig 6.69.
Excitation power is generally taken from an excita-
tion transformer which is connected to the generator
output terminals. With this arrangement, the trans-
former primary voitage follows the generatoi terminal
voltage during normal and fault conditions. Under
fault conditions the excitation power transformer must
be capable of meeting the field forcing requirements
at reduced terminal voltage, and of withstanding the
overvoltage experienced following a load rejection.
An alternative scheme, which is not subject to
system voltage variations, is the compound source
rectifier system. These static systems use both current
and voltage sources (generator terminal quantities) to
make up the excitation power source.
T o ensure integrity under 'black start' conditions,
however, a scheme based on shaft-mounted exciters is
a n attractive alternative. The exciter runs continuously
at ceiling output with low power factor, providing
the thyristor converter with a constant voltage source
o f excitation power.
The thyristor rectifier unit is arranged in several
isolatable sections so that any one section can be ser-
viced wllile the remaining sections provide full MCR
excitation requirements. Thyristor free-wheel and pole-
slip crowbar circuits are generally included to protect

CURRENT
CONTRO~.
SIGNAL
I
the thyristors from excessive overvoltages. Direct cur-
rent voltage transformers (DCVTs) trigger the crow-
bar into operatioll on detection of an oveivoitagc
condition. Free-wheel thyristors provide a path for
stored energy in the rotor during thyristor commu-
tation and system fault conditions. The pole-slip crowbar
provides a path for the induced reverse direction poie-
slip current, so avoiding excessive pole-slip voltage
developing across the rotor terminals.
The DC output Of the thyristor rectifier is provided
with voltage and current surge suppression circuits
which are designed to protect the thyristor from volt-
age spikes generated during thyristor commutation or
field circuit-breaker operation. In addition, individual
thyristors are protected against dV/dt breakdown by
a capacitor-resistor suppression circuit connected in
parallel (identical to the circuit used to protect diodes).
Overcurrent protection is provided by a series-connected
HRC fuse. In the event of an individual thyristor
drawing excessive current the series fuse will rupture,
electing a striker pin which initiates an alarm. Over-
current excursions are normally controlled by the AVR
to within tile rotor heating limit; however, in the
event of a prolonged overcurrent condition, the ex-
citation is tripped through the field circuit-breaker.
To meet the high current requirements of large
turbine-generator excitation systems, it is necessary
IHYRISlOl(
CONiROl
SIGNAI
to connect a number of thyristors in parallel. This
presents difficulties, since individual thyristors havt
different forward path characteristics, causing one io
cotlducl the majority of current; if allowed to cori.
tinue, this would cause breakdown. Forced curre,,!
sharing, by the addition of a low value resistance 01
inductance in series with each anode, is llor~nallyuscd
to obviate this.
Thyristor cooling is provided by a natural or forced
air scheme. Temperature detectors mounted within the
air circuit provide early warning of high temperature
conditions, aliowing appropriate operator action to be
taken. On future large plant, the higher current ratings
and associated losses may make it necessary to use
water cooled thyristor equipment.
Thyristor excitation systems can improve the steady
state and transient stability limits considerably because
of their ability to change the generator field voltage
almost instantaneously. They are therefore finding gen-
eral application on generating plant which is connected
to the periphery of the main transmission system,
where the inversion mode of operation, in which the
field current is rapidly reduced by the reversal of
energy flow, is exploited to the full. The rapid field
suppression achieved following isolation from the sys-
tem under load rejection or fault conditions is illus-
trated on Fig 6.70.
Excitatiori
GENERATOR F L U
VOLTAGE V,"
I,-F l E l D I I M t CCMSTANT
i,- SUPPRESSlON ?$MEFORAIHYRISTOR EXCITER
I>-SLlPPRESSlON iiMC FOR AN AC RECIIFIER EXCITER
6.4 The v o l t a g e r e g u l a t o r erators and continue to provide reliable operation.
The rapid developments in the field of semiconduc-
tor technology brought about the introduction of the
6.4.1 Historical review transistor amplifier and the thyristor output ampli-
fier, which have increased the speed of response and
Early designs . of voltage regulator equipment had a
improved the overall system performance. Subsequent-
large deadband, were slow to respond to system changes
ly, the discrete compone~ttaperational amplifier has
and required regular maintenance. This was due main-
been replaced by integrated circuit equivalents. A
ly to the use of moving mechanical components within
typical modern dual channel arrangement is shown
the automatic voltage regulator (AVR). T o eliminate
on Fig 6.71.
these difficulties, AVR systems were developed which
Future developments in the field of AVR design will
made use of the cross-field generator or amplidyne.
centre around the use of digital microprocessor tech-
The amplidyne was used as the regulator output stage
niques. These discrete time controllers offer a number
and controlled the field of the DC exciter.
of potential advantages, most notably the introduction
The amplidyni and DC exciter were, in turn, super-
of adaptive control strategies.
seded by the magnetic amplifier and AC exciter. In
....- - -....~
+hi? ., the
~~~. ~ -
magnetic am~lifierwas used as the
regulator output stage controlling the main exciter
6.4.2 S y s t e m description
field. The output from the exciter was rectified by a
The AVR is an essential part of the operation of a
diode bridge and taken, via slipring connections, to
modern electrical power system. It is at the heart of
the generator field winding. Schemes of this type were
the excitation control systems around which the re-
successfully employed on all the CEGB 500 MW gen-
The generator
1 . EXCITAT8ON
OYSRFLUX
TRIP8 ALARM
PIC. 6.71 Dual clialliicl AVR
maining equipment operates. The central function of
the AVR is to maintain constant generator terminal
voltage under conditions of changing load. There are,
however, a number of other functions which are
required from the AVR, if a large generator is to
operate satisfactorily under all operational conditions.
The CEGB currently specifies dual channel AVR
equipment complying fully with EES 1980 together with
manual back-up control on all 660 MW plant. This
provides maximum reliability as the loss of one chan-
nel does not inhibit operational performance. Facilities
are provided to repair the faulty channel while the
generator remains in service. On small gas turbine
plant, single channel AVR equipment is specified.
6.4.3 T h e regulator
The AVR is a closed loop controller which uses a
signal proportional to the generator terminal voltage
and compares it with a steady voltage reference. The
difference or error voltage obtained is then used to
control the exciter output.
If the load on the generator changes, the generator
(;l?a~>~t.t
I,
-. .... .
TOTAL CURRENT
terminal voltage also changes, increasing the error sij,
nai. The error is amplified by the regulator and osr.,i
to increase or reduce excitation, as necessary, to brini
the voltage back to its original value. The need for ;i
rapid, stable response following such changes is ol
paramount importance and, since control systems i l k .
ing such high steady state gains would rapidly becotnr
unstable, special signal conditioning networks are in.
cluded. These consist of phase advance and phasc
lag circuits which have adjustable time constants a!.
lowing accurate tuning of the voltage response. To.
gether, these circuits act as a notched filter, reducinf:
gain at generator electromechanical oscillation frequer)..
cies, whilst permitting the high gains necessary foi
accurate voltage control. The setting of the time c o n
stants is of great importance, as transmission systern
dynamic stability is sensitive to AVR settings. For
this reason, sophisticated analytical techniques (sec
Section 6.7 of this chapter) have been developed and
applied in order to obtain optimal performance.
The AVR accepts the generator terminal voltage
signal via its own interposing voltage transformer.
The voltage signal is then rectified and filtered before
being coii~paiedusill, thc i-cfercocc voltage. Piovisioll
is made foi tl,e operalor to change tire iefeieirce
\,oltafe in iesilo1ise lo syslem reqilirements.
1x1 addition lo llic basic voltage co~itrai require-
mcnt, the AVR includes control loops which perform
other vital tasks. These controllers, which include the
MVAr limiter and overfluxing limiter. are discussed
in detail in Section 6.5 of this chapter.
6.4.4 A u t o follow-up circuit
With a dual channel design, both regulator channels
can be active at the same time, each providing half
the total generator excitation requirements. An alter-
native arrangement allows for one channel to be active,
whilst the other follows passively. Should a channel
trip in either scheme, then the other picks up the
full excitation requirement of the generator in a
'bumpless' manner. This is achieved using follow-up
circuits which track the primary (or active) channel
and drive the standby channel output while a dif-
ference exists between the two.
6.4.5 Manual follow-up
This is similar to the auto follow-up but is used to
adjust the manual control system in response to
automatic channel changes. In the event of an AVR
failure, the manual control takes over in a smooth
bumpless manner.
6.4.6 Balance m e t e r
A balanCe meter is provided in the power station
control room and in the AVR cubicle. This monitors
the difference between the automatic and manual
control output settings. During automatic control, the
follow-up circuits ensure this error is minimal, whereas
during manual control no such facility exists to adjust
the AVR, and a large discrepancy can therefore exist.
During manual operation and prior to selection of
AVR control, the balance meter is consulted and an
adjustment is made so as to avoid large MVAr dis-
turbances following control changeover.
6.4.7 AVR protection
The AVR plays a vital role in the unit overall pro-
tection scheme, as it controls suppression o f the gen-
erator field after faults. In addition, it is necessary
to protect against AVK component failure which would
otherwise jeopardise generator operation.
The field suppression circuit accepts signals from
the main unit overall protection scheme, in addition
to signals from the overvoltage and transformer over-
fluxing relays. The circuit switches the AVR thyristor
converters to their inversion mode of operation and
then trips the excitation.
The overvoltage relay monitors the generator ter-
iiiiiial voltage and, if it exceeds a sale lcvci (nari~lail?
1.3 pu), the thyristor coii\,ertes is imn~ediatelyswilchcd
into the inverting rnadc, which reduces llie lield ciiw
rent in minimum timc. This relay is oillp active dori~i~!
unsynchionised operation.
The ovel.fluxing relay is also only active during oil.
synchronised operation, when there is a chance that
the geoel.ator transformei. could be overfluxed if the
safe voltage/frequency ratio is exceeded. A special
relay detects this condition and initiates an alarm.
Control loops within the AVR will act to reduce this
to a safe level but, if the condition persists, the thy-
ristor converter is switched to the inverting mode and
the excitation is tripped.
Most faults within the regulator loop give rise to
cithei an over or under excitation condition. There-
fore comparator circuits are used to monitor reglllator
and converter bridge input and output levels. Alter-
natively, a singlc comparator monitors the thyristor
output current and compares it with maximum and
minimum field current limits allowed. Transiently, these
limits are exceeded during system faults, but the chan-
nel is tripped if thc condition persists beyond a few
seconds.
6.4.8 Thyristor converter protection
In addition to the above, AVR channels are tripped
if any of the indicator fuses protecting the converter
thyristors rupture. The thyristor converter is further
protected by a temperature sensing device which Op-
erates in the event of excessive heating.
6.4.9 Fuse failure detection unit
The regulator relies upon a signal from the generator
voltage transformers for its controlling action. Loss
o f the signal is due in general to failure of the fuses
in the voltage transformers. A fuse failure detector
unit monitors the input to each channel and compares
it with that of a check or reference transformer. If
a fuse fails in the voltage transformer supplying the
reset voltage, the channel is tripped; a fuse failure
in the reference transformer initiates a n alarm.
6.4.10 T h e digital AVR
The rapid development o f the microprocessor has
brought about the increased use of digital electronic
techniques in a number of industrial control appli-
cations. While the present generation of solid state
AVRs meet all existing CEGB functional requirements,
there are advantages to be gained if microprocessor
schemes are considered.
High reliability, which has been a feature of pre-
sent AVR equipment, can be expected to improve
still further due to the reduction in the number of
components, since much of the control logic, at pre-
sent carried out by electromechanical relays, will be
 T h e generator
software s~)ecificd.Cosl advantages are also envisaged
us standard memory circi~itsreplace the present cus-
tomised printed circuit boa1.d~.I-lowevei, the principai
moti\~ationlies i n tile iangc of sophisticated control-
ler designs tliat lhc iuicroprocessor makes physicaliy
realisable. One class of controller is the adaptive
regulator, which (as the naine suggests) is capable of
adjusting its structure to take account of changing
plant conditions. This type of regulator, shown sche-
matically on Fig 6.72, consists of a recursive real-
time parameter estimator (based on s form of least
squares structure) which is used to identify the con-
trolled plant. The estimated plant model is then used
by the regillator to form the control law. A wide
choice of regulator/control law designs exists; typicai
strategies include poie placement and minimum var-
iance. Botll have a very flexible structure, making it
a simple matter to include additional input signals,
such as machine accelerating power (which has been
demonstrated to enhance transmission system dyna-
mic performance), and post-fault recovcry.
CONVENTIONAL
SPEEDGOVERNOR
GOVERNOR
VALVE REF
iURBiNE
GENERATOR
RECURSlYE
PARAMETER
ESTlMAIiOR
I PARAMETER
CONTROLLER
OPTjMkL WITH ADAPTIVE
CONiROL
SBNAI.
FIG. 6.72 Block diasram or adaptive exci~ationcontroller
526
Cl~ailti!t i
.
6.5 Excitation control
In addition to tlic basic voltage contrili loop, ~ ~ I o c I ~ I , !
exciiation eqoi~)rnenlincludes a number of ail<Iiixi,!ijii
ii~iiitel.circuits. Tilesc li~nitersopcrste as parallel i , i i t
trollcis, in that their signals replace the genci:it~li
voitagc as the controlled variable whenever tliosi ill
pill signals exceed predefined limits.
6.5.1 Rotor c u r r e n t limiter
All exciters are capable of supplying generator lirkl
current well in excess of that I.equired for noriiti,i
MCR opeiation. This field forcing capability or 111;ii
gin is necessary during system fault conditions, ~ , I , r i , ,
the additional reactive power provides the much aeedril
boost of synchronous torque. However, this ciirrr~~t
must be restricted in duration because o f the diinfrr!
of overheating the generator rotor which would c;!tisi
insulation system degradation. To prevent overhr,it
in&, the exciter field current signal is applied to i l l <
rotor current limit circuit which detects values ( , I
field current in excess of 110% MCR.
I t POWER
GENERATOR
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
I ANALOGUE To
DIGiiAi
CONVERTER I eration. Should a predefined ratio be exceeded, the
COMPARaTOR
llii~.iagsysleiu lauli conditions, the AVll reacts to
boos1 excitation; normaily this siloation lasts only
~nilliseconds beforc cil.cuit-breaker operation clears
the fauit. I-lowever, it is necessary to ailow for tile
longest back-up protection clearance times and hence a
dciay of up to 5 s is specified. After this delay, the
rotor currciit iimit ci~.cuit generates a signal which
opposes that from the AVR and ramps excitation
current back to a safe value.
6.5.2 MVAr limiter
Modern AVR equipment is capable of controliing
generator operation at rotor angles of 130' to 140'.
This mode of operation is not, however, tenable when
transient stability criteria are taken into account; it is
therefore customary to limit the generator operation
to a rotor angle of 75'.
The permissible leading MVAr varies with the square
of the generator terminal voltage, the limit line being
defined by the following equation:
MVAr .+ MW = V2
The in-phase and quadrature components of stator
current are obtained from a form of phase sensitive
rectifier. Tile signals are then compared with the
generator terminal voltage bias and, if the iimit set-
ting is exceeded, an output is generated which acts to
boost excitation and reduce rotor angle.
6.5.3 Overfluxing limit
In addition to the overfluxing protection circuit, mod-
ern AVR equipment includes overfluxing limiter cir-
cuits. This is a closed loop controller which monitors
the voltage/frequency ratio during unsynchronised op-
limiter generates a signal which acts to reduce ex-
citation and thereby prevent generator transformer
overfluxing.
6.5.4 S p e e d reference controller
In accordance with current CEGB functional require-
ments, this feature controls the application of excita-
tion during the turbine run-up sequence. This limiter
unit ensures that voltage is brought up to nominal and
the unit synchronised with the minimum delay.
6.6 The power system stabiliser
6.6.1 Basic c o n c e p t s
Situations have occurred where groups of generators
Excitatioti
at one end or a tsanso~issionlinc osciilate willi iesilect
to ti~oscat the olilei end. TIlese oscillalions, knowti
as power s.vste,,i osci//aiioris, are load dependent and,
if not prevented, severely linlit the MW transfer across
the transmission system, To obtain a solution to this
problem, an understanding o f ihc basic lmachine lor-
que relationships is necessary.
For a generator to remain in synclironism following
system faults, it must produce a braking torque to
balance the accelerating torques introduced by changes
to the eiectrical transmission system. The braking tor-
que can be separated into two components:
e The synchronous lurque, which is in-phase with
rotor angie changes and is necessary to ensure res-
toration of rotor angle following displacements.
The damping torque component, which is in-phase
with rotor speed changes and provides damping of
rotor oscillations.
Where generating units are connected to the grid over
high reactance tie lines, fast response excitation sys-
tems are vital to maintain system transient stability.
This has the effect, however, of reducing the inherent
generator damping torque; consequently, under cer-
tain load conditions, generator rotor swings following
system changes will have little damping.
As the component of torque in question is strongiy
associated with rotor speed, a logical starting point
for investigation is the generator torque speed loop
shown in Fig 6.73 (a).
The introduction of a n AVR, while enhancing syn-
chronising torque, has a deleterious effect on the small
inherent generator damping torque (the latter is ob-
tained by means of poleface windings or induced eddy
current effects). This presents some difficulty, as from
considerations of transient stabiiity a fast response
high gain excitation system is necessary, however, its
implementation could result in reduced power system
damping and a consequential reduction in load trans-
fer capability.
T o counteract this, a device known as a power
system stabiliser (PSS) has been developed. Figure
6.73 (b) shows the addition of such a device to the
torque dpeed loop. A signal derived (in this case) from
shaft speed is used as the input to the stabiliser; this
is then orocessed and conditioned to provide sufficient
phase lead to compensate for the phase lags inherent
in the generator plant and transmission system. The
output of the stabiliser is superimposed onto the AVR
demand signal in order that an increased damping
torque component is produced.
A comprehensive linearised generator and power sys-
tem stabliser representation is shown on Fig 6.73 (c),
where it can be seen that the PSS signal is fed to the
block denoted as GEP. This represents the generator,
exciter and power system, detailed knowledge of which
is vital if the PSS is to compensate for the phase
527
 Excitation

lag within <;El' arid piodocc a component of geo- if uncoriecled, will result in prolonged rotor swings
clator tosquc in phase with speed changes. This in- in lllc region Of 0 . 9 - i . 6 14%.
formation can be obtained in a variety of ways, nota-
bly by on-load frequency response analysis, using puise Infra-plant ~iiodes
injection techniques and by computer simulatioil tecli- Intra-plant modes of oscillation occur between units
oiqoes based on representative system models. within the same power station. Unlike the above,
these are not power transfer dependent but rcsult from
interaction between generator excitation systems. If
6.6.2 Characteristics of GEP
action is not taken, intra-plant interactions will limit
Extensive system investigations are used to establish the available PSS gain and hence its effectiveness.
the characteristics of GEP. Ail operating modes o f
the plant arc examined to identify the conditions
under which stability is marginal. In general, operation 6.6.4 Principles of PSS operation
at leading power factor during times of low system PSS action is inhibited during steady state trans-
AND demand are the most critical. However, in the case of mission system conditions, as it has a detrimental
EXC1TER
pumped-storage plant, which will generally be opeiat- effect on voltage control. A steady state voltage offset
7 ing in the pumping mode during these periods, the is prevented by the use o f a washout circuit at the
situation can bc more critical because of the large PSS input. The washout circuit, shown on the PSS
machine rotor angle with respect to the rest of the block diagram on Fig 6.74, is essentially a differen-
system. tiating circuit which attenuates low frequency changes.
A series of simulation studies is then conducted, The time constant of the circuit, Tw, is chosen to
using detailed plant representation (including the AVR washout low frequencies but not to interfere with
. ....,
. .. and PSS), the results being assessed by the analytical the signal conditioning networks at system electro-
- .... . , ,. , . . . ,
.- ....
. . I > I . .
~,.,..,
.. . - ,. . e.:., , . ...,, . . ,,.."..'.
., techniques described in Section 6.7 of this chapter. mechanical frequencies.
I. I .
.I,
/ ;
. F
(..
/
, ,..
9
,-,<
:
'
I,..
,.',..,,*
.,.,,,
;-,,
The model PSS settings are adjusted until optimum The signal conditioning network provides the phase
excitation performance is achieved at all critical op- compensation, so that a torque is produced it, phase
erating conditions. These settings are then used as a
basis for plant commissioning tests, thereby reducing
with sneed changes.- This network essentially shapes
the PSS characteristic to provide the best damping
expensive on-site testing. oerformance at all electromechanical modes. Generally
this is achieved by maximising stabiliser gain (within
the constraints imposed by the power system control
6.6.3 S y s t e m m o d e s of oscillation
loop) and shaping the phase characteristic so that it
Examination of the basic torque-speed-angle loop in has a slightly lagging value at the particular inter-
Fig 6.73 'yields W,, (natural frequency o f electro- area oscillation frequencies o f concern. T o prevent the
mechanical oscillations) = \/(u,Ki,/M) rad/s. For intra-plant interaction, tuning should ensure that the
typical values of machine inertia (M) and synchron- overall phasc characteristic is not greater than 90"
ising torque coefficients (Ki,), the frequency range of lagging at frequencies up to 4.0 Hz.
interest is 0.2-4.0 Hz. Within this frequency range, It is important to ernphasisc that PSS action is
the oscillatory modes can be broadly divided into intended to improve the system damping following
three main components. small disturbances. PSS action following system faults
will degrade AVR performance, and hence system
Infer-area or infer-lie osciliafions recovery; therefore, the stabiliser output is limited, so
Inter-area oscillations range typically from 0.2-0.6 Hz that AVR action is dominant during the first post-
and occur where two generation groups are connected fault cycles.
by a weak tie line; they tend to be power transfer
dependent. Inadequate damping of these modes will 6.6.5 T h e c h o i c e of stabiliser signal
result in operational difficulties, since power transfer
A n obvious choice for the stabiliser input signal is
capability is reduced. These low frequency inter-tie
rotor shaft speed, measurements being generally made
oscillations have been initiated by random events oc-
at the H P turbine pedestal. The drawback with this
2urrLng d ~ r w gperlod5 of h ~ g h\I\\' trdn,icr o\cr ae3L
form of signal is its inherent susceptibility to shaft
trxlilnlrrlun l i u k i and or unu,oal load d~btribution.
torsional frequencies. This term refers to the reso-

.-------
i
iC1
OErEf-A'OeEXc~TER
COMPREHENSlYE LINEARISE0
SYSTEM iGEPl_ _ _ _ _ - 2

GENERATORiiND POWER SYSTEM STABIIISBR

II Local mode oscillafions
These occur where a single generator is exporting
power over a high reactance transmission link. In
these situations the need for static thyristor excitation
FIG.6.73 Simplified torque-speed loop diagrams systems (because of transient stability requirements)
aggravates the problem of steady state stability which,
528
nance conditions on the shaft line which cause one
section of shaft to oscillate with respect to another
with little natural damping. These frequences act
through the PSS and excitation system to set up elec-
tromechanical torques which tend to aggravate the
situation and, in the extreme, to cause shaft damage.
T o eliminate this potential problem, detailed infor-
529
 Tile generator Chai>t<:gI ,
...
ERROR
REFERENCE VOLTAGE
GENEHATOR TERMINAL
VOlTACIE
FIG.6.74 Power syslern rtabiliser - black diagram
mation is required of the shaft torsional conditions 6.7 Excitation system analysis
so that, if possible, speed probes can be mounted at Trends in modern generator design, with the cmpha-
a torsional node and suitable torsional filtering can sis on large thermally-efficient but electrically-remote
be applied.
centres o f generation, have combined to reduce trans-
Because of these considerations, use is made Of a
mission system stability margins. As a consequence,
signal derived from generator electrical power which the primary responsiblity for power system dynamic
is related to shaft speed by the following relationship: and transient stability rests with the generator excita-
tion system.
1
Au = -
M
j (P, - P,)dt (6.1)
Dynamic sfabilify refers to the system performance
following small load changes which, under conditions
where w is shaft speed change, P., is mechanical of high MW transfer over long distances, can result in
input power, P, is machine electrical Power and M is sustained oscillations in the region of 0.5 Hz. If these
the angular momentum. If the mechanical Power is oscillations are not rapidly attenuated, severe limits
assumed to remain constant, Equation (6.1) is sim-
will be imposed on transmission system operation.
plifled to:
Transient sfabilily is concerned with the ability o f a
A* = - -I Pcdt (6.2) generator o r group of generators to maintain syn-
M to move. The path taken by the poles in response
chronous operation following system faults. Under
such operating conditions, the generator requires a
The major advantage of this form of stabilising signal boost of synchronous torque. This is provided by the
Is its insensitivity to torsional oscillations and the transmission system in the form of a synchronous
simplicity of measurement. Its adoption, therefore,
has both technical and cost advantages.
comDonent of the oost-fault infeed. However. as
~ ~~.~~-the
.~~.
reactance of the transmission line connecting the gen-
craloi- to the systeor increases, the synchronous tor-
que component is reduced. Under these circumstaoccs,
thc AVR bucks and/or boosts lhc generator field
current in such a way that the generator itself develops
the additional synchranising torque.
A properly tuned AVR tlierefoie performs a vital
role in the maintcnancc of stable system operation
under all operating conditions, and this section is
concerned with the methods developed and employed
to analyse AVR performance, and hence to arrive at
tuned settings.
6.7.1 Frequency r e s p o n s e analysis
Frequency response analysis is based on the injection
of a sinusoidal signal at the input to the AVR and
thc corresponding measurement of generator terminal
voltagc magnitude and phase shift. This procedure is
repeated over the range of frequencies necessary to
identify the plant, which in the case of the generator
excitation system is 0.2-4.0 Hz. Results are plotted
in the form o f inverse Nyquist or Bode diagrams, from
which information on system stability and damping
can be obtained. These tests call be repeated for a
range of AVR settings until an acceptable system
response is established. Performance indices used in
this form of analysis are system gain and phase mar-
gins, both of which are measures of relative stability.
In general, a phase margin of 40' or more, and a
gain margin of 6 decibels is considered good design
practice for most feedback control systems.
An alternative approach is the injection into the
AVR summing junction o f a short duration iectan-
gular pulse. The corresponding machine terminal volt-
age response is measured and harmonically analysed
by a computer, using a fast Fourier transform pack-
age. The results are then plotted in the form of an
inverse Nyquist diagram from which measurements
can be made of relative stability and damping. This
approach has a number of distinct advantages, par-
ticularly during on-load testing as, unlike variable
frequency techniques, pulse injection testing can be
oscillations. without the risk of exciting power system
undertaken
6.7.2 S t a t e variable analysis
A common method used to assess the performance
and stability of feedback control systems is to track
the path taken by the roots or poles of the closed
loop transfer function. Changes in system parameters,
such as gain and time constants, cause these poles
to control system changes can be plotted and are
known as a roof locus. Referring to Fig 6.75 any
roots appearing on the right hand side of the S-plane
imply an unstable system. Roots on the real axis in-
dicate a n exponential o r overdamped response, and
roots containing a n imaginary component imply a n
Excitation
oscillatory respoiise. It is possible lo simplif), llie
inteiprctation of the roo1 locus diagram by considei-
ing those poles which lic furtliest to llie right as
dominating the syslenl res1)onse.
'This approach is extended to rile n>ultivasiablc situ-
ation by making use of modern state variable theory.
The system considered is first linearised about the
operating point of interest and the equations o f stale
formed.
X = AX + CV Input equation
Y = DX + FV Output equation
where X is the vector of stare variables, Y is the
vector of output variables, A is the state matrix and
C,D,F arc the feedback, input and output matrices,
respectively.
A series of simulations is conducted over the com-
plete generatox operating regime, using a detailed
model of tlie turbine-generator and excitation sys-
tem. The dominant poles (or equation solutions) are
plotted for a range of control settings, and those idcn-
tified as providing optimal damping at the most critical
operating condition are selected for commissioning
purposes. This method of analysis therefore provides
advanced information regarding equipment settings
and plant performance, thus reducing expensive com-
missioning time.
6.7.3 Large signal performance investigations
The foregoing methods are based on the response of
the excitation system l o small signals; hence non-
linearities can be ignored and the system assumed to
bc linear.
It is equally important, however, to investigate the
perforinancc of the turbine-generator plant following
substantial changes in operating conditions. In these
situations the non-linear characteristics of the plant
must be taken into account to obtain realistic results.
These large signal performance investigations pro-
vide a means of evaluating excitation system response
following a major transmission system disruption (gen-
erally a three-phase fault at the generator transformer
high voltage terminals is used for standard studies
-
and investiaations), . which could jeopardise system
~
transient stability.
Transient stability analysis is primarily concerned
with the effect of transmission line faults on genera-
tor synchronism. While certain simplistic approaches
exist dealing with the case of a single machine operating
onto an infinite bus (such as the equal area stability
criteria), a full multi-machine solution is generally
necessary requiring the use of digital computer slmula-
tion techniques. These simulation packages represent
in detail the generator, transmission and excitation
systems, and solve the governing non-linear differen-
tial equations by numerical integration.

I'ic. 6.75 S-plane stlowing porrible
The ability to simuiate these situations is essential
to tlle CPGB, because generator excitation system
performar~ceunder system fault conditions cannot be
demonstrated by test methods, due to tlie potential
risk Lo syitem stability.
7 Generator operation
In this section, the operation of the generator under
aii common conditions is considered. Elect2ical and
other Parameters are introduced as necessary in order
to describe the condition.
7.1 Running-up to speed
Before running-up to speed, the casing and other
components wili have been scavenged o f air and filled
with hydrogen to a pressure approaching tile rated.
Hgdrogen pressure increases with increasing tempera-
ture and tlle objective is to achieve rated pressure
when on steady load. The seal oil system must be
operating in order to contain the hydrogen. The stator
winding water system is established, taking care that
@
MAGNITUDE
...
root iocaiions with corresponding time response
the windings arc not colder than their ambient by^
drogen. Cooiirig water to the hydrogen, distilled watcr,
winding water, seal oil and excitation heat excilangel*
is established. The lubricating oil system (commojl
with the turbine) must also be operating, and also ti,?
jacking oil systeln if the shaft is at standstill.
The run-up cycle is primarily determined by the
requirements of the steam turbine, and may be under
the control of an automatic run-up system. 11 is ad-
visable to pass through the first and second criticai
speeds of the generator rotor (roughly, 800 and 2200
r/min) quickly to avoid subjecting the bearings to
the increased vibration amvlitudes which mav ~~~.~occnl.
~~
at these speeds (see Fig 6 . 2 j ) .
As the rated speed is approached, excitation may be
automatically applied by the voltage regulator (or this
may be manually applied) by closing the exciter and
main field switches. The resulting voltage will be pre-
vented, by a voitage/frequency control device, from
being greater than would maintain rated voltage/fre-
quency, s o as to prevent overfluxirlg o f the generator
transformer. At rated speed, rated voltage should be
generated, with the machine on open-circuit, unless
some other voltage condition is required. Speed is
under the control of the turbine governor. Vibration
levels ;arc monitored at all liic beai.ing ihoosings and
at ,he shiifis adjacent to lbc generator bearings duti~i?,
iliii-tip.
7.2 Open-circuit conditions and
synchronising
Generators are usually operated at or near their fated
voltage, any departure demanded by the translnission
system being accommodated by the tiansforlncr tap-
changer. A generatol- voltage range of i S % is speci-
fied. For the same MVA output, a higher voltage
results in greater losses and temperatures in the cove
but lower current in the stator winding, so the overall
thermal conditions are not much changed.
Since these ia1.g~generators are invariably connected
to the grid through generatoi transformers, the rated
voltage of the generator can be deteinlined by the
manufacturer to give the most economic design. Once
FULI.
the first of a new rating has been decided, a degree LOAD
of standardisation is imposed to allow generator trans-
former units to be made interchangeable, 22 kV being ROTORCURRENT
standard for 5W M W units and 23.5 kV for 660 MW
units, on the CEGB's system.
The electrical phasor diagram for this excited, open-
circuit condition is shown in Fig 6.7, though, at this
stage, the machine is not running synchronously with
the transmission system. ference voltage would cause a large current to circulate
The open-circuit characteristic wili have been es- from the system through the stator windings, causing
tablished during running tests in the manufacturer's high forces in the windings. If the frequencies were
works. The rotor currents for several values of stator significantly different, the sudden pulling into syn-
voltage are measured and plotted (Pig 6.76). The chronism would impose a large torque on the rotors.
relationship is virtually linear (the ai~aop/in?) ,up to A back-up check synchronising device inhibits tile
cilcuit-breaker from closing if the voltages, angular
about 75% rated voltage, demonstrating that the air-
positions and speeds do not match within predeter-
gap reluctance is constant, whereas the iron circuits
mined tolerances.
depart markedly from constant reluctance as the flux
Once synchronised, the speed is effectively con-
density increases above the point at which saturation
starts to occur. After a long shutdowll, it is reas- trolled by the transmission system and the steam ad-
suring to check a few points on tile open-circuit mitted to the turbine produces just sufficient power
characteristic with the unit on manual excitation. Note to overcome the mechanical and magnetisation losses.
that direct measurement of rotor current is not possi-
ble on brushiess machines.
Synchronising is effected either manually or by
means of an automatic synchroniser. The speed of 7.3 The application of load
If the voltages and angular positions match exactly,
the unit is adjusted by controlling the speed governor
-
until the generated frequency
.
~
closely matches the no current flows in the windings and no electrical
system frequency. The generator voltage is adjusted torque is produced. In order to generate load, an
by the setpoint of the voltage regulator until it closely imbalance in the phasors must be created.
The turbine steam inlet valves are therefore gradu-
equals the v ~ i t a g eo f the system, as monitored by a
ally opened further; the extra torque thus produced
voltage transformer with the same ratio as the
starts to accelerate the rotors so that they move for-
generator transformer, or directly where a low voit-
ward relative to their no-load (direct axis) position,
age switch is used. The main circuit-breaker is closed
though still in synchronism with the system. The volt-
when the two voltage phasors are almost coincident,
and the generator will then pull into and remain in aye phasor difference created by this angular change
results in current circulating from the system through
synchronism with the system. If the voltage phasors
the stator windings, producing an electrical torque
were significantly different in magnitude or angular
which balances the increased mechanical torque, re-
position when the clrcuit-breaker Is closed, the dif-
533
 The gellerator
--
suiting in a i l c w state o f sy~icliioooiiscquiiib~iiimat
h 'load aiigle' (scc aiso S C C ~ ~2.6 O I Iof this cl~apier).
U e c a ~ i etlie pciicrated ioltiigc cSSectivciy dcpaids
on the sytcnr voltage and thc load being gcneiated,
aclion by thc voltage ieguiatol' caiunot changc tlic
geneidled voilage directly. Ilowevcr, if ihc rotor cur-
rent is cha~igcd,the phase relation between the gen-
erated voltage and ciirrenl is changed, and tile required
power factor can be maintained by voltage iegulaior
action. These processes o f conrl-oi of gcneiated load
and power factor continue to meet the requirements
of the transmission system, as long as the unit remains
synchronised. Phasol. diagrams for various on-load
conditions are showii in Figs 6.8 and 6.9.
/Xd (or sliicliy llated I\I\'A/Xq u,l,el-c X q is
uadrature axis synclironaus reactance), determines
ilicoretical limit of stability. The practical values
SX;,,~, ,<
1c;idiiig reactive outputs, allou,ing a margin for
,P?
with diffeienl typcs of excitation control
n 5 of this chapter), can be plotted on a
8,:
s diagram. The exanlple shown in Fig 6.78
instantaneous increases in MW of 4% at
ii~ledload and 10% at zero load.
lu &, 6s
scale of ;i i,ecloi inrtct, across wllicll cliisois ti-ai'ei
parallcl to ilie ;lacs, rejiicseiitiiig p.eiiciatcd M\4' and
MVAr, the apciating point beiiig where tiic cuisors
inlei-sect. I'ei-missible o"crating arcas arc indicated
on the instiurnenl
It can be seen that tile capability ciiart is ailother
manifestation o f the generator pbasor diagrain. Op-
eration at rated load and about 0.95 power factor
leading is possible, thoogb rarely required.

7.4 Steady state stability
The power produced by a synchronised generatol. can
be expressed as (VE sin b)/(Xd). For a given machine,
operating at a terlllinal voltage V, the syncllronous
reactance Xd is a conslant parameter, and if tbc
'internal voltage' E, or rotor current, is kept constant,
power varies as sin 6. At rated conditions, 6 is about
45-55O.
From this position, a sudden increase in steam
1.i ur!ia~81eill~~squ,,b,,un,
lit
Capability chart
capability chart is a MW-MVAr diagram, for
Iiicl, the limits of leading MVAi were discussed
A constant MW limit can bc drawn at the rated
"2 ~!o!r,cl- output of the turbine, though the maximum
Ixtnvcl. capability of the steam system may be signi-
lil.;$nlly greater than this. The circular locus of rated
rt;ilor current cuts the rated MW line at the rated
hd\'A and powcr factor point, but does not in prac-
1ii.i. impose a limit. The rated rotor current, also a
ciicolai locus but with its origin at the 0 M'h',
liiitcd MVA/Xq MVAr point, imposes a limit at con-
clilions of MW and laeginp.- . .power factor both lower
7.6 Steady short-circuit conditions, short-
circuit ratio
Anothcr relationship that is established during works
testing, is between the field current and the stator
current with the three stator line terminals short-
circuited (Fig 6.79). In this condition, the voltage re-
quired to ci~.culate,say, rated current through the wind-
ings is very low ( = XE, say 0.15 per unit) and there-
fore the flux is also very low and conditions are lin-
ear, since there is no magnetic saturation. Most of the
considerable magneto motive force (MMF) produced
by the rotor is required t o counteract the armature
reaction MMF produccd by the stator winding.
Kunning under these conditions in order to cir-

\
throughput, or (more likely) a sudden demand for 111an rated. Such a capability chart is used as the culate current through the windings to dry out the
more power into the system, perhaps because of a
fault on the lines, results in a n increase in 6 and in
generated power until a new equilibrium position is
RATED STATOR
reached (Fig 6.77 (a)). CURRENT
This is valid if b is less than 90' before the sudden
change. Once 6 is greater than YO", a demand fol.
more power cannot be met by an increase in load
angle, and the generator rotors cannot attain a posi-
tlon o f equilibrium (Fig 6.77 (b)). The rotor then
accelerates to just above synchronous speed and 01)-
erates in a non-synchronous mode ('pole slipping'),
with large power and voltage oscillations which are
unacceptable to either the transmission system or the
boiler controls. The situation may be relrievable il.
the voltage regulator can initiate a rapid increase in
the field current, increasing E in the equation, to
prevent instability (Fig 6.77 (c)).
Load angles approaching 90' are associated with
operation at leading power factor, which is not a
normal requirement in the UK. However, studies of
the transmission system under ail credible conditions AOTOIIANGLE 8
of loading, line outages and faults are carried out to iiiMsinlalning rlsbibYinrcoas#ngoic~~aiol,

ensure that the system will not fall into instability,

and the required values of synchronous reactance
and excitation response are based on these studies, FIG. 6.77 Steady state stability
which may recommend different values in different ....-... @.
4
~ ~~ ~~~

locations. In practice, because of magnetic saturation, *s I--RilNoEoFMvARFoRS~NcHRoNouscoMPENsm~oN

Xd is reduced as the load angle moves towards 90°, unit in the quadrature axis. MMR
the 'quadrature axis' position, so that the limiting Operation at leading power factors reqi
condition is ameliorated slightly. Values for CEGB duced rotor current. Operation with zero rotor
machines are about 1.8 per unit, falling to 1.7 per at zero MW, and a leading reactive outpul = KISI Flc. 6.78 Capability chart

FIG.6.79 Opeii- and slioil-cimuii cliaiacierisiicr
insulation is not a normal requirement for these large
generators. It may, however, be necessary to demon.
strate the capability of the connections between gen-
erator and transformer, in which case the short.
circuit would be applied at the transformer terminals.
Manual control o f excitation is essential.
The open- and short-circuit characteristics enable
certain parameters to be established. Short-circuit ra-
tio (SCR)
- Rotor current for rated voltage on open-circuit
Rotor currcnt for rated currcnt on short-circuit
This rough measure of steady state stability is nearly
the reciprocal of Xd; minimum values of 0.4 and
0.5 are specified for the 500 and 660 MW units, re-
spectively.
Synchronous reactance Xd may be quoted as the
reciprocal o f short-circuit ratio, in which case it is
the value corresponding to the degree of saturation
at rated voltage on open-circuit (which is not the same
as that at rated load). It is of interest when discussing
operation close to the stability limit, in which case
its unsaturated value is appropriate and given by:
Rotor current for rated current on short-circuit
Rotor current for rated voltage on airgap line
C l ~ a p i i !I .
(Note Ilia1 diileici~tconsiderations apply to 21 s : i i i ~ ~ ~ ; 'Tlic lolal loss is typically 9300 hW, and Ibc cffi-
golc inacliinc, where ihc geonletry of tiic rnol;i,r:i, cicncy is 98.6010, The efficiency is sliglilly lhighes a:
IPallls is very differen1 when ol)eratiiig near tbc qii;,<i about 80% than at 100% MW load, and also im-
iature axis frnm tliat ill the direcl axis, and Xd ;tzi,i proves as the power factor incl.edses lowarils uniry.
Xq have dissin~ilarva1ucs.i The losses shown in tne list are renioved by tlic v a r ~
ious cooling systems described in Section 5 o f this
chapter. The total loss removed by each system is
therefore known, and the flow rates are designed to
7.7 Synchronous compensation maintain an appropriate tempeuatul-e. In thc llydro-
While operation in this mode is not foreseer i i i i gen system, 30 m3/s of hydrogen is circulated, being
generators o f this rating in the UK, a note here i s cooled to about 40°C by the heat exchangers, and
included for completeness. A generator, synchronisril reaching about 65°C on entry to thc coolers. The
to the system, ma? be used to generate o r absoll stator core will attain about 75'C, except at the ends,
reactive MVA, while drawing its loss power froni ~ l i i which are likely to be hot, but within the BS limit
system. By varying its excitation, it can be 0per;ilciI o f 120°C. The rotor winding will reach an average
over tlle range shown on Fig 6.78, to meet thc rv temperature of 105°C with local hot spots perhaps
quirements of thc system. It is not normally possibl~ 20°C higher than this, which poses insignificant ther-
to drive the turbine at rated speed with no steam flou, mal stresses on thc insulation and creep conditions on
and s~nallergenerators operated in this way are <li. the copper and aluminium components.
coupled from their turbines. At large values of leadilii, In the stator winding water system, conditions differ
reactive generation, stator core end temperatures mziy
between single and double pass arrangements, but
be high, because the axial components of MMF frojii with inlet water cooled Lo 40-C, the outlet water will
both stator and rotor windings become more in ph;,s,., not exceed 70°C. Hence the winding copper will bare-
resulting in higher values of axial leakage flux. ly exceed 70°C, and then only at the water outlet
end, and the winding insulation will nowhere exceed
iOO°C. CEGB specifies Class F insulation with Class
B rises, which are very comfortably met in these
7.8 Losses, efficiency and temperature designs.
Many separate components of loss can be identified, A considerable advantage of water cooled windings
some of which are substantially constant irrespective is that the temperatures arc inherently constrained to
of load; others can, for simplicity, be assumed i i , be very low, thus maximising the intrinsic life o f tlle
vary approximately as (stator c u ~ r e n t ) ~These
. col~i. insulation. Also, since the temperature rises of the
Ponents are listed below, with kW values given for ;I core and windings are similar, problems associated
typical 660 MW generator at rated conditions: with differential thermal expansion arc minimised,
and it has not been found necessary to incorporate
Consranr Iossa Coolonr loss, k i l features in the end windings to accommodate axial
Fan ioss Hydrogen 600 movement.
Rotor windage loss
Hydrogen 350
Othel. windage loss
Hydrogen 150
Open-circuit core (iron) loss Hydrogen 950
Bearing loss Lub ail 600 7.9 Electrically unbalanced conditions
Shaft seal loss Seal oil 100 The amplitudes and phase displacements of the three-
Rotating exciter constant loss Exciter air 100 phase voltages and currents in the transmission system
Auxiliary system losses, e.g., motors - 100 are usually symmetrical t o within about I % , which
does not impose any significant difficulties in the
Variable losses Coolant loss, kM' generator. However, it is possible for much larger
Stator copper loss Stator winding water 1600 unbalances to exist, for example, if one phase o f a
circuit-breaker remains closed while the others are
Eddy current ioss in
windings Stator winding water 600 open for considerable lengths of time, then the ability
of the generqtor to withstand such conditions must
Additional core loss,
due to higher flux and) be established.
end loss
Lass in core end olates I Hydrogen 1600
The well known method o f resolution of unbal-
anced phasors into systems of symmetrical components
is used in the analysis shown in Fig 6.80. Because
and frame
Loss ill rotor surface
Rotor copper loss
J Hydrogen 2400
generators are invariably connected to transformers
whose LV windings are arranged in delta, which there-
fore d o not have a neutral connection, zero sequence
Variable excitation loss Exciter air IS0 voltages and currents cannot exist. The only compo-
Geiieiaroi operation
nents oScoi~ccri,a r c the i,egativr sequcnce components.
I n order to cit.coIatc nega~i\;c seqtielicc cu~renls
ihl-oilgli the generator stator and tiaiisfosmci wind-
ings, a system of negative seqiieocc voltages must be
producerl by negative sequence flux, i.r., (lux rotating
at synchronous speed but in the opposite direction of
rotation to the main flux. This tilts the rotor at twice
the rotational speed, and indoccs a 100 1-17 voltage in
the rotol surface. 100 I-iz current flows in the outside
'skin' of the rotor body, in the wedges and in the
top winding conductors, as if these components were
part of the squirrel cage of an inductiotl motor.
Additional heating therefore occurs in these regions;
in particular, in positions where current transfers
from one componen? to another, sucli as at the wedge
ends, and at the endring shrink faces.
Because of the potentially damaging effect of this
extra heating, limits on the extent of unbalance have
to be established. These are conservatively set to ini-
tiate alarms when the negative sequence component
exceeds 5% of the rated current and to trip at abovc
10%. The component is detected by a three-phase cir-
cuit designed to respond to negative seqllence current.
In some designs, copper shims are placed in the
ends of the rotor slots, below the wedges, and cxtend-
ing outboard of the rotor body to form a colltitluous
ring, in order to assist circumfcrential currcnt flow
and to minimise the small intense hot spots where
current transfer is concentrated. Where circtlmfer-
ential slots are cut into the pole faces (Section 3 of
this chapter), means for transferring surface current
across the slots are provided, usually in the form of
copper strips retained by wedges in shallow 'pole
face slots', to avoid overheating at positions of currcnt
concentration.
The shallow surface current paths must also handle
the very much larger, short duration currents imposed
by unbalanced conditions during transient faults. A
rough criterion of acceptability is provided by assuming
that the heating is proportional to ~ ( l ~ ) where ~ t ,
I, is the negative sequence stator current (per unit)
and t the time (in seconds) for which the condition
persists. This is only approximately valid for times
short enough for heat dissipation to be ignored. Per-
missible values of of about 3 are usual for
500/660 MW generators, and 'instantaneous' irip-
ping is initiated if this value is exceeded (see Fig
6.81).
The surface current paths are also involved in any
condition in which the generator is connected to the
system but is not operating synchronously. This may
happen on total or partial loss of excitation, and
can usually be tolerated by the generator for a short
time, although slip frequency surges will occur on
the system. Because the induced currents are at slip
frequency, they are able to penetrate further into the
rotor, wedges and winding, and the thermal conditions
are not as critical as with the 100 Hz currents pro-
duced by unbalanced operation.
537
 Tlie generator
Chapt(ii I:

$'!-11111591111F i ' A i l i i C L 1 I I I I I N i
1 W i S MCR CUiiRiiNi

10

70

UNBALANCED VOLTAGE SEl

ANUNBALANCED VOLTAGE SETCAN BE

RESOLVED INTO THE FOLLOWING

20 30 50 60 70

Fic. 6.80 Unbalanced pliase eonditionr
7.10 Transient conditions
Changes in the load demand, system operation con-
ditions and the response of other generating units,
mean that conditions at the unit transformer terminals
are constantly changing. Increase in overall demand
causes a fall in frequency to which the speed gover-
nors of all the connected turbines respond. Their rate
o f response depends on the settings of the individual
governors, some units being deliberately arranged to
act more responsively than others.
A highly responsive unit varies its steam inlet valve
position frequently, causing the steam throughput to
change and altering the torque equilibrium. The ro-
tors move forward or backward relative to their pre-
538
vious position, i.e., 6 changes, so that the electrical
power generated changes to restore equilibrium. The
combined effect o f similar load changes occurring in
many units acts to restore the system frequency to its
original value.
Coincident with the change of load will be a change
in system voltage, which causes the voltage regulator
to adjust the excitation to restore the original voltage
value. (A large voltage change may require a trans-
former tapchanging operation to maintain the gen-
erator terminal voltage near its rated value.)
Flux cannot change in the machine instantaneously,
and the rate-of-change is influenced by the transient
reaclance X d . . This depends largely on the flux paths
embracing the stator winding slots, the airgap and
the rotor slots, with a small component associated
with the end windings, and is affected by the degree
of magnetic saturation. The normal value for un-
saturated transient reactance is of the order of 0.3
per unit.
It is this reactance which controls the initial rise-
of-voltage when load is suddenly tripped off; typi-
cally the voltage rises instantaneously to 1.3 per unit
and finally reaches a value determined by the pre-
vailing value of rotor current. Also, transient reactance
is used in calculations involving the stability o f the
unit with the system during a transient fault situation.
Such studies require accurate representation of gen-
erator parameters, and in this context it is important
that its specified value has been met (see Fig 6.82).
During conditions of massive change, such as those
that occur during a close-up fault, when the terminal
voltage may be suddenly reduced to half its rated
value (or even to zero for a fault at the generator or
transformer low voltage connections), the very rapid
change of flux induces currents in the rotor surface
paths, and for the first few cycles, say up to 200 ms,
conditions depend more on a reactance linking these
surface flux paths with the stator winding. This is
referred to as the sub-transienl reactance, X d " , with a
value of about 0.2 per unit. It is this reactance which
limits the current in the first few peaks after a fault.
For a three-phase fault at the generator terminals from
rated voltage open-circuit, the RMS value of the initial
current peak will be V/X,", i.e., 1/(0.2) = 5 per unit.
The peak value is J 2 times this, and, if the par-
ticular phase experiences full asymmetry (depending
on the instant at which the fault occurred), it is pos-
sible for the first peak to reach 2 4 2 x 5 = 14.14
times rated current. In practice, flux decay results in
the maximum current being about 90% of this value,
but if the short-circuit is applied from a condition of
load, i.e., with increased flux and a higher 'internal'
voltage, the peak current could be greater.
Such peaks o f current result in enormous forces
on the stator windings in the slots and end windings
 Tlie generator
OPENCiRCUii CIIARACTERISTIC
FIG.6.82 Voltage
(since force varies as current squared), and in the
connections, which would result in considerable move-
ment if the components were not adequately sup-
ported to resist them. It is therefore vital to establish
the value of sub-transient reactance. (It should be
noted that the thermal effects are not troublesome
because of the rapid rate-of-decay of current.)
Another reason is to ensure that the main circuit-
breaker (and low voltage switch, if fitted) is able to
withstand these very large through-currents and that
it can, if necessary, break them although, in practice,
it rarely breaks on the first peak of current.
T o measure the transient and sub-transient re-
actances and their associated time constants, a three-
phase short-circuit is suddenly applied to the prototype
generator running at speed during the in-works tests,
while excited to one o r more agreed voltage values, and
the resulting three-phase currents recorded. Figure
6.83 shows a typical trace and how the Xd' and X,"
values are deduced, while Fig 6.84 shows how the
reactances vary with initial voltage due to saturation.
A generator terminal fault, though physically vir-
tually impossible, imposes the most severe of the
three-phase conditions, with the effective voltage 1.0
per unit, or higher. More likely is a fault on the
system which, because of the interposed reactance
of the generator transformer, imposes short-circuit
currents similar to those from a terminal fault at a
voltage equal to Xd"/(Xd8' + Xe). where X, is the
reactance o f the transformer and that part of the
system between it and the fault.
A type of fault more likely to occur, particularly
inside the generator, is one involving a short-circuit
540
ASSUMES NO VOLTAGE R B G U L A I O R A C ~ ~ O N
lire oil rated toad ibrou,-oll
between two phases. Here, the phasors become highly
unbalanced, and the 'negative sequence ieactancr'.
Xz, helps to determine the peak current, which may
attain a maximum of 2 4 2 x J3(v/Xd- X2) whicli
is of a similar magnitude to that in the three-phasc
case.
In a line to earth fault, the 'zero sequence reactance',
X,, is involved, and the peak current may be 2 J 2 Y
J3 (V/Xp + X 2 i- X,) usually considerably lowri
than the three-phase value, depending very much oil
the neutral carthing arrangement.
Works tests for X, and X, are not normally carried
out, even on prototype designs, since X 2 is easily
derived from the positive sequence reactances, anil
the value of X, is not as critical as the others.
Another factor involved in transient stability repl-r.
sentations is the inertia o f the rotating masses, usually
quoted as the 'inertia constant' H, with units of MW
seconds/MVA (or simply seconds). For these ratings,
H will be of the order of 3.0, of which the generator
contributes only about 0.8. The higher the inertia,
the longer the time taken to accelerate the rotors
into instability, allowing more time for corrective
action and hence a bigger margin.
7.11 Neutral earthing
T h e neutral ends of the three phases of the stator wind-
ing are connected together, outside the casing, by the
'star-bar', which may be located underneath the cas-
ing alongside the line connections, o r above it in a
special enclosure. The star point is connected to earth
CI7apti.i t. Meciialnicai considerations
.
~hioogli a ncuisal eariliing device, designed to linlil
the fault current in tlie event oC B s t a t ~ wiiiding
i Pail11
to earti,.
The neutral earthing device of eailicr generators
consisted of a wales rcsistoi, designed lo limit tlle cur-
rent in a line lo earth fault to a maxirnunl of 300 A.
Morc recent machines use a small single-llhasc dis-
tribution type transformer with its primary connected
between the generator star paint and earth, and its
secondary loaded onto a resistor. This arrangement
limits the fault current to about 15 A, and was ori-
ginally intended to allow a n internal fault to be sus-
tained while load was reduced, rather than requiring
an instantaneous trip. Modern practice is to trip in-
stantaneously oil fault detection, even with this form
o f earthing. In both cases the sensitivity of protection
is such that a fault at less than 10% from the neutral
point is not detectable, and could persist, though the
low voltage to earth in this part of the winding makes
fault initiation less likely and fault current compara-
tively low.
7.12 Shutting down
The process of load reduction is the reverse of that for
load increase except that, when the load has reached
a low value, the main circuit-breaker (or the LV
+ S T A T ~ ~ A N D PWITH
O ~ OIOO%ASYMMEIRY
RS~~OR~CRCU~TCIIPIIICTCRIS~~CS
switcli, if fitted) is opened, and with it the turbine
steam valve and the excitation crcuit-breakers, The
TIO.6.83 ~hree-nl?aic rtioit-circuit current ct~aracleiistics unit runs down in a time determined by the inertia
of the rotors and the windage and friction losses. At
some stage, the motor-driven lubrication pump is
switched in to take over from tlle shaft-driven pump.
The turbine must usually be barred for some hours
on shutdown, and lubricating oil must be maintained
to all the beaiings during this process.
It is usual to leave the hydrogen in the generator
casing, unless a prolonged shutdown is envisaged Or
access to the casing is required in order to avoid
wastage of gas. The pressure will fall as the tem-
perature drops, but it is not usual for the pressure to
be maintained exactly at rated value, nor for water to
be circulated in the coolers and windings. It is essential
that the shaft seais are supplied with oil both during
barring and when stationary, t o prevent hydrogen leak-
age, and, because of the possibility of moisture ingress
from the seal oil, the blower may be run in order to
circulate hydrogen through the dryer.
8 Mechanical considerations
Some aspects of torque, stresses, vibration, etc., were
mentioned in Sections 3 and 4 of this chapter, and
these and other mechanical aspects are considered in
FiO. 6.84 Transient and sub-transient reactances more detail in this section.
541
 The generator
8.1 R o t o r t o r q u e
At a constant ioad (eicctricai output and generator
loisesi of P kM', tile torque (Nm) cxpericriccd at the
lol-bine-generator coul)iing is 95451' divided by (i/iain).
The coupling ii~iist be capable of tl-ansmitling the
torque associated with rated output continuously wit11-
out deformation. Tliese couplings commonly have
four o f their bolts closely fitted into both coupling
flanges, while the other bolts have smaller diameter
and a clearance in the coupling holes. The torque is
transmitted partly through the fitted bolts and partly
through friction between the flange faces. The full
torque must also be transmitted tlirough the shaft
end at the turbitie end, which must therefore be de-
signed to witl~slandit.
In the very much larger section of the rotor body,
shear stress due lo torque is very lnucll less than in
the shaft ends and is not of significant magnitude.
Also, the transmitted torque reduces in a linear man-
ner along the length of the rotor body, so that at
the exciter end, only the small torque required to
drive the rotating exciters (and any other coupled cquip-
ment) has to be transmitted,
As ~notcdpreviously, during electrical faults, stator
currents of many times rated value occur, and these
cause electrontagnetic torques of a similar magnitude.
The torque reaction at the turbine to generator cou-
pling and in the associated shafts depends, among
other things, on the ratio of inertias of the turbine
and generator rotors, but can also be several times
rated torque. The specification requiles that the shaft
and coupling shall be designed to withstand stipulated
fault conditions, without failure, though not neces-
sarily without permanent distortion of coinponetits
such as coupling bolts. It is not unknown for the
fitted coupling bolts to exhibit distortion after a severe
electrical fault.
Materials subjected to repeated high stresses ea-
hibit a lifefirne, during which damage is accumulated,
and at the end of which failure occurs fairly rapidly.
Much effort has been devoted to establishing models
of turbine-generator shaft systems in order to be able
ta predict their remaining 'life' (i.e., ability to with-
stand further faults), knowing the history of the faults
t o which they have already been subjected. This has
been done analytically, knowing the torsional char-
acteristics of the rotor system, and computing the
shaft torques due to postulated electrical transients.
It was found that in the case of rapid reclosure of a
circuit-breaker following clearance of a faulty line,
the magnitude o f the peak of torque depends very
critically on the timing o f the instant of reclosure.
This has also been demonstrated, during transient
conditions, using values of stress obtained from strain
gauges fixed to the shafts. Devices which calculate
shaft torques from electrical inputs have also been
used.
It is difficult t o relate measured or calculated torque
peaks accurately to damage caused, o r to remaining
Mechanical considorations
ChapIei 1,
lifc. Kesilits fvom inodeis do not scale accurately i i l t c i to take the creep beliaviour of aiu~niniulninto con- solational hoop strcss due to the rataiioll o f the
at llic most exireme (anrl ti~c~.cfoie inust dan~agi,,!.) sideration at teinpeiatuies in excess of iOO"C, but ring. At rated speed and ovcispecd, tile strcss al
stress, the lhiglily non-linear erfects or inalcrial daiiii, it is not usual for wedge temperatures to exceed this the shrink-fits may be less than tliat in the centre.
ing ntust be considered. valuc (see Fif 6.85). Thcri- is also an axial stress due to the higher thermai
In tile UK, where ltigh speed rcclosurc is not ( l i ; ~ i . Pole
~.face wedees
~ - are much less stressed, and are expansion o f the copper in the end winding relative
to that o f the steel ring. As noted in Section 3.3 o f
tised, sub-synchronoos resonance due to the use oi conimonly made of steel.
series capacitolr is nor a piobiern and the operaii~,~: The most inboard of the field lead wedges may this chapter, direct contact of the end disc onto the
of the tranmiission system is under close conlrr>i. be unusually highly stressed because of thc extra CF shaft is not normal, since the flexure of the shaft
it is tl~oughtthat the combination of very ltigh stresscs loading imposed on it by the section of connector would transmit a small alternating stress onto the
and very low probability of occurrence results in ;nii leading into the winding. highly stressed ring which could promote crack pro-
acceptable risk for rotors designed to conventioniil The shrink-fits of the end ring onto its seatings pagation by high cycle fatigue. Again, it is important
specifications, and that iifetilne monitoring is iloi on the rotor body and end disc reduce as speed that the stresses under all conditions are attalysed in
justified. increases, and are greatest at standstill. There are detail, and this may necessitate a three-dimensional
The exercise llas highlighted the need to avoid therefore large circumferential strains at the ends of finite elemeltt computation in order to ensure free-
stress raisers such as unnecessarily small radii, and t i , the rings, and carrespondingly high stresses, at stand- dom from high stress concentrations, particularly at
ensure a high quality surface finish. It has also drawl) still. As speed increases, the centrifugal force of the the sudden changes of section involved (see Fig 6.86).
attention to the need to design the generator to C A . rotor end windiilgs imposes a load and stress in the In the rotor conductor nearest the wedge, it is the
citer coupling t o withstand torques of the order ol central part of the ring, which combine with the compressive stress produced by the centrifugal force
the rated generator torque, since it has been sbowll
tliat these can exist during tl.ansient conditions.
The requirement for torque transnlission places :r
limit on the minimum diameter of the shaft and therefoi-r
o f the journal. An acceptable compromise belwec,,
the higher loss associated with a large diameter and
adequate hydrodynamic stability results in a bearlny
somewhat shorter than its diameter for these ratings.
Bearing performance is described in Chapter 1.
8.2 S t r e s s due to c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e
All rotating components are subjected to stresses due
to centrifugal forces, and are designed so that thc
yield stress o f the material exceeds the stress at over-
speed by an adequate safety factor. Usually the com-
ponents closest to the limit are the rotor teeth, rotoi
wedges, end rings and outermost winding conductors.
The tensile stress in the rotor teeth was considered
as part of the rotor optimisation in Section 3 of this
chapter. It is greatest at the tooth root, but will have
local concentrations at the wedge dovetail. There will
also be a high local stress where the wedge transfers
the centrifugal force (CF) load of the slot into the
tooth. Detailed finite element analysis is carried out
to ensure that unacceptable stress concentrations are
avoided. These stresses ate constant at constant speed,
so that the only cyclic factor is the number of stop-
start cycles, which is relatively few ( < 10') over the
lifetime of the machine. Thus crack propagation by
high cycle fatigue from this mechanism alone is not
of concern.
-
Similar considerations apply to the slot wedges, in
which the loading pattern is similar to that in a short
beam in bending, uniformly loaded on its underside,
and with built-in ends. Aluminium alloy wedges are
commonly made from extruded sections, but have
the outermost layer (1 mm, or so) machined away
where stresses are high, so that the properties of the
parent metal are fully realised. It would be necessary Fia. 6.85 Finite element mesh for tootli.wedge slier$ calculations
 The generator
--
8.3 Alternatirig s t r e s s e s , i r e t t i n g t t n ~ i1;riiiji;is
A stationary color sags under its o w n \+'rif:i,~,i j r i i - i ~ ! ~
a compressive stress in tile ootermost i l i ~ c >( i i i i i , appears, wi~ent i l ~cycle can he repeated.
top and at tile axial centrr of about 15 k4l';i. i + ; i t ,
a corresporiditig Lerisile stress at thc bottain i i l i l i i not tend to suffer froin high cycle effects. It is more
same magnitude. As the rotor rotates, eaoli l ' i i i ~ i I.,+ vulnerable to effects promoted by reiative mo\,ement,
periences a coInpTessive/zero/tcnsilc~~er~~/cc~~i~~~t~~~,
sive Stress cycle once per revolution. Sincr IS ~ t i i i i , ~jhile barring, when the cei~trifugai locking-up is
operating at 3000 r/min accunlulates 1.5 x i(i" vyvlc;
in a year, alternating stress due to bending l t t ~ , 1,.
be considered in the design. Tilough its msgliiltl,lt;
is small, it is superimposed otl the high steady sti.t.s.rcu
in the rotor and wedges identified above, and c;ul
mote the growth of cracks by high cycie fatig,itr.
One source o f crack initiation may be frcttini:, l i
a once per cycie movement can occur, say at the ~:,,l,
between two short slot wedges, the resultant loc;ilisi.d
damage may bc sufficient to intensify the local srii.;..
field at a minute 'crack-tip', from wiiich the ; ~ i i i i
nating bending stress can propagate. Such featusus ;sir
avoided wherever possible, and particularly oe;il i i i ,
axial centre uahere alternating bending stresses ;,$,.
highest. The concepts of fracture mechanics arc iiri-,i
to study such crack tip stress intensification.
8.4 'Slip-stick' o f rotor windings
One effect not mentioned in Section 3.8 of this ciiap
ter is the behaviour of the rotor winding during i t
loading cycle. The rotor is run up from cold, anti
though the windings and rotor body are warmed thy
gas friction, there is iittle differential in thermal effect
at this stage. At speed, the winding conductors aic
iocked together and to the wedge by the centrifug;li
force, unless an axiai force can overcame the frictioi,
between them.
When current is applied to the rotor winding, i t
reaches a higher temperature than the rotor body,
and as the coefficient of thermal expansion of copper
is nearly twice that of steel, the conductors experience
an axial force directed outwards from the axial centre.
As the differential temperature increases, the axial
forces increase, until slippage occurs at a point where
the build-up of axial force is able to overcome the
friction. Because the 'bottom' conductor experiences
the least centrifugal load, it is most easily able to
overcome friction, and a shorter length of it remains
FIG.6.86 End ring lug area - finite eiement mesh and frictionally-locked than those o f coils further up the
s1iess CO"1OUrS slot. Slippage in most windings appears to occur in
small steps, apparently randomly, though possibly re-
peatably, so that the release o f the axial forces does
not result in sudden changes in vibration of sufficent
of all the other conductors in the slot which is of
magnitude to be significant. In some rotors, however,
concern, particularly where the copper area is reduced
due to higher frictional restraints having to be over-
by ventilation grooves and slots. Some creeo of the....
copper may be observed at such slots after many years
. ~ ~
come, the release of much larger axial forces appears
to cause the bending moment to change significantly,
in operation. resulting in a noticeable sudden change in vibration.
Electrical a n d eieclromugnetic aspects
One feature of this is ti~arthe rotor must usoaily he second increases the rcquiscd Siiix magnitude; both
run down in speed before the changed vibratioii dis- increase saturation, the effects of whicli arc highiy
non-linear (see Fig 6.87). Oric result o i this is that
Oncc the rotor is at speed and tempcratilre, it does overall iron losses will be higher than those calculated
for no-load conditions, and their distribution u'iil dif..
fcr. Anoti~eris that the calculation of the required
such as abrasion, when running at lower speeds and MMF (rotor current) required for any load condition
cannot be accurately based on the simple phasoi-
absent. diagram. Since the rotor is necessarily designed with
little margin, accurate calculation of the rotor current
needed for rated conditions is essential.
8.5 N o i s e
The generator rotor, with its fans, generates very
high noise energy at speed. The spectrum is wide, but
contains peaks at frequencies related to the number
of fan blades and siots.
The other main sourcc of noise is generated by
the stator corc when magnetically excited. As pre-
viously noted, the magnetic forces 'ovalisc' the stator
core, causing vibration and noise at 100 Hz and niul-
tiples. The main component of magnetic noise, how-
ever, arises from distortions on a much smaller scale,
that o f the magnetised iron crystals, in the pheno-
menon known as magneloslricrion, at 50 Hz and
multiples thereof.
The robust stator casing acts as an effective sound
attenuator, and little can be achieved to reduce the
transmitted noise further, for example, by the acoustic
treatment of the inside surfaces. In practice, the major
sources of high noise intensity tend to Occur in the
driven components such as exciters, wldcli have fans
operating in air and no heavy steel surround. Some- t:ic 6.87 I'tux diitiibutioi~on load
times the complete line of driven units is housed under
an acoustic cover to attenuate these sources. Access
doors and windows must be provided, and these can
reduce the effectiveness of the covers. A method previously used took as its basis the
A sound power level o f 93 dBA is specified at simple no-load unsaturated phasor diagram, and de-
1 m distant from the plant. Legislation map require fined a n imaginary reactance, the 'Potier' reactance,
this to be reduced for new plant in the future. empirically derived, which was used to define a 'Potier'
voltage drop, IX,, for the given ioad conditions. An
internal voltage required to overcome this voltage
drop, the 'Polier voltage' was thus established. The
9 Electrical and electromagnetic aspects MMF difference between the airgap and open-circuit
characteristics at the 'Potier voltage' was then pha-
Some electrical and magnetic aspects of generators,
not previously considered, are dealt with in this section. sorially added to the unsaturated MMF phasor. In this
way, the increasing and non-linear effects o f sat-
uration were taken into consideration (see Fig 6.88).
Present methods use finite element calculations,
9.1 Flux distribution on load which can be reduced to two dimensions for the
central part of the machine. Even so, the detailed
When, in previous sections, magnetic flux densities
geometry and non-linear magnetic characteristic make
have been mentioned, operation at rated voltage,
the calculation complex.
no-load has been assumed, where the load angle is
In the end regions, a three-dimensional approach
zero and the rotor operates in the 'direct axis'. In
practical load situations, the ioad angle is 40-50' is almost essential, although various schemes have
and the effective flux level must be large enough to been devised in which simplifications can be made.
overcome the leakage reactance voltage drop. The In addition to the difficulties already noted, the thick
first effect distorts the flux pattern markedly; the conducting plates in which non-linear eddy currents
545
 I-llc geiicraror
PIG. 6.88 l'oliei coiisiructioli foi on-toad excitation current
are induced, and other conducting components, must
be included in the modelling. It has reached the
stage of refinement where detailed changes, say, in the
thickness of magnetic screens, can be modelled in
order to optimise the design, and to indicate where
potential llot spots may occur due to unwanted flux
collcentrations.
9.2 Control and calculation of reactances
The reactance of an inductive circuit determines its
voltage/current relationship. In a generator, different
reactances are identified in order to model or de-
scribe voltage (or flux)/current relationships under
different circumstances.
The synchronous reactance, Xd, relates the arma-
ture reaction MMF (proportional to stator current) to
the MMF needed for rated flux in the air gap. For a
given design of machine, increasing the radial length
o f the air gap proportionately reduces Xd and im-
proves steady state stability. This results in a larger
outside diameter, and a higher rotor current at full
load.
The stator leakage reactance, X,, is not a specified
quantity, and its value is a matter of economic design.
The transient and sub-transient reactances, Xd' and
Xd", are specified. They describe the flux/current rela-
tionships during transient changes, and under these cir-
cumstances, the amount of flux encircling the sta-
tor slots, rotor slots and end windings are of impor-
Chaptiif ti
tance. If higher values are required than the 'natural'
design produces, the leakage reluctance can be re-
duced by making the Slots narrower, and/or sinking
them deeper into the core. Again, this is extravagant
and results in a larger design.
If lower values are required, it is not usually suf-
ficient to manipulate the slot geometry, and a mow
basic change to the design might be needed.
Using computer programs similar to those men-
tioned in the previous section, more accurate repre-
sentation o f the reactances can be made, over the
range of load conditions, than is possible by simple
calculation.
9.3 The cause and effect of harmonics
As explained earlier, stator winding distribution is
designed to minimise the generation of harmonic volt-
ages and currents.
The stator winding is invariably star connected, so
that triple harmonics cannot occur in the line voltage
o r current. Since one pole of the rotor is identical
with the other, it cannot produce second-order flux
harmonics, which would make the two halves of the
flux wave dissimilar. The only harmonics of signi-
ficant magnitude which will appear are those of order
5, 7, 11, 13, etc., with diminishing amplitudes, and
those near to the rotor slot pitch, e.g., 41 and 43
for a 42-pitch rotor slotting. The no-load rated volt-
age wave must not contain a greater total harmonic
content than that specified in BSS000, in \+,l,ich ccr-
rain langes o f frequency arc more highly weighted
than others because of their cflcct (in the lransmission
system) on communications lines. This now rather oul-
dated concept is still accepted as an agreed and useful
crite~.ioti,since high harmonic levels can induce high
local losses in parts of the generator, e.g., the rotor
surface.
In practice, harmonics arc generated by the con-
nected loads, a recent trend being the even-order
harmonic requirements of equipment using thyristors.
This must be supplied by the generators and must
therefore appear in the flux wave, causing rotor surface
losses similar to those produced by unbalanced load
conditions.
Rotor windings occasionally develop short-circuits
between adjacent turns in a coil, and while this is not
usually of great concern, the difference in flux pat-
tern from the two poles is detectable, using a small
flux coil mounted in the airgap. When the signal from
one pole is offset against the signal from the other,
differences reveal any abnormality. Ailother method
which has been suggested uses the presence of second
harmonics in the stator current, as noted above, but
this has to be able to reject those imposed by the load
requircmcnts.
9.4 Magnetic pull
If the rotor is exactly centred in the bore of the sta-
tor, the magnetic pull between one pole of the rotor
and the stator will be exactly balanced by that o f
the other: If not centred, there will he an unbalanced
pull acting as an attractive force on the pole with
the smaller air gap. However, the air gap of these
large machines is so large (80 to 130 mm), in order
to achieve the required synchronous reactance, that
centring the rotor to a readily achievable accuracy
does not impose a magnetic pull at all comparable
with the gravitational force on the rotor.
Similarly, the net axial magnetic force on the rotor
is zero if it is axially centred in the stator, and this
is the condition normally achieved at rated load with
the rotors at their normal temperatures. With the
usual axial offset which occurs with the rotors cold,
the axial magnetic pull is only of the order of a few
thousand Newtons and is not a significant additional
load on the thrust bearing.
9.5 Shaft voltage and residual magnetism
The production of a voltage (predominantly at 50 Hz)
from one end of the generator rotor to the other oc-
curs because o f some asymmetry, either of the position
of the rotor in the stator, or some difference in mag-
netic properties. This mechanism has a low effective
TIectri~aland electromaclnetic aspects
soiii-cc impedance, and can ciiculale significanl cur-
rent through bearings, seals, erc., causing eventual
brcak-up of white-metalled surfaces.
Voltages of the same frequency as the shaft-driven
excitation lnacllines can be measured on the generator
shaft, but these arc capacitively coupled, have a high
source impedance and will not sustain a large current.
The steam turbine rotors may develop a voltage
due to the electrostatic action o f steam and water
droplets on the blades, and one function of the shaft
earthing brushes is to cnsure that this is discharged.
A phenomenon which has occurred (rarely) on tur-
bines is that, where a rotor or rotors have a degree of
oermanent magnetism and there are contacts of low
resistance between shaft and earth at suitable axially-
separated locations, the small generated voltage can
circulate a small current through the turbine casing,
which, in certain designs, can act as a partial 'turn'
of a winding encircling the shaft. This then produces
an MMF and therefore a higher shaft voltage, the
whoie process building up until many thousands of
amocres circulate, causing damage at the contacts. It
is therefore important to cnsure that deliberate con-
tacts, such as eartlnng brushes, have a resistance (say,
1 ohm) deliberately included in series, and that heavily
magnetised shafts are de-magnetiscd (see Fig 6.24).
The residual magnetism of a generator rotor will
normally produce a voltage of several hundred volts
at speed, even without external excitation; and access
to terminals, connections, etc., must not be allowed.
9.6 Field suppression
If an eiectrical fault occurs in the generator, the
connections, or on the generator transformer, the
protection will act to trip the main circuit-breaker.
This will extinguish the stator current within one
cycle of circuit-breaker operation but the flux cannot
be reduced so quickly. In all except brushless ma-
chines, a field circuit-breaker is connected in circuit
between the excitation source and the rotor winding.
If this were to be opened, the instantaneous reduc-
tion in current would induce a large (several kV)
voltage in the rotor winding, with the risk of insulation
breakdown.
Instead, a field suppression resistor is inserted in
series with the rotor winding, the excitation source
circuit being opened subsequently. The resistor has
a n ohmic value o f 1 to 3 times that o f the winding,
and reduces the current (and flux) rapidly, without
imposing an excessive voltage. Thus the ability of the
flux to prolong the current in the fault is safely
minimised.
In brushless machines, direct suppression o f the
rotor winding current is not possible. The exciter field
current is rapidly reduced by the operation of the
exciter field switch (this also applies in a non-brush-
less machine), or by inversion of the thyristors, but
547
 Operatiotial measurement, control, monitoring and prolecriol?

tile rotor clllreiit ihas an efrcctiveiy zcro Iesistaitcc
llalli through the rotating diodes, and decays with
the rraloi-a1 time constant of llie ivinding (src Fig 6.89).
9.7 V o l t a g e in t h e r o t o r winding
At rated load, the voltage required to circulate rated
rotor current is of the order of 500 V. During field
forcing, this may rise to almost twice this value for
a few seconds. The rapid decay of current during field
suppression may possibly induce 1500 V briefly in
tile winding. During transient fault conditions, the
requirement o f maintaining the previous flux level may
cause large currents to be induced into the winding,
with correspondingly high voltagcs (1500 V or so).
The highest voltages are likely to be appiied during
asynchronous operation, during which the induced
alternating rotor current (at slip frequency) seeks to
reverse. This possibility is blocked by the excitation
ing, a iarge fault current a,ouid flow,, with dangel i l l
thc maintenance opei.alor. It is considered prctrl
able not to apply ao earth, but to elislire that I I , ,
operator is properiy clothed and is using special 1,;
sulated equipment.
9.8 Stator winding i n s u l a t i o n
In normal operation, the highest voitage to eaitii
occurs in the winding bar (and connection) at the hi(.li
voltage ('line') end o f each phasc. This amounts to
23.5/\13 = 13.5 kV (RMS) for the 660 MW uniis.
Voltage to earth on the other conductor bars is i c .
duced through the winding to effectively zero at ti,?
neutral end. The eiectrical stress in the insulation
~~.~~~~~ i.
riot high even on the line-end bars; all the bars arv
similarly insulated.
The system of insulation has to undergo searchin!:
type tests before it is approved for general use, aaci
10 O p e r a t i o n a l m e a s u r e m e n t , c o n t r o i ,
wiriding surfaces, ,nay occur, particula~.iy whel.e the
m o n i t o r i n g and p r o t e c t i o n
seoii-conducting surface tieat~neiit layers becomc bro-
ken or damaged, but again this does not norlnalls M~~~ of these sirbjects have becli mentioned in pass-
lead to breakdonan. Mucii more likely is ~nechaiiical i,,g. I,, this s e c t i ~ i i ,each group is consideied as a
damage to the insulation by pieces of core pu11chi11g co.ol.dinated
which become delaciled, magnetic debris (which call
cut 'wormholes' into the end winding insuiation un-
der electromagnetic forces), and abrasion of packing
blocks into insulation. For these reasons, insulation 10.1 R o u t i n e i n ~ t l ~ m e n t a t i ~ n
thicknesses have not been reduced to take advantage provisions vary between manufacturers and have chang-
o f the superior electrical properties available with ed over thc but the following is representative.
modern insulation systems.
Considerable effort has been devoted to devising
means of detecting signs o f insulation deterioration, 10.1.1 Temperature
for instance, by observing discharge activit)' in a ~ h ~ ~ , , , ~ c o u are
p l e sused to detect the temperature
oermanently installed, capacitively coupled device, or in:
by radio frequency aerials inside the casing; both
Stator core - in teeth, back of teeth, core ends
methods are still being developed. Discharge energy is
nrcdominantlv in the I MHz range, whereas corona and axial Cetltle.
,~
~

diodes and high voltage peaks occur ( 2 2 0 0 0 V) at discharge, which also occurs, is predominantly at a 8 Core end plates and end plate screen - these are
even then, quality control tests on production bays
the sudden changes in current. higiiei frequency. Occasional 'fingerprint' measure- permitted to attain higher temperatures than the
include the destructive cutting up of two sacrificial

The winding insulation of a new rotor is finally
tested at 3500 V, having withstood higher test voltages
during manufacture. However, the arduous operating
conditions may cause insulation to become physicaily
damaged, displaced, or just oily or dirty from con-
tamination, and such high voltages are less easily
withstood in an older rotor.
bars per machine to ensure freedom from cavities i l i
the insulation, among other quality checks.
In operation, electromagnetic forces cause tile bars
to vibrate at 100 Hz in the slots and end windings,
to an extent Limited by their restraining devices. 11'
bars becomc loose in their slots due to relaxatioii
of ripple springs or wedges, the layers o f insulation
.
ments can show, whether either activity is increasing core if not in contact with insulation.
with time.
Similarly, an overall measure o f the insulation ~~d~~~~~ inlet to and outlet from coolers -
integrity of a whole phase can be gained by mo- to ailow averaging.
nitoring the capacitative component of currcnt at
Stator winding, either one per slot or in water outlet
various voltage levels, usually expressed as 'tan delta'
values.~~,i.e.., a measure o f (very
. . low) Dower factor. hose - basically to monitor water flow in in-
~ ~

When brushes are being changed with the generator Breakdown, however, is most likely to occur from dividual bars,
tape may become locally de-laminated, in spite of
on-load, it is common practice to ensure that the one local area of damage, as already noted, and the
the bonding resin. Electrical discharges can occur at Hydrogen seal faces - to detect rubbing, or oil

excitation control is on 'manual', so that the rotor
cannot be subjected to field forcing voltages, and to
disconnect the earth fauit indication biasing voltage.
It may be thought to be advantageous to earth the
slipring being worked on deliberately, but if this were
such sites which might eventually lead to electrical
breakdown of the bar to earth. Fortunately, in a hy-
drogen atmosphere, carbo~lisatianof the surfaces does
not occur as readily as it wouid in air, and brcak-
downs from this cause are uncommon. Discharge on
.
poor results from this local area are swamped by the
starvation.
better measurements of the rest, so that such methods
are relatively insensitive. Stator frame, at C 0 2 inlet - to detect freezing.
Stator insulation withstands more than twice its
rated line voltage, i.e., >2[J3 x maximum (phase)
Resislortce eleme,lls or other thennometers are used

done and an earth fault developed in the rotor wind- the bar surface, either in the slot, or across the end ooerati,te- .. and an insulation sample
stand at least twice this again, so there is a huge
safety margin on intact insulation, Even so, testing
at high voltage is destructive, and repeat testing in
service is deprecated.
If an earth fault occurred at one of the phase
ends, the voltage at the neutral would be elevated,
and that at the other ohase ends could rise to 43 x
normal. This condition would persist for only a few
seconds, at most, before the protection acted to trip
the unit and suppress the flux. In normal operation,
the maximum voltage a winding can attain is limited
to about 35% above rated, for example, if rated
load were tripped, but again this would quickly be
suppressed.
Surges arising from switching or other operations
o n the system are greatly attenuated in the generator
transformer, and d o not pose a significant hazard to
the generator winding. These large machines do not
have multi-turn coils, which are more at risk from
surges. The surge withstand voltage is quoted at about
85-90 kV, but surge withstand tests are never carried
FIG. 6.89 Field suppression circuits
out.
548
.
for:
Water inlet and outlet temperat,lres in all water.
cooling systems.
o i l outlets from hearings and seals
Seal oil at outlet from Cooler.
r Hydrogen to and from cooler, as back-up to ther-
mocouples.
r An ohmmeter is used to display rotor winding
temperature.
Temperatures are monitored during works tests
and during on-load commissioning, to ensure that
the specified limits have not been exceeded. The
alarm level would normally be set above the high-
est temperature attained at rated load with the
warmest ambient conditions, but recent thoughts
are that this practice may miss early warnings of
developing abnormalities. If a measured tempera-
ture is related to other parameters, such as current
 lil olhei similar sigliali to scc tliiil its imaguili~tlc
i n llic cstal~lislicdscatlci paltcl-n is correct, by oiing
a dcdicuted mici-o~)ioccssoi,a moie inlorinalive
indication can be lpiovided lo ihc opcratoi.
10.1.2 Pressure
I'ressuics are monitored as foilow~s:
e Hydrogen in supply bus.
e Hydrogen in casing.
e Carbon dioxide in supply line.
e Stator winding water.
e Seal oil (and thrust oil, if separate).
0 Vacuum in seal oil treatment lplartt (if used).
Differential pressures are monitored between:
e llydrogen and stator winding water.
0 Hydrogen and seal oil.
e Fan inlet and outiei.
10.1.3 Flow
Flow rates of the following are measured:
Stator winding water, by fiowmetcr or by diffeien-
rial pressure across either an orifice ai the winding.
8 Make-up hydrogen (in some machines).
e liydiogen through katharometer
10.1.4 Condition monitoring
Purity of hydrogen (katharometer).
s Humidity of hydrogen (hygrometer).
Humidity of exciter air (hygrometer).
Conductivity of stator winding water.
Composition of scavenging gases (katharometer).
Quantity of particulate matter in hydrogen (condi-
tion monitor).
Fig 6.90 shows a typical condition monitor console.
10.1.5 Electrical
MW, MVAr, voltage, current, power factor (in
control room).
s IExciialion voltage, cilirelit
@ AVR indicalions (locally, on AVI: ganel).
0 Diode faiiure.
b Slinrt voltage.
10.1.6 Vibration
e Bearing and shaft movement
0 End winding vibration, using accelel-ometers o n sul,.
port beams.
10.2 Logging and display
Transducer outguts arc received as inputs to the com-
puter at intervals determined by consideration of what
event could have czused a signal different from nor-
mal, and in what time scale tllis could cause damage.
Readings may be logged oniy when outside ihc normal
range or, alternatively, readings within the range may
be logged at intervals.
The most moderr1 stations display only the essen-
tial information coritinuousiy to the control room
operator. Some systems display 'by exception', i.e.,
when a parameter falls outside its expected range.
All information is available on demand, on VDU
screens or printc1.s.
10.3 Control
The load and excitation control systems have already
been described. The following quamities are common-
ly controlled automatically:
* Hydrogen pressure, by spring-loaded valve, backed
up by spring-loaded overpressure valve.
Seal oil pressure, by pump pressure control and
differential control valve.
Stator winding water pressure, by spring-loaded
bypass valve.
Cooling water temperature, by heaters and bypass
valve.
Gas-in-water detection, by timed operation of
solenoid valve.
Regeneration of dryer, by timer and automatic
valves.
Other parameters, such as water temperature, are I'
:3
commonly controlled manually, adjustments t o valves ?.
being made as necessary when indicated values exceed i nc.6.90 condiiion monitor (NEI Parsons Ltd)
given limits. (see also colour pllorograh
between PP 482 and 483)
 I hi? generato,
--
70.4 Oil-load Illolliioiilig, deiectiol? ai?d
diagnosis
Iletectioii aS abiioimal ci:iidiiioiii is divided bcrw,ecii
two sections: oil-ioad delcction techtiiquei, desciibcd
hcie, and lecll~liqocs a'hicil air ai?l,iietl off-load. a(
stailclstill, or during inainienance, whici~are gl-oul,eil
witii Tests under Section l l of illis chaplei-.
Some equillment is i)iovideci so thal on-load cllecks
cali be carried oil1 ipe~iodically on a ioolinc basis ill
order to ensure that pi-evioi~slyestablished co>idilions
Ihave no1 cllanaed.
10.4.1 Air g a p flux coil
A search coil monitors the rate of change of leakage
flux in tlle ail. gap as tlie rotor rotates (Fig 6.91).
The signai from one pole is subtracted froin tlie sigoai
from the other; significant diffcielrces are indicative
FIG. 6.91 Airgal) search coil and ivavefoiins
552
Cl7;~1~1,~#
!,
- - -
i, and pioiectioil
Opeiarioiial lmeasureniei>t, c o ~ ~ t r omr?nitijrini~
otic iv m o r e toins ili a coil becoming siii>ii
ciicilileii. (In solirc ~ililchincs,tliis condition ini;iy I>,.
coiiti~~ilousli inaiiitored.) Tile condition iiai.n,:ill!
iiuiies ~eincdiaiaaioll hill i l is prodent to check ili:,!
tile sililalioll is stablr.
10.4.2 Core or condition monitor
in this device (Fig 6.90), hydrogen is drawn iiiw
the casing through a chamber in which a radioaclivr
source emits a liormally constant rate of eiectl.olis.
lonised particles in the hydrogen stream, due to d~ihi
or iiquid aerosol dropiets, cause the collected currciii
to fall, and initiates an alarm at a given level. It is, i ~ i
effect, a sophisticated smoke detector. Tbc particle\
may be from areas of overheating stator core (hei~cr
tile name) or from insuiation; they cali be trapped i t ,
a filter and analysed.
I'ic 6.91 (coald ) Airgap searcl, coil aiir: i\,a,,efoiiaS
10.4.3 Insulation discharge and the condition investigated. If it is decided that
~l~~~~ techniques were discussed in section 9 of this a calculated risk can be taken to enable generation
o he continued.. a .
i.. orotection device developed in
chapter. ~~ ~~~
1987 can be installed. This will initiate a Class 1 trip
on the occurrence of a second rotor earth fault, and
10.4.4 Rotor winding earth fault indication minimise the damage from the high circulating current
and its connected excitation circuits that this would otherwise cause (see Fig 6.93).
The rotor
..-.earthed.
are not ...... ~.~ In order lo detect a low value of
insulation resistance while on-load, a biasing voltage
10.4.5 S h a f t current insulation integrity
of 30 v DC is applied to the 'positive! end
of the winding through a current relay, causing the In a machine with 'islanded' insulation (see Section 3
entire circuit to have a negative voltage to earth (Fig of this chapter), the integrity of its insulation can be
- 97>
h .-, l.f the o ~ e r a l iinsulation resistance to earth falis checked with a rnegger.
below 100 000 ohm (the actual value depends on
the position of the 'fault' in the circuit), the relay
operates to initiate an alarm. Operation of the rotor 10.4.6 Stator winding w a t e r analysis
may be continued but it is recommended that the This water must be checked for oxygen and copper Con-
unit should be taken off-load as soon as convenient tent at recommended intervals.
a.
8
3 T h e generator
'@i
g amination is made. llefects greater t h a l ~2 mm shouid
All such examinations of the interior must be sub-
ject to the rigorous enforcelnent of rules concerning
tools, the wearing of overshoes, etc., to ensure that
foreign materials are not left inside. The statol. casing
heaters should be kept on once degassing has been
completed
At these outages, seals and bearings may be dis-
mantled for inspection, both for signs of wear and
damage, and of electrical discharges due to the Dass-
age of shaft current. The inside of exciters can also
Cliaptci I ;
be ground out, blending in the ground area so that
there are no discontinuities. Finally, the ring must
be i-e-treated with its protective finish before being
refitted. Thc whole operation i.equires great skill and
experience, and though it can be c a r i e d out at site,
it is better done at the manofacturer's works, fol-
lowing which the rotor can be subjected to overspeed
and balancing runs. Thcsc comments also apply to
exciter end rings.
~ ~ ~~ " temperature. Easier, but less positive, is a low flux test
Examination of the stator core can be carried out
by inspecting the bore for loose areas, u'hich can
be tightened by insertions of hard insulation, or by
treating with an epoxy-based liquid having low sur-
face tension which will penetrate between the la-
minations. Ventilation ducts should be inspected for
debris, blockages and broken spacer bars. The back
of the core will reveal excessive welding of core to
core bars, or damaged co1.e bar insulation, where
this is fitted. Some core back burning, and some
fretting products (e.g., 'cocoa dust') seems to be
innocuous. The core liamc can be inspected for ob-
vious signs of damage, and patches of overheated
paint or metal should be investigated.
Every stator slot wedge should be checked for tight-
ness along its whole length, using a tightness tester
developed in 1985, or by rapping with a coin or simi-
lar object to observe the expected 'ringing', indicative
of a tight slot. Airgap flux coils can be fitted or
renewed at this stage.
Stator end windings can be more thoroughly checked
than as described in the previous section. Signs of
looseness o f packings, fretting, slack fastenings, etc.,
are all indicative of movement. If there are unfilled
bans between coils, these can be filled with epoxy
resin at this stage. The surfaces should be cleaned using
stator is possible. Inspection of the rotor surface,
a proprietary cleaner suitable for electrical windings,
particularly where crack initiation sites are suspected,
but it is not recommended that repainting is under-
such as the gaps between short wedges, should be
taken without the manufacturer's advice. If a 'worm-
carried out. Inspection down the radial ventilation
hole' (made by small conducting particles) is found,
holes to check that insulation packing has not moved
the particle should be removed and the insulation
to block the gas cooling passages, is recommended,
patched rather than left in, possibly to break through
following which the holes should be sealed with a
into the copper.
continuous strip o f adhesive tape, to prevent the
ingress of rlehri?
The state of the hoses and their connecting joints
" ~
Maintenance, testirig and diagnosis
be pcrfoimed on the rotor winding, with siigrin&
brushes lifted.
If any hot spots in the Stator coi'e are suspected,
or as a reassurance exercise, a care flux test can be
carried out. This may take the foim of an hour loll&
test with about lated flux in the core, using about
10 turns of I1 kV cable wrapped around the core
and fed from a suitable I I kV source, and using
an infia-red camera to scan the bore to lnonitor its
using one turn of light current cable and a magnetic
impcrfcction detector.
It is not easy to ensure that the stator winding
is dry enough to make an insulation resistance test
meaningful, though a technique of applying a vacuum
to the winding has been used. A 2 or 2.5 kV motor-
ised megger should be used, monitoring one phase at
a time, and maintaining the test for 10 minutes so
that the polarisation index can be obtained. It is
not normal to apply a high voltage test, the only ex-
ception being after some damage has occurred, possi-
bly with partial icplacement of the winding, when an
agreed HV test on the remaining bars gives some
reassurance.
11.5 Reassembly
With the rotor reassembled, mechanical checks such
as alignment, axial clearances and concentricity of cou-
plings, and of the rotor in the stator, are carried out,
and that all lolocng plates and other devices arc pro-
perly assembled. All jointing materials, such as gaskets,
O-rings, jointing compound, etc., should be renewed,
and the appropriate leakage tests carried out.
It is SO important that small metallic items d o not
fall into, or get left inside, the generator, where they
could be drawn into the windings, that a strict ac-
counting system for such items is recommended.
Several expensive failures have occurred a short time
after a major maintenance outage, due to this cause.

should be checked. A leakage test on the stator wind- 11.6 Diagnosis

be inspected, as can components in the various aux-
iliary systems.
A limited amount of testing can be carried out, e.g.,
the insulation resistance of the rotor winding, using a
500 o r 1000 V megger, and the IR of the shaft current
insulation if islanded.
Maintenance and tests with the
machine dismantled
If the outage is to be long enough for the rotor to
be withdrawn, much better access to both rotor and
Limited inspection o f the end winding is also pos-
sible, and signs of fretting, looseness, distortion of
coils, or movement o f insulation, blades or coils
should be looked for. If the pole-to-pole crossover
is visible, it is advisable to examine it for signs of
fatigue cracking.
End rings should be examined for surface crackine
and, by using ultrasonic techniques, for embedded
defects. The CEGB guidelines recommend that those
end rings which are not of 18/18 material should be
removed after about 80-90000 h in operation, and
skimmed to a depth o f about 0.25 mm over the cyl-
indrical surfaces (but not the shrink face), following
which a fluorescent dye ('Zyglo' or equivalent) en-
ing, using vacuum o r pressurised air with a tracer
gas, will reveal any significant leaks. It may be
considered prudent to renew all the rubber O-rings,
both in these locations and elsewhere, if they have
been in service for several years. Care must be taken
to follow the .assembly instructions meticulously, as
overtightening may damage the joints.
The opportunity should be taken to clean the sta-
tor casing, particularly at the bottom, noting if water
has collected, and checking that the flow to the leak-
age detector is unobstructed.
Insulation resistance tests should be carried out
on the rotor winding, using a 500 or 1000 V megger,
and on excitation windings. An RSO test could also
If the reading of any instrument has been outside its
expected limit, o r caused concern in other ways, it is
sensible to investigate its possible causes during an
outage. It may be tempting to extend the operating
regime beyond its normal level, before such an out-
age, in order to observe the effects, but this is not
recommended, since a 'stable' fault has been known
to become 'unstable' during such operation, causing
problems when the unit is recommissioned.
Specialised techniques, some in their development
phase, may be available to assist in suspected fault
location, and up t o date advice should be sought.
Sometimes readings of more than one type may
be high, though not so high as to be alarming in
 The geneiator
iliemsel\,es. Wlien judgcd jointly, clues inay bc ob-
iaiiicd wliicii ii~dividualreatiiligs o~ighi inat have re-
vealed.
12 Future developments
12.1 Extension of present designs
The choice o f 3000 or 1500 r/min for future tuibioe-
generators is made almost entirely from considerations
of the steam turbine and its steam cycle. In general,
if a two-])ole generator can be designed and manu-
factured at a particular rating, then so can a four-
pole generator, its overall dimensions will be a little
larger.
The present UK designs with water cooled stator
windings and llydroge~icooled stator core and rotor
can be extended to at least 1300 MW by extrapola-
tion. Increases of the order o f 10% to the rotor and
casing diameters, electrical loading (ampere conductors
per metre of circu~nference),magnetic densities and
voltage, and pe~.haps25% on length over the pie-
sent designs, would be envisaged (see Fig 6.3). The
increased diameter and length of the rotor result in
the critical speeds and alternating bending stesses
being similar to those of the present machines. A
judgement would have to be made about the number
of parallel paths in the stator winding of a two-pole
machine. If only two paths are used, the number
of slots and bars is low, but the bar forces become
very large; if four are used the circuits cannot be
exactly balanced, and circulating currents and losses
are generated. Parameters, such as reactances and cffi-
ciencies, would not be very different from those of
the present machines.
12.2 Extension of water cooling
Since water cooling has been used so effectively for
the stator winding, it may be wondered why it is not
used in the rotor winding where space is at such
a premium. Water cooled rotor windings have been
successfully operated; in the UK in a 500 MW unit
with a n experimental rotor for a few months, and
internationally in a few units commercially.
The more intensive cooling provided by water means
that smaller winding copper sections can be used, but
this increases the resistance and therefore the I ~ R The need to maintain the rotor winding at a tem-
loss. In a hydrogen cooled 660 MW rotor, this loss
is about 2.5 MW at rated load, so a worthwhile
reduction in section brings an expensive loss penalty. be allowed to pass into the rotor, so that elaborate
There are difficult problems to be solved in feeding
the water into and out of the rotating rotor, but the the refrigerant, the windings being made of a ni-
major concern is that the centrifugal force imposes
very high pressures (20 MPa) in the water circuit,
Cli~![>l,.l
c,
"*.
wiiicli tile pliimbiiip atid insulated co~iocctioii<l i t i t ,
to witi~stsiid wit11 no detectable leakage. Siax~~Ir.,~.
stecl ]pipes, with soine welds iiavilig Lo he n,:iciv i t ,
siiu, %,ere found to be necessary in the U1< expciieiwr
Neveilheless, watcl- cooling Lhc rotor windin: ; m i l t
other parts, for example, the stator core, may he ;ti!
answer if unit ratings much above 1300 M W arc rii
visaged. One difficulty, that of aqueous stress c o ~
rosion of rotor end rings, has been removed witli
the advent o f 18/18 rings. A major advantage I\
that in an ail-water-cooled generator, hydrogen i \
1x0 longer necessary, and the casing cat1 be of rnucli
lighter construction. The rotor can operate in a pariii~i
vacuum to reduce windage losses.
12.3 Slotless generators
The very large radial dimension of the air gap in the
660 MW design appears to be a waste of space, and
prompted much activity in the 1970s into the design
o f generators with slotless stators and even slotless
rotors. lo s siotless stator, winding conductors oc-
cupied a radial dimension of about half the stator slot
depth, and since there were no teeth, could occupy
twice the circumferential distance. This is economical
on outer core diameter, and because the conductoi-
bars are not embedded in iron slots, a more eco-
nomical design of insulation should be possible.
The idea has not been pursued, largely because
it was overtakei~ by the superconducting generator
concept, which promised greater economies of size,
better efficiency and the prospect of much larger unit
ratings than any other design.
12.4 Superconducting generators
T h e phenomenon of superconductivity can be applied
to DC circuits, but cannot sensibly be used with the
rapidly changing fluxes and currents involved with
50 Hz (see Fig 6.95). It is therefore used only in the
rotor windings, where it has two advantages:
The rotor I*R loss is reduced to zero
The rotor current and MMF can be very large, so
that higher levels of flux density can be used than
are permitted by iron saturation.
perature of 10 K means that only that amount of
heat which can be removed by the refrigerant can
heat shields are necessary. Liquid helium is used as
obium-tin alloy embedded in a copper matrix. The
rotor body is made from a stainless steel forging.
At the higher flux densities envisaged, an iron core
offers no advantages and the disadvantage of the
magnetic core loss, so a cast 'concrete' core is en-
visaged. Some form of outer environmental screen
around the core is necessary to prevent leakage flux
from inducing currents in support steelwork, etc.,
this . . take
..... can ~~~ ~ the form of a n annular magnetic o r
conducting copper screen.
Many problems remain to be solved, and develop-
ment is ongoing in several countries. If the technique
reaches the stagc where reliability is as good as for
conventional machines, it offers the possibility of up
to 5000 MW in one generating unit, a prospect not
available through any other known technology.
12.5 Auxiliary systems
The most likely other areas for new developments
are those o f instrumentation, control and diagnosis.
New tecllniques are continually being investigated
for instrumentation, and in the environment of a gen-
erator, the means of communicating the signal non-
electrically in order to avoid the pick-up of spurious
electromagnetic signals and noise are very well worth
pursuing. Here, fibre optics are expected to be pro-
minent. Also, the use of microprocessors to relate one
parameter to others, as previously noted, will become
more common. Perhaps automatic diagnostic tech-
niques will reach a stage where they can be used with
confidence, and selective recording of non-standard
signals will be introduced more widely.
It should be recognised that generator design and
manufacturing techniques are old-established. Ma-
/:
LAMINAill> RON COW
CONCRCii SiATOii
STATOR WtNDING
OUTER ROTOR
INNER ROTOR Wi'lii
SUPERCONDUCTING WiNDiNG
VACUUM
chines from a n established design acllieve a settled
reliability of better than 99%, and operate at an
efficiency of better than 98.5%. Those breakdowns
which d o occur are generally due to lapses in qualit?
control, or if in old machines, to practices long since
overtaken. Thus the impetus for embracing new ma-
terials and technologies is not great.
13 Other types of generator
Generators, other than the 500 and 660 MW turbine-
generators and direct coupled AC exciters for tur-
bine-generators, described in the ~ r e v i o u ssections, ill
operation by the CEGB include:
.
Turbine-generators of lower rating.
Water turbine driven salient-pole synchronous
generators.
Diesel engine driven salient-pole generators.
Induction generators.
A very brief survey of these groups follows
13.1 Turbine-type generators of lower rating
Virtually all the steam turbine driven turbine-generators
now in operation are hydrogen cooled. At the lower
end of the range, machines of 60 MW have a rated
pressure of 0.1 bar, i.e., just above atmospheric.
Above 200 MW, water cooled stator windings are used,

The aene!.stor
tbougli there are soiur onits i n irliicir l~iglier!pi-ersoic
lhydi-ogcn is biowt~thiongli the lhoiloa* candiictors aT
the itator u,indiog.
ill olllei respects, tbc geliciatois are \,cry silnilai
to tile larger, morc moderr, units, except tiiat tiicy aye
iess intensively rated. I n some cases, a degree of
refurbishment bas been carried out to extend their
operating lires beyond the 25 years or so already
achieved.
There are aiso a number o f gas turbine driven
generators intended for peak load arid synchronous
compensation duty. These have ratings up to 70 MW,
and are usually air cooled. The single-piece stators are
o f lighter constriiction than is necessary in hydrogen
cooled units, and the auxiliary systems are minimal.
In some cases they were designed for unmanned sta-
tions, so manual monitoring equipment and sophis-
ticated logging is minimal. Brusl~less excitation is
universal, for reasons of minitnum maintenance, and
even the fuses protecting the excitation diodes have
been omitted.
A noteworthy feature of the most recent of these
units is the facility to disengage the prime mover,
or, in the case o f the Quad-Olympus units (Fig 6.96)
ill which the generator is dl.iven at both ends, both
prime movers. Then, after a period of peak load gen-
eration, the synchronous clutches are disengaged, leav-
ing tile generators operating as synchronous compen-
sators, with excitation controlled to suit the require-
ments of the system. When peak load or emergency
generation is next required, the gas turbines are run-
up to speed and the clutches moved into engagement.
13.2 W a t e r t u r b i n e driven salient-pole s y n -
c h r o n o u s generators
Tilere are only a few of these on the CEGB system,
but the most recent, the pumped-storage units at
Dinorwig, rate a brief description to campienlent the
water turbine section in Chapter 5.
The six generators are each rated at 330 MW, 0.95
power factor, 18 kV, 500 r/min, and have a motor
rating sligl~tlylower when operating in the reverse
direction.
The very onerous requirements included:
Full speed, no-load to full-load, in 10 s.
From rest to full-load in 100 s.
From full-load pumping to full-load generating in
90 s.
5000 stop/start cycles per year.
hlultiple load cycling from 50% t o 100% for system
frequency regulation.
Availability of 98% and mode change reliability of
99%.
Otiiei types of generator
cl>;?)>?,>l
1,
---
..
i'he coinpaiatively low speed incant large ditiiiictr! ...
and 081-silt asseinbly of tile slalois was es~c~iti;iI(w
1;ig 6.97). Air cooling was adopted, mainly S o ic;i
sons of iciiabiiity. Paitl!, on account of illis. III,.
stator ~rindingbars were unusually deep, \villi :I 1;iip
nuiuber of subconduclors, necessitaling a 540' l l o ~ ~ l ~ v l
transposition. The core was stacked iri situ, being c o l i ~
pressed with hydraulic jacks at intervals, and b a i ~ l c < l
logether for meciianicai stability
A fabricated steel spider surrounds the forged slrrl
shaft and carries the keyed-on laminated rim and polus.
Great care was taken to ensure the integrity of liic
welds, which are subjcct to a n uilusual amount 01'
cyclic stressing.
Ventilation is provided by motor-driven fans blow-
ing cooled air onto the stator end windings top and
bottont, with some booster fans for thc centre of tlic
core. Water cooled beat exchangers are nlounted a1
the outside diameter of the core.
The thrust bearing has an arduous duty, having
a load o f 510 tonnes and requiring larger thrusl
pads, at the specific ioading, [ball had previously
been used at the specific loading and speed. Each
pad rests 011 a 'mattress' of coiled springs, and is
arranged to pivot centrally to allow for rotation in
both directions. Lubrication is by oil bath and natu-
ral oil circulation, with an immersed water cooled
heat exchanger.
13.2.1 Excitation and control
Two variable-frequency starting equipments are pro-
vided for the station, each rated at 14.8 MVA, consist-
ing o f air cooled thyristor rectifier/AC connector/
inverter banks.
On starling as a puinp, the stator winding is fed
with low frequency AC from the starter, using forced
commutation at speeds below 10% and natural con]-
lnutation thereafter. It is run to just above 500 r/min
and is synchronised as it runs down through syn-
chronous speed. There are also arrangements for start-
ing one unit as a pump from another, being driven
up to speed by its turbine.
Excitation power is taken from the generator ter-
minals, through a transformer to a thyristor bridge,
whose output is controlled by the AVR, and then to
the sliprings which are located at the top end of the
rotor shaft.
The synchronous operation of such machines fol-
lows very closely that of steam-driven turbine-gen-
erators. The electromagnetic Loading is considerably
less, leading to a smaller radial air gap. The very
different magnetic path presented by a pole centre
line and an inter-pole gap results in marked differ-
ences in direct axis and quadrature axis synchronous
reactances, compared t o a turbine-generator in which
they are almost identical; this is the 'saliency' effect.
By applying excitation in the reverse direction t o
normal, an increase in the steady state stability can
 SUBJECT INDEX

Acceleration
leedbaek
aoverr~on.130
~ c c e p l i n c ecesir
cosdenscm.373
pm~edures.374
Acidcicaning
candeasers.372
AClUalOrpiStolls
governor valve ielnys, 145
Adiabntic now Wiih iric,io,,
pressure canlrol vr1vcs
noise. 21 1.216
Advanced gas-tooled rcacloli run-up, 134
iccdwatei Auxiliary sysieinr
fempcralaie. 46 generators. 559
sieanl luibirles i,,s,iumen,a,io,,. 174
sires, i22
Aii
inieakage
~ o ~ ~ d c ~ ~366
sers.
icskage lecdwaicliiesfers
mearuresies1.368 uenicnl. 301
leaks Baffles
locaion.367 d e - a c r ~ i i n g f c ~ d h c a 308
~e~~,
Air blailkeling lcedwaler lhcaiers. 297
co8ldcnSCrs.375 BRlancemeien
lubcncsls nittomatic voltage regulators, 525
colidessers, 352 Balelicing
rotors, 96.470
muili-olanc.97
dynamic. 97

Bars
Stators. 475.482
vibration
stator windings.548
Base level govcmois. 141
Rc.6.97 Dirlorwig ~nloroi-generatorduring site winding ~ icxtractjnn
r pumps Base load
(rce also colour piioiograpii between 1pp 482 and 483) condei,rers.378-390 neain iurbil,es. 217
A i r g r p flux coiis Baumann C X ~ ~ U S ~
gC""8,"'" binding. 68
moni,oring.552 Baumannexhausttuibines. 4

be gained, i.e., operation further into the leading

Aiinulnnr
, .
liq"id-""g
Beatingpedeslais
on-lincmonitating, I01
stalled in a few stations for emergency duty. The vibratians
reactive regime becomes possible. condensen. 383.388
generators are standard industrial units with proven Air nagna,ion instrumentation, 173
high reliability. The need for sudden run-up after long Beating suppons
periods at standstill means that brushless excitation foundations
Alarms 1IBVDU"ilS. 175
13.2.2 Other features and casing heaters are essential. governing systems. 134 Beatingr (rer also Journal bearings: Thrua bearings)
Other features peculiar to these machines include the Sicam iemperatures. 174 boilc~feedpumps. 405
Alignmen, forced lubricadon, 181
continuing integrity of stator bar insulation in a n air rnlan. 106.472
mtois. 103
environment, the continuing stability of the bonded Icchniaue.
, . 101
~leamturbincr.105-112
stator core and the built-up rotors, the vacuum ex- 13.4 Induction generators Ainmonia Blades
~Lea$ntidCc~m~i~n ciearnnccs
traction of dust from the shaft brakes, and the very These machines, rated usually at less than 1 MW, oificicncy, 12
condensers. 340
high overspeeds possible; e.g., a transient value o f 1.5 are used in remotely controlled run-of-the-river hydro officionev. 9
for Dinorwig. plants, and in wind generators on an experimental omrion, 5s
fixed
basis. Such machines d o not operate synchronously, conaiuciion, 65,66
but have a characteristic similar to induction motors i d a i impulse-~lsge
except that they run at above synchronous speed. A efficiency. 10
ideal ieaciion-sage
greater input from the prime mover increases the
13.3 Diesel engine driven salient-pole power output. Like all induction machines, they draw
efficiency, 10
lcnph
generators their magnetising current from the system and there- turbine efficiency. 29
Arcto" 12
These machines, with ratings o f a few MW, are in, fore d o not require a n excitation supply. air leak d~lcclion moving
condenscn. 368 construcBon. 65.66
 Subject Index
-
101pICsSUc~
s l e a l ~erblne
i casings, 86
CC011011iiCb.44 riea~miurbincr. 4
Cooli81g wntcr plant. 321~421 siipponr. 87
C~l~peralioys Cylind"c1 nrlor gescraiois. 447
Colldenrcrs. 333,340
lubc faiiuie, 336 Dalnpcm
Core end nlaies 1010rs. 464
statok.482
Cure frnme ham steam lclrhiner
SlalOi' cfficiescy, 13
insulaiion.480 Display units
cicaning sysienis, 366 core frames
iiiundation.354 generatom
salon, 476.481 innruinentarion.550
lubeplaic joints. 363 easincs.490
llibing Di5,""lion f~clor.455
lhcnnai perionai>cc,37i ~ ~ " ~ t r ~ ~ t i o n Dislncl heating
lurbiaejoints. 365 fedwater lhcaiingsys&mr, 308 steam tiirbincs. 118
Cosdi,ioii lines clcvnlion, 275 Doublc rcheal
seam turbines. 13 feedhcnlen. 305308 Rankine cycle. 30
Condition lmonifol.ing graiil-orieiiied slecl. 475 feedwater hcating sy~cms.250.27238i Dran tube valves
Cormrion (sac also Firesidc con, water level. 253 pump-iurbiscs. 444
gescrstors. 550, 552
Wa~c~idccomosio~) healers, 272.274 Drain "al"es.210
inslrumcniation, 551 cm1inc water
ixl~irumentatioii,174 pipework. 279 Drains (see "IS" systeni diailis)
pEve!llios. 333 pmtection systems, 277 ~olin"0iis.2m
Conducion
eyclonesepararois stornge lank. 272 feedwater
low pre~suie lhealing
fccdwaterheains
syslems, 268
siaton, 481
Colllaminntion wetsccam turbines.230 tnnks
inhibition sloshisg.274 forward pumping. 282
chemical
lubricaiingoils. 193 waienprayislca~niitjectian-lypc, 50 stan-itp. 2 m
hydr8ulicnuids. 153 journal bearings. 108
water Debris slalon. 491
C ~ r n s i o lfatigue
l condcnsen. 370 waicrflow
ihydrauiic fluids. 153 Col>dcn$~r$. 340
Coiami unit iypc I filters con,rol. 2 m
Canorion fatigue crac&ing condensen, 366 Drains cmling. 46
governor valvereiayr. 145. 146 condensen.339
Control unit type 2 Dininr pumpills
Cormsiorl resista~~cc feedhealing. 46
governor valveiclays, 147, I48 chromium slceis D,a.ssys,ems, 2m-210
..
Control unit lvne 3 blading. 72 wet steam turbines, 237
governorvaivc relays, 149 litsnium
Control valves Drax Coinpleiion power station
fccdwater heating systems Couplings
hladisg. 72
"~
DeiolliSBliOn
". . feedhcalen, 247
fcedwarcr heaters
tow PrOSSYTC f w d sysiems, 285 bols. 102
Coolers feedwater hcating syssms. 315 pipework.273
iloxiblc. 101 D~mincrali~ers Drmpadjusunenl
hydraulicnuids hag( 102
govemingsysteil~r,15i spced imp. 128
rigid, I01 stator winding cmling rynems. 502 Drum rotor. 9
Cooling (see also Aircmling; Porccd-aircwiing) scmi-nexible. 101
roton Deruperliealers Dry SlSgeeffiCiienc."
shah leiieth. I W gland sealing syrfcmr sicam turbines. 16
inlennedialc pressure. 93 rrrist-on, 102
sfcam fuibiner. 224 cooling water 202 Ductility
steam tarbi,as.Y&~os glmd seam. 203 biading
chromium steels. 72
thyrision.522 Cover rcsls
Cooling ryslen~s(sarnlsoE~hni~slspiay tooling sysless) gland ieinpcracun coniml. 2 W
slcain chests. 158 Deleigesir Dun~ppistonn
healed water discharge dirccl-cooled. 324 Covcrb~nds
lurbilicgciierators. 491-5M iuhricotisgoiis. 194 govcrnorvaluerelnyi. 145
arc), Diapllraplnr Dump tubessysfenls.212
hy-pars
cooiing ,owem blades. 68
ccollomi"~.44 connn,c,ion.70
blades cyliadcn. 87 Duplex
lubricating
filters oil. 190
heat dissipation, 324
Stearn Lurbinci, 65 kiilenieic suppon. 70
Cooling watt, creep
culv~nS"stem radial supponpads, 70 Dynamic stability
mion, 92.94 stvam turbines excitation systems. 530
Creepstrength gland$. 87
blading suppan, 70 Eanh le&age
chmmium aeeis. 72 Dichlomnuoromethane dctecfion
C"ics1 speed band8 air leak detection excitation systems. 517
steam turbines eondensen. 368 excitation systems.515
foundation movcmcnt
sovemingsyslcms. 133 Diesclengines Eccenfticily
monitoring, 175 C"iic*l speeds
hirroricai devclopmens 329533 salica-polegcncrafon. 562 shafts
instmm~ntalion.173
mron, 97 Diffcnsislcxpansion
iniet tCmmrntUre Currentmeasunmeiil
cconomie oplimisalion.44 swam turbines sfcam turbines
excitation system. 515 run-up. 133 protection, iM
economier.43 Cyclone separator^
layout, 329-333 Diffus$m mn-up, 133
high velocity boiler f w d pumps. 407 Economics
leakate
wet steam arbiner. 231 Dinonvig powcr stallon urndenscrs. 3211-329
condensers, 368 WE1 Steam turbines. 230
pumping faligue life. 439 Econ0miy.n
Cvlindan feedhcating, 45
costs, 43 guide VMC8.443
boiling. 84 machine 1ayaa1, 439 ~ d d current
y losses
pumps. 324 efficiency, 13
capital casts. 42 main inlet valves, 442.443 stator cons. 476
steam eveic. 22 pump-rurbincs.440 Eddystator conducton. 482
currents
qualily
cnvironmcm. 333 pumped starago. 433
LempeTBLUR sation. 438 inswmcnta$ion. 173
Efficiency
gcnoraton. 550 site plan. 437
statistics. 445 Elccrricmolon
Subject Index

n,,,,,i,,g C"lli. 55
valiablo-speed-n?olo~.ddiiiii
~ * ~ i l costs.
R l 57
economics. 51
eificiilcy ">",lint COSIS, 57 ~ ~ ~ i - f ipianl.
r e d 46
Electrical cmsian ~ e suction
d Ivmps oii-iired piant. 46
i o u r , ~ bcnrisgi.
l 108 b ~ i l c r f e c dpumps. 412 ~rgen~r~!iuC. 242
Eleclricili lrijiping Feedwater ~c0no,"ic1.45
LUrbillc1~101cClioll,167 ~~n,al,,ina/i"l> Rnnkinecycic.?l
Eicciricii" dislribiiiinn
AC v; DC. 447
ccor1omics.41
Rsnki8iecycie. 28
pmiectio#~,
do-aeration.49
255,259,281 ua ~ .
. .. seam cvcic. 46
Fecdwacr hcnling cycle
Ele~lioinagnclicinductioil. 450 Steam cycle tcinperaluie CEGB, 33
Elli~)seiaw economics. 40 d rcacton. 46
a d u a ~ m gas ~ ~ ~ dlbeaiing
~ e plalil
e r
oufpul, 8 noain ,urbi,,es F~edwalelheaderS p~Oieciion qnipment. 260
Emergency siog heat ram.41 10," plCSBure ~ ~ ~ dlh~ating~ ~ systems.
t e r241-322
turbinepioteciios. 172 pmtcction, 164 flow area.311 design parameters. 250
Emergency ,tip valves ttips, 165 t~bcthicknessos.310.311 camnoncni loucls, 251
on-load resling, 166 unloaders. 137 ~Ii~lls
turbine prulcctioi~,166 unloadinggcai. 130 constmaion. 310
Elid " g r Exhaust rprny cwiing syscernr
mrara. 460 low presstire. 206-2W
End wi,,dings ~empeis~uree~r~cml
SlillOTS
suppon1,483
aucomsfic.207
Exhaust $team .~
...- .
parameters.26i
Enthaipy-entropy lliagrarns low pressure bled-neamin~cir,297 iiigh pmsruic feed system. 320
Rankinc cycle. 18 iernperature control. 207 %tiah Standards, 289 iow pi0SEUrC, 321
Blliopy. 18 Exiiausis c~ndenringsectionr,299 low feed s y s l m
Environment steam iurbitlc casings. 85 de.e-aoraling.305-308 iubulnisrlai-etype HP henlcrr.252
condelnseis.333-341 stesnl turbines, 4 de-aoraton, 289 water COnlOni
Eroriol~ Extenlal eificicncy mrimcnance. 253
biadcs. 75 cyiinders. 13 ~ ~ " i t si~iniess
ic imn
progression.76 E~llra"lionp","~s de;dopmeas;s3 bladillg
shieid nlatetials. 76 condensers. 4CU402 direct contact LP w ~ ~ n e aibincs,
an 229
CYCID~C SCpsralOrs con~ponentlove! diagram. 251 Ffe~fi,,iogpWCisladon
wet ~lcainturbines. 230 Fans drain cooling sections. 299.301 ,,~~pedslorage.433.414
hydraulic mrbines. 423 mt015.465.470 drains. 210 F ~ D~ I ~~ r r cmcasvrcnlclil
nt
pr0,ection
welstean Lurhines. 229
Fatigue nrrrc-~ .
~ m ,n l e t i o noowcr siriion. 241 ~ ~ e i ~ a tsystems.
ion 519
mlon eievstion, 254 Ficld lead wedges
Es~heleCRM12 generaton, 544 final feed tempoiaturer. 28 m,on
hiading.12 Fatiguecracking flooding. 51 generaton. 543
EVBIKIT~~O~S journal beatings. 108 flow-induced vibration, 296 ~ i o l suppression
d
bled-steam Fatigue strength ciain power station. 245 generators. 547
fccdwaler heaiingsystemr, 316 blading ~~~~h~~ 2 AGR power nation. 248 Filrni
nash.316
venicsl-Iktype. 316
ehrorniu~?l
Fault cunents
steels, 72 hi-h .
...- orosnuie. 46.51.289-305
con~t~eiion.292
icedwaier henling sysccins. 315-3 17 generalon. 539 hotizonLal. 299
aswmbly.319 Fced pumps t h ~ m ~dcsgn.
al 291
nasii back-pre~~urc lube thickness. 292
fecdu,;iler healing syrass. 319 Steam iisbiiies. 115 venieai.3Ol cooling water
nasiltype condensing-type I , , ~Rc power station. 244 ~ondenscm.372
lcedwarcr healing sysicnis. 317 sieall turbines. 116 ~ i t i l e b m o k Dpower nuion. 246 hyd*"iic nuids
singie-stage low pres~ure,51.308-314 governing systems. 151
feedwalci hcnlingsys$cms.318 bled-$team i"ltIS, 3 n ~ i n afeed
i temperamre
rurfnce cype cons~ruefion.3W reedwater huliinz sysccms. 250.261
feedwater heating systems. 317
Excilalion
. "
economies. 57
dircct mnuc1.314
dished ends, 314
AC turbine goncralon. 506 induction-mocoi-drivenm drain ou~lers.312.314
adaplivecontmllcn. 526 capita1FOSIS. 57 cxtemsl drain cmlcrs. 312
conuoi. 526 e&nomics, 5 1 hotizornal-at~itudemmgoment. 283
future dcvelapmenis, 560 runningcosts, 57 shellr.314
turbine gelicraion. 5 W 5 3 2 margins. 54 SUM type. 308
Excitationequipmcnr moio~dtiv~n thermal design, 312
stsic rceiificrs. 520 thermodynamic effeea. 56 lube lengths. 31 1
Excitation System$ number <ubesupponplatcs.311
analyiir.530 economic%.53 lube suppons, 31 1
brushless size low pressare direct conlacl, 289
turbine generators. 5W economics. 53 low pressure abed. 289
EXC~LCT field S W ~ L C ~ C S steam turbines, 115 on-~osdtest facilities. 269
field suppression, 547 lhmugh-iifccosts. 58 pipework. 273
Excilcrs (see air0 Main exciron: Pilot cxcifers) lurbinogovemon. 156 prOstu"red water reacton. 48.249
A C voltage regulation. 523 lurbincs shclls.292
DC lurbino gcnmors, 5 M exhaust mute. 156 t h t m a l efficioney. 22
DC veilage regulation. 523 power rating. 157 cube lengths, 295
gear driver steam supply. 156 tube suppons. 295
lurbino-genera~on.504 vatiahlc spcod,54 akplate-typc hatizonlal high prcnsurc. 52
porfomancc testing. 508 variable.spnddrives tubular surface type. 254
transiencperformancc capital costs, 55 component leveldiagram. 256
turbine-gcnoiarars.506 eloettic moton. 55 wat~~to-~~te~drain~~I~n
t
! Subject Index
i --- ---
Coiiilo1. 205
i'1asgei Furca
*,aceiiil~bilie dri\,cii saiie81i-jrrlc rysciwonour. 560
slcaii cu~biziccnrii~pr.82 blows
G i n ~ ~reiling
rl systems, 200. 201
1:1as1iil8 draill C W ~ ~ ~ s detector syi~enl.515. 516,519 ~ p r c s u coii!iol,
z 2W. 203
lo>%'I""6airC feedwaicilicnieri. 306, 312 fnilille
$lean, lurbiiici. 19820.1
Illcrmai Ihydiviilicdeiig~i.314 deiecliozi ii~,ic,52~ ,e,llper"luie Control, 200
Fl~xibilily TV 44R
Gland steam eondeaseli. 204
stcna,iuibi~?cs binding. 72
G i a n d ~(see also Labyiyiill gliindr)
dssigr~217 FV 507
boilci feed pv8llps
cfficicncy, 39 bladisg.72 realing.408
noiv slea~nfuibincr,i98
corldcnsen Governillg
n,eilsurcn,est. 374 eloeimnic. 134
gencratoir highprcrsure. 128
insirumentatioi~.550 higll pressurn plus intermedinie pressure. 128
nlCilSUmmCn, parallel. 128
cirnuialillg i$,siei puxaps, 397 Govemingrysiems. 125-157
curbir>cs combined-cyclcpla~>l.118 digilalpmcerring. 140
dircclian.2 Gassing-up
functioss. 125
Piuidcouplingsiilr hydrogen coalii8g systems inecllasicai
reed pumps turbine generators. 491 reliability. 134
Gearboxes
vaiivble spccd driver, 57 Steamturbines
Fluoie~cein air extraction pumps. 395 o u e i ~ p e dpmfecBo8i. 164
cooliiig wii,ei ciict~la~inp water pumps. 398 Govcrn~ivnlverelays.142
ieakngc. 369 iced pumps conlml aniciype I , 145. 146
Flux variable s p c d drives. 57 conlml unit i y p 2. 147. 148
S Y ~ C ~ ~ ~gencmtois.452
~ O Y S
Ocnersloi phnsoidiagrams, 535 colitml unittype 3, 149
Flux dislnbulion Generalom, 446-562
20MW Gov0n10rvalves. 160. 162
GCIIOTRIOrS ~~~~

forcer. 145
on ioad. 545 aircwled. 449 guidcdnow lypc. 161
Foaillisg 6MiMW.448
high preasurc
i"ilibifi0" Cescmlars (sea alsnQuad-Olympur gentraton: Synchronour on-load leriing. 132
labricarisgoils. 193 geocrators: Turbine-geserutors: W i r ~ dgenerators) ii,,crmedialeprers"rc
F0:oan,s condition monitoring. 550 on-load ssiing, 132
conim1.549-555
coaling water
fulvie dcvelopmcntr. 560 .
muslliwin ivoc. . 163
leakage. 369 pressure dm],. 8
Fo~ced-ai~cwli"~ DC, 114
revene now. 163
diagnosis. 555-558
main turbines. 224 throttling
Forging eEciency, 536
flenibiliry.222
,itanium elecl"c1 aspcct~,545-549 Oovemon (see also Basc levol govcrnorsj
blading, 73 ~ l e c ~ r mcasuremenl.
i~sl 550 acceleration feedback. 130
F o s ~ i l d i c dplan, cleeltically unbalanced co!~dlfions,537
characleristics. 126
by-pars ayslen>~.213 electmmagnclic aspmu. 545-549
failure
Fouling exciter and power systems, 527
pm,ection, l M
biolo~icsl charaelcrixics. 529 iilicr-valv~monilorin~. 137
cosdcnsers.370 fixed speed AC. 114 speed rnfercnee. 131
condensen, 370 fu~uredevelopmcnts.558-559
s p e d reipoinir, 129
Foundations induction.562
stcam ,"rhinos
CDDCrele. 177
iotscs. 536
nl~dulaia"angement, 157
iIexiblc.l76 mainici,ance, 555.558
turbincs
resonaiicer. 176 mccllanical c ~ ~ l ~ i d e r a f i o541.545
nr,
feedpumpr, 156
spring. 180 nlonitorinp, 549-555 ~ r a i power
n station
Steamarbiacs, 175...181 on-load mosiioring. 552 fcedheaten. 245
movcmcili. 175 Open-circuit eondilions. 533 Gmses(srenlsoLilhium-bascdgieascs: Silicolie-barad
operalion.532-541 ficcasesi
operational measurement, 549-555 types. 154 . -
lunisg. 176 ourages purity
Greasingsyslems
Fourier equation mainlcnance. 555 steam lrbines. 196 monitoring. 492
hcai transfer nmleciion.549JSs Gril cleaning safety. 497
ieassembly. 557 temneraturc
condensen.347 condensen. 373
Fracture appearance transillon temperature running up 10 speed. 532 Guidcvanes monitoting.492
saliea.poie Hydmgen c w l i n g
mion, 96 Dinowigpowei station. 443
Francis turbines. 422.426 diesel engines, 562 pumped storage.441 Slalors
end thrust. 426 shuuing down. 541 vriable windings,488
Freon 12 slollcs~.558 tempraturn
tabular turbines, 428
sir leak detection speclfiesions, 449 trips. 554
Gundrilling
~landards.449 turbine-genoraton.447.491
condensers, 368 water headen
Frequency responseanalysis SlOsdy shon-circuit eonditlons. 535 tubcplaos.263 Hydmgen embriltlement
exCilslion systems. 531 Steady slale stability, 534 mton. 94
Fretting superconducling. 558 Half-sped machines, 229 Hydmgen pressure
mton Synchmnising.533 goncraton
instrumenlaion. 550
Halagen lcak detectors
lemperature.536
air leaks
IcsIing.555-558 Hydmgen seals
condensem. 367
transformers generaton
Hand baring
winding fault^, 554 turning gcar, 1II lubricalingoii. 183
arbine-tvoe lubricatingoil, 188
Harmonics
lowoikting, 559 chorded windings. 455 HysLern~i~
lYpoS.447A50 dislribula windings.455 stator cores. 476
unbalanced load faults. 554
generaton. 546
 Subject llidex
3 Index

S'C"tII iuibincr, 198

slewed, 199 Magllciic ainplifcri Oil COillesceiJ
t i i ~ 8 1 ~ i c 199
k~~~~~, c~ciiationisysleiiis. 523 hibricsiisgoil, 191
vcnlier, 199 MagnClic circiiiB s,a,ic. 193
i~~tb"ti,,ti,se*,* ~ y n c h i o ~ ~gcneraoii.
ot~r 452 Oil co01ers
iubricaiii~goil.189
Magnelicpuil
genCmio15.547 oil fiiiers
1ubricari1,'oii. 189
FCncraiOrs. 549 Magncfostrietion.545
Main cxcitem. 510 Oil-fired plane
jolimal kanllgs. 105 tip iefirninc. 61
stealn v ~ r b i ~ a r pmtec,ion.509 fecdhcating
Bosl-incident records. 175 ?numberolnagcr. 46
efficiency. 13 rotating nmaiure. 512
Profeclion alld control equipse~ii,17s Oil pumps
arbines. 112.175 Lappin'?
~. . turbine genoraiors. 51 I
Stcam turbine casings. 90 luibinc gcneratom, 508 lubrication
e l a ~ ~ i f i ~ a t i 171
oti. main. 184. 185
Leading power factor Main inlet V B ~ Y C S
generators. 534 D i n a n v i g p w e i stsfion. 442,443 main bearings. 183
Leakage nows pump-,urbi,ios,439 ~teamturbiacs,184
generaton
by-passsy%cms. 216 Maintenance mafor-driven auxiiiaw. 185
>~~aintenance.557 Oil purineis
Leaving iosscs steam iurbinos
monilotiiig. 553 lubncaiingoil, I91
Rankine cycle, 28 efficiency.39
mior windings, 459 static. 193
mtom $lean>turbines, IS turbine-~.~."cmiors
Life cxpendilure mol,iton cost1 42 Oil scnlirlg
windings,548 nedeslais, ill
stator windings.548 stcan, iurbin~e,224 Majority voting circuits. 137
Lighl-water reacion Master iosd mnlmllcn
dctenoration,s49 bdlcm. 129
lntegr~lcondensers, 4 half-spmd machine$. 229
Lithium-based greaser steam turbines Oii tanks
Inler-vaiu~m~~i~~~~,~
SlCBni turbines, 194 boilerprcssurcconirol. 129 l u b r i ~ ~ i i n ~ o187
il.
govcmon. 137
llilemai efieioncy LilllcbrnokDpowers(ati~~ Materiai damping
cyliildcn. 13 feedhoaccn. 246 biading
imli oxide Load chmmium steels. 72
condcnsen.336 awlication titanium
isceo>i 12 sencrators. 533 blading, 73 orciilarions (we niso Power r y r ~ e mosciliaiioiir)
b a d angles Maximuniconrinuousmting isrei-area. 529
air ieak deteciioli inlei-tie. 529
generaron. 514 syi~chronou~g~cralois. 452
COndcnscrs. 368 inirn-pianimodes.529
lsoialingvalve~ hadcyciiiig Mean teinpeiaturcdiffcrences
stearn turbines, 217 cOndenScrS local iiiodcs, 529
by-pass sysiems. 21 I ~yslcinmodes, 529
Laad rejection cor~troilcn Standards.345
feedwafer heating systems, 266, 267 Outases
by-pars systems Mineral fibrcs
low pressure fwd systems. 28s lagging
nuclear piant, 212
Jacking oil pumps. 18s Load shedding steam turbine casings. 90
Jacking oil systems lhmfiiing, 8 M i n ~ r aoils
l OU,~"~
Losding~ystem~ stcam turbines. 194 sLoamiurbines
s l a m lurbincs. 194. 197 iimifaions. 8
Join* governing systems. 132 Mobrey float switches
iasatithmic mean tenaperamre differences fe~dwalcihcaling systems, 269 overnuxing
condensem, 343 Moisture separator rehealen avlomalic voltage regularon, 527
Logging ho"n0lal Oven&
SCllelalOTS wet rieam lurbines. 235 p i w f test
instrumallation. 550 wet stcam turbincs. 230 lurbinc proleaios, 170
LooppiBos, 157.162 Moliierdiagrams prOleclion
i o o p pipewol*. 160 CEGB eycies. 31 steam turbines. 164
luhinccasingi. 81 Multi-exhausts protection systems
ilonranlal bollilig pressure feul sysmms
feedwaleriicafingsysicms, 281.289 blading, 68 govcming systems. 132
~ ~ I s l e aturbines.
tn 229 MUSSCIS fe~ling
govcniing~yst~ms. 132
welded confipuration.281-2x9
contmi valves. 283 cmdcnscrs
Stalorcilsing~.489 Ovenpecd
govemingsyslemr.
itipn 125
Journal bearin*" isolating valves. 283 conlml. 373
". c w i i n g water. 336
consruetioq, 105 Lubricatingoii~
acidity. 194 sicam turbines
perfomancc, 105
Steam turbines, 105 fai1uci . .
Network freaucnev
power generalton
governing Jynems. 165
turbine pmiecrion, 170
life. 108 tripping. 165
governing systems, 125 Oxida,ion
Journal type seas 1%" pre$iUre ",ps
turbine pmfeedon. 170 Neufralearthlng inhibifion
Iubricalingoils, 193
hYdmsen cooling systems
purification. I92 generators. 540
'Urbino generaton. 497 Noise lubri~alingoils.
Oxidation inhibiton193
regeneration, 195
Kaplan turbines, 422 steam turbines genenitom
hlailrr pmleeiion, IM roton.54s Oxygcn
rquircmens. 196 p r e ~ ~control
~ r e vaives fcedwaier
tYpcS. 193 by-pas$ sYEICmS.211 cormsion.49
Lubrication fossil-fired pianl, 216
Steam turbines Non-return valver Pannier condensers. 4
arrangements. 181 de-aeralom steam turbinceasings. 79
rquirerncnts, 181 bicd-scam pwer.assisled, 278 Panial admission
Lub"~tion~y~tem~ Notch sen~ilivity steam turbines
Labyrinth gland$
steamturbinos. 181.198 blading efficiency. 16
axial-radial. 199
diamelem. 2cq chmmium steels. 72 Pedcsfals
now. zw Machine levels Nuclear plant beaings. 108
plain, 199 instmmc~a~ion. 174 by-pBBr SySlemS. 212 oil m l i n g . II 1
Nuclear slcam rupply system. 33 steam turbines. 105-1 12
radial clearan~o,zw Machining
timnium Pciton turbines. 422,423
spring-back. 199
blading. 73 Oil bOOSsr pump8 Phasoidiagrarns, 452
turbine.driven. 184 Phosphareesten
 Subject Index
-.
-- -- Subject Index

rllrfis.456
shrink-on.91
sires. 472
1Prolecii081.508 ~ t e a n iiiibiner.
l 90105
tt~rbinegenciaiors,s06 rei,ea,e,s, 149
Reliability flexibiliCy.223
Seclio". 507 "oilagCS.547
Pillrlcdimtr PtlrliPa(rrea1soAiicxliaclion jpum~ls:Aiipuinps; Boiler feed govenlitigsystcms
deR81ition. 134 teetii
blader, 69 ipumi>s:Caisson enlraclin#?jptimps: Centrifugal
pumps: Cilemical irUeciion pumps: Circulaciilg steam lurbincr lensiieslrers.542
Piixwork Oer oiro hp pipeiuo,k) ihermai 96.456
icslisg. nnbilily.96
cmsrover. 163 wateii,umpr; Coiicreievoluic punips; coxidenrate eriiciency. 39
de-acraiors, 279 exiinclio~ipunins: Extiaciion pumb>s:~ c e punips;:
d Rclicivalvcs
rehcnlcis, 149 threading.470
feedwalei hcaiers. 273 Feed suction pumps: Fire pusps: llydravlic pumps:
Jnckizig oii pumps; Oil bwsrerpumps: Oil pasps; Residual inarnciism torque
fced~agrhealillgsyslem~, 271 g ~ n ~ ~ a t542
on.
govemingsys~ems Ptiming pumps; Rotary pumps): 323-421 shafts
C",,rlrnsrrr ?"P-?"n geneia,on, 547 turbine-generalois.456
sl~inlesss~ccI, 154 vibralion.470
Rerisiance elements
tow pressure feedwaicilieatiiig ryscems, 288 weight.472
leh~alers Icin~ialremOssuiemCni
gencra,ors. 549 windings.
welded disc,
459.463
91
pressure loss, 27
Piping Re~ollance~
foundations. 176 ~0il~.459
lubricatinpoii. 188 can18 faull indiealion. 553
Piston iinqs Revemible pilmp-iurbines. 433
Rigidity slip-stick. 5 M
sleamiurbir~ccnsiilgs, 85 lempcrntvremearurcmeni, 466
Pisloycs$ts foundalioss, 176
Rim generator turbines, 432 vollagc. 548
stators. 476.478
Radial ruppan padr dcsign.431 Routille operational tcsis
Pilch factor, 456
diaphmgms.70 R W I imus condensers. 373
Plantoperaiion
turbine-geneintors Rnnkiaecyclc, 17 cxcitation systems. 531
cosls, 42 finai feed t e i ~ l p c r a c ~28
,~~, Rotary pumps
Plan1trip c o n i r o l l ~ ~ superheat. 19 ilirexlracli~n
~ Y B B S ES Y S ~ S Reaciancer condcnscn. 381
generators Roiafmgan,plifcrr governing syslems. 125
nuclear plnni. 213 Runaway speed
Poie face wedger calcuiaiion. 546 OXCilCm
conlmi.546 lurbinc-geaorarors. 504 hydraulic lurbinas. 423
genoi~lon,543 Rvnncrbiadcs
Post-incident records ReeriSerequipnienr Rolalingdiodeiles
saiicdiodc~ excitation rystcmr tubularfurbiner.428
insImmcnta,ion. 17.5 Ru~liiihibifors
lubricafing0ils. I93
Powcigei~einfion exciinlion equipment, 521 moniforing.519
mechanicaldti~~ Reclificrs (reeniso Rolali~lgreciifien; ~ , ~ ~ i ~ RoLalingphs~~r~
SlOBln IUrbincs, 114 Thytislorieerifiers) 1yn~hmno~sgcncralors.452
cicilation systcms.516.517 Roiarins rectifiers Safety
network frequency hydmgcneooling. 497
pmieciion.52i exciladon
€ovcmingsysrems, 125 turbine-gonora~on.513 Scale
seain turbines. 112 SIali~lhy~~~~rs
excitation sysicms, 521 excitation systems condensers. 370
Power system osciliations, 527 cleanine 372
Power S Y S ~ slabiliscn.
C ~ 527 Rchcaf pmtecion, 519
Camotcyclc. 30 Rotom scavenging
operation. 529
COlidili~,,~ alignment, 103.470 hydmgen cwling Sysccms
Pre~suie
slcamcycie, 26 R~iaipasiii"" turbinc-genernloir.49 1
colidcnscm
dllllble inr,mmen,a,ion, 173 Scieeniogpianr
acceplance ~css.374 coolillg waicr, 324
generators Rankineeycie, 30 balancing. 96
fin,-stage body.456
insirumeniaiion. 550
Picsrure cascading wcl Steam lurbises, 237 bmshlers
second-siaec conncciions.469 Seal oil prcrrurc
feedheating.46 gcncrstom
Pie~~umcOntmi wetrteam turbincs. 238 buill.up. 91
Reheat cyclc. 20.26 eonstiuerion.90 inammcnta,ios, 550
hiiers. 129
CEOB, 33 cw1i,,g,93 Seal oil rvsems
Presnuie control valvcr .
r., ir,g:n :u np <,-,r, l.
Reheaters criIiealrpeds, 97
~ Y - P ~ Ssystems.
S 21 I l L n l c c )cn:rl.lr' $97
draills current iimilers. 526
nuclearplant. 212 S:A .e* ' 1 . L > b ) o n m % ? ~ l .
spraywater wet sleam turbines, 239 dmm type, 91
eCollDmic1.59 ondrings, 464 mechanicai
fossil-fired plant, 215 h i l e r feed pumps. 41 l
Pres~u"~ed waterreae~o~ governing vaives. 128 fans. 465
pipework fast fraaure mfon.472
feed pumpsets. 416 ~ ~

steatntuaines, 198
feed SySIemS PrCSSUrelols.27 tisk assessment. 98
Pressure loss. 27 gcnerafors seasans
cycledotails, 242 cooling water
feedhealors. 249 reliCf V B ~ O S 149
. maintenance. 556
s t e m Supply residual magnetism. 547 temperaarc. 44
hedwatcr hesten. 48 Secondary ioss
seam cyclcn. 33 we1 sleam turbines, 237 high presSU'e
Stcam-to-steal,, ma~erials.94 blader
turbine-gencnton.40 efficiency. I 2
we, s t e m cycle. 46 peifamance monitoring. 239 ~ l r c ~ s m n t m129
i.
high tcmperarure operation. 92 Sclf-shifting Synchmnouscl~l~he~
w c l s l e m plant. 62 wet steam turbines. 233
valve$ inlcgral. 99 cuming gear
Ptimingpumps Steam turbines
lubrication. 185 PTDSEure IOSS. 27 inlemedialcoreseure
venics1 Semicondu~ton
Proflie 109s
wet steam turbincs, 233 static recliiicn
blader
Rchcaiing cxcitationcquipmont.520
efficiency, 12 Se~aralon(see also Cvelane seDaralon)
Roleciion steam tuaines
candoasen.366 effrcioncy. 114
Pmtcction and conlml equipment Rohcafingplant
double-scage, 37 cormgated-piarc
inrmmentation, 175 wet steam turbines. 232
single-stage. 37
drains
t
I -
Subject Index
Strbjed Index

main excitem. 508 cioscd-loo~~coi~lr01.

131
\\~iiiCiCooliilgsysl~l,,s, 488 exllaus, area
SLCIIdY LllOn-CirC~ilC"lltiili,l,lS ~cononlics,44
genemtorr. 535 exilBUsipieiSUre
conmi unit type i.145 Steady state siahiiily ccono~nics.40
eieclrohydm~li~ gercra,ors. 534 crhausls. 4
eiectronicso~emi~,~, 142 steal,, cxiraclion. 116
Shalt end glands cfiicai prcss*x, 3 i fcedback-prerrureboilers.
pumps 115
livestenm, 226 ingrCIS
Shaft Seal$ sleain turbines, 255 condensing-lypc, Ii 6
aiiexlraclion punlps, 395 strair~cn.158 variable-sweddtivcs. 55
hydmgen cooling systelllr SUPPIY now
turbine gentraton, 497 wet steam lilrbincs. 237 direclion.2
Shafts foundations. 175-181
boiler fwd pumps. 405 full-speed
eircuiafirlg w ~ t e i p , , ~ ~ ~ efficiency, 38
malcrials, 399 matingfaees. 158 g~vemingsyslems
CYrnilC i n ~ ~ l a l i o n spindles. 158 ovcrspccd protection. 164
inlmmontation. 553 s t e m lurbincs. 13 Sleamcherts. 157-164 hail-speed
eccentricity Si~ndsidnuclear unit power plant system. 46 colislruciioii. 157 cconamics.40
instmmenlalioa, 173 Standards (see also Heal Exchanger lnsiii~tecta, maletinis, 158 cfficiency.38
length feedheaten. 2x9 Steam cycle Ilea, rate
couplings. I W Standstill scais cCononlicS,4a-(rl exiinusl pressure. 41
mton boilcrfecd pumps. 410 efficiency,22 impuisc-type.8
eanhing, 465.469 S,l".,,"", pre~suti~cd waleirenaon.33 inai~>tenancc
monitoting. 469 by-pas systems. 61-63 lemlinai coi?dilions. 25 cmciency.39
SP" OmC-through boilem. 62 tilermodynssics. 16-40 mes,ci ioad coniroller~
~nswmenation.173 Statevanabicanaiyris Stea~nc j e c t i r i p u ~ nsysteliir
~~ boiler pressureeon,ioI
vibration excitation systems. 531 condensers. 385 inuiti-cylinder, 5
insrumenmiion. 174 Slalicdiode~ SleGm heldCreOnlmiiers operational noxibiiity
voi,agc rcclificrequipmcnt hy-ga$ssy~~~mi effieienev. 39
gcneraton, 547 excitation equipr,ies~,521 nuclenrplant. 2 i 3
Shon-timuitratio Staticrcctifien steain inleis
generalon. 535 sfcam lurbine casings. 85
Shon-pitching steam-jet air ejectors
harmonic~.456 condonren, 381
Shuitinndown Seam prorsurc rcsction-type.9
gonGraron. 541 exeilalion systems, 521 blade lenalh. 29 rciativc thermal efficiencies. 39
Siiicone.based masei Slatorcorer in~lrumentation
efficiency, 174 reliability
SLeam tulbine~,194 emling. 508 officicncy.39
Sinusoidal grit blasting Stator leakageroactance Steam~rbinen.122 reversed-now. 3
condensen genenlom. 546 S f c m icmpeiatuie mlors. 90.105
eieaning.373 Slarorslo~s.484 blade ienglh. 29 singlc-now.3
Slipstick Stator willdingconducton, 475 Steam iemperafurcs 5izc
mtom Stator windings ih~Wm~"t~li0ll cfficicncy, 38
windings.544 wafer pressure efficiency. 174 speed o f roiat>os.4
Slipring induction motor generators. 550 Sceam turbines. 1-123 siageefficicncy. 13
feed pu.mps statom appiications. 112-120 stcam ingress
vanable-speed drives, 55 casings. 489 axiai-now. 2.3 protection. 255
Sliptings maintcnance.557 backprcrsure. 116 tandem-compouiid,4,6
generators mnduclor~ blading thonnodynamicoplimisadoa
exhaust pmnrure. 40
mainrenance.555 eddy euiients. 482 doueiopmenls. 123
in~tmmcnt core framc ban iow pressure. 10 types. 2-8
excitation systems, 519. 520 in~ui~tion.480 boilerfeed pumps variable-rpeed.7
mton, 465 cares. 473 cycle diagran.47 wateringres~
brushe~,468 nux. 477 by-pass sysiemr. 59 proleetian. 255
hmshgenr. 468 maintonanco.5~7 capiisicost~ weigh,
~nlltCtions.467 8leCL"~i COnntCtions, 485 eeonamic oplimiaaiion.42 efficiency. 38
Slot wedges end windings casings. 76-90 Steam valvcrplays
mton maintenanee.5~7 hotilantal joints. 81 pumpingsystems, 149
gcnerston. 542 in~ulation combinedi.yclepIani. 119 Stcamvalves. 157-164
Smoke dete"o~tion,54~ condcnser~ ci~singlimc
cwiing water Pistoye s101s.478 joints. 365 governor valve relays. 142
les*age. 369.370 sbt Wedees condition linw. 13 oiecrmnic govcming. 134
Speific s p e d mai&nmce, 557 constmction govemingsystems. 125
h~draulic~urhin~~ tcm*inal bushings. 485 eEcioncy, 38 g ~ ~ ~ m o ~ v a i v e r o 142
layr,
terminals, 485 +mling, 224 pasepoinls, 198
tulbinD-genemton,473+gi critical sped bands linearisalion C~BTBCLC~~EIICE. 140
sensing vcntiladon, 479 g o ~ ~ m i n g ~ y ~133
~em~, positions
governon. 138 winding EmPE-U)mpOUnd. 4.6 instrumomation, 173
Pmximateir~nsducc~, 139 walei analysis. 553 cylinden.4 pie~suredmp,8
SPeed reference eonmllen windings. 471 ileribilily.222 relays, 126
BU10maIic voltage r e g ~ i a t o 527
~, 669 MW. 486 design tripping. 165
SpeM of mtation CMling. 485 cfficiency. 9 Steel (see also Ausrenific steels: Chmmium alloy steels;
s l a m lurbiner. 4 L a d l fsuils, 554 rfcamcyeles, 33 Chmmium molybdenumvanadium srezl:
SWdselpoints senemion. 546 double now.3 Chmmiumssds: Super 1 2 8 0 steel$)
inrula~ion,548 cfficiency. b i 6 foundations, 179
electtical loads grainurienledsheei
 Subject Index Subjecl Index
--
SYIIC~IIOII~~~S reac,a,,ce cosdci~sci~. 327
gcnemlols. 536. 546 Turlliilc-gciield,m 447
Syridilasous torque. 527 capital costs. 41
Syslclli drains 'T"r1,lc coniponcnls.456-173
wet rievili m t i n c r , 239 gcncmion.454 fuel costs. 41
Torque-speed i m p diagralrs, 528 liistoncal bsckgioaitd. 447
r$ slopY.~ve ic~sys
esergc~lcy.145 Traccrga~deieclois iifciimc casts. 41
Slol~VaIVCtel~ral,~," a i l ICBkS
slandaidiraiion. 242 condeieen. 367
it Stopvaives cwiing water
ieakap. 369,370
control uni~typeI, 145
E emergency. I61 Transduccn
high pn~sure on.londfesling, 170
i on-load testing, 132 trip-initia~lng
illicnnediate piersure lurbinc protection, 167
Traii~ientiearianco steam iurbmes
on-loadlenliag. 132 lun.up. 133
on-load testing. 160 generatoo. 538
Trnnsienl slabilily Turbine valves
ttipping. 165
excitadon sylems. 530 gavemon. 128
Sloik dc-aeiaron mcasuieincni. 374 'nrbinos erbiner;
aiso~sck-pressure
Francis turbines:
turbines:
Gas iurbincs;
Bausnan Hydrsulic
oxhnun
feedllealeo. 307 Trallsient srabiiily analysis
gesemtors exciiaiion systems. 531
s r ~ & n ~ a r 431.432
bi~~~. inslrumescation. 549 n c ~ e n iKaplail
rurbinc~; bpump-rurbi~les;
l ~ turbines: Pump
Rim gcnerniorturbinei:
iuihiner:
Strain gauger Transistor amplifien
'Terminals exeliatian syswms
alignmeni generators, 487 Sceam curbinen: Sfrailo lurbiner: Tubular lurbinor)
voltage regulatioii. 523
mtors, IM Thennal cycling govemoo
StTCsr Tnpping (riealro Electrical ,tipping)
Sfcam iurbincr.217 govemaivaiveiclayr. 145 fcedpumps, 156
cenlnfugal rocc Thcnnal fatiguc high pressure
generalon.542 operatorfacilifier
mtom. 92 iurbicicproleciios. 171 wet neani, 226
ln~ilii~n Thomalshocks Trips (rrealso Category A trips: Caicgorl wet steam. 226-240
instrumelirafion. 172-175
ncxibilily.224 by-passsyslems.216
S ~ ~ ~ S S E Oerncking
~OS~~,, t"pr)
Tllcrmal skins mechanically operaled 'runiing gear
condeilsen. 339,340 seanl turbine casings, 8s elecltisl
S,~CSIC$ t~rbin~prolection,170
Tliermsl ~ t r e s s c ~ Tube bundles slealn arbiner. III
rotors $teain turbines fcedwaler healers jackingoilpumps. 186
genoralors. 544 two-sliiflieg. 222 sreatn turbioos, 105-1 12
Subsoils now, 293
Thermal tightening high prenrure feedwater lieaters. 292 Two-shift reginle
elasticity. 176 nange hlcr. 84 low pressure feedwatcr heaten. 310 steam turbinoa. 216
Sucdon filters mennocoupler ~ u b suppan
e plates s l a m tu6incs. 217
Two-shifting
boiler fced pumps, 280 genoramrs.549
Suction s w i l i c s@ fcedwateihealers.295
Thermodynamie~ Tube iurbincr 430
airoxtracloipumps. 393 ~tenmcycle.16-40
s u p , 12% C i $ l e i s Thermon,etcn c o ~Ic&age.
l i x ~ g w369,370
~ter
blading. 72 gCnCralOR, 549
Supercanduclivify nlrottling Unbalanced ohasecondilioni
generaton. 558 loadsliedding, 8
Supercritical plant Thrust bearings
Sltamiurbines, 122 bollcr feed pumps. 408
Supeihe~l failure
Rankinccycle. 19 fhcm~al wrformance. 350
Pmleciion, 164 gometry I~fur~proSpecIS. 120
Superhca! cycles. 29 steam turbines. 108 unit sires
fculhealing.45 condonacidcrign evaluation, 350
tilling-pad, I W Tubeolafcs IIOBmfulurc
turbines
prospects. I 2 0
Sllperhc~fen WCBr
econoinien. 59 cbndenreishells
instiilmcnt~cion.173 join,$. 363 Unlosdinggear, 130
Suppenplates Thlus, pads exhauihressuro. 130
condeosers.365 condensen.362
war manufacture. 362 Upper wntrol level
Surface cuncntpathr measurement, 110 governon. 141
gcnerstan.537 thermal performance. 350
Thlurr type roals iubojoints. 363
Surgepads hydmgencooling sysems wsfor headers Vacuum dcgssslng
thru~~beatings, 108 lurbinc generaton. 497 roton
Swallowingcapaeity thickness, 263
~y~slorconveners Tubes materials. 94
steam turbines protection. 525 Valve actuators
condensen
Thyrisiaroutpu~amplifiers cleanlinesr.375 boi!cr fepd pumps
exeilalion s~slems ~ e ~ .
llsht ~lnadnmtection.414
~ ~ ~ ~ - - 7 ~ ~

vo~tagc>ogu~atian, 523 Valve soivosmplificn. 137

govemars lhyrisloirecrifien Valves (see o l ~ Batterfly
o valves: By-pass valves; Conln>l
speedrefcrence. 131 excitation systems. 521 vakes; ~ ~ a f l t valves:
uk Drain valvcr: Emcrge<~cy
steam turbines nivtisron tnp values; Govemorvalvcs: Isolating unlvca: Main
governingsyrrems. 125 unling.522 inlei valves: Non-return valuer; Pnrsun: c<u,liin,l
Synchmnou~compensafion coidenren
Tigl~cening advanepd gcomclry, 377
generaton.536 hyhlie
Synehmnousgeneraton ropcd.377
n a n g bolts,
~ 84 !llcrmal performance. 371
frquoncy.451 thermal govcming sys,ems
1OSd. 451 litanium.379
nange bolts. 84 'Tubular turbines. 428 on-losdteaing. 132
pole-pain.451 T ~ leaLane
D low pmrrurefepdweter headngsyncms.288
Power factor. 451 blader ~umo-turbinos.439
rating. 451 efficiency. I 2 rehoalen
speed.451 Titanium picsauro loss. 27
lhcov.450456 blsding.72 spurious opening, 135
 Subject Index

dished end ii>icbiesrer,I 1 i

~ 1 ~tiiicksesses.
~11 i ii
wali tiiick~iesser.11 i
Walci lheaierr
drunl-typ
SoYneE, 73 fecdwalcr ihcalillg sysics?~.304
emcigciiey stop Waleriliessure
rurbinc pmteccioit. 172 inst~~n~cnlsl~ozl
flow-induced efficicncy. 174
fcedwaler heaten. 296 Waleifornperatuier
genemtors in~lruln~niation
insirumesraiion.50 efficieilcy, 174
journal bearings. 107 Waiertrcatment
pmfection. I64 feedwaier hcatiilg systems. 315.317
mlors.470 Waterwasbinn
alignment, 103
balancing. 97
Shnffs
in~liyme~itation, 174 low preESUie fcedwillcr hcatcis
Sfcam lurbine~ openings, compensafioss. 31 1
NII-up, 131 1lanSVOrSC undeislung condensers. 362
ViSeosiiy index inlprovols Walersidc~~rio~io~~
iub"c8iigoiLiis. 194 boiler lubes
V0ita.e measuremcat feedwater de-aeration, 49
Warcnprays
casings
steam turbines, 81
Wedges
mtors. 464
Welding
blading
chromivnl slecls, 72
Welsleam cycle, 33
deminorali~ed feedhesting. 46
stator winding ewiing sysccnls. 5 W Wet steam ~ i a n i
ingress by-pass sysmmr. 64
by-pass sysmms.216 press~riscdwaiorre~c~ors. 62
Steam turbines, 255 Wetness loss
turbine luhricalingoils. $94 Steam turbines. 16
SIBlor winding cmling. 485
Steam turbines, 165
Walti-mdedreactom
steam l~rbillcs vihrslion, 74
sizes. 122 wi1ians tinc
watercmiing 660 M W uiiil. 24
generaton. 558 Wind gcneralors. 562
SlSfO,$ Windings
windings. SW. 501 rolors. 459,463
W a i e r ~ w l i nsysteni~
l earth fault indiaatioii. 553
msin cxcilon. 508
slip-~ti~k,JM
temperaturcmeasuremeni. 466
voltagc. 548
arbines. 229 stators. 477
Wafer headers 660MW.486
mnv~ntionalhemirphencal cwling.485
manufac~ure.262 earth faula. 554
feedwafer heaters generators. 546
branch thicknerr, 294 insularion.548
dished end ihickness. 294 msin exciters. 508
openings, Ulickmssmmpensation. 294 water analysis. 553
shell ihickness. 294 walercmlingsystems.488.5W. 501
wall thickness. 294 thm-phase. 454
high pre~surefeedwater hoa~ers,292
low pressure feedwater hoalen, 310 zig7~g spool mds
branch Ulickne~se~. 31 i blados. 68
British Eiectrieity ianfiernretionali "" "-

Power Station
Practice
Third Edition incorporating Modern Power System Practice

The electricity generation and distribution industry has undergone

far-reaching development during the last 20 years, and the informa-
tion needs of its policymakers, managers and power engineers are
no longer served by any one pubiication. With this in mind, British
Electricity Internationaland Pergamon Press are pleased to present
a completely revised and eniarged Third Edition of Modern Power
Station Practice, incorporating Modern Power Sysfem Practice.

Ail volumes are devoted to specific subject areas, and have been
written by authors who are recognized authorities in their speciality
fields. Since the pubiication of the previous edition in 1971, much
experience has been gained by the Central Electricity Generating
Board throughthecommissioningof its large modern power stations;
in addition, the wider issues of power transmission and system
operation had not been previously addressed. The scope oflhis new
eoll on nastncrefore been cons ocrab ) enhancba b) rnree aod11onal
i o .mes Srar,on Commrss on no. EHV Transm seon ang Svsrem
Operation. A completely up-to&te treatment of theoretical and
practical aspects is compiemented by thousands of illustrations:
innovative fiow diagrams, coiour and black-and.white plates, and
detailed cut-away drawings.The coverage throughout is comprehen-
sive and clear, ensuring that engineers and technicians will gain
maximum benefit from the wealth of information provided.
1-he steam turhino
and additio~~allyfioiii either tlic i P turbine or the
boiler fced pump turbine, lo current practice, steal11
is not hied from the H P turbine except at the ex-
haust, although iutuie designs with higher final feed
teinperatuies ma), blecd steam from the later HI'
cylinder stages.
into annular belts within the fabricated inner casing
FIG. I I W Inlet pipe piston rings
Tile piston rings shown iiere, real between the inlet pipe
and t l ~ eHP barrei and the itil>ci casings in a triple-caiilig
H P turbine 'Outspringing' rings are riiowl~between tile
nine and !lie barrel casing, and ,stacked' rings belwceo
file pipe and iliner caring.
6.3.5 LP cylinders
Steam connections to L P casings are made with bel-
lows pieces to accommodate differential expansions.
The bellows are short sections of pipe with thin
corrugated walls, allowing relative movements of the
ends in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
With underslung condensers, a rigid bolted joint can
be used between the L P outer casing and the con-
denser, the condenser being mounted on springs to
support its weight but allowing the required flexi-
bility. Bellows can be used on the exhausts with a
floor-mounted condenser but are inconvenient because
o f the large area o f the exhausts and because the
bellows, being flexible, transfer the vacuum forces to
the cylinder and condenser foundations.
6.3.6 Bled-steam c o n n e c t i o n s
Steam for feedheating is bled from the L P turbines
Chapter 1
In L P cylinders (Fig 1.96), the steam is bled-off
from which it is piped to the feedhcaters, bellows
being used to take up differential expansions between
inner and outer cylinders. The connection to the hled-
steam belt is usually made at the bottom; if made
elsewhere, a drain connection must be provided at
the bottom. The bled-steam connections are identical
in each half of the double-flow L P cylinder so that
changes in steam flow to the heater do not affect
the thrust forces on the rotor. However, the connec-
tions may not be the same on all L P cylinders on
a unit. If, for instance, bled-steam is required at
stage 2, stage 3 and stage 4 conditions, it may be
taken from each stage on each cylinder, or it may
be taken from stage 2 on one cylinder, stagc 3 on
another and stage 4 on the third (for a three L P
cylinder machine). The latter method involves sim-
pler pipework but has the pcnalty of less interchange-
ability of spares bet\\,een the cylinders. Usual practice
is to favour the arrangement requiring minimum spares
holdings.
I P cylinders usually only have one stage of bled-
steam from within the cylinder, although it may also
be taken from the IP exhaust.
On double-casing cylinders, the steam may be bled
between the inner casing and a carrier ring, o r be-
tween carrier rings, into a belt between the ring and
the outer casing. On single-casing IP turbines thc
bled-steam belt is cast into the casing, with slots cut
to allow the steam to bleed from the main steam i
path into the belt. The bled-steam pipcwork can then
simply be bolted to the outer casing. Many 1P cyl- . n
inders have no bled-steam tappings, as steam is taken
from the boiler feed pump turbine instead; however,
latest practice with development of variable-speed
electric drives, is for electric boiler feed pumps and
hence bled-steam is taken from the 1P cylinder.
Steam bled from H P turbines in the future is likely
to be via a belt cast into the inner cylinder wall, with
connections similar to the H P inlet connections.
6.4 Casing materials
H P and IP casings, where temperatures over 350'C
are encountered, are made from creep-resistant ma-
terials. Two different low alloy steels are used; 2.25C1'
IMo for temperatures up to 538'C and 0.5Cr 0.5Mo
0.25V for temperatures up to 565'C. The 2.25Cr
material is slightly weaker and more ductile in creep,
but it is also tougher (i.e., less prone to fast fracture
;ti law tcrnpcratores) and casiel- la weld Casings in
tliese materaais arc cast rather than fabiicatcd be-
c;iose of the difficuli), oI quality control and like-
Iiiiood ol' thermal distortion in the thick sections
ii,volved. I..P cylinder casings arc generally fabiicatcd
I i o m carbon steel, although the inner cylinder may be
ctist from spheroidal graphite iron. Large defects in
ofistings are ground out and repaired by welding, but
iicvertheless the materials are chosen to have a high
tolerance to the presence of defects u,hich may grow
diiring service.
High temperature bolts are either made from low
itlloy steels designed specially for creep-resistant bolt-
ing, for example, Durehete 1055, or from nickel alloys
hiicli as Nimonic 80A. The nickel alloys are more
<creep-resistail1and stronger, allowing a tiore compact
$ fiange with better thermal properties; however, they
8 ilic cub~ectto stress corrosion crackme. .~ . a r t ~ c u l a r lifv
wct or contaminated with sulphur compounds. Nickel
alloy bolts are thus used mainly on inner cylinders
\!,Itere the compact flange is most advantagcaus.
).ow temperature bolts on L P casings are made
S ~ o ~normal
ii high tensile bolting steels.
Iligh temperature wet steam is considerably more
crosive than dry steam, consequently H P casings for
wet steam machines are either made from 2.25Cr
iMo steel with stainless steel cladding at the joint
laces or entirely from a higher alloy steel.
pr I'ri achieve maximum efficiency in a steam turbine,
tlttly small clearances are permitted between fixed and
choving parts at casing and diaphragm glands, and at
# lili~ilutip seals. These clearances must be maintained
ilndcr all operating conditions, so the inner and outer
ctirii~gsmust be supported in such a way as to main-
. .
ciiiii concentricitv with the rotor as thev exnand and
~o~ltiact.
'Ihe total axral exnanslon o f a 500 MW turbine
lor between cold and hot conditions is about 50
~ n ,occurring mainly in the H P and IP cylinders,
re the temperature change is greatest. The casings
supported to allow axial expansion and yet main-
I the axial clearances between fixed and moving
rles which may be only a few millimetres. Main-
,ling both concentricity and correct axial expansion
to a complicated system o f sliding supports and
.I HP a n d IP cylinder s u p p o r t s
alld IP cylinders are fitted with 'paw' supports
rilcll end which rest on the bearing pedestals (Fig
02). The paws are horizontal with the palms aligned
11 lhe horizontal joint; they are well spaced towards
ollter edges of the casing, as they carry the torque
1-urbine casings
reaction froin tile rotor into the foundations. In some
cases, the paws are part of the lower half casing as
illustrated, alternatively they may be part of the upper
half, simplifying the casting but necessitating tem-
porary supports for the lowci half casing when the
halves are unbolted. Vertical guides on the vertical
centreline of the rotor act in conjunction with sliding
at the paw faces to ensure that the outer casing re-
mains concentric with the bearing pedestal and rotor
during expansion. Similar arrangements support the
inner casing inside the outer, with paw supports on
either side to take the weight and torque reaction,
radial keys in the plane of the steam inlets permitting
concentric expansion only, and axial keys at the ex-
haust end allowing for differential axial expansions.
The paw supports o f the outer casings contain trans-
verse keys so that the H P and I P casings and bearing
blocks expand axially as one unit away from a fixed
point between IP and L P cylinders. The axial location
between the rotor and the casings is at the thrust
bearing between H P and I P cylinders: this arrangement
ensures that the close clearances between fixed and
moving blades in these cylinders are affected as little
as possible by differential axial expansion between
rotor and casing on start-up and shutdown.
6.5.2 LP cylinder s u p p o r t s
The L P cylinder casings are supported on feet in
a similar manner to the H P and I P casings, but
because o f their relationship with the condenser they
are limited in axial movement. Consequently they are
either joined together and fixed axially to the foun-
dation at the centre or each fixed individually at one
end. This causes larger differential axial expansion
between rotor and casing than in the other cylinders,
so the axial clearances are greater.
Diaphragms and carrier rings are located axially
within cylinders by circumferential grooves in the
casings. They are maintained concentric with the cas-
ing by radial keys at the horizontal and vertical
centrelines.
- are all aliened
The casings - bv reference to the
horizontal and vertical centrelines of the rotor at each
bearing. The alignment of the rotor itself is discussed
in section 7.5 of this chapter.
6.6 Casing and diaphragm glands
Glands are used to provide a steam seal between
fixed and rotating parts of the turbine: in particular,
between the rotor and the diaphragms and between
the rotor and the cylinder casing. The glands are of
the labyrinth type, consisting of a series of fins on
the inside of the diaphragm o r casing in close proxi-
mity to the rotor surface. Steam trying to escape
between the fins and the rotor suffers a series of
 The stearn turbine Chapter I
*8: Turbine c s s i ~ l $ j n
:.s
? ~,

,b r $ ,.,..
'
v,.
s
g

RRACKET

1I ExHliusi
WE,.
HALF 8 HRLI'
CKER
LINER
I FOllNDAilON '
STEELWORK

NO i BEliRlNG PEDESTAL , (hl LP frame supports

(Cl HP Cylinder centre guide key
(a1 Pedestal guade key
(uwrerl
(11 LP Cyltndet anchor

.. KEY

(bl HP Cylinder centre

guide key (lower1

/I BEARING KEEP

( k l LP frame centre gulde key (I1 IP Cylrnder centre gulde key t o LP frame
I
BEARING KEEP

(dl HP Cylinder centre guide key (IP end)

(el IP Cylinder centre guide key (HP end) RFARlNG PLATE

LOCATCON BLOCK

ANTI-FRICTION
PLATE

LOCKING
PLATE
SQUARE KEY ANTI-FRICI3ON
BEARING PLATE
LOCATiON BLOCK
REARING

BEARING KEEP (91 IP Cylinder palm (LP end) ( m l HP and IP Cylinder palms ("1 HP Cylinder palm

( f ) IP Cylinder centre guide key (LP end)

I'iC. 1.101 S~pportand alignment keys for outcr HP. IP and LP casings Fic. 1.101 (eonr'd) Support and alignment keys for outer HP, IP and LP casings
88
The steam turbine
TIC, 1.102 Derail of support for HP and IF ouicr casilis
expansions which reduces its pressure in stages and
restricts the flow through the gland. A detailed ex-
planation of the %,orking of glands and the different
types is given in Chapter 2.
The H P cylinder has glands at both ends of the
outer casing and the inlet end of the inner casing
(Fig 1.92). They are housed in gland carriers, which
are supported either on keys to allow differential ex-
pansion or simply on spigots in machined recesses
in the casing.
The H P glands are longer than those in other
cylinders because of the higher pressure drop required
across the gland, and are often divided into several
sections. The IP glands are similarly supported (Fig
1.94), but the L P glands may differ; if the bearings
are separate from the L P outer casing, then the L P
gland carriers may be supported from the bearings
and connected to the rest of the casing by a bellows
piece (Fig 1.96).
The LP glands prevent air entering the cylinder,
unlike the H P and I P glands which prevent steam
escaping. Thus the L P glands need a continuous sup-
ply o f higher pressure steam, whereas the H P and 1P
glands need additional steam only at start-up. This
is explained in detail in Chapter 2.
The gland carriers are split, like casings, along the
horizontal centreline and bolted together.
6.7 Lagging
The hot external surfaces of the cylinders are lagged,
i.e., covered with a thick layer of thermal insulation.
There are several reasons for this:
The loss of heat from the steam is reduced.
The thermal stresses in the outer casing are sub-
stantially reduced.
Danger to personnel is reduced
l'lie insulation consists of up to 150 Illin tl
of mineral fibrc which is applied either a s
'mattresses' or sprayed on as loose fibres, !
I y dependent oil thc temperature of the sl
be covered, enough insulation being used to
thc outside temperature to about 50°C. Asbesloa \
used extensively for sprayed insulation in the
but all modern insulation is asbestos-free, becai
the health risk of inhaled asbestos fibres.
The mineral fibre is held in position by wire 1110
which covers it and is attached to studs welded
the outer casine and vassing out through the mini31
wire mesh support between them. The outsidc wit
mesh is then covered with 6-8 mm of cemenl
lowed by a thin coat of oilproof and watl
sealant. A glass reinforced plastic may be uscii
the sealant to provide suitable mechanical slrclr
and life.
The insulation extends over the horizontal
covering the bolt heads and has to be chippe
before the casings can be separated: the joint rci
on reassembly.
It is essential that oil is not allowed to en1
-- - creased, the central bore has been omitted on some
severe turbine fires.
7 Turbine rotors and couplings
7.1 Types of rotor construction
Four different types of rotor construction havc
used on large turbine-generator units on the
system:
The monobloc or integral rotor, in which the WIIUP@
and shaft are formed from a single-piece f o r y i d
(Fig 1.104 (a)). &.
TUR8INECYLIN
SELFSETT~NGCEMENT
RE~NFORCEDWITH
INSULA7ION RETENTION
TIG 1 103 Thermal lnsulatlon on tuiblne caslns
Turbine rotors and couplings
m Dru,?, ty/)e rolor inanufactured from solid or hollo\r
forgings (Fig 1.104 (c) and 1.104 (d)).
s The welded disc l a l o r (Fig 1.104 (e)). These rotors
are not too common in the UK, where they have
been applied to LP turbine rotors. Overseas ap-
plications have included H P and IP turbine rotors.
For various reasons, monobloc forgings are preferred
but where the size has exceeded the forging capa-
bility, the built-up disc construction has been used.
The current 660 MW UK designs all have monobloc
rotor forgings.
Built-up rotors required very careful attention to
shrink fit and location geometries to avoid problems
in running and with fatigue cracking. While the discs
may have facilitated non-destructive testing (NDT),
the NDT capability on monobloc rotors has been
developed to meet all the needs. With the monobloc
method of construction, the L P rotors are more rigid,
resulting in better dynamic behaviour. 660 MW plant
employs rotors o f this construction almost enclusively,
andexperience has been good.
It was the practice to provide test material from a
bore-hole down the forging axis but, as confidence
in forging practice and material properties has in-
current designs. The benefit of reduced stress levels
gives enhanced confidence in the longer-term fatigue
integrity of the rotor.
Welded rotor construction has the advantage of
smaller forging components at the expense of high
integrity welding. The welded design, having been
adopted by countries lacking an intrinsic large forging
capability, has been successfully applied by them to
H P , I P and LP rotors. There are a limited number
of welded L P rotors in service in the UK.
>.3;z
,$ High temperature drum-type rotors, manufactured
from hollow cylinders bolted to stub shafts, have
been prone to differential creep and have been re-
placed by monobloc drum rotors in current designs.
..fg Where constraints on last-stage blading design dic-
tate, double-flow cylinders replace the single-flow
design as used in the H P turbine. Double-flow I P
and L P turbines are standard for 660 MW designs.
With the single-flow H P turbine, the axial thrust has
to be balanced to some extent by a 'balance piston'
to reduce thrust bearing loads: for reaction turbines
particularly (with a high pressure drop across the
moving blades) the balance piston is of substantial
proportions, as shown on Fig 1.105.
In contrast, a n H P turbine rotor with impulse blad-
ing is illustrated on Fig 1.106. This arrangement is
characterised by the reduced number of blading stages
and larger blading pitch diameter compared with the
reaction design. In addition, a very much reduced
balance piston is necessary, as the axial thrusts are
4 lower.
91
The steam turbine
FXG, l l O S Sectioli <!>roughu monobloc HP
7.1.1 Design f o r high t e m p e r a t u r e operation
The increase in size of large turbines over recent
years, together with the higher steam inlet conditions
often used, has made the design of turbine components
in contact with high temperature steam more critical.
Fundamental considerations include creeu and thermal
fatigue, both requiring control of the temperature
distribution in components during steady and transient
operation. At the design stage of high temperature
turbine components, temperatures and thermal stresses
are assessed to ensure that creep, which occurs as a
function of time, temperature and stress levels d o
not exceed specified values and that thermal stresses
due to cyclic operation are not of sufficient magni-
tude to cause thermal fatigue during the life of the
turbine.
Creep can be limited by close attention to detailed
geometry in critical areas, such as blade fastenings,
in order that stress-concentrating features are con-
trolled. Rotor stresses generally are kept low in re-
lation to the high temperature mechanical properties
of the creep-resisting steels employed.
Thermal fatigue is associated with changes in op-
erating conditions, such as occur during two-shift
turbine with reaction blading
$1'111
operation, due to the cyclic reversals of thermal stre
resulting from the transient temperature gradients
tabiished during tlle heating and cooling periods.
thermal fatigue problem is accentuated by the incre
scantlings on larger machines which result in high
thermal stresses occurring within components durin
transient conditions.
The inlet sections of H P and 1P rotors are t1
critical areas for thermal fatigue, demanding caref
attention to design detail and operational practices
A typical cycle of events undergone by material
the critical region of a turbine rotor is illustrated
Fig 1.107. The material undergoes plastic strain col
pression during the heating period to point 1 on t
diagram, at which point the thermal stress has reached
its maximum value. The stress then falls as the tern.
uerature o f the rotor interior increases towards that
of the surface, causing the stress and strain at tlle
stress concentration to move along the line 1-2. At
point 2, the nominal thermal stress is virtually z
and stress at the concentration is the residual stre
arising from the plasticity which occurred at 1. Durin
the period of full-load running, the temperature
the rotor is such that this residual stress relaxes t
1 3 , due to creep. The shutdown or load reduc-
Sillill follows, causes cooling of the rotor surface
equently tensile thermafstress in the surface
1e stress-strain condition at the concentration
Ows the line 3 - 4 with possibly some further
tension, at 4. As the rotor temperature
llius more uniform at the part-load or shutdown
ilioll, the material stress-strain moves along the
4 5 to point 5. At this point, the rotor tem-
Illre will generally be too low for significant creep
or and there is no stress relaxation, such as
d between 2 and 3.
en the material at the point of strain concen-
1 is held at reasonably high stress (point 3),
is a damaging effect o f the hold-time due to
rsibie creep strain. The effect of this is shown
lermal fatigue, which shows as surface cracks,
occur when there is a net amount of plastic strain
- . .
llic thermal cycle. Material wooertv curves are ~ ~
Ived for combinations of plastic strain range, num-
of thermal cycles and hoid-time at the peak o f
Icnsile part of the cycle.
Cooling o f IP rotors
IP rotors o f reheat turbines are subject to the
same steam temperature at the inlet as HP rotors
and, because o f their larger diameters, are subject to
larger centrifugal stresses. The bore of an 1P rotor
under tile first few stages is therefore a criticai region
for creep.
On large machines operating with reheat steam at
565'C, forced cooling of the rotor by cooler steam
is employed. This method is particularly effective in
cooling the bore under the first wheel (Fig 1.109);
with further increases in turbine size, additional cool-
ing is needed to cool the bore o f the second wheel.
This can be effectively provided by introducing a sec-
ond cooling steam flow between the first two stages,
SO that gland leakage steam is replaced by cooler
steam.
~
7.2 Rotor materials
Developments in the field o f steam turbine design
would not have been possible without corresponding
materials developments. The development of alloys
with properties which provide good creep-resistance
at high temperature and o f other alloys with good
mechanical and high fracture toughness has been one
area of considerable metallurgical accomplishment.
a
:t
f:

1
The steam turbine

I)/
IWIELIT~MEI

- - .- - - ... - - -.

!
I
I
I
I
I
i
sTc,A,,4""",,,<;
"NiOhOlNG
wlicrc E = creep strain

Typical
steel,
rupture
o = stress, ~ / r n m ~
t = time, 7
T

Typically,
on a creep
and
-

are
absolute temperature, K
n , m and B are materiai constants

curves
high
strain
show
shown
of
temperature
of
the
time
on
0.2%
powerful
Fig
to during
1.110
produce
turbine
effect
for

temperature in controlling creep strain.

10S0.2%
design
Cr
h of
Chapter I

ofMo
stress
strain
operation.

steam temperature is encountered on discs at the IP

inlet stages, which have larger diameters and blades
than equivalent stages on the H P rotor exposed to
steam at thc same temperature. Both at the rim and
isV based

While the best possible creep properties are required

on both H P and IP rotor forgings, the HP problem
is simplified by modest dimensions of HP rotors. The
1P rotor poses a much more serious problem, es-
pecially in turbines employing a reheat cycle. Full

the bore, the stresses are sucll that steam cooling may
rotor
and
8g

g
%

!i.
.. .,.

0,
10

I'l(i. 1.108 T ~ ~ , i c astrain

i
10' 10'
CYCLESTOCRACK N I I I A I I O N
Turbirie rotors and coullli~iys

10.

range plotted against a number of iiicimai cycles to crack iniiiaiiori at 540-C

sliosine illc effect of dvell iiine

I he necessary, even with steels having the best creep

0
/
properties.
The reduced temperatures encountered at the last
s
spection of the axial bore with ultrasonic examina-

kI
STRA1NOURINCI
mi*csrannaC~Y~
~ic.1.107 Typical stress-strain cycle at romr surface
Also, the ability to produce components for use both
at high and low temperatures, having large physical
size and uniform material properties which meet ri-
gorous inherent defect acceptance requirements, testi-
fies to the improvements in steel-making techniques.
7.2.1 HP and IP rotors
High temverature rotors are required to have a com-
bination of creep strength, rupture strength and duc-
tility. This is conferred by rotors manufactured from
forged Chromium Molybdenum Vanadium steel (Cr
Mo V), a ferritic material which provides the best
posaible creep properties. Creep is a high temperature
phenomenon and traditional design methods involve
the selection of materials which provide the required
creep strength and creep rupture ductility during the
required design life.
The equation for creep is of the form E = o"t"'~-'/~
94
two stages of the IP turbine are offset by increased
bore stress due to the longer blade length, which
demands an adequately high proof strength.
The requirement for good creep strength and the
necessary proof strength in conjunction with a rotor
forging of heavy section is achieved on current rotors
by the use of 1Cr 1Mo 0.25V steel alloy.
7.2.2 LP rotors
For low temperature rotors, the main requirements
are relatively high tensile strength combined with high
toughness.
The 3.5Ni Cr Mo V monobloc rotor forging is
currently used as it avoids the complication of shrink
fits in the case of built-up rotors. The manufactur-
ing facilities and forging technology required for the
manufacture of monobloc rotor forgings of very large
size and weight are fully able to meet the designers
requirements. No limitations are identified for the
forgings of 2-pole 900 MW units currently under
consideration.
The use of vacuum degassed ingots, single and
double upsetting procedures and the use of larger
presses capable of such forging operations, have all
contributed to a marked improvement in quality of
large L P rotor forgings. Rotor forging for 660 MW
$uod fracture toughness. Ultrasonic inspection techni-
designs of 100 tonne forged weight, produced from
11um enense freedom from any internal discontinuities
ingots twice this size, are provided for LP rotors.
&rc;itcr than 5 mm effective diameter.
Vacuum degassing has eradicated the former pro-
blems of hydrogen embrittlement cracking and gives
l i ( i 1.109 .The effccr of coolill8 steam lemperatuie on !he
lnaximum 1P roloi bore temperature under the first disc
The parallel application of visual and magnetic in-
tion was the accepted approach to non-destructive
examination of the rotor forging whose simple geo-
metry, in the rough machined state, permits accurate
location and diagnosis of any internal defects pro-
ducing ultrasonic indications. Ultrasonic techniques allow
the material in the vicinity of the bore hole,
-
which is subjected to the hiehest taneentiai stresses
iluring overspeed, to be examined critically. This pro-
vides reassurance of integrity in circumstances where
the compiex geometry of tile machined rotor prohibits
the use of external examination.
The purpose of the bore was to permit internal
inspection, but it also removed some of the central
Part of the forging which is where defects or segre-
gation in the original ingot might be located and
Provided the opportunity to obtain fracture appear-
ance transition temperature measurements.
Inspection techniques have now developed to the
extent where external ultrasonics can replace the former
bore inspection. This is very significant as the LP
rotor is subjected to high centrifugal stresses, the
last-stage disc being the most heavily stressed part of
the turbine. The centrifugal load of the large rotating
blades sets up a tensile stress in the rim of the disc,
and this stress increases with decreasing radius, its
maximum value being at the hub. The larger the bore
Of the hub, the larger the maximum stress. If the
bore is small, the hoop stresses are iessened.
Ni Cr Mo V steel containing up to 3.5% Ni has
been used for both shafts and discs for built-up LP rotors
and is the first choice to achieve the tensile properties
 The steam turbine
FIO,i.110 Typical 0.2% strain and rupture propertie$ of
C, MO V $teeis for rotor forgings
necessary for large monobloc rotors. Welding tech-
niques are established for the design o f fabricated
L P rotors employing a series of solid discs. Alloy
steels for this application are subject to the conflicting
demands for tensile strength and weldability.
Since L P turbine rotors may run at temperatures
not much in excess of ambient, the provision of
safeguards against the danger of brittle fracture is
important. The use of materials for discs, shafts and
monobloc rotors of the lowest possible fracture ap-
pearance transition temperalure (FATT) and subject
to stringent non-destructive testing and fracture me-
chanics assessment (see Section 7.3 of this chapter)
96
Chapter 1
- fj
provides tile necessary f i a m c ~ ~ ~foi.
o f 1.P turbines.
o i hthc safe operati<>ri
3.5% Ni Ci Mo V slccl has a lox,, value o f F ~ 1 ' l .
In tile water.-qoenciled and tcmpered condition, alld
with careful cont~.oiof composition, higil tcnsilc p r o
pcrties can be matched with a FATT weli below
ambient temperature and a consequential high fiacti~re
toughness.
7.3 Rotor testing and balancing
7.3.1 Thermal stability
During the manufacture o f turbine shafts, great efforts
are made to ensure that the physical properties o l
the forging d o not change in service. Thcre are thre
types of instability:
Permanent, due to asymmnrical coefficients o l
expansion across the diameter. This is avoided by
close metallurgical control o f the for.ging process.
8 Temporary, due to residual stresses in the rot
This is eliminated by stress relieving the rotor, bo
before and after machining, in a special furnace
in which the shaft is rotated.
8 Transient, due to differences in conductivity an
emissivity. The use of ferritic materials throughox
has obviated the difficulties that occur.
An unstable shaft is likely to develop a 'bow'
service, producing out-of-balance forces and cons
quentiai vibration.
7.3.2 Overspeed testing
A 20% proof overspeed test is specified on all larg
turbine-generator rotors at the time o f manufacture
This allows the rotor balance to be satisfactoril
established throughout its operational speed range
thereby providing sufficient margin over normal op
erational overspeeds caused by electrical grid syste
disturbances, and the regular 10% overspeeds expe
enced during overspeed bolt testing. Overspeeding the
rotor also proof tests the forging, as it applies cent,
fugal stress in excess of that experienced during norma
operation, thereby providing a quantifiable measure
o f the margin against spontaneous fast fracture.
7.3.3 Rotor balancing
When assembled with blades, the rotor is balanced
both statically and dynamically. For built-up rotors,
each bladed disc is balanced individually prior t o
assembly.
.# . ., .,.
Turbine rotors and c u u ~ l l i n i ~ s
8 ,sr,,tii.
jirwii
h ~ i l c nincaris
~ ~ tliat the u,cight is cvcnly dis..
;i~r,tiodthc axis o f the shaft. It cart bc checked
rotors via access Iholcs in eaclt gland housing. 1:igllic
1.111 shows ihe balance planes and site trim balance
bs
ii, i,,Iiiiil: ihc rotor on liorizontal knife-cdgc supports. arrangements for a typical 660 M W LP rotor.
i',,jii,rric boirr~ice means Ilia1 tlle mom cot^ of the
i i ~ l !i~i.l~;~l;ince weights aiong the axis about either
iii.siifii: add up to zero. This is checked by spinning MOVING BLRDE SIAGES
tolor oil resiiient bearings, detecting the vibration, REAR
#,,,I itdiling or subtracting weights until the vibl.ation
lb twgiigiblc.
A nrodcrn balancing machine enables balancing t o
d out with a high degree of accuracy and
i1,sles to a large extent the trial and error pro-
used in the ~ a s t .
lors are normaliy balanced at low speed (400 r/min)
wi:igl~t adjustment made in two convenient planes,
jut each end of the rotor. This adjustment may
arying screwed plugs in tapped holes, or by
balance weights at specific circumferential po-
Tee-slots are )machined circumferentially in
lpllery of the rotor front and rear half-coupling
r!.t:s to permit the weights to be positioned and
,cd
i. aim of balancing is to reduce the amplitude
rll~ri~iion to a tolerable levei. which can he taken
;!bout 25 prn at the bearing pedestals.
rotors become larger and more flexible, it is
lngly important to understand their modal be- ROTOR BALliNCE
WEIGHT ACCESS PORT
so that balancing can ensure smooth running COYER PLATE
larger L P rotors and generator rotors having
speeds below running speed are overspeeded
necessary, balanced in the fully-bladed con-
,
ill a vacuum chamber, where they can be run
IIIOI~Ibeing overheated due to windage.
111 11icvacuum chamber and the high speed pit, rotors
ii,c 11,n in bearing bushes and pedestals as nearly as
~$!ih~.ll,lv simulating site conditions. Facilities are avail-
alllr l,,r #measuring journal or pedestal vibration and
trii.iii! can be carried out at closely controlled
lnywl~eiein the range required. Standards of
obtained during the factory testing must pro-
ficient vibration margin to take account of
ditions. Balance on-site is likely to be affected
(bj site trim balance arrangements
($
i;~.iirtionsin the stiffness of the bearing, possible
inisalignment and the coupling of the indi-
ally balanced rotors to form the complete shaft
FIG. 1.111 L1' rotor balancing iacililiei
11i-plane balancing is carried out at speeds
Icd with each critical within the running range.
weights are attached ta correct imbalance in
~c modes related to these criticals, as well 7.3.4 Critical speeds
balance in the modes of up to two criticals A stationary shaft supported between bearings has
running speed. Typical H P and 1P turbines a natural frequency of vibration, depending on its
ovidcd with two balance planes. The L P rotors diameter in relation to the distance between bearings.
lllree balance planes and generators have faci- If its speed of rotation corresponds to its natural
to attach balance weights in almost any axial vibration frequency, the residual out-of-balance forces
are amplified, and can build up to a dangerous extent.
lid site vibration levels exceed those specified, This critical speed is either above o r below running
11 is made for site trim balancing on the L P speed, depending on rotor construction. If below, the
T h e steam turbine
shaft is regarded as flexible, and care niiisi bc cxei-
cised during run-up to ensure that the critical is
passed as quickly as possibie.
Critical speeds decrease with increased rotor length
and with reduction in rotor diameter. On current large
units, the trend is to provide a rigid rotor (criticals
above running speed). Because of the increased rotor
length (necessary t o accommodate the required num-
bel. of moving blade stages) on large units, rigidity
has been accomplished by an increase in diameter.
The rotors of large machines are joined by solid
criticai speeds of a complclc line a1.e shown as fun
lions of bearing flexibility, cxpressed as the deflection
o f aii equivalent spring u n d e ~the static load ul3oil
the bearing.
7.3.5 Rotor f a s t fracture risk a s s e s s m e n t
There have been major advances in the quality or
monobloc rotor forgings (see Section 7.2 of this chapt
and in understanding the problems of brittle fractu
Rotor forgings can now be produced with grea
Turbine rotors and coulilirig!;
.,...,,
, -
p ~ ~ i a ~ n not ~ ~significantly
~ r ' e below the tcmpcralure liigir teml>eialilre steani iilrhine rotors opclaie lli
lsiirc rapcrieoced in ol,elation. The l~ossibilityof ;i ihc creep range and cracks within them couid lllerc.
r $ i l i , l lirililc fiaclul-e cannot bc disinissed withoot a fore grow under steady loading. Rates of growill
under cieep can be correlated with the linear elastic
eter K , via an equation of
by the requirement that it shall introduce
rotor brittle fracture in service. The initial

X 550.C
0 5254:
?d3. (i OSiC

id '.

10 20 30 40 50 50 70 80
lio. 1.133 Typical fatigue crack growth data for various K. M N I ~ ' ' ~
turbine steels between iW and 550DC

FIG. 1.114Tile cffcct of temperature on creep crack

da/dN = CAKm growth re~i~tance of a turbine rotor forging

lore a = crack length

A K = cyclic stress intensily range da
C, m = constants
- = AK"
dl

B E ~ R I N GOEFLECTION mm 'I'llr operational duty of large generating plant is where A, n = constants

blrcll that upper bounds can be reliably established K = stress intensity
lul slress cycles. In actual service, the stresses during t = time
%Illri-up are limited by established operational pro-
Plo. 1.112 Critical speeds of a campiere line of rotors, calculated as a function of bearing flexibility O P ~ I I I ~ C S(see Chapter 2) t o protect the plant against
Each curve is arroeiated with a particular span in whieh the maximum amplitude occurs. The black curves (a and h) refer to lilpli sirain fatigue. The total fatigue growth can then The design criteria normally adopted for high tem-
the modes in whieh the maximum amplitude occurs within the generator span and are called the first and second criricals of
the generator. Similarly, curve (g) refers to the exciter span, curve (b) to the HP span, curve (e) to the LP span and curves kc ciilcuiated o n the basis of the upper bound stress cycles perature turbine rotors limits the maximum rotor
(d, c, n to the associated LP span. nl!il colnbined centrifugal and thermal stress. stress in relation t o the 101 hour creep rupture stress
98 99
The weam turbine
and lio~ita ihe accilrnulatcd creep strain to 0.2% in
! 0 5 hours, ensuring that tlie stress in critical higli
temjleratoie regions is acceptably small. Calculated
cieep crack growth is therefore small and iniay be
simply added lo calcuiated fatigue crack extensions.
The region of maxiinum combined centrifugal and
thermal stress, near the rotor centreline, coincides with
the region where, for I.easons of ingot cooling and
heal treatment, the material fracture toughness is
lowest. Valid plane strain fracture toughness specimens
cannot be obtained without removing an unacceptably
large diameter core and samples taken elsewhere may
not provide a reliable basis from which t o estimate
centreline properties. Consequently it is most common
t o measure toughness indirectly by using Charpy FATT
specimen results. Established correlations between F A T
and fracture toughness (see Fig 1.115) are used to
determine a Klc for the rotor material.
lo all cases, the crucial judgement to be made is
whether the rotor f o ~ g i n gcan, given the longest fea-
siblc initial crack and maximum fatigue and creep
im -
180 -
$50-
3'b NCMV ROTORS
X 1 CMVROTORS
120-
110 - .
-E
:so-
80 -
SO - so that the turbine shaft behaves as one con-
30 -
TESTTEMPERATUREIFPilTIPC
F ~ c .I . l l S Relationship between KIC and FATI for rotor materials
giowtl\ during thc sl>eciiied lifctimc service, s
without fsiiilre caused by instantaneous fast frac
This will depend on whether the extended defect
longer or snlaller illan lhe critical defect size cai
latcd foi the otost adverse contbi~~ation of eve1
T o furtllei complicate the assessment, variations 0
rotor tenlperature diiring machine start-up prod11
a corresponding variation in rotor forging fracui
toughiiess properties which influence tlte instanta
eaus critical crack size. Assessments must therefor
be undertaken at each critical operating conditio
for complete confidence.
7.4
The need for couplings arises from the limited lengtl
of shaft which it is possible t o forge in onc piece an(
from the frequent need t o use different materials So
the various conditions o f temperature and stress. TI1
Turbine iotois a11d caupIi!t(i.:
iiiici construction of large iii~~bii~egenciaiors
ICS i l ~ euse o f a coupled sliah system.
I l i i r i ;,re essentially deijices ioi tiansmittiiig
i t i l tl~cynray also have to allon, relative angular
ii~iciil, iraosmit axial thrust and ensure axial
l i t c i s allow relative axial movemenl. They mag
h!,il'icd as flexible, semiflexible or rigid. On
I lushine-generators (LC., up to 120 MW) semi-
i, ;tnd flexible couplings were commonly used,
,I 1;trge turbine-generators it is now common
Iru to use iigid couplings.
~iignment,as well as axial movement. Double
.. and provides (in addition t o the other
I external gear teeth of involute form, which
I lo accommodate angular misalignment.
lr recess, from which it is fed centrifugally to
til,ling teeth through drilled passage-ways.
Gerniflexible couplings
l y l x of couplings will allow angular bending
'I lhcy require no lubrication and consist of a
w a lpicce having one or more convolutions. Figure
aliaws a semiflexible coupling.
Ihe use o f flexible couplings impracticable.
quently, it is now normal practice for rigid
ngs to be employed between the turbine cyl-
means that the shaft alignment must be set
that the coupling bending moment forces
F~o.1.116 Flexible couplings
The steam turbilic Tiiibi~ierotors anii coili,iir,g!,
----
lHalS coiq>Iinga, which are foigcd scpalalely flolli
tlic siiaft, arc assembled by heatiiig and shrinkin?,
them on io the shaft. Dowcls arc then insertetl hr- o ~:IIJEC
i
POIN; ~OIK

tween thc bore of the coilpiing and thc dianleter of

the shaft. For additional security against axial illovc.
lnent of the coupling, a sciewcd ring, secured by a
locking screu~,is fitted to the shaft end outboard oi
the fLange. An oil injection point may be provided
on the coupiing through which oil can be supplied
under pressure to one or two annular grooves in the
coupling. This allows the coupling to be 'floated' to
ensure that it is seated correctly following the shrink-
o n procedure and also assists removal. Figure 1.11'1
shows a typical arrangement of a shrunk-on type
half coupling with oil injection facility, bolted to a
monobloc half coupling.
Earlier designs of shrink-on couplings ernplayed $1
tapered seat, with a corresponding s h a h taper. Witll
this type, an oil injection system was used to remo\,e
the coupling from the shaft.
been used on turbines and still arc used on the gcn- A forged steel spacer plate is normally fitted i s
erator. They allow thc couplings to be iaken off for each coupling to provide a tneans of axial adjustment
the removal of turbine rotor discs, or the generator of the rotor relative to the cylinder. This ensures that
rotor endwinding retaining rings (end bells). T o miiii- operational design clearances between the stage dia-
mise stress concentration in the coupling region, the lihragms and the rotor blades are always
manobloc design of half coupling lhas a large transi- and also facilitates rotor interchangeability. The spac
tional fillet radius. Figure l . l l 8 shows a typical plate is annular in shape and dowelled to one ha
monobloc coupling. coupling and secured by screws with countersu
heads. The spacer plates must be sufficiently robus
to avoid distortion.
SPACER PLATE The couplings are connected by fitted bolts wh'
I arc arranged so that torque is transmitted
bination of axial clamp load (resulting in
the coupling faces) and radial grip (resulting in sheai
load on the cross-scctionai area of the bolt). Th
bolts are tightened in a controlled manner t o a pre-
determined extension. The use of fitted bolts means
that some final on-site reaming of the bolt holes
necessary at the assembly stage, which can make t
a prolonged operation. In an attempt t o reduce
sembly time, it is now normal practice only to 'fil' ng is normally surrounded loading and hence alter the shaft vibration behaviour.
sufficient bolts to enable system fault torques 1 stationary steel guard to reduce windage heat. A long shaft beiids natuiaily under its own weight
be transmitted without damage to the bolts. The re f the adjacent pedestal and the creation o f oil t o form a catenary, but nevertheless revolves around
maining bolts are installed with larger its curved centreline during rotation. The alignment
permit speedier assembly. is arranged so that the shaft system has minimum
Couplings should be designed t o withstand a close bending moments at the shaft couplings. The catenary
up three-phase fault or out-of-phase depends solely o n the mass and stiffness o f the shaft
without damage. The highest torque under these eon system. Figure 1.120 shows a typical shaft catenary
ditions (typically 4-5 times full load torque) occur alaill objective in setting and maintaining rotor for a large turbine-generator.
a t the generator/turbine coupling and would almost ll3lellt is t o achieve satisfactory dynamic behaviour During initial erection, bearings are set at appro-
certainly cause 'stepping' of the fitted bolts. priate heights relative to one another to form the
T o further reduce the assembly time of couplings e misalignment can affect the vibration catenary shape.
hydraulic bolt fitting techniques have been develope of the multi-bearing shaft line. It imposes The final bearing height must ensure that adjacent
These have the advantage that bolts can be fitte ctive bending moment at the couplings which coupling faces are square and true to one another, so
quickly and also removed quickly witho f-balance. Changes between that there is no transmission of bending moment
the bolt hole or the bolt. *nd Cold running vibratioll behaviour may be through the coupling. Final adjustment o f bearings
The standard coupling bolts have cylindrical heads. live o f misalignment, with the effect showing must be made with all the cylinders fully assembled
with a n internal hexagon for tightening, and are rc- ,lice-per-revolution vibration. Very drastic and all pipes, which may exert a strain o n any turbine
FIG. 1.138 Rigid monobloe coupiing cessed into the coupling t o cut down windage losses lltll~ntmay have the capacity t o cause bearing un. cylinder, fully assembled and attached to that cylinder.
102
The steam turbine
44469mm
~ i c I. ,120 ~ y n i ~ ri~aic
a t catenary 10, a large la~bini~gelleluLoi
7.5.1 Alignment t e c h n i q u e
The basic intention is to have zero shear and bending
momellt at the couplings, so that drivng torque is
the only force transmitted, This means that the shaft
centrelines must be coincident at the point where the
coupling faces meet, and tllat the axes of the two
s ~ ~ a f must
ts be parallel at tile same point. Using one
rotor as a datum, it is possible to set the
reiativc to the datum coupling gap a,ld
periphery measurements, and so on do,,,n the line,
T O carry out gap measurements, it is necessary
t o separate the couplings slightly. The gap between
the coupling faces is then measured at a number o f
points around the rotor, for a number of
rotor positions. If the coupling is correctly aligned,
the gap should be uniform all the way round. If
this is not so, the bearing positions can be modified
by the appropriate amount and the gap remeasured.
The concentricity of the two rotors is checked by
measuring, using dial gauges, the radial difference
between the periphery of one coupling and the peri-
phery of the other coupling while rotating the separate
rotors. Any errors can be corrected by bearing ad-
justments, as for gap errors.
Other methods of alignment, based o n strain gauges
and optical techniques, have been developed.
The strain gauge technique is not widely applied
but can be used o n the coupled shaft at a suitable
point near the coupling t o be checked. It measures
the bending stress of the shaft at that point by the
application of strain gauges. The presence o f bending
stress is indicated by the strain gauge giving a sine
104
~ h a p t e l1
,
4
'B .-
ii
f iliiiilt'cs iliiring sei\'icc. A dcsci-iptioi, of such ;I wi-
I!I,I i:, given in Cliaptei 2.
8 B e a r i n g s , pedestals a n d t u r n i n g g e a r
1 Journal bearings
)Illpose of a turbine bcaring is to retain the rotor
11 in its correct radial position, relative to the
icrs, and t o provide a low friction support u,hich
<\.iill~stand
the static and dynamic loads o f shaft
111,1i, together u,ith the frictional and condrictcd
, and to remain free from maintenance except
I' Construction
-1 Ilearings noi~nally support each section o f the
ir shaft, although, with solid coilpii~igs, some
only use one bearing between cylinders iii
lo save length and bearing losses. Plain whitc-
111 ie~ijournal bearings are invariably used because
1lli:ii )high loading capacity, reliability and absence
wave output as the shaft is rotated. T o use this tecl 1' due to hydrodynan~icallygenerated films of
nique fully, it would be necessary t o establish a datul ling oil. These films are formed automatically,
at each coupling for a properly aligned machine, an nning, by a high pressure wedge of oil between
t o carry out a calibratio~iexercise t o see how bendi the shaft - the maintenance of
"IeSS is affected by shaft
I:llsures that no metal-to-metal contact is made.
LOW power laser-based optical alignment techlliqll
11 is continuously fed into the wedge by frictional
Can also be used the shaft fully Th
nil leaks away axially towards the edges o f
are suitable for initially setting up thc pedestals
the required catenary. These techniques have the
11' \s'llite metal surface is either cast into a mild
advantage that, when adjacent turbines are operatin
the resulting atmospheric disturbances and structl liilcl 10 form a bearing shell, whicli is supported
11, lhc;~ringbody, or cast directly into the bearing
borne vibratioih lnay "leir use'
ilsclf. Both types are in use in modern U K
Aiignmcnt of the shaft necessitates the outer be
ings being raised. On large turbine-generaton, t
outer bearings could be up t o 25 mm above the leve Ijrnling assemblies are split in halves on the
lI11I Centreline and held together by bolts, the
of the central bearings.
l i c i ~dowelled together to assure precise lo-
It is often necessary t o deliberately misalign P
ticulai bearings when cold so that a n acceptable 11
enrings are normally spherically seated in their
alignment is achieved. T~~~makes allawance for sup
5 On four pads under which shims are placed
structure expansions when the turbine is at oper
llltc precise horizontal and vertical alignment
temperature. The required offsets are included eiti
lilft line. The spherical seating feature assures
by removing/adding shims from/to the bearings
I1 assembly, the bearing will automatically align
be adjusted, or by deliberately allowing a known e
Ol'reCt axial tilt; this is necessary because, when
in a coupling. The amount of offset can be deci
~ I I R laces are set and bolted flat together, the
by measurements taken from a multilimb-manom
t~carillgon each shaft needs to be higher than
system, or derived from operational experience.
llPl bearing due to the natural bending catenary
I each shaft under its self weight (for further
)I' illignment refer to Section 7 of this chapter).
7.5.2 On-line monitoring ul.ical seat Is restrained in normal operation.
Manometric systems are used for on-line monito 11 large turbine bearings are up t o 530 mm
of the bearing pedestal positions. Connection Cl. and have length/diameter (L/D) ratios in
each pedestal provide information o n the relative lev of 0.5 to 0.7. Generator bearings tend to
13earings, pedestals and tuiiii~iggoat
hc rather ioiiger, >uitii I./]) ratios o f 0.6 lo 1 . 0
take account of ttic ireavics genciator rotor i n sclalioii
lo ille weigh1 of individoal tiiibiiie rotors. In this
way, a typical load on projected beari~lgarea is kept
belon' about IS kPa.
'Two main whitc mctal profiles are i n cotmrnon use
in modes,, UI< tol.biiie D~arii: t~iese are known as
el/i/~licn/and ih,pe-ln,id respectively.
Thc e//i~,lico/ bore is produced by first ,machining
a circular bore \\'it11 shims in the bearing horizontal
half joint and then assembling the bearing without the
shims. This results in typical clearance ratios (diametral
clearance/diarnctcr) of 0.001 vertically and 0.0015
lhorizantally. Oil is fed into the hearing via lcad-in
ports at two diametrically opposite points on the
iloriz~ntalcentreline.
The lhree-land design lhas three separatc bearing
surfaces, or lands, of coual ~ , i d t lbut~ of different
arc lengths; one land in the bottom half and two in
thc tap half.
There is an oil s o.~. ~. l l.
eroove
v with lead-in at the
beginning of each land, and a drain gl.oove at the
end. Recirculation of oil is limitcd by an axial strip
o f bearing surface bclwccn each drain groove and
the following supply gI.oove. The three-land bearing
is generally of circular bore %,it11a deal-ancc ratio of
about 0.0013. This design is more resistant to low
frequency whirl (see later).
Oil is supplied, to cool and lubricate the bearings,
at about I bar and 30-40"C, from the main turbine
lubricating-oil pump. Each bearing also has a separate
high pressure (300 bar maximum) jacking oil supply
which is injected at the bottom of the bcaring. This
lifts the journal in the bearing when starting from
rest, thereby preventing wear and reducing the starting
torque requircd from the turning-gear drive motor.
8.1.2 instrumentation
Instrumentation specific to the performance of the
bearing normally comprises white-metal temperature
and oil inlet pressure, indicated both locally and in
the Control Room. Bearing oil outlet temperature is
normally indicated locally, with remote alarm facili-
ties. Provision is also made at the bearing housing
to monitor vertical and horizontal vibration modes.
Jacking oil pressure is monitored local t o each bear-
ing, with alarm indication in the Control Room.
8.1.3 Bearing p e r f o r m a n c e
The first step towards understanding the performance
of a bearing under dynamic conditions is t o know
the condition of the bearing oil film in vibration; as
described by Smith 191, this is different from the
steady state hydrodynamically-generated oil film noted
earlier.
When a sufficiently large journal vibration is super-
imposed o n the steady state running condition, changes
 Bearings, pedestals iind t i ~ ~ t i i ~ (i )(~,? I I I

with the \x~l~iii.The pressure-bcaring filiu ilicli ti;~vrli

round m'itii the journal and the operating c<,ii<liti<,~i
is lno longer closely reiated lo the sleady i i ~ r > ~ ! i i i f ~ ,
condition.
In a journal whirl of sustained magnitude ;it C O I I ~
stanl eccentricity, the ideaiised bearing is in a conditii>n
of stcady running relative to axes rotating with thc
whirl. There is an effective speed o f rotation, relative
to these axes, of (N-ZF), where N is the speed of
rotation o f the journal and F is the frequency of
whi1.l measured in the same direction. The position
of formation o f the pressure-bearing film depends
on the direction of the mean ~eripheial speed of
beaiing and journal relative to the rotating axes, that
is on whether N is greater or smaller than 2F.
When the frequency o f whirl is iess than half the
jouinai speed, the piessul.e-bearing film is built up
on the trailing side of the minimum film thickness,
as in Fig 1.122 (c). When the frequency of whirl is
greater than half tile journal speed, the gressure-
bearing film is built up on the leading side o f the
minimum film thickness, as in Fig 1.122 (d). The
diagrams show, for each case, the direction of the
reaction applied by the journal to the bearing.
When a rotating load is superimposed, on a much
smaller stcady load, the1.e is a variation of eccentri-
city during each whirl rotation, but the film regimes
obtained resemble those given by whiri of constant
eccentricity.
With rotating trailine film the reaction of the bear-
ing on the journal (opposite to the reaction just
mentioned) has a component normal to the attitude
radius in the direction of the whirl. This component
tends to increase the whirl. An explanation is thus
offered of why a rotating trailing filtn is associated
with tendency to instability. As reaction force in-
creases and minimum fiim thickness decreases, the
direction o f the reaction swings closer to the attitude
radius, so that if there is damping elsewhere in the
system, a steady condition o f whirl may be attained.
With rotating leading film the corresponding com-
ponent tends to damp the whirl. A bearing in this
regime does not excite instability.
The transition between these last two conditions
is o f importance, because it may exhibit a sharply
resonant tendency to maintain rotor whirl when there
is a natural frequency close to half running speed.
Figure 1.122 (d) gives a diagrammatic representation of
this film condition: the angular extent of the pressure-
bearing film is not known.
Prediction of rotor dynamic behaviour depends
on an adequate understanding of the bearing per-
formance, for which full-size bearing test rigs are
commonly used. Dynamic behaviour can also be in-
fluenced by the stiffness of the support structure and
the effectiveness o f the connection between bearing
pedestals and the turbine foundations. In this latter
respect, bolting to steel foundations is more predict-
able than bolting to soleplates grouted into mass
concrete foundation blocks.

107
The steam turbine Chapter 1
- Bearings, pedestals and turning gr?a

8.1.4 Factors affecting bearing life

Wear of journal bearings mainly occill-s with an oii
rliiving ioad seductioii and following a Isrbiae i i i i , .
ln opc~.alion,the pad faces are slightly iiicliiied lo
a
: 1i,.noim 10'1 IHRUSI I.UBRIChTINGOILOHhlN
film of very sillail minimum thickness and mild local !lie facc of the thrust coilas and the wcrlge-sbaped -: ,11N COLLAR ANNULUS

wear, especially as new bearings 'bed-in', is to be cavity thus formed fills \r,it11 oil. As thrust jpicssose I
expected. I-lowevei, severe wear is a symptom of
trouble and can be caused by:

e Contacling asperities on substandard joul.i~ai and

bearing surfaces.
Scoring by oil-borne solid particles.
8 Excessive iocai pressure or temperature.
b Electrical pitting.

Fatigue cracking a f the white rnetai siirface can be

caused by heavy vibration or cavitation within the
oil film; the latter is usually caused by a restricted
supply of oil.
Corrosion rarely occurs, due to the control by
treatment plant of moisture in the turbine lubricating-
oil system (see Chapter 2).
Electrical erosion of bearings and journais has oc-
casionally given trouble. Small shaft voltages are set
up by eiectromagnetic induction in the generator
rotor. Higher voitaaes sometimes occur in the turbine.
produced electrostatically. Bearing erosion is prevented
by effective insulation of the generator bearings from
earth and the application of an earthing brush to
a suitable point on the turbine rotor system. Both
insulation and earthing brushgear require good main-
tenance as well as good design to assure their correct
functioning.

8.2 Thrust b e a r i n g s
The purpose of the turbine thrust bearing is to pio-
vide a positive axial iocation far the turbine rotors
relative to the cylinders. To achieve this, it must be
able to withstand the unbalanced thrusts due to blade
reaction and steam pressure acting on unbalanced
areas. It must be free from maintenance, except at
major outages. Since it is universal practice to use
solid couplings between rotors, only one thrust bear-
ing is required in each complete shaft line. It is
normally located close to the areas where blade/
cylinder clearances are minimum and operating tem-
peratures are highest and is split on the horizontal
centreline for ease of asssembly and maintenance.
All large UK steam turbines use the Michell tilting-
pad thrust bearing (Fig 1.123).
Although the net thrust on the white-metalled pads
in the on-load condition is always in one direction,
i.e., typically towards the generator, a second set of
pads, termed surge pads, are incorporated on the
opposite side of the integral shaft collar to take ac-
count of transient reversals of thrust which occur
108
The sreani rurbil7e CI7aptel. I' .f Bearings, pedestais und turning geiii
.,,..,.
g
@ I'cilviliils in tlie l l ' arca o l tire tuibiiic arc troi-mall\, - inside the line o l tlre liall.
all round tiic ioiot flange
i ~ ~ i i i l lbollcd
y and dowelled to the foundations, It joint bolts; any seepage from the ends of tliese gioovca
ADAPTOR FLANGE RXIAINOICATOH
BODY ,
TI+RUSTC3Al> T H R U S I ?All SO,' l i , li<lnri,ei, common praclicc at the high tempciatore
i 3 , i i l 01' liie ti~rbincto make provision either lor the
is collected and ]piped away lo a dirty-oil drains lank.

iyiiiniris lo expand at sliding mounting points on top

r i i l l l i i i Pedestals or for tlic pedestal to slide i.elative
l i ! tlie foundations. For details o f cylinder support
8.5 T u r n i n g gear
N I I ~cxl)arlsion arrangcnlents refer to Section 6 of
The turbine rotors must be turned continuously
througiiout the process of waiming-through the unit
Iir lpcdestals incorporate facilities for the attacli-
p~.iorto start-up and, in addition, during the cooling
11 of lubricating and jacking oil supply pipework
process following a shutdown. Rotor and cylinder dis-
Ilc ilssociated bearing oil drain pipework. Mounted
tortion could occur as a result of uneven heating oi-
11 (or on) the enclosure are all necessary instru-
cooling if the facility for turning the rotors weye not
il~lliot~ connections, c.g., bearing temperature, dif-
available to provide circulation within the cylinders.
Illial expansion pick-ups, togethel. with eccentricity
Cylinder metal temperatures, specified by the manu-
n dctectors. A manometric level system
facturer, are the normal criteria for allowing a warm
o thc pedestals adjacent to each bearing
turbine to cease barring.
i l l liclccl lnisalignment due to support structure scttle-
TWOindependent turning gear facilities are usually
izirlil, for details of this system rcfer to Chapter 2.
i'i~rlicular care is taken to ventilate around the
(ii~tlrrlals,keeping them cool so that any yertical thci-
r l l i ~ li'xpsosion cffects, which might disturb the overall
aillical alignment of the turbine, are minimised. For
.
provided:

Hand barring arrangement.

Electrical turning gear (ETG),

~itllll)lc,many pcdcstals contain couplings which are
OlL SUPPLY PIPE THRUSTBLOCK i i i ~ ~ o ~ ~ nby d e dcoupling goal.ds; these guards are
ili?~!lseivescooled by oil sprays tapped-off the lubri- 8.5.1 Hand barring a r r a n g e m e n t
ilili oil supply to remove windage heat generated
Should the ETG be unavailable, provision is made
~Oillllingrotation.
to turn the rotors manually by mounting a lever and
I l l addition, those uedestals adiaccnt to the high . fulcrum apparatus at a prearranged point on the cover
rature components of the turbine are frequently
.. of a bearing pedestal. This lever operates on a per-
cted by thermal radiation shields, with provision
manent toolhed-wheel between two turbine rotors
NOZZLE $(!I I U I I circulatlori in the snace between the sh~cld
. , (Fig 1.125). This is usually an operational feature
irliil lhc pedestal structure, also to minimise thermal
DETAILOFTHRUST ANDSURGE to protect the turbine in a heat-soaked condition.
PAD NOZZLE SETTINGS Bki)ibIlaion effects.
Further hand barring, for maintenance purposes
only, can often be carried out by using a simple
crowbar against a toothed barring ring, replacing the
normal spacing ring between rotor couplings, and lever-
Oil sealing a r r a n g e m e n t s ing against a simple fulcrum plate secured to the ped-
OlLSUPPLY FROM
ends of the pedestals where the turbine rotors estal horizontal joint face (Fig 1.126).
MlliNOlLPVMP CHOKETUBES
are fitted with oil catchers. The baffle fins
I'm oil catchers, in conjunction with oil throwers
111c shaft, prevent egress of bearing lubricating 8.5.2 Electrical turning g e a r IETGI
'rom the pedestal. The rotors are turned slowly, typically less than

I
CON laving regard for the speed and size o f the bearing
CONTROLROOM 30 r/min, during start-up and shutdown by the ETG.
/._.._........ ..... i:oupling assemblies within the pedestals, the pro- An electric drive motor turns the rotors through a
I I I lo11 of oil mist is inevitable. The escaoe of this wormshaft and wormwheel, thereby providing a re-
..-A is prevented by the main oil tank vapour ex-
lors which, since the bearing drain lines d o not
duction gear. A jacking oil pump supplies high pres-
sure lubricating oil to the reduction gear.
LOCAL INDIC#TlON
AND ALARM 111 11111, maintain the inside of the pedestal at a Manual control of the motor is provided in the
air pressure than the turbine hall. There Control Room, and automatic stop and start faci-
I1 flow of air through the baffle ring and lities are also included in the motor switchgear. The
the surface of the shaft; this purges the oil motor overload trip is set at a value which prevents
NO 1 NOZZLE ack into the pedestal and via the bearina drains excessive torque being applied to a seized rotor. Elec-
Ihr main oil tank, whence it is discharged at a safe trical interlocking prevents the motor being started
iiotl. For details of the lubricating oil system see until jacking oil pressure is established.
A self-shifling synchronous (SSS) clutch is installed
TIC. 1,124 ~ h i u t tpad wear n~asuiemenrsysrern, reiying upon decreasing gap a: the naaale head causing a r i x in
leakage from the horizontal joint of the ped- between the drive motor and the turbine shaft and
indicated discharge oil pressure a a is commonly prevented by machining a groove provides a simple mechanical means of automatically
111
T h e steam turbine
i.'10.1.125 Asreiilbly or hand b a i l i n g cquipnlesc; lliir is an
operational alternative i n the event of tile main electrical
iinrning geni being unavaiiabic
connecting or disconnecting the turning gear drive.
The SSS clutch is a positive tooth-type overrunning
clutch which is self-engaging when passing through
synchronism, that is, immediately the speed of the
input shaft exceeds that of the output shaft. The
clutch disengages automatically when the torque re-
verses, that is, when the speed of the output shaft
exceeds that of the input shaft (Fig 1.127).
At standstill, when the driving shaft begins to pro-
vide torque, the clutch will engage; if after this the
torque ceases, the clutch will disengage. It will re-
engage if the speed of the driving shaft exceeds that
of the driven shaft, whether at full barring speed o r
at any lesser speed.
Spring-loaded pawls, acting on a ratchet, sense the
relative speeds of the input and output shafts; when
the input shaft is about to overtake the other, the
112
Chapter I' Turbine applicalio~,.;
FiG. 1.126 Vicn on ihc enid of a luibine coupiiilg.
ihoiviilg provision for iinnd barrilig during oalages ior
niaiilleliallce
pawls 'bite' and reactive torque is applied to thc
helically-splined sleeve which moves axially and slides
the clutch teeth into engagement.
The positions of the pawls and ratchet teeth en.
sure that the clutch teeth pass between each other
exactly, without making contact until full engagement
is reached; at this point the pawls leave the ratchet
teeth, and the flanks of the clutch teeth meet to take
up the drive.
It is important to note that the pawls merely sensc
zero relative speed and angular location, they do no1
carry the main torque. To prevent ratcheting and
consequent wear when the relative speed is high, rhc
pawls are designed to disengage centrifugally.
The only load imposed on the pawls is the forcc
required to engage the clutch. In a very large clutch,
this could overload the pawls and so a relay clutch
is used. Here the primary mechanism is exactly as
described above, but the helically-splined sleeve, in
moving forward, engages teeth to move a much heav-
ier helically-splined sleeve o n which the clutch teeth
are cut. A further refinement is an oil dashpot, which
cushions the engaging action, and prevents disengage-
ment as a result of rapid transient torque reversal.
9 Turbine applications
9.1 Power generation
The main concern of this volume is turbines for the
generation of electric power via a constant speed
generator. In this area of technology, as applied in
1-ile stcain turbine 1-urllinc applii:alioii!;

l4Aia iiias~EiN~ti
<.OIOIIOI.VXLVE

1'14. 1.129 A 4-fiow exll~~ns$Lurbine cycle wills back pressure BFFT

BULK THANSMiSSlONP<PELINE
would otherwise ,~eed to be fed from tappings on domestic and industrial use. It is the purpose of
the main turbine IP cylinder. It is generally simpler C H P schemes to exploit this potential.
to arrange this with shorter pipe runs from the feed The condenser pressure in a typical turbine fo

1 : ~ . 1.130 Diiciici !heating supl>ly scheme irilil special tilrbine desigli

pursued for future plant.
Condensing-type boiler feed pump turbines are also
o f single-cylinder single-flow design and, because they
exhaust into the condenser, their inlet steam conditions
the saturation temperature corresponding to the steanl
pressure, i.e., at 33-45°C to 49.5% for pressur
50-120 mbar. Unfortunately, temperatures as lo
these would be unacceptable for transmission t 1.131. More than two pressures could be used
I tile advantage o f liigher thermal efficiencies but
ill^ expense o f greater com~iication.The extraction
Ill is i~assedto two district water heaters, so that
c i l ~ a l temperature rise is obtained across each
of ach~evingcontrolled extraction pressures, since con-
trol valves can readily be supplied in the ii~tcr-cylindel-
crossover piping downstream o f the 1P exhausts. The
asymmetry is provided by designing for a different
number of stages in each flow of the turbine.
Figure 1.131 depicts three large existing turbines

higher pressure. The former is know11 as a n exlraclio

9.3 Combined heat and power (CHP)
The inherently poor efficiency of the turbine-generator
in power generation applications has always been re-
garded with concern by turbine designers. The reasons
for this are discussed in Section 3 of this chapter,
where it will be seen that the major part of the heat
produced by the burning o f fuel in the boiler is
rejected as low grade energy in the condenser cooling
water. It has long been appreciated that there is a
major thermal advantage to be obtained if such low
grade energy can be employed to provide heating for
o r pass-oul turbine whereas the latter is called a bac
pressure turbine.
Many plant configurations exist to suit the pa
cular requirements of each specific application. T
examples are given here to illustrate the range
plant and some of the possibilities. The first exampl
is o f a condensing turbine designed at the outset fo
a domestic heating installation with electrical powe
generation as well. The second example illustrate
how a n existing large power station might be con
verted for a similar heat load. lrical Power is also generated by means of a All the plant shown in ~i~ 1.131 would normally
i n both cases, steam is extracted from the turbin tional shaft-driven generator. The asymmetric be installed at the existing power station. ~h~ only
at two different pressures, as shown in Figs 1.13 lindcr provides a neat solution to the problem modification to the existing turbine-generators would
117
 7-urbitie a p p l i c a i i o ~ ~ s

STEAMTURBINE

BULXTFINSNISSoNIPLLNE

FIG. 1.131 CHP conversion lor a district iieaiing supply rcl>erne

be the provision of bleed and condensate return tap-
pings, with control valves as shown. The district water
system would include the heaters, pumps and pro-
vision for make-up and heat storage so that the
operating periods of the auxiliary turbine generator
and its loading schedule can be controlled with a
degree of independence from the heat demand.
Such a scheme could provide heat as well as power
to a large city located many kilometres away from
the power station.
the economics o f such schemes are likely to
increasing favour.
9.4 Combined-c~cieplant
producing process where the prime movers empl
FIG.1.132 Simple 'combined cycle' plant, employing one gas turbine and one steam turbine
more than one working fluid in a combination
turbines. The most common and practical form

which makes it attractive for countries with cold
winters. One difficulty which has prevented a more
widespread use of such schemes is the cost and com-
plication of distributing the heat thus provided to
hundreds of domestic premises. The most successful
schemes have been applied to new developments of
large apartment blocks. With ever increasing fuel
costs and the need to conserve valuable fossil fuels,
with variants of this basic theme.
Figure 1.132 shows a combined-cycle plant i
simplest form with the heat from the gas-tu
exhaust utiiised to generate steam in a heat-reco
steam generator. This cycle makes use of the inh
ent characteristics of the gas turbine process, wh
combustion takes place and, following expansion
the turbine, heat is rejected at a relatively high te
lliry steam turbine is able to make use o f this
llhe of the low temperature exhaust made possible
l o condenser. The condensate is returned to the
li generator, via a single combined feedheater
de-aerator, followed by a pump. Typically the
1, lilrbine output will be about 50% o f the gas
applicable to countries having an abundant supply
of oil or natural gas where there is a need to rapidly
extend the utilisation of these resources to meet the
populations' demands for electrical power. A phased
development could be implemented, the first stage
being the installation of gas-turbine generators to
meet the immediate needs for electrical power, thus

118 119
1-lie steam itirbine

cxl~loitingthe potciitial short dclivcry tiines and simplr depends on:

izistailation 01' packaged units associated irritli gas t u i -
binc tcchiiology. 'The scconil stage wortid be the iii- i'lic economies oS scale; i.e., lhc generally lob
stallation of the stcam gcnesatvrs, steaiii turbine and ca1)ilal cost per unit oull,ut given by larger oolj
auxiliaiies, illus providing a Surlliei increase in power 1)lanl.
output at a lhigli overall therlnal efficiency of about
45%. e The steal" cycle arid conditions associated with t i
A tliird stage might be considered if a furtlicr selected steam generation system.
increase In output for sliort pel.iods during load peaks
is desired. Supplementary firing would be fitted to 8 The availability of plant designs for the steani
the boiler to generate more steam to meet the full generator and the turbine-generator.
capability of the steam turbine in respect of steam
inlet temperature. Because gas turbines are normally b The size of thc grid system and the individual
operated with a high excess air factor, there would generating units o n it.
be sufficieiit air in the gas turbine exhaust to support
The size of the organisation owning the plant, and
the combustion of the additional fuel.
its economic environment.
Plant using a high proportion of supplementaiy
firing is someti~iies co~istructed making use of the e The available construction time.
gas turbine primarily as an air supply for the main
combustion process. In this type of plant, the steam The available site area.
turbine may generate as much as eight times the
power o f thc gas turbine and employ a multistage
feedhearing system to maxiinise efficiency. This may
be more rliermally efficient tliatl a steam turbine on era! period of consolidation worldwide, with relativ
its own, but is prone to giving a lower a\,ailability
few new stations being ordered. Those that w
unless a means o f cliangeovcr from gas turbine t o
ordered were generally established design, or part
forced-draught fan is provided.
a deliberate series ordering o f plants. In the larg
A Inore common vaiiant is t o use one or more
industrial countries, tandem-compound turbine siz
gas tu~.bincsin a dual-pressure heat-recovery steam
have stabilised in the range 600-800 MW for sup?
generator. This permits more heat extraction from the
heat plant, and 900-1300 MW for saturated ste
gas turbine exhaust since the low pressure circuit heat
plant. There have, however, been a few individ
transfer can take place at a lower temperature than
in the high pressure circuit. A typical arrangement is
shown in Fig 1.133. If more than one gas turbine is
uscd, additional flexibility of steam turbine operation cross-compound units in the USA. Saturated steant
is possible, since shutdown o f one gas tt~rbine will plant has included a 1500 MW tandem-compoui,d
not prevent steam turbine operation. More efficient
part-load operation can be obtained in this way.
Combined-cycle plant developments are likely to turbine manufacturer can offer a range of outpu
follow the development of the gas turbine. Higher
combustion and exhaust temperatures will lead t o
higher overall efficiencies. As the practicability of
burning a wider range of fuels (Including coal) in will preclude the larger plants, and the 250-350 MW
the gas turbine improves, the application of combined- range is often favoured.
cycle plant will become more widespread. With the Looking to the future, it appears that the selectioi
current state of the art, there are no limitations t o o f the unit size will be increasingly determined b
such further development in respect of the steam the system size, the plant ownership and the ratin
turbine. A wide range of outputs is generally offered by of nuclear steam supply systems. In the USA, wher
manufacturers, using various numbers and size-ranges there arc a number of relatively small utilities, t11
of standard gas turbines in combination with steam preferred unit sizes for fossil-fired piant are like11
turbines of modular design. to be around 350 MW and 700 MW. If new nucleat

reactors. In France, with a large utility (EDF), th

10 Future outlook
FIG. 1.133 Dual pressure 'combined W e ' plan1
more likely. In Japan, there is a committed plan
10.1 Unit size and rating development towards fossil-fired units rated a t up to
The selection of unit size for a particular application 1000 MW, and nuclear plant up to about 1200 MW.
120
Tlie sleani tuvbitie
T11c ijiiilcd l<ingdoin 11as also gone t l ~ s o u g l ~a
period of consolidation in the 1970s and 1980s. After
a relatively rapid increase in unit size from 30 MW in
1945 lo 500 MM' In 1970, this lhas only increased to
660 MW subsequently. Thc carliest 660 MW unit was
ordered in 1966 and was in se~wice by 1974. This
inodest rate of development has ixoduced piant of
excellent thermal efficiency and reliabilitv... and UK
manufacturers' designs have becn progressively devel-
oped and refined to take advantage of new technology,
design methods, and manufacturing rnetllods in the
intervening years.
In the late 1980s, it has been judged that the time
is right for a further increase in unit sire for super-
heat plant to 904 MW, in order to meet both domestic
and overseas requirements. For the domestic UK needs,
this offers substantial benefits from the economies
o f scale - typified by the physical dimensions of
tile turblne-generator being only marginally increased
from tlie 660 MW units. The initial steam conditions
have bccn advanced from 160 bar, 565°C to 176 bar,
565°C thus providing an increase in thermal efficiency
without sacrificing operational flexibility.
For nuclear plant, the choice will be determined
mainly by the reactor type and size. For advanced gas-
cooled reactor plant (AGR), the preferred reactor size
is in the 660-750 MW range. Being a superheat cycle,
this requires a steam turbine almost identical to that
for a fossil-fired unit o f similar output. Any turbines
required can therefore be derived from the existing
families of modules covering plant up to 900 MW
01 more.
For water-cooled reactors, the reactor sizes are up
to 1200-1300 MW, although some enhancement of
this may be expected. For the first UK PWR at
Sizewell B , the decision was made in 1979 t o employ
two 630 MW turbine-generators with the 1260 MW(e)
reactor, as these made substantial use of modules
developed and proven for the 660 MW fossii-fired
plant, in particular the LP turbines and the generator.
Those elements specific to the saturated steam cycle,
such as the H P turbine, moisture separator, and
steam/steam reheater (see Chapter 2), had been de-
veloped and proven in plant supplied to overseas
by UK manufacturers at ratings up t o 110 MW. It
is expected that, if there is a series o f PWR stations
in the UK, the decision will be made at some stage
to select a single turblne-generator per reactor, thus
taking advantage o f recognised savings in capital cost,
construction time and operational costs. In line with
developments elsewhere, it is not expected that reactor
size, and hence turbine-generator size, will advance
beyond 1500 MW in the foreseeable future.
There is therefore no perceived need for unit sizes to
advance substantially in the next ten or twenty years,
beyond about 1000 MW for superheat plant o r 1500
MW for saturated steam plant.
122
10.2 Supercritical plant
Onc effective way of achieving increased thcrmal i.
ciency Is to increase stearn pressiiie. The limits il
natural circulation boilci are around 180 bar, i
ailhough assisted circulatioil may be used at i1ip.h
~ICSSUTES, an overall imp~~ovemeot in station efficiel~
is not achieved unless the pressure is advanced r
about 240 bar, i.e., above tllc cl.itica1 prcssurc
water/steam (221.2 bar). Although the use of sup
critical pressure requires special consideration in 111
design of the boilcr, the iniplications for the turbin
only concern the higher pressure as sucli.
A further improvement may be obtained by in
creasing steam temperature. Most of the supercritica
plant in service worldwide operates at 538"C, altho
some 565°C plant exists, and there are some pion
ing units with temperatures as high as 650°C. At
higher temperatures, the efficiency is often boosle
still further by using double reheat. Apart from 111
efficiency benefit, this has the $merit of reducing 111
turbine exhaust wetness from thc high level that sucl
advanced initial conditions would otherwise entail.
The use of supercritical plant has varied consid
ably through the world. In both the USA and Japati
it has been used t o a considerable degree for lail
units for base-load operation, typically up to 700 M
tandem-compound and 1300 MW cross-compoun
The initial steam conditions have normally been aroux
240 bar, 538°C. In Germany, supercritical plant 11
been in the smaller range, up t o about 200 MW.
the United Kingdom, two prototype units were bu
at Drakelow C with steam condltions of 240 b
593°C.
At temperatures up t o 5 6 5 T C , low-alloy creel)
resistant stccls such as 0.5%Cr Mo V and 2.25
Mo are used foi- the high temperature components
The pressure determines the thickness of pressm
containing sections such as steam chests and pi1
work. The combination of steam conditions. mate
thickness, and operating regime determines the pl
life in terms of creep and thermal fatigue. At pr
sures of 240 bar and above. and narticularlv a t t le
higher temperatures o r where reasonable operation
flexibility is required, other high temperature material
are used, such as high-Chromium (9-12%) ferritic
alloys, or austenitic alloys. Austenltic alloys have sonic
adverse properties, such as poor thermal conductivity
and high thermal expansion, so the current trend is
to develop the ferritic alloys for use in the large cast
and forged components. Development programmes ar
under way in the USA, Europe, and Japan for d
signs and materials for the so-called 'ultra-supercrltica
piants of 350-1000 MW with steam conditions su
as 310 bar 590°C, and later up to 350 bar 650"
all with double-reheat cycles. These plants are not,
however, likely t o be in service until after the year
20W.
The use of the double-reheat cycle introduces
additional complexity. First, additional boiler contro
,,ti51 c,lI,cr have ail m t i a cyiindo or it must
I>ii,c<lcylinder for the first two expansions.
i ~ y l i ~ ~increases
~ies rnaciriire iengtll and cost,
co~nbii~cd cylindci may give tlic possibility
ealing between the two e x ~ ~ a r i -
$ 8 , i l t i i : to lhc close proximity of sections at
i!ii i i j l i l reheat temperatures. Combined H P /
i i c ~ s iiave, however, been wideiy used by
ratrrpanies and their associates in machines
01' ll~ese developments prescnts technical
(~ivcnsufficient time and resources. Their
in practice depends o n potential customers
"cd that the potential return in improved
ot accompanied by additional risk either
operational flexibility, or availability.
, tile development programmes embody
I;itlge of research, design, rig testing, and
~ p ucom~,onent testing, which, coupled with the
ll k i i C prototype unit, will give the necessary
btc XI which such plant will be i~ltroduccdis
depending as it does on factors
I ii~~cer.tain,
lcclricity demand, fuel costs, the economic
: 11,lhc extent of alternative energy sources,
irbishment of existing plant for extended
''. rbine blading development
r)llinent of turbine blading can be expected
illlsc to mecl three objectives:
lcril inanufacturing cost.
' il efficiency, including new L P blading of
I exhaust area.
I of blade manufacture can be minimised
application of computer-aided design and
Ire, in which the optimised geometry from
rnnce, vibration, and stress considerations is
d directly to the numerically-controlled
\loved, integrity blading can be obtained by at-
011 to detailed design t o reduce stress concen-
y controlling the vibration characteristics to
nances near running speed, and by reducing
or improving the quality) of attachments such
uding lacing wires, and erosion shields. There
nliince to be made between robust blading with
cctions and efficient blading which favouis a
sl)cci ratio (length/chord).
As mosl modcin toibine blading in lHIJ and 11'
tuibincs airzady has an internal eificiency in the range
90°/0 to 95%, ilic potential inipl-ovemcnt is 1101 iargc.
Turbine makers h a w developed standard blading fa-
inlilies of lhigli efficiency wliicli are tolelalit t o the
range o f stcam flow incidence angles, which arise in
different applicalions aiid different conditions of op-
eration. Root and tip clearances are as small as
practicable, with as many flow constrictions as tile
design permits. The detailed geometry of these restric-
tions can aliaw some reduction of the flow discharge
coefficient, so that steam leakage through these clcar-
ances Is minimised.
The development of L P turbine modules is a costly
and lengthy process, yet there is always an incentive
t o increase the cni~austaica of each flow seaion t o
seduce the exhaust kinetic cncrgy (the leaving loss).
This development may aisa permit, for particular unit
sires and steam cycles, a reduction in the number of
LP cylinders: this is a wortliwliile objective to save
cost and reduce the size o f turbine liall requiied. The
lasr-stage and penultimate stage blading is always
the limiting area of design; in terms oT the stearn
bending stresses on the blades and the large mass of
the blades which imposes a large centrifugal stress
on the blade fastening to the disc. Lasl-stage blades
for 3000 r/min turbines have been developed up Lo
1200 mm long: this is believed to be about the limit
for conventional 12% Cr blade materials. Indeed,
the 1200 mm blades in scrvicc in the USSR are made
from titanium alloy, and this is likely t o be the pre-
ferred material for longer blades. In particular, the
introduction of longer last-stage blades is likely to
permit the use of 3000 r/min machines with the lar-
gest nuclear reators in 50 Hz systems, althougli the
3600 r/min equivalents are much further away.
11 References
[I) Tiaupel, W.: Steam turbines, yesterday, today and tomorrow:
Pioc, IMechE 193 No 38. 391-4W: 1979
121 Harris, 1. R.: The Parsons Centenary - a hundred yeais of
steam turbines: Proc. IMecliE 198 No. 53. 1-42: 1984
1' I . I h 2 : I . , 4 I) 1": :4..< .,l
Jv*!: s;le.J I
P\<h . . r b n e , lo: % 11, ,,c~.:~aL.#., ~ s , # ~ , ln\ l%t . l k C I#.~::cI..v
*;,,I Plllll ,, P,.,\",.<C, \\a';, Red.,,,, t$h?
141 Stodola, A , : Steam and Gas Turbines, Volume I p 316: Peter
Smith. New York: 1945
(51 Traupel, W.: Thcrmische Turbo Manchinen, Volume I p 491:
Springer-Verlag: 1966
161 Miller, D. S.: Internal Flow Syrtemi. Volume5: Biitish Hydraulics
Research Asrocation: 1978
171 Craig, H. R. M, and Cox. H . J. A , : Performance Estimation
of Axial Flow Turbines: Proc, IMeellE 185. 32-71: 1970-71
181 Biiggs, 3. 2. and Parker, T. D.: The Super 120ia Cr Steels -
aii update: Climax Molybdellum Company
191 Smith, D. M.: Journal Bearings in Turbo machinery: Chapman
and Hall: 1969
 Governiiig system:.
- ..
13.4 Mo8stuie separator rel>c.itc~sIMSHsi
134.1 Separators
13.42 Stcanl~o-sicamreilearers
ii8rliinc totors 13.5 Stealn suppiy and drains systems
!%11(,3s nioilitors 13.51 First-siagc reilcat
<m<:<><I.t,i,
~oolir,g 135.2 Secandsfage reheat
cc,oii,,g at turbine 13.5.3 Performance ino~>itoring
(:ooli#,gsysfetn 135.4 System drains
C H A P T E R 2 135.5 Separator drains
135.6 Rehearer drains
it~lltro8~aeof steam on components
N,,,lol cxiiaciion devices 14 R e f e r e n ~ e ~
ib10tioil ipioteclion
Turbine plant systems 1 5 Additional references

1 Governing systems
1.1 Introduction 6.1 Lubrication requirements and typical ariangemenls
6.2 Oil Dumps
1.2 Governor characteristics
62.1 Main lubricating oil pump
Verning s y s t e m s system. T h e initiai transient speed rise following s u c i ~
12.1 Simple scheme - boilcr on pressure control
6.2.2 ~urbine-drivenail booster pump a ioad rejection, contaitled by t h e governor, is pri-
1.2.2 Turbi~iemaster load controller with boiler on pressure
6.2.3 AC and DC motor-driven auxiliary oil pumps marily d u e t o t w o factors:
controi
12.3 Boiier master ioad controller 62.4 Jackino-oii DumDs and "riming Pumps
1.3 Subsidiary functions 6.2.5 Other liumps Tile stored energy o f steam within tlie turbine a n d
1.3.1 Acceleiation feedback
fi 8 Oil tanks n i n g system o f a large
6.4 Piping used f o r electricity production via
it"ssociated pipework.
1.3.2 Unloading gear
6 5 Oil coolers
1.3.3 Gaveinor speed reference
1.3.4 Closed-loor, controi of turbine electrical load 6.6 Oii strainers and filters
6.7 oil purifiers and cosiescers
)power netwo1.k are:
* T h e time taken by the turbine vaives t o ciosc in
1.3.5 Overspeed testing
1.3.6 On-ioad testing
6.7.1 centrifugal separation systems
6.7.2 static oil purifieraicoalescers
$8 B 'I!% iiii)i;iin
liil
the speed rise within accentable limits
ihu ilnit becotne disconnected f r o m t h e l o a d .
t o t h e sensed overspeed

1.3.7 Automatic run-up and loading syrtemr 6.8 Oils end 4reases
1.4 Electronic governing 6.8.1 Oils It is aiways well inside t h e overspeed trip setting a n d a
- .orocessina
1.4.1 Dioital 6.8.2 Greases
illrol t h e steam valve positions (and hence
full analysis is given in Heilbronn [ I ) .
1.5 Goveinor valve relays 6.9 Jacking oil systems ,lt<i gcneratedj in response to signals f r o m t h e
1.5.1 Governor vslve relay and contioi unit Type 1 A n electrical governing system f o r a typical turbine-
6.10 Greasing systems lilr, o r f r o m a separate station automatic control
1.5.2 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 2 generator with multiple steam admission paths comprises
1.5.3 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 3 7 Gland sealing system
m a n y elements, a s depicted in F i g 2.1. Since it includes
1.54 Rehesfer relief valves 7.1 function and system layout
1.6 Hydrsulic fluid system a t least one closed-loop control function, t h e machine
71.1 Labvrinfh alandr llrvl t h e initial run-up a n d synchionisation o f
16.1 Filtration 7.1.2 sysiem lahut and network characteristics f o r m an integral part of t h e
1.7 ~oiierfeed pump turbine governors 7 2- Temosisfure
~,~ and Diessure contioi system. T h e orimarv feedback is o f turbine shaft m e e d
7.2.1 Temperature control
2 Steam chests. vaives and loop pipes i s in matching t h e power generated to which is usuaiiy measured by a toothed-wheel a n d probes
7.2.2 Pierrure control
2.1 Steam chest arrangements and construction 7.3 Gland steam condenser !I ~ l r i ~ i ~ i n dby
e dresponding t o network frequency at t h e HP end o f t h e machine. T h i s signal
. is orocessed
2.2 Steam chest materials by a m o d u l a r electronic system, o f t e n mounted in a
2.3 Cover seals 8 Flange heating system
2.4 Steam strainers 8.1 Function and system layout cubicle quite r e m o t e f r o m t h e turbine, t o f o r m o u t p u t
2.5 Stop valves 8.2 Control signals which are directed back t o each steam valve o n
2.6 Governor vaives I <,f these functions is a vitai o n e f o r t h e safety
9 LP e x h a u ~ f*pray coaling system t h e turbine. T h e processing is complex a n d is subject to
2.7 Loop pipework
2.8 Crossover pipework 9.1 Function and system layout detailed variations for each application; it generally
9.2 Control includes t h e following:
3 Turbine proteotive devices f these connections are opened, either by a
3 1 PosSibie hazards 10 Drains svstsmr
tern fault o r by t h e unit's o w n protection 8 T h e speed/ioad characteristics o f t h e machine when
3.2 Protection scheme 10.1 Function and svstem iavout
' s t e a m flow a t t h e instant o f disconnection synchronised.
3.3 Electrically-signaiied trips 101.1 Stait-up drains
3.4 Overspeed trip 10.1.2 Continuous drains le sleam flow necessary f o r steady state opera-
3.5 Mechani~ally-operatedtrips 10.2 Control 132 (3000 r/min) by t h e a m o u n t necessary t o A predetermined relationship between the high
3.6 Operator tripping facilities illl-load. T h e excess energy input m u s t h e pressure ( H P j a n d interceptor valve position.
11 By-pass Systems
4 Turbine instrumentation 11.1 Configuration rapidly i f an unacceptable overspeed is t o be
11.1.1 Pressure control valves Facilities f o r o p e r a t o r control.
4.1 classification of instrumentation I . Tile governor performs this function by re-
4.1.1 S u p e r ~ i ~ oinstrumentation
w 111.2 Isolating valves
lij! l o t h e initial change in speed t o close t h e
4.1.2 Efticien~yinstrumentation 11.1.3 Dump tube Features t o limit t h e m a x i m u m speed o f t h e machine.
41.3 Auxiliary system instrumentation 11.2 By-pass systems for nuclear plant
4.1.4 Condition monitoring instrulnentation 11.3 By-pass systems for fossil-tlred plant lilc oversoeed trios (described in Section 3.5 Features t o limit the o u t p u t in t h e event o f abnormal
4.1.5 instrumentation associated with protection and control 11.4 Problem9 with by-pass systems
11.4.1 Noise operating conditions.
equipment
4.1.6 ln~trumenfationto provide posl.incident records 11.4.2 Water ingress
114.3 Theimsi shock onnei is always maintained. T h e governor Features t o permit routine proving and testing o f t h e
5 Turbine foundations 11.4.4 Leakage flows
111s this safety function and, since it maintains system.
5.1 Tuning
1 2 Operational flexibility ii lilt r u n n i n g speed, ensures t h e continuity
5.2 Concrete foundations
5.3 Steel foundations 12.1 ~ypicaloperational regimes rilpplies f r o m its o w n generator a s weil a s T h e a b o v e functions are described i n detail i n Sections
5.4 Spring foundations 12.1.1 Base ioad
5.5 Sub-foundation 12.1.2 Two-shifting lily l o reconnect t h e generator t o t h e power 1.2 and 1.3 o f this chapter.
Turbine
WHEEL 8 PROBE
GOVERNOR EOUlPMENi CUBICLE
FIG.2.1 Eie~tricaigoverning system applied to a
Fitted to each steam valve is a relay, whose function
is to convert the low power electrical signal formed
by the processing equipment into the movement of
the steam valve. Since the mechanical forces involved
are substantial (150 kN) and the time for full stroke
may be less than 2W ms in the case of a load rejec-
tion, several stages of hydraulic amplification may be
necessary. Conversely, in order to obtain fine control
over load (or speed when unsynchronised), the gov-
erning system needs to be very sensitive and capable of
moving the valves to within about 0.2% of the required
position. The needs of high resolution and the ability
to amplify small electrical signals, necessitates the use
of precision hydraulic components with fine clearances.
Although earlier mechanical/hydraulic governing systems
shared the lubricating oil supply, adequate reliability
of the precision systems is only assured by the use
of a separate high quality fluid supply unit. Various
configurations of valve relay and typical fluid supply
126
i5'ei rtealll turbine
unit characteristics are described later in this sectioll
One o f the features of a n electrical governing sysl
is that since the conversion to mechanical movement
made at the steam valve relay, all other interfaces
electrical. This facilitates connections to sta
automatic control systems, alarm systems, data proc
ing systems, switches and indicators both on
operator's desk and at the governor cubicle. All th
other systems are closely associated with either the ope
tion or maintenance of governing systems.
1.2 Governor characteristics
In normal operation the turbine-generator is syncll
nised with and connected into a n electrical power S
tem, comprising other generating units and an extens
network for distributing power to the consumer. Typ
cally, in the UK, the power supplied at any instant
Governing s y s t e ~ ~ ~ s
6 P
g 9
i i oil and off at will. On a large power system,
$ 9 :$
A
g units, similar consumer demands may apply >OD.
iciuations may be a significant percentage
an, these power system requirements imply a 50.-
,itlistand a full-load rejection safely and to
ilppropriate contributions to system frequency
iliain characteristic of a governing system is
,li- Illc relationship between the generated load of
iiliollcd machine and speed, which is the prime
0 e
48 49 10 51 12
FREQUENCY, H i
1
2880 3000 3120
SPEED, d m n
FIG. 2.2 Governor iieqiiesc)' reguiaiio,i ciiaractelistic
1 Nl, = rated speed
N,,,, = speed at full-load
I = speed at no load
>vratoi to adjust the load contribution made
lachine relative to the others on the system.
shows how the droop characteristic is varied
g the speed setpoint. If the machine is at
and unsynchronised, point a , on the diagram,
c setpoint is raised, the frequency will change
I 10 a2 and then to a,. If, however, the machine
hronised to an infinite system running at constant
llcy a , , an increase in speed setpoint will cause
ld to be raised to b2 and eventually to b3. It
1 be noted that the linear characteristics drawn
dcalised; in practice they may be non-linear.
cless, the degree of adjustment of the speed
normal frequency, with a margin. Typically the
of 0l)eration is '~6% o f nominal system frequen-
01 the turbine unsynchronised at no-load.
Illel feature to be noted from Fig 2.3 is the
PIC. 2.3 Eficct o i varialion of specd selpoini
127
Turbitie lati tit systetns
qilency f by adjusting the sjleerl sclpoinl to give char-
acteristic a,b,, then a fali in frequency by a i l ainoont
a T wili give a inotional load o f value c 3 , However, ibis
value of ioad Will not be attained, as tlie tul-binc valves
are aiready fully open at point b i . Tire speed selljoint
is said to be 'avcrwound'. The disadvantage of this condi-
tion is that, if asked to reduce load on the unit, the
operator is unable to d o so immediately until lie has
reduced the speed setpoint to the line given by c2a2.
Normal practice is either t o draw the operator's atten-
tion to the overwound condition by an alarm or to
provide an automatic reduction at the sctpoint so
that an immediate response is possible, if required.
Facilities for droop adjustment are often provided.
Typically a high value of droop, like 25070, may be
beneficial in reducing transient steam pressure varia-
tions if the system frequency fluctuates to a marked
degree. The droop may be adjustabie within a range
or alternatively switched from a selection of two or
more values. Droop adjustment, or switching, on-ioad
generally implies a ioad change uniess carried out at
the pivot point of the characteiistic or uniess coupled
with a simultaneous change in speed setpoint. Many
governors incorporate facilities for a 'bumpless' change
in this fashion.
Fieure 2.4 is a develovment of Fir 2.3, showing the
"
characteristics of additianai overspeed limiting facilities
that have t o be built into the design so that the speed
rise on a ioad rejection can be adequately contained
iob OilOOP
h ltls chapter) is one option which could ameliorate
MiNiMUM SPEEDER GEAR RANOE AT
FREoUENCY HI
..-e
R ' C..rii,;..
C".l:..)F:,,i4.(
.:,s!; .,,a -,,,,, s u e . , :, ,.,:;,s.;..<:
li.. ? ? ' I , . , ,,-I-.,.C,PCD:1..
I . O.O.li.sTli: lR.,..C.
beioiv tlie overspccd trip setpoint 0x1 a Ihigh dioop go
nos. On it low droop govciiior (say 4% or less), 111
overspeed niay be contained by tllc normal droati
cliaiacteiistic witliout any oecd ibr thr special overs~>eid
limiting facilities.
In eitiier case, to lnieet the requirement of containillp
thc overspeed within the trig setl>oint,it will be necessary
t o closc all the turbine valves withiii a fraction of 11
second. When the speed error reduces, the goverl~ol
reopens the valves to the amount necessary to maintain
the speed at the reduced value of load.
O n reheat machines such as that depicted in Fig 2
it is necessary to control nor only the H P govcrnillg
valves but also the interceptor governing valves folio\
ing the rehealer. if the H P valves only were closed rapidly
on a full-load rejection, the amount of stored steam ill
the reheater and associated pipcwol-k would be sufficient
to ovcrspeed the machine to destruction. Thel-efolr,
similar rapid response to close the interceptor governilig
valves is provided.
Most large turbine-generators employ rehealing
intermediate pressure (IP) stcam to improve th
efficiency. Thermal efficiency is reduced if thro
takes place in the interceptor valves, so these vaives a
usually fully open over the normai load range o f tl
machine. This operating regime is referred to as HI'
governing and is achieved by applying a fixed bias to
the interceptor governing valves, thus giving them 11
same speed/load characteristics as the H P gove
valves but more open by the amount of the fixed
(typically 50%). In the event of an overspccd, these valv
will close, albeit at a greater speed-error than the HI'
21- DROOP governor valves.
Another possibie mode of operation (often provider
as a switched option) is to allow the interceptor goverlr
ing vaives to operate in a throttled condition. Altliougll
the thermai efficiency is reduced, 'thc spinlling spare
capability' of the plant is enhanced: the capability o f
the machine to increase load rapidly iii response t
either a reduction in the power system frequency 0
a demand by the operator t o increase load. This may
be important in power systems where there are iarge
fluctuations in network frequency, or where there at'
insufficient machines with good regulating characte~
istics. This mode of control is referred t o as HP PI
IP governing or sometimes as parallel governing. In th
HP governing mode, the reheater pressure is normali
proportional to the ioad o n the machine, but in the H
plus IP governing mode, the aim is for a constant re-
heater pressure, at least over the load range of 50- 100%.
This means that at 50% load, instead of the pressure
N O LOAD
in the reheater being say 20 bar, it will be at the
: I.. :.I-c: L . .. c:3'il"
fuli-load value of 40 bar and the 'spinning spare'
capability will be improved by the additional thermal
llilcleristics, a separate load/frequency controller is
Ill having the features shown in Fig 2.5. Far any
.i':iaR:
<.C.T.C>$>>
I-,.
storage available through having reheater steam a t the
. A :
fuli-load pressure. Thus the I P and L P cylinders will be
able t o provide their full-load torque almost immedi-
ately, although there may iater be some decay until the
boiler firing rate has picked u p to its full-load value.
cii:liacIeristics described so far in this sectioii iue
Ilitil soit the jparallcl connection of turbine-
1015 onto rlic p o ~ c systcm.
i However, same o f
tolcs o f a governing system aiisc frolii a considera-
01 llir types of plant being contraiicd and the way
li the control of the scparate boiler and turbine
e purpose of this description is to note the
lres affecting the governor. Three basic options
cd, each of which may include enhancements
scribed) t o improve the response to particular
llional circumstances.
1 Simple s c h e m e - boiler o n p r e s s u r e
clne the governor speed setpoint is controlled
ollcrdtor t o load the machine by means of the
droop characteristics. Options for droop adjust-
iic often incorporated.
cil~llmi~sioning purpascs it may also be an ad-
I . 'l'l~esewould either prevent thc turbine valves
,l?ening above a certain proportion of their travel
load measurement, would prevent further valve
I' above a certain load setpoint. Thc main dis-
Ilulie of the overall scheme is that a ioad rejection
Id cause the turbine steam valves t o close rapidly,
sing all flow through the boiler, possibly with
om firing rate applied. Although the boiler safety
would lift a few secolids later, there is some
~ o o dof thermal damage to superheater tubes.
tt~vl~ioe by-pass system (described in Section 11
otllei disadvantage is that any load increase,
iri allplied t o the turbine manually by the opeia-
ly matched by the boiler. Because the flow
the pressure will fall to a degree dependent
lls, the droop characteristics provided in the
overn nor are usually derived by measurement
position rather than electrical load. This may
i n Incremental droop deviations at any operating
due to the imperfection of valve linearisation
uleristics (see Section 1.4 of this chapter).
Turbine m a s t e r load controller w i t h boiler
ressure control
t~scrcomethe previous point about non-linear droop
titlg frequency, depending o n the characteristics,
u'ill be a demanded load determined by this
teristic which is compared with the measured
" I load in the master load controller. The result-
?r signal provides the input to the governor
OEMAhl"iii> ion0
TO INCREASE OR
OLCREASE
SPEED SETPUN,
i:io 2.5 Sci,elralic of a silnple ioad frequeilc), cosi~olici
speed setpoint, which changes the load o n the turbine
to reduce thc error. This form of slow-acting integral
error correction gives accurate droop characteristics
or controi to a fined load (infinite droop), if selected.
T h e master ioad controller may be included as part of
the governing systcm or may be provided separately in
a unit control scheine. Apart from providing accurate
linear droop cllaracteristics, the performance of this
scheme is very similar to the scheme described in the
previous subscction.
1.2.3 Boiler m a s t e r load controller
In this scheme, the output of the master load controller
described in the previous case is used t o set the boiler
firing rate. The governor speed setpoint is controlled by
a boiler pressure error signal, so that the turbine valves
increase or decrease steam consumption in a sense to
reduce the error. This responds very satisfactorily to load
changes demanded by the operator as the boiler firing
rate correction is made first and, subsequently, the rapid
response of the turbine can easily control any pressure
fluctuations.
However, rapid changes in frequency, particularly
the increase arising on ioad rejection, still produce
the necessary governor safely response and abrupt
changes in firing which cause large boiler pressure
fluctuations.
1.3 Subsidiary functions
This section describes additional functions of gov-
ernors, giving typical characteristics of these features.
Not all governors include all these features; in some
cases they may not be essential to the plant being
controlled, or they may be carried out in other equip-
ment but operating through the governor. Equipment
for HP rotor stress control during run-up and load-
ing is a typical example of the latter. It can be
performed by an external computer modulating the speed
setpoint of the governor or it can be a n intrinsic part
of the governor.
Turbine plant sysrelns
1.3.1 Acceleration f e e d b a c k
Acceleratioli feedback is commonly used to provide a
secondary stabilising term to inipravc the damping oS
the governor and to assist tlie prim? safcty fiinction of
thc governor in preventing overspeed due to a load
rejection.
With a disconnection froni the power system, thc
response of a governor without acceleiatioii feedback
would be controlled by the speed error leim as modified
by the droop law. If the speed droop is set to 470, the
valves u,ould have fully closed by the time the speed was
4 % above nominal. A typical value of the initial accelera-
tion rate is 12% oer second, so it would be at least 0.33
seconds before the valves had been signalled to the fully-
closed state. In addition, inherent delays in tlie hydraulic
system mean that the valves do not achieve the signalled
closure response. Taking a linear acceleration rate o f
12% per second, the time to reach an overspeed of 10%
would be 10/12 = 0.833 seconds. Because of the
expansion of steam entrained between the steam valves
and the turbine, the turbine will continue to accelerate
after the steam valves arc closed. T o contain the
o v e r s x e d within the trill setting of l o % , it is generally
necessary to incorporate an acceleration tern?.
A govcrnor incorporating acceieration detection can
sense the need to close the steam valves as soon as its
measurement circuits are able to respond. The valves can
be instructed to close a t maximum rate within 30 ms of
the load rejection and should be fully closed 1W ms later.
Figure 2.6 shows a typical response t o a load rejection.
T o ensure that this form o f acceleration feedback only
comes into play during a significant load rejection, a
threshold is preset into the sensing system below which
there is no outout. The acceleration sienal - must also be
present for a preset time before it takes effect.
1.3.2 Unloading g e a r
Unloading gear may take several different forms, depcn-
ding o n the plant being controlled. It is usually
complementary t o a protective function, the operation
>lo
OVERSPEED TRIP SETTINO LEVEL
FIG.2.6 Turbine response lo load rejection
130
C
of \+'liicli wo~iltl ~nosiiiaily c a ~ s ca toibiric tril?.
iiicoi-oorated so that the colldition likelv to cat
tiil) is sensed early and thc turbine load is de
to rcdiice the prababiiity of tripping. If a tr
occur, then the ttansicnt effect an thc plant is redii
because it occus.s at a lower load.
Low exhaust oressure unloadina-aear is norarali
:,I J... $ 1 . ~,I..,II. 1. 1.1.tIl ..I..:I . I :.t111'1'; !' : I
I . . I . ! I I . I . ' I :1.11 I . ,
istic is shown in Fig 2.7. The purpose o f unlo
is to reduce the effects or prohahilit)' o f a trip.
reason for providing a trip is discussed separate
Section 3.1 of this chapter. T h e degree of unlo
sibility of motoi.ing. The rate of unloading is ge
consistent usit11 the rate of incrcase in exhaust pr
However, if the initiating cause o f unloading is
the load. This is achieved by resetting the govern
speed setpoiot which has been independently reduc
t o veto the operation of the loading gear until
exhaust pressure has reduced to a value such that
unlikely t o restrict the initial loading up to full-loa
T h e veto is normally removed by the operator but,
forgotten, the veto will be automaticaily removed wli
FIG. 2.7 Turbine exhaust pressure unloading characteristic
coi-l,oiatcs an invelne Cunctio~rso tiiat all ogstreaiii gob'ci
i b < r o i 120 mhas, as slrowir on 1:ig 2.7). nor processing lhas an almost linear cffect on the steiiill
demand at one nominal set of steam inout coiidilioni.
I-lowever, if tiie conditions vary, the significant non-
ernor speed reference lioearities \\'ill aive rise to i~nperfections.Closed-loop load
in#speed reference is the prime input by control ouercomes these imperfections by superimpos-
ilii. t~iibinecan bc conuolleti, either by the ing a trio~mingsignal onto the governor speed reference.
i . I . : I '1. I: I : . ., 11 .,. I...).. A block diagram of the load ioop is shown iii Fig 2.8
' I 1. 1 3 1 1 . '.111,: . ~ p ~ . .)\:I
; ,A!,#.1 .+. arid the characteristic i t produces in Fig 2.9.
iscd or unsynchronised. Prior t o synchronisa-
peed reference range will extend from the
,
- -
rollable speed (typically 3 % of nominal) up
cst spccd at which the turbine-generator
DEMANDED 1 0 A 0
])able of synchronisation (104%). Once ERROR SIONAL
I, the speed refercncc will be limited to thc TO INCREASe OR
DECREASE
SPEED SEXPOINT
I maximum rates of increase or decrease of
VOLTAGE
ANALOGUE
OF FREOUENCY
FUNCTION GENERATOR
uite rapid fixed rate which is compatible LOAO LOOP i R L o U E N N
CHARACTERISTIC
lium conceivable rate at which the turbine
,e increased if warmed through and all
I usere at an optimunl. In this latter case, tile
\ r ~ ) u / either
d be ~nanuallyraised by the operator
usually a single fixed rate.
the tuibine-generatol- comes under control
to-synchroniser, o r if manual synchronisation
performed, another rate-of-change of speed
'$1 apply. This must be compatible with the
nising unit and is usually designed to give
lain synchronisation.
~nchronisedand under operator control, the
lige is conventionally set to give full travel
u to + 6 % of nominal speed in 2 minutes.
lnor speed reference now acts as a load
nd, if a 4% droop is applicable, this means
if a prolonged increase or decrease is
omatic unit controller is generally used to raise
the governor speed setpoint in preference t o
to^.. In this case a specific rate, usually slower
10 load per second, will apply.
FIG. 2.9 Load loop frequency 'box' characteiiicici
Closed-loop control of turbine electrical load
oo > control o f turbine electrical load is added
overning system to give accurate load droop
s and facilitate the provison of variable- The frequency range over which the load loop is
ngs. The basic governor incorporates a speed operative is limited so that, even when the load loop
m where the trimming signal is derived from droop is set to high or infinite values, the unit responds
e position. Because the steam flow/position t o any large frequency errors in a manner matched
lip is non-linear, the basic speed governor in- t o the characteristics of the normal 4% droop of the
Turbine piant sysretns Governing systems

basic speed governor. By liniiliiig thc load range over
wliich the load loop is operative, the magnitude of
sudden load clianges on the boiler systern is limited if a
lox, speed droop is used. For obvious reasons (Fig 2.91,
spccd and load variations over which variable-droop
is pcimitted a1.e known as the box chal-actel-istics.
Consider a sudden fall in network frequency or1 a
nuinber of machines operating in parallel with different
droops but similar box size. Bccause the load loop is
slow-actinp, through the governor speed reference, all
machines initially cantiibute an increase in demanded
load. Then those machines with high or infinite load loop
droops will slowly reduce in load, returning to a value
at or near theii original load. This allows the other
then tlic HP stog, 11' govcining and Ii'stog valves t i i i i i l
the u~halegroup is closed. Valvcs arc opened in tiic
reverse sequence and tlicl-c is also tlie cayability hi revcl
sing the sequence at any point \i,lIell llie glolill tesl is
only partially complete.
On a typical wet steam (PWR) torbine, there will b
four H P inlet and six LP inlets so a group cannot b
defined in the above manner.
A vital part of the on-load test equipment is the pro
sion of some means for the operator to monitor 111
performance of the valves. This may be done b
automatic initiation o f a chart recorder, giving a tin1
base against which the opening and closing times
valves ,nay be judged for conformity to the spe NO"

machines with low droop to pick-up load at a rate
compatible with their boilers. The advantage of this
arrangement is that some units can bc designated for
rapid load pick-up, whilst those unable lo sustain such
a transient can still contribute usefully t o the control of
falling frequency.
1.3.5 Overspeed t e s t i n g
Overspeed testing to prove the actual value of trip
setpoint of ovcrspccd protection systcms is an essential
subsidiarv function of EOVcining .systems.
. The testing is
carried out on an unsynchronised turbine. Initially, the
oneiator has to operate a key-locked test switch which
permits a higher than normal governor speed range
up to + 13% rather than + 6 % . The normal governor
raise button is used t o increase speed t o the trip set-
points. The full method of testing is described in
tion. Another method is to use an XY plotter wi
actual valve position being plotted against the deman
ed position. This can be arranged to give a well-define(
characteristic for a correct test, so that an incorrect tcst
is readily identified. A third method, likely to be
employed in the future, is t o make use of the VDIJs
provided in the control room for data processing. A
similar type of record to that described for the XY plotlcr
may be obtained, using a temporarily enhaoccd scann.
ing rate for the valve position signal of tlie valve undet
test.
t..i(i. 2.10 A ~ l ~ r n i l i iIUII-"8)
c and lovdi~~g
equip81~ciit
1.3.7 A u t o m a t i c run-up a n d loading s y s t e m s
Automatic run-up and loading systems are provided f
two main reasons:
lilse o f the large number of plant-mounted trans- and load. The method of controlling these is dependellt
T o assist the operator in making the complex sequenc providing inputs, careful consideration is given

Section 3.5 of this chapter.
The abilitv to test the correct functioning.of cach
turbine steam valve is necessary for both on-load opera-
tion and also nrior to run-un. The latter is described as
valve exercising, the requirement being to stroke cach
\,alve open and closed individually, t o test valve freedom
o f movement. As far as the operator is concerned this
uses the same controls as on-load testing, with the excep-
tion that selecting 'exercise' ensures that the valves can
only be opened if the boiler stop valves are closed.
1.3.6 On-load t e s t i n g
On-load testing can only be carried out on groups o f
valves in turn. Thus, o n a four-inlet turbine, one group
o f valves comprises the left-hand front H P governing,
H P stoo.. . I P "eovernine- and I P stoo valves. The on-load
test system includes facilities for checking the operation
o f all the valve relay inputs. O n H P and I P governing
~ ~
valves the ability to close in response to governor signals
is checked and also the means of tripping tlle valve in
response t o the action of the protection system. O n H P
and 1P stop valves, the normal tripping and resetting
action from the protection system is checked and also
the facilities provided as back-up for emergency closure.
Testing of a group of valves is carried out sequentially,
starting with the closure o f the H P governing valve,
.
of checks necessary prior to and during start-up.
T o run-up and subscquently load the turbine in
safe and consistent manner. Sophisticated schem
can be provided whcrc the rate o f run-up or loadillg
is faster and less stressful for the machine than a
human operator could reasonably achieve.
The primary output of a typical system is t o the ba.
speed governor, either to increment the speeder ge
or t o the governor in such a way that failure of t
output signal gives a similarly rate-limited change
demand. Some outputs of digital state signals provid
interlock or initiation signals t o the governor and aut
synchroniser, whilst others provide indications t o
operator. The inputs and outputs are shown on
2.10. The inputs to system depend on the degree
sophistication, in the most comprehensive case the
would be as shown.
The scope of the system described here assumes tha
separate operator actions o r sequencing systems bri
all the auxiliary systems necessary for the safe opes
tion of the turbine t o a satisfactory state of readin
Thus lubricating oil, main and auxiliary CW syste
etc., will have previously been brought into servi
A digital state signal will indicate that each of th
conditions o r prestart interlocks has been satisfied.
design stage to provide enough redundancy to
i t fully automatic run-up and loading with high
~ilily.Most inputs are either dupiicated by 'master'
~ck'transducersat the same measuring point, or
functional duplication built into the system
of measurements made at entirely different
ng points (e.g., separate measurement of inlet
I IPressure in left-hand and rigbt-hand steam chests),
i f one o f the minor input signals is lost, fully
lllltic operation may still be possible. The failed
llcers are identified t o the operator.
ral minor input signals are lost or one of a
pair of major signals, automatic control may
led such that there is only a fixed safe accelera-
(if in run-up mode) o r fixed safe loading rate
further signals fail, only manual control may be
ble. The turbine governor will provide a limitation
rate-of-change of speed or load, but this will not
y be safe, particularly if a cold start is in
The operator must then decide whether there
ent desk indications t o permit progress, or to
ill a safe condition whilst a repair is effected, or
ltt down the turbne.
Itc main requirement o f the automatic run-up and
111 system is to limit the thermal stresses within the
lc rotor and valve chests during changes of speed
o n tlle type and size of the turbine and the steam condi-
tions for which it is designed. Thus large turbines
working at high main and reheat temperatures, w h e , ~
specified for two-shifting duty, require tlle most
sophistication if optimum run-up and loading rates are
to be achieved. A large wet-steam turbine for base load
operation requires control of stress in the H P chests and
rotor, but the L P chests and rotors do oat need any
separate control a t all. Direct measurement of stress, by
thermocouples measuring the difference between inner
and midwall metal temperatures at suitable measuring
points, provides a means ofcontrolling run-up or load
changes t o the optimum values. Control is of a ciosed-
loop proportional form, acting into the governor as
shown in Fig 2.10, so that stress is held constant at the
reference value throughout most of the run-up.
One exception to this concerns the critical speed bands
of the turbine, which are determined by rotor dynamics.
Here the strategy is to ensure that there is a large stress
margin before entering the critical speed band and then
to provide a rapid acceleration through it. Any 'hold'
signals from the operator (or any other source) are vetoed
whilst within the band.
Provision is often made to 'hold' run-up and loading
by vibration, eccentricity or differential expansion signals
sensed by the separate Turbine Supervisory Equipment
(TSE). These will also be vetoed within critical speed
bands o r during block loading; outside these bands

133

liniil. l'lic 'bold' wili be released i f the contioliing
l~araillctcrreduces to 80% of the application level, i f
the TSE signal continues to increase above thc 'hold'
limit, a second Limit is reached at which tlic operator
is advised to trip the machinc.
When the turbine reaches syochionoos speed, a num-
ber of pre-synchi-ooising checks are ln~ade(e.g., the
Autotnatic Voltage Regulator must be on 'Auto') and
then a signal is given to the autosynchronising systcm
tllat the turbine is ready and in a safe state to accept
load. The governor speed demand is then increased or
decreased automatically by pulses from the autosyn-
chroniser until synchronism is achieved, the circuit-
breaker being automatically closed by the synchroniser
following the operator's command to autosynchronise.
Alternatively, tile synchronisation and circuit-breakei-
In a wider context than auto run-up and loading
of unloading gear or any governor fault which is causing,
Or likely to cause, a load reduction if not rectified.
Typically an 'unloading gear operated' alarm and a
'governor fault'alarm would be provided. If a governor
fault developed into a situation where the governor could
no longer control the machine, a further alarm 'gover-
nor tripped' would be generated concurrently with the
signal to trip the turbine.
The component parts of governing systems have
now been discussed fully in functional terms. The
subsidiary functions described may be provided in total
or in part for any particular application. Irrespective
of the method o f implementation, it is necessary to
understand how the subsidiary functions are connected
into the main governor. Figure 2.11 shows the most
complex scheme, incorporating all the described func-
134
Governing systems
not effective in tlla stearly state but comes i
crtation transiently \\,lien required. Unloading g
reduce the steam delnand \+,hen r e q i ~ i ~ e dOtlrci
.
puts, soch as the overspeed test spccd demand or val
testing controls, are su,itchcd into service by t h ,
esafor whcn required. Auto run-up and loading
apply the demands of operator or thc unit colii
system for a change in turbine output to the speeder
in the optimum manner. Note that the governor
be split into two parts - a common processing syst
and a number o f individual valve controllers.
,4 Electronicgoverning
Traditionally, the early mechanical and lnecha
I:i(i. 2.1 i Governor overall block diagram
I be made to close the valve by a closing spring ning systems.
eset electrical null bias.
0fSUCCeSS in this must be of such a high order that failu
I t will be seen from the block schematic diagram set o f circuit components, whose sole task is to perform
I) that single faults in a valve channel can cause that function by converting input signals into output
terns, using different hardware and different techniqu
ise to close, giving a partial loss of load. A signals whose amplitude (in voltage or current terms) is
for speed sensing, operating by different routes to th directly proportional to the required transfer function.
ctc loss of load would require a failure in the
two Series-connected sets of valve gear. Obviously, th
reliability of the speed governor should be as high a
possible to achieve this and may be defined as th
probability of not exceeding the overspeed trip setpoil les. These are described later in this section. The and the output (or outputs) passed on to following
However, in any general governing system, the valv modules. This permits a simple approach to fault finding
hility of not achieving a complete loss o f load is
position output has three failure modes. A valve can clos another important governor characteristic. by monitoring signal levels.
down, open up or stick in its current position. It e redundancy or monitoring is normally em- A three-channel system can be made to satisfy the
only when either of the last two occurs and is followe reliability requirements established for governing systems.
I, when faults occur in the common processing
by an event leading to a sudden unloading o f ti f the governor, they u,ill be annunciated to the If a failure occurs in one channel, it causes the output
turbine, for example, the opening of the circuit-break
on a turbine driving a generator, that the overspe
trip is brought into operation. There is also the p
sibility, in an uncoupled turbine, that a failure w and to disconnect them before they can contribute an
n-line without interfering with operation or
occur through an excessive speed demand. g in any of the previous definitions of re- erroneous output. Because the detection circuits deter-
135
Turbine plant systems
speed co~iespondingto llic naminai network fl-cqncncy.
'The deleciol- circuit provides a iinear frcqucocy to
voitagc conversion over a iirnited range only. The rea-
so11 for providing a separate narrow range signal is
tiiat, by using such techniques, better iong-term accu-
racy can be obtained. I-lowever, neither technique will
function correctly when there is a substantial deviation
(e.g., > 10%) iionl the reference frequency. In the
tuned circuit, this is because of a loss of iinearity away
from the nuli point t o the extent that gross errors in
the sense of the output will occur at sub-harmonic
frequencies. Thc timing circuit measures the time for
a number of teeth o n a speed-sensing wheel t o pass
tile detector and compares this with a fixed accurate
time reference. The number of teeth passing in one
revolution of the wheel and the number o f teeth taken
for measuring purposes are determined to provide a
compromise between accuracy of tneasurement (the
Inore teeth the better) and adequate transient response,
particularly of the derived acceieration signal (the more
measurements per second the better). Tile accuracy with
which the teeth are cut o n the wheei and the combina-
tion of speed detectol. and trigger circuitry fol. register-
ing the passage of teetll are also considered carefully
in the design.
Some of the latest governors employ a pulse timing
technique for speed sensing with auto-ranging to deter-
mine the optimum number o f teeth which are t o be
timed. This gives a n adequate range of the speed signal
over the whole operating regime of the turbine from
approximately barring speed to the overspeed range.
For turbines where there is a narrow range detector,
a separate wide range speed-sensing circuit must be
provided. Typically, this comprises a diode pump cir-
cuit, giving a linear conversion of frequency to voltage
over a required range from barring speed up t o the
maximum synchronous speed. Wide range governing
systems may operate t o control the run-up by means
of either the governing valves or the H P stop valves.
Run-up o n the governor valves has the advantage
that the H P steam chest can be 'warmed through'
prior t o steam admission t o the turbine, but this
arrangement requires very sensitive control at small
valve openings in order t o provide a smooth increase
in speed. Control of the HP stop valves permits the
use of a built-in pilot valve for steam control of
the run-up phase. Since this has a lower-gain valve
position/steam flow characteristic, the required sensi-
tivity of the valve position co~ltrolleris less critical.
The typical facilities required by the operator are:
The ability t o preset the terminal speed.
A 'hold' button so that the speed can be held a t the
current value.
A 'release' button to allow the run-up to continue.
The ability t o preselect speed ramp rates to any one
of several values (usually five).
138
dose operator supervisioii of macliioc pai;!lli
Therefore, as in the case of the narrow i-angc I
thcsc reqoii-cmeots arc conveniently caiiieil olt
lnotorised potentiometer suitably controlieil I
operator. More recent practice empioys the
vides an input to two signal comparators C i
whose other input is equivaient to the demand
If there is no difference between these I
demands, neither oscillator is activated and ti,
retains its existing count, giving the define<
output reaches the terminal speed selected by
desk. Although typically there is a choice of
up rates, the 'lower' oscillatoi- is normally
give a single fast rate-of-speed decrease.
The demanded speed is compared with the mc
speed in the speed error amplifier, the gain
is set such that a 10% change in valve po
achieved for about 1% change in turbine spe
stability margin. The speed error amplifier acts lliri
either the stop or governing valve controilers 10
selccted by the operator. Since the turbine-g
remains unsynchronised during run-up, the
is light and with near normai steam pressures
small proportion of the full valve opening is ne
to achieve run-up t o speed. Often a steam d
limit is applied during run-up and if this I
exceeded the operator is alerted t o a possible
Two types of speed-sensing device are in con1
mounted a t the H P end of the machine so that in I
ing of the H P end of the machine and the gavert
would act t o close all the turbine steam valves.
The first type o f speed-sensing device is the m
netic pick-up shown in Fig 2.15. The sensing col
wound round the pole-piece which directs the magn
I !I,,
DEMANDED
RUN-DOWN
8.81~
REVERSIBLE
COUNTER
- D~GITAL
TO ANALOGUE t-
CONVERTER
SPEED
o-10" OC
FIG.2.14 uigital speed setnoin, - block diagram
I, iilc wheel is opposite the pole piece, the ever, a spare probe is often fitted, wliicli can be sub-
~g system requires three probes; how- electromagnetic field is intercepted by the toothed wheel,
eddy currents arc generated in the material and dcpcn-
ding o n whether or not a tooth is present, a varying
energy loss occurs in the strength of the return signal
which is sensed by the demodulator.
A characteristic feature of most electronic governors
is that they exercise individual control over each steam
control valve in the turbine in response to an overall
steam demand signal. This permits on-load testing of
individual valves and also fault monitoring with the
capability to close a valve in the event of a failure.
Particular mention is made here of the characteristics
o f the valve position loop and its significance in achiev-
ing the desired control of turbine load.
Given constant steam inlet conditions, the power
output of a turbine is a linear function of steam flow
passing through the no-load point at a small percentage
of maximum steam flow. This characteristic is known
as the Willans line and is shown in Fig 2.16 (a). In the
conventional condensing turbine used for driving a power
generator, the pressure drop across the turbine is also
directly proportional to the steam flow through it.
The desired characteristic is therefore that the steam
demand input to the valve position controller should have
a linear relationship with steam flow. However, inherent
l . l S Magnetic piek-up speed sensing device features of valve design are non-linear so that a valve
139
Turbine plant systems Governing systi+~n:.

linearising filnction lhas to be intrutli~cctlioio tllc g o t . A. i\'ilh the anaioguc govciirar, individual valve 11icR1.G. are processed by tlic UCi.. Output c a i n o r a ~ ~ d s
errini lo restore the required iinearity. In ~ ~ a i i i c u i aillc
r, i:~iii)!ii'icrsa c c e ~ tllc
t t1ll.e~tiiglex slpeed channel outpots fsonl the UCL to alter the speed, load or operatint?

i.
moqh
valve arca/steam flow irlatiansl~ipis rion-linear ior v;ai-
lies of pressure ratio (across the valve) leis than l l i u
criticai value. Refer lo Kearlon, gage 628 121 and llie
typical characteristic is sliown in Fig 2.16 (b). Depend.
ing on the valvc shape, there will also bc a noir-1ioc;ii
SIEA~.I FLOW iclationship between valve lift and valve area, giviii
WII.I.ANS llNE
the characteristic sllown in Fig 2.16 (c). T o iiiiearis
these two effects, the steam demand is shaped I>
linearising circuits t o give a characteristic of the far)
in)
shown in Fig 2.16 (d). Additional versinc effects arisillg
from the lever arrangement driving the valve position
pick-off may also be included in the conipensatio~
LOAD 700% Each individual valve controller has thiee-channcl
PRESSURE R A P S~~ P , valve stcam demand signals as input. its function i
,m"a
ti, iiiiil!ogue form and jpiaccss tlicm lo drive 111c s e i v o ~
viilvc coils oil each stearn valve.
'Iiir sccond type of governor employing digital
jili~rvssi~ig uscs a completely different configuration. A
rrl!!wnlc single-channel, basic speed governor is pro-
Vlilril lor each steam valvc. At this level, termed the base
ivcl governor (BLG), there is Ihigh integrity due to the
llliplc redundancy and built-in error checks which
liirle closure of the related steam valve in the event
valve channel fault.
A1 tile upper control level (UCL), a single Unit Pro-
provides all the other functions required in a
in& system. All interfaces t o the operator and
, except the basic signals connected directly to
o ~ o d etake eficcl through the HI.<?, but only iS thcy
meet thc accelxability criteria stared at base level. This
forni o f digital governor is shown diagrammaticallp
in Fig 2.17.
The BLG haidwareand software are totally standard
for all applications whereas, at the UCL, the hardware
is a standard niinicompulei but the software incor-
porates all functions and parameters special to the
application. A particular feature of the design is the
ability of the UCL to provide communications to the
operator via a multi-character dispiay panel. This permits
the iuteractive prompting of the operator far every mode
of operation and enables him to see the response t o
his actions. Additionally, precise details arc given of

1 > CRITjCAI
#-
I
I
I X C A i
t o take a majority vote of these signals to form a s
nal demand, t o provide iinearisation and t o provide
position control of the turbine steam valve, using tile

in the event of loss of accurale valve position control. .;#

1.4.1 Digital p r o c e s s i n g
Two types of digital processing are employed on the late.

precise functions, such as steam valve llneartsatlon %

character~stics,res~dentin the software for accuracy and
ease of settlng-up I
One tvoe . .
uses the ntoicx , modulal redundanl I' I CONTROL
,
configuration very similar to that previously
Fig 2.13. Each sinele channel uses a combined
and memory module whlch is an independent speed 3
I
1
i!liillAT0R'S

'>A'41 '.
PLANT
HIOHWAY

(TRIPLEX) -___
lNTER.
computing element in its own right. The module also FACE
"Mi,
includes all the built-in features to ocrmit its use in the

. .

4ii3
provide interchannel communication for channcl

'1/
harmonisation and fault detection purposes. DUMP
SOiENOiD
As with a n analogue governor, '2 out of 3' majority
voting is carried out at key points in the system. Control
variables are entered bv means of setoolnts whlch can @ 8
BI'LED WHEEL
7
be ramped u p or down by the user. High priority d PROBES

STEAM DEMAND -- LINEARISING setpoints such as the speed and load setpoints are avai
CHARACXERISIIC able to the operator by direct access to the process0
Lower priority setpoints, which alter the control cha MODULE

(dl I
acteristics (e.g., droop variation), are accessed via a serial /xunmrl
communications link to the interface processor. Contro

!
modifiers, such as vacuum unloading, are sent t o th
channels from the interface processor via serial link
The system timing, the synchronisation between channe
--------------------------.
U6LLEYELLlOYERNOR 10 OiHER VAiVE MODULES I
VALVE LIFT 100% and the fault monitorine,. orocess
. are chosen t o suit the

FIG. 2.16 Typical $team now/load/valve characteristics

1lrcd3 Idr adcquate trallilr.rl1 rr,ponse and lu ailou l r r
f FIG. 2.17 Microgoveinor - block diagram
140
liirbinr plant systems
:illy poveiiioi iaiill alarnr \vl~iclimight occur. I'hc ap-
erator may also seiect particular foons of disglay, for
example, to faciiitalc turbine run-"1,.
'The Bl,G clianriel includes ail tlie iiard\rare and
signal routcs froin the speed probe sigrral-bus t o the
electrohydraolic scivo-valve o f its associated stcam
valve relay. As well as validating data inputs from the
UCI., the B1.G incorporates extensive self-checking
facilities, i n the event of a fault, the steam valve is
closed by an independent $means through its own
faiisafe watchdog hardware.
1.5 G o v e r n o r valve r e l a y s
The output of the electronic speed governor requires
conversion from a current signal to a mechanical force
of sufficient power t o actuate the steam valves. It is tile
function of the governor relays to perform this duty.
The hydraulic relay has no competitor as a force
amplifier for steam valve actuation. it has the capabili-
ty to develop the high power needed for rapid valve
opening or closing, without a significant deadband or
hysteresis.
The usual arrangement for electronic governing is to
employ a single separate relay for eacll stcarn valve, the
conversion being carried o u t by a proprietary
electrohydraulic servo-valve. There are many different
forms of valve relay, of which three are used o n CEGB
turbines with electronic governing. These will be refer-
red to as Types 1, 2 and 3 in the descriptions which
foilow. Types 1 and 2 use the same proprietary servo-
valve which will be described first. The servo-valve used
with the Type 3 relay is inciuded in tlie description o r
the relay.
Figure 2.18 shows a servo-valve in cross-section,
together with a diagrammatic rep~esentation of how
it is connected in a simple position-loop controlling
a primary ram. The feedback t o the amplifier in the
governing system is provided by a linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT).
The function of the servo-valve is to provide a n
output flow rate of hydraulic fluid proportional to the
input current. The input current, derived by the gover-
nor servo-amplifier is applied to the coils of a force
motor thereby deflecting the armature and drive arm
mounted in a flexure tube. The high pressure supply is
filtered and supplied via orifices to the boost chambers
and at either end OF the spool. The fluid from each
boost chamber is cross-connected via porting to the re-
verse ends of the servo-spool. It travels down the centre
of the spool and returns to low pressure via the drain
port. The deflection of the drive arm will block one o r
other of the nozzles and create a high pressure in one
boost chamber and a low pressure in the other, thus
creating a force to move the servo-spool until the pres-
sures are equalised. The spool deflection is thus pro-
portional to the drive arm deflection which is itself
proportional t o the current. In the diagram, the servo-
142
Chaplet 2
spool is slio\zn ill the ccntsal position \uith llic contrcil
ports blanhcd-oll. This is referred lo as lhc 'null poi)-
tioii'. When llie spool moves, one control goit is opencd
t o the supply port and tlie other opcns lo the drain goil.
Thc flow rate is proporiional t o ihc spool dcllectioii.
When connected as a position controller, as showii
diagrammatically, the null position of the spoiil
\ / / DEMAND POSliiON
corresnands t o the condition of eauai 'demainded' aiiii
'actual' positions. An)' discrepancy with the positioi,
measured by the LVDT causes a current to flow, resulting
in a hydraulic fluid flow t o the power piston until the
required position is achieved.
T o avoid stiction of the valve it is usual practice
t o superimpose a 'dither' current o n the servo-valvc
amplifier output. This is a medit~nifrequency (1 kHz)
low amplitude current which plays no part in the overall
position control, but keeps the servo-valve spool in a
'live' condition, the effect being t o vibrate it by a negli-
gible amplitude at the 'dither' frequency.
The null is adjusted by altering the spring bias applicil
t o the armature. In the event of a loss of the electrical
signal driving the scrvo-valve, it is essential that the valvr
relay and hence the power piston is driven t o a closccl
position, so a 'null bias' is set t o give a small offset in
this direction. The control characteristic of the servo.
valve in this condition is shown in Fig 2.19 (a). Also
plotted (in Fig 2.20) is the corresponding valve internal
leakage which reaches a peak at the normal controlling
point of the valve. The servo-valve is likely to be the
most sensitive item in the hydraulic system owing to the
small clearances, especially in the nozzles, and the align-
ment of the control edges of the spool with the ports
in the valve body. The hydraulic fluid must be kept iii III3IYE ARM
a pure condition with a low contamination level, othei- PORT
wise the control edges will become eroded and the inter-
nal leakare will increase substantiallv. If this leakarc
persists, it will result in an excessive fluid cotisumption
and a reduction in tlie fluid pressure, eventually resulting
in the need to shut dawn the turbine and replace all the
worn componelus.
The needs for the control of the fluid characteristics
are described in the section on the fluid pumping system.
However, a t this point, it should be noted that CEGB
standard practice is to provide a test rig in the laboratory
for checking the characteristics of servo-valves removed
from the turbine.
Before going o n to describe the details of the valve
relays following the servo-valves, it is necessary to sel
out the requirements of the final drive t o the steam valve.
In the event of a failure of the hydraulic system, the
steam valve must be capable of closing in less than 200
ms against any force acting to open the valve. The flow
of steam through the valve usually generates a n opening
force over some part of the travel. Figure 2.21 shows FIO. 2.18 Basic servo-loon
a typical case where the steam force acts to open thc
valve over the last 70% of the valve lift. A substantial
spring (or even a nest of springs) is provided t o give
the closing force with a large margin over the steam
valve opening force t o overcome frictional effects. The
Turbiiie plant systems
i-
o turbine-generators having four steam inlets to both HI'
4 and IP cylinders, each inlet being fitted with series-
i connected elnergency stop and governor valves. Since
WPUI CURRENT
+ Figure 2.22 shows a diagram of the governor valve
INPUT CURRENT. i r n ~
ia) ~ ~ , ~ data
, b ~ ~ ~ ~
-
,el ~ ~ , ~ t - b ~data
po,n~
INPUT CURRFNi 2 mll
L ~ N ~ A R I TSYMMETRY
Y (UI ~ o n ~ ~ n u odea
vr
B HYSTERSIS ENVELOPE
PIG. 2.20 lnicrnat ieakage tiow cbaincicrisfics
~NPUTCURRENT
These requirements are best met by a single-acting
power piston opened by hydraulic fluid pressure and
closed by the closing spring. Once the steam force and
spring force are known, it is a straightforward design
task to calculate the size of power piston required. Again,
a large margin is provided to allow for friction and,
- where appropriate, the weight of the valve and linkage.
(b, Conlinvovr data
The valve closing rate of 200 ms for full stroke (typical
superheat unit) is set by the need to control overspeed
in the event of a load rejection. The capability of opening
FIO. 2.19 ~o.laadflow characteristics
at the same rate is designed into the valve, as it is needed
in some applications to improve the transient stability
of power system networks. However, this facility is
figure shows a typical spring force characteristic and not provided on turbines supplied to the CEGB and the
the net force closing the valve. Frictional forces are opening of the steam valve is rate-limited to give a time
for full stroke of about 5 s. T o achieve fast opening and
kept to a minimum by designing the valve so that side
loads on the valve spindles are minimised. To open the closing, the servo stages which feed the power piston
must be designed with the appropriate size of porting
"alve, it is necessary for the valve relay to supply a
to provide the required flow into and out of the power
force sufficient to overcome the spring force and any
piston. As well as the porting, there must be pipework
steam closing force, such as that occurring over the
first 30% of movement shown in Fig 2.21. o f adequate size t o supply the fluid flow from the high
144
T O ~ FORCE
L CLOSING VALVE
PR~NGFORCE *STEAM FORCE)
x the unit is the relay plunger, rigidly connected to the
17xti. 2.21 Typical govertior valve forces
in
to meet closing demands. T o assist in this, parti-
lily where fast opening is required, hydraulic ac-
111111atoi-s
are often provided adjacent to each steam
A secondary means of closing the valve relays o f
llliliiiturbine unit from the unit protection system
,t also be provided. This will be described in detail
later section, but from the valve relay point of view,
h through port C to chamber D,the relay plunger will lift,
S F to lift the relay power piston,
ality, emergency stop valve relays (and sometimes
lor valve relays as well) are provided with a dump
having generous clearances and operated by the
liping system so that safety is assured.
Governing systciii:;
1.5.1 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 1
Having covc~.edthc rcquircments, tlic Type I syste~rrwill
be examined in detail. This is used on large reheai
ail control for both the run-up and loading phases is
carried out by the govcrnor valves, the stop valves must
be fully open whenever the turbine is needed for opera-
tion. The simple form of open/closed control required
for the stop valves will be described separately.
reiay and control unit. The input stage, comprising the
servo-valve and actuator piston controlled by the
electronic system, is identical to Fig 2.18. The heart o f
actuator piston and sliding in the relay plunger sleeve.
In the normal position o f the sleeve, as shown it, the
diagram, the relay plunger is moved upwards by the
actuator piston when the steam valve is required to open.
This admits power fluid above the relay power piston
to move it do~,nwardsagainst the force of the valve
spring (not shown), and hence open the valve until such
time as the sweep-resolver position signal is in balance
with the valve position demand. This returns the servo-
amplifier output to zero with the actuator piston and
its transducer restored to the null position. Closing is
effected in a similar manner, with the relay plunger being
moved downwards to allow fluid to be drained out of
the upper power piston chamber.
Tripping is accomplished by the relay plunger sleeve
which, in the running condition, is held dowiiwards (in
the position shown) against Its internal spring by the
presence of high pressure tripping fluid in chamber F.
~f a trip occurs, fluid pressure is lost and the
,,lay ,,lungel- moves upwards due to spring
force. F~~any position of the actuator piston, this will
cause the power piston to be drained.
~i~~~~ 2.23 shows a diagram of the emergency stop
valve relay ,,,,it, Examining the operation of the relay
in the tripped condition, this is held on
its bottom stop so that power fluid entering chamber
B through port A is prevented from gaining access to
I- &h'en high pressure tripping fluid is applied
thereby allowing high pressure power fluid through port
The dump piston acts as a parallel means of ensuring
that the valve is closed if tripping pressure is lost. IR
the normal running condition it will be held against its
top seat by high pressure tripping fluid in chamber E,
thus the power piston fluid from port H apart
from a small warming flow,
he orifice arrangement permits warming flows to the
lower end of the dump piston. In the event of a loss
of tripping pressure, the dump piston will unseat and
allow fluid to be drained rapidly from the power piston
into chamber H.
145
Turbine plant systems Governing systems

SIGNAL FROM ELECTRONIC GOVERNOR i ! l;!,:;:?:~

dump piston has clearances one order higher than
ISOLATING 8 ay plunger and other servo components. The
RELAY SHOWN IN VALVE OPENING POSITION FLUSHING
BLOCK 'lity of its seizure in the event of widespread fluid
ination is therefore remote.
orifices fitted to the systems of both the gover-
and stop valves ensure appropriate rates of valve
Figure 2.24 shows the control arrangements for a
governing valve. Again, the input stage, comprising a
servo-valve and primary ram, is positioned by a servo-
valve amplifier using the LVDT connected to the primary
ram as feedback. In this case, however, the positioning
of the main ram is accomplished by mechanical and

-
DRAIN TRIPPING POWER ACCUMULATOR el in normal operation and prevent excessive rates hydraulic means without a further electronic feedback
7 1
TRIPPING FLUID FI UID IN FLUID IN TEST iilve travel when on-load testing. loop. The primary ram provides the input onto a
c arrangements of trip and test valves shown permit feedback linkage, the other end being connected to
POWER FLUID
oad testing of the valves in all their functioning measure main ram position. A pilot valve is connected
DRAIN FLUID to the linkage so that, with the spool aligned with its
ports, the main ram will be in equilibrium with the
ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
primary ram. A dump valve is interposed in the outlet
(2 Governor valve relay a n d control unit Type 2 port o f the pilot valve supplying the main ram. In the
c 2 control units are fitted to similar machines to normal operating condition, if the primary ram lifts, it
PLG.2.22 Governor valve relay and control unit (Type I) c 1 , but in this case run-up is carried out on the H P will lift the pilot valve, allowing fluid to flow at high
alves, with the governor valves partially open. The pressure to open the main ram. This will move
ol units for H P stop and H P and IP governor valves downwards to open until the main ram position
t lerefore similar. The IP stop valves require simple corresponds to the primary ram input and the pilot valve
tr/closed control only. is restored to the null condition.

Turbine plant systeins
VaLvE SPiWDLE FORK END
CONTROL VALVES MANIFOLD BLOCK
rta. 2.24
io\i,il itgainst its seat against ilic opening spring.
1: piutcciion fluid presstire is lost, tlie dunljr valve
ti~,~.iii!e~l by its spring and relesses thc fluid supply
Iiic niiiin ram to drain, thereby closing the valve rapid-
'I iii. il11111pvalve iowcr seat is also closed by the spring
liit~scuuing off the higii pl-cssure suppiy f r o n ~tbc
111lu1o~ adjacent to the valve reiay. The dump valve
iolao be operated by an electrical signal to the
' alve in the piotectio~i fluid line, thereby
back-up means of tripping individual valves.
., the solenoid valve maintains thc tripping
to the remainder of the valves, but locally
the high pressure fluid above the dump valve
in, causing the valve to trip.
Governor valve relay a n d control unit Type 3
ys are similar to Type 2 but employ a different
nd servo-valve, known as a
. The primary ram displacementis directly
rniil ta the input current to the servo-valve. The
I\,c employs a similar principle and configura-
!hat described in Fig 2.18, but feedback of ram
$11 is introduced magnetically onto the force motor
llil~actsfrom the armature deflection pl.oduced by
n coils. The primary ram is used to drive the
I I I I I I via a feedback linkage and pilot valve as in
relay, but there is also feedback of main ram
a the servo-valve amplifier by means of an
Itis ensures accurate fine control over the full
3 relay is now superseding the Type 2 relay
it and some retrofit applications, with the
i u that it has reduced dependency on the LVDT
rate without it. Additionaily,
Ive has generally larger clcaranccs than the
Iri is less susceptible t o the effects of wear and
~d 2 relays have seen many thousands of
on large turbine-generators and have been
~ : i lto provide a high degree of reliability and
from problems. Nevertheless it is essential that
o f valve relay, and indeed all hydraulic
11% are treated with care and that maintenance
d Out in a clean environment by experienced
'I. If plant is shut down o r awaiting commis-
1'01.more than three months, then fluid should
led round the system periodically to maintain
vc coating on components and prevent corro-
ns. Components kept in store must also be
r n dirt and corrosion. The manufacturer will
lo provide further information to cover specific
Governor valve relay and control unit (Type 2)
heater relief valves
relief valves are supplied on all machines
I over pressurisation of the reheater. These
Governing systems
arc of a sgiing-loaded type, set lo ope,, at a defincd
IprCsSIIIP.
in addition, on sonle machines, there is a need to
supply relatively small release valves to release steam in
the rehealer system to atmosohere when the governor
valves and iiiteicegtor valves close soddenly in an emer-
gency. Allhougil the steam may not be at a sufficiently
high pressure to cause the relief valves to open, any
residual steam trapped in tlie H P cylinder and reheater
could give rise to overheating of H P blading due to
churning in the relatively high density steam. The release
val\,es, located in the connecting steam piping between
the reheater and the interceptor valves, are signalled to
open under the appropriate conditions to prevent this
from happening.
'The relcasc valves may be hydraulically or pneu-
matically operated. Where an electronic governor is
fitted, they arc opened by energising a solenoid. Condi-
tions which signal their opening are:
0 Loss of tripping pressure.
e High acceleration detected by governor.
Closure of ail interceptor steam valve relays.
These conditions cover circumstances of machine tripp-
ing or turbine load rejection without tripping, where
churning could occur either during rundown of the
machine after a trip or during the period of interceptor
valve ciosure on load rejection.
1.6 Hydraulic fluid system
Universai use is made o n large turbine-generators of
hydiaulic fluid at high pressure to provide the large
opening- forces and rauid strokina times. This section
~
deals with the design of the pumping system for supply-
ing fluid at high pressure to the steam valve relays and
t o the protection system.
The design and construction of tile system is close-
ly related t o the choice of operating fluid and to the
use of small-clearance components in the valve relay
operating systems. System pressure is chosen t o allow
the use of an economically-sized relay capable of meet-
ing the required opening forces. For small turbines
(<500 MW), system pressures may be 35 bar or less.
For larger turbines, system pressures of 70- 150 bar are
needed.
These high pressures represent a significant fire risk,
as a small leakage can result in a jet of oil being sprayed
over a considerable distance. The vroximitv of steam
pipes at high temperatures (typically'565"~0; coal-fired
plant) makes it necessary either t o provide for double
enclosure of the pipework and components or t o use
a fire-resistant fluid (FRF). All CEGB systems falling
into the latter category use phosphate ester fire-resistant
fluids. These systems are completely separate from

boiier feed pump Lurbine is associated with the nyain
unit, its control and protection systems are powered by
the same supply unit for convenience.
Phosphate-ester fluids are used because o f their
superior thermal stability compared with water-based
fire-resistant fluids which would be unsuitabie for the
high temperatures norinally found in thevicinity o f steam
valves. They also have the advantage that their viscosity
and lubricating characteristics are similar to lubricating
oil, so that conversion o f earlier units running on high
pressure oil is possible with some care, subject to the
fitting of compatible sealing maleriais. These fluids also
have the necessary fire resistance and provide for a long
service life from the system components. They can be
maintained in good condition for an indefinite period
without the need for replacement.
The fluid system is designed to permit either on-line
investigated promptly, otherwise coinponent life will be
very seriously affected.
In basic form, the fluid supply system comprises a
fiuid reservoir and a pump to deliver high pressure
fluid. To ensure high availability two pumping lines
are needed, one being the duty line and the other on
standby. Pumps are either of the screw-type (for use in
systems up to 80 bar) or of the axial piston variable-
delivery type (for use up to 150 bar). Additional system
SUCTION FILTER
Fio. 2.25 Pump suction arrangement for a separalely.moun1ed Pump
described as tlie needs of the basic component.
considered.
Screw-type pumps may be of the subxnersibic k i l l
mounted on the reservoir top piatc, or they ma)
sel~arateiymounted. Axial-piston pumps and screw-ty
pumps require that the pump suction pressure is adeqii~
to provide a lengthy service life. Failure to meei I
suction pressure requirements will result in cavitation
erosion of the pump components and eventual break-il
of the pump, with the release of numerous metalll
particles. This would necessitate shutdown of the wliol
turbine-generator to replace the faulty pump and t o llur
the entire hydraulic system.
The phenomenon of cavitation results from the cli~
acteristics Of air in the fluid. Tlic solubility of
proportional to the fluid pressure, so that air b
present in the fluid at low pressure become dissoiv
atmospheric pressure, to colne out of solution in lhc
suction pipe and form bubbles. At some point within
the pump, the pressure increases to the extent that 1
air returns into solution with a n abruptness which cau.
collapse of the bubble and damage to any metal in 111
vicinity. Although such cavitation is usually avoided I>
good design, the user must be aware that blockage
any suction filters could lead to a similar effect. Also,
the reservoir is provided to give a definite fluid dwell
-TO SYSTEM
/ \
PUV.P SUCTlMi PUMP OISCHkRGC
PORT PORT
i t ! !ilIo\i8any entrained air to be rclcased. Should
li:ial I ~ c allowed to detcrioratc for any reason or
i lliere he a fault causing excess air lo be entrained
I'liiid returned to the reservoir, the air release
lllay be affected and excess air could be supplied
when driven at constant speed. In these
lil? control valve and the excess flow is returned
c r~servoir.Again, a separate pressure relief valve
ihr provided as an overall protection. A non-return
is fitted in the outlet flow of the pump line, so
Iwo pumping lines can be coupled together.
lougll only one line is needed for operation, the
Iby line can be brought into operation either man-
or automatically by sensing loss of pressure in
further rise in fluid temperature. Phosphate-
ds have a high temperature gradient o f visco-
1 40°C,the fluid has optimum conditions for tlie
mp. At higher temperatures, the viscosity will
ufes, the fluid starts out as extremely viscous
these reasons, coolers are necessary in all systems
, insome systems where cold-starting is essential,
ers may also be required. Coolers are o f the cross-
double-pass shell and tube type, using demin-
i~timers~on type, fltted either m the reservoir or m a
-line. A schematic diagram of a typical pumping
111 is shown in Fig 2.27.
ems employing axial-piston variable-swashplate
have similar arrangements for boost pumps,
I' filters, coolers and pressure relief valves, but their
Governing systems
variable-delivery cal~abililyniakes the use o f a spill-type
prcssu1.e control valve unnecessary. A cross-section of
a variable-swashplatc pump is shown in Fig 2.28. It will
be imnicdiateiy apparent that this is a much rnoic
complex device than the screw-pump shown in Fig 2.25.
However, since the flow can be made to exacriv match
the system requirements, the reservoir, pipework, coolers
and system filters can be scaled down accordingly. From
Fig 2.28 it can be seen that the axiai-pistons are forced
to reciprocate in their cylinders by rotation of the pump
barrel at constant speed and the movement of the slippers
against the fixed angle of the swashplate. The piston
displacement and hence the pump output can be varied
by tilting the swashpiate. Fixed inlet and outiet ports
supply and deliver the hydraulic fluid. The fluid is
pumped against the system resistance and a pressure
controller senses the outlet pressure and modulates the
swashplate to regulate it to the desired value. Some
pressure oscillation is produced at a frequency equal to
rotation frequency times number o f pistons, but this is
damped out by a local accumulator.
1.6.1 Filtration
Filtration is an essential part of any fluid supply system
a n d the standards required are set by the smallest
clearances in the system - usually the servo-valve. The
purpose of the filters is to reinovedebris from the system.
I t is quite normal for debris to be continuously generated
within the system, some from wear processes by the
pumps and other moving components, some introduced
externally via air entering through the reservoir breather
o r in the valve relays. Debris will be in the form of small
- in
uarticles susuended in the fluid and will be irreeular
size, shape and chemical composition. Filters are usual-
ly given 'nominal' and 'absoiute' ratings, suggesting
~. that
n o particles larger than the absolute rating are passed.
In fact this is not the case. Because of lack of uniformi-
ty i n the size of passages in filters, a whole spectrum
o f particles will be passed, although the general
characteristics ensure that there is an increasing probabili-
ty that the larger the particle, the more likely it is to
b e 'captured' by the filter.
If a sample of fluid from the filter outlet is ex-
amined, its contamination level is described by the
number o f particles greater than a given size encountered
in 100 ml of fluid. With a 5 micron absolute filter in
circuit, typical sizes of interest would be 1 micron, 5
microns, 10 microns, 15 microns, 25 microns and 100
tnicrons. The total number of particies greater than each
o f these sizes would be recorded and if plotted on a
iog/(log)' plot (as shown in Fig 2.29), would give a
nearly linear form. Using these techniques, various con-
tamination classes can be defined. A number of standards
a r e in existence; the one gaining some international
recognition is the American NAS 1638 Standard, based
o n measurements taken with a n electronic particle de-
tector, using a iight-blocking principle. Another standard
in widespread use in the UK is one published by a
151
 SCREW PUMP AND M ~ A R
S S E ~ ~ ~ ~
AUXILIARY SCREWS
I
INSERT
I
organisation, Thermal Control Company Ltd
.hlo~~ England.
, This standard is based on extrac-
100 ml sample of fluid from the system, passing
,ugh a filter membrane, and then comparing the
c under a microscope with a series of reference
representing different classes.
ause of the different measurement techniques and
f defining the 'size' of a n irregularly-shaped parti-
lie standards lay down different acceptability criteria
ernis of numbers of particles) for systems incor-
CONE I
MRiN
orating fine clearance servo-valves. The system user is
i~ilvisedto opt for one of the available techniques and
SCREW lihc il on a regular basis. Results taken from a normal
system then provide a reference point for what is abnor-
2.26 Typical sere, pump IIIIII, which therefore requires investigation.
In a system incorporating components with clearances
01' 2 microns it would be normal practice to fit 0.5
iniicron nominal filters in the system to give typically
NAS Class 7 or Thermal Controls Class 3 conditions.
Differential pressure drops across such filters are normal-
ly alarmed and provision is made for on-line filter
replacement. Prompt maintenance in these circumstances
enables the fluid cleanliness to be maintained and helps
to ensure trouble-free service from the system
components.
As well as particulate contamination, which is readily
visible - albeit under a microscope, contamination by
water or chemical means is also possible. The former
is likely to cause a n increase in fluid acidity and possible
formation of gels or salts, which cause components to
stick. Chemical contamination can result in severe
electrokinetic erosion of fine clearances, especially if a
source of free chlorine ions is introduced to the system.
For further information on these effects refer to Nelson
and Waterman (31.
The likely effects on turbine-generator operation,
if contamination is allowed to persist, would be high
leakage flows through the hydraulic system - even-
Turbine plan? systems

TIUINCI SI'VASIII3L%T1E CAM P l A i F

\ REAR OF PUMil I

AXIAL PlSXlNS

FRONT

MG. 2.28 Variable swrslipiate pump

tually giving a low system pressure and a unit trip.

Those associated with maintaining and operating such
systems should avoid any possible introduction of
water, especially seawater. Chlorinated solvents should
never be used for cleaning reservoirs, pipework or
components. Nevertheless, some water will be present
in the system due to contact o f the fluid with air in the
reservoir and in the valve relays and drain lines. To
maintain it at a n acceptably low level (<2000 PPM),
a vacuum dehydration unit is normally incorporated in
the FRF pumping system. This usually works on a
separate sub-loop, taking fluid from the reservoir and
then returning the conditioned fluid to the reservoir
(Fig 2.30). The main features o f the pumping unit have now
Fluid is pumped from the main reservoir into the been described. All these features are combined into a
FIG.2.30 Fire.ieristant fluid conditioner
conditioner reservoir, where it is heated to 80°C and single baseplate-mounted unit which is factory assembl-
then passed through a coalescer unit into a vacuum ed and shipped to site as a complete package. Pipework
chamber where the water is drawn off. The processed joints are kept to a minimum and are welded wherever
fluid is then often passed through a fuller's earth possible. All pipework is fabricated in stainless steel
filter which further reduces the water content and also t o avoid long-term problems of corrosion and the
reduces its acidity. A trap filter normally follows the generation Of rust particles. A typical packaged unit
 Turbiiie plant systeivs
lsslioiun ill 1:ig 2.31. 'I'lie sysian also incliides local
Insrriillieiitalio~i and racililies for the ca~lnectioli of
r(-liioie iiistri~riicrilsanti lhc 1110101. slarte~.unit. I I I ~ C I ~ O C ~ S
are built inlo thc sgsicm to rliilt dow11 a pumping iioc
in the ei,eiit o f lob+!pnmg si~ctioilor oullct tcmpeiat~>re,
and alarms of abiiormal conditions arc giveii.
'" 'Oiler feed pump turbine
On CEGB 660 M W turbine-generator systems, it is
nol'mai Practice t o use ail auxiliary back-pressure turbinc
t o drive tile main feed pump. The feed pump is required
t o nlaintain the boiler drum level during steam raising
prior t o start-up of the main turbine, and also over the
full load range of thc main turbine. The precise ar-
FIG.2.31 Pice-resistant nuid packaged unit
156
(:l>;,~,~,tt
~ -...
rangc~iie~~tsfov zicl~ie~si~~g
feccl iio%,c o ~ ~ i r Zu l ~o~;I,,,I,
I ~
thc scope of illis cbaptcr, but tllc part i,layfi1 131 l i l t
boiler iecd p i ~ m pL~>rbiric
(BI7P'T) is to (IrivP # t i C /iliilill
at a speed sncb as to niail~taiiia coiistailt pfri,ii!,
drop across the feed regulating valvcs wiiicb icilla~itiii.
gump. The feed flow may then be controlled lhv.. \i.liiiii
~ .. ... .
the feed valve positioi~.This requires a variablc~jic~~il
turbine whose speed or steam valve position dem;giiil in;,)
be set by the feed control svstem.
The normal exhaust route for the BFPT is l o 11,c
IP/LP crossover pipe of the main turbine, altlla~ll:li,,I
low loads it be routed through to the co,,~r,,se,,
autolnatic changeover from one exllausl to the oll,cl
being sensed by a load-dependent palalnetel of the ,llilil,
turbine - usually crossover
The steam supply to tlie BFPT ma), be derived f l a i i i
one or oilier of two sources, or from a mixtulr ,,f
;, Steam chests, valves and loop pipes
.,
tlic ii+,o.Nornrally, wiioii the iliain turbine is on-load,
i l l i . ieci~nd-stageblading of llie 13i'l''l' is snpplied ivitll
.,~i.;tii>from the liiain turbinc HP exiraust via bled-steallt
viiicigcncy and governing valves. Either one pair, or two
]>:sirsin parallel, of these valves are fitted. Because of
iioli-availability o r steam froill the nlaiii lol-bioe HP
~xl12iustprior to start-up and when the main turbine is
i~jiriatingat low loads, the first-stage blading o f tlic
I1I:Iyr may be supplied with boiler steam through a sillglc
lviir of live steam emergency and governing valves. 111
i l i r . event of non-availability of the bled-steam supply
i l l hill-load on the main turbine, the live steam valves
will supply sufficient steam t o enable full-load to be
'I'lie nominal maximum power rating of such a boiler
lrril pump turbine is about I5 M W and the possibility
iil a Load rejection leading t o a potential overspeed
ili~lsibe considered. The loss o f load could occur as a
~u*illlof loss af feed pump suction. If this occurred with
Ilir li~rbincspeed and power output close to the fuli-
li)iltl value, a11 entiemely rapid acceleration would result
11111. 10 the low rotor inertia, In the unlikely event that
l l i i llirbine did oveispced to dcstl.uction, the strengtb
$ 8 1 the casing would contain the disaster and protect
~ ~ c i s o ~ mHowever,
cl. it is normal practice t o follow
11i;iin turbine practice and fit the BFPT with a three-
inei electronic governor, coupled with separate over-
''lie turbine governor is a modular arrangement using
~nyof the same elements applied t o the main turbine.
is, speed-sensing and on-load testing facilities will
ir similar in principle. The emergency valves upstream NOMINAL BLED S E A N PRESSURE
AS PERCENTAGE OF MlXlMUM RATE"
I,! lhe governing valves provide protection shutdowns
1'1 llic BFPT in the event of failure of more than one
(b) Died 9,uin,ra imn, reqroncmQ
(.ourriior channel or in the event of a mechanical trip
iozidilion (e.g., loss of lubricating oil) being sensed.
'I hi. valve relay systems use similar servo-valves to FIG. 2.32 Valre and piessule sequencilig diagiains
for ,lie UFP'T
lliori fitted lo the mail1 turbine and the following stages
i!l lhydraulic operation are often similar in principle to
(li,rsc of the main turbine. It has sometimes been passi-
to omit the pilot stage associated with the main until the H P exhaust pressure has risen t o the value
bine valve relays and t o drive the power piston direct at which it can sustain the feed flow demand via the
11 the servo-valve. Referring back t o Fig 2.24, this BFPT.
id be equivalent to considering the relay to comprise These features and others, engineered by techniques
the servo-valve and primary ram. I n all cases, the similar t o those of the main turbine governor, enable
lraulic fluid is supplied from the main turbine system. convenient interfaces to be provided for autotnatic feed
.ive and bled-steam governing valves are controlled control systems and automatic run-up.
~purallel,with an offset being applied t o the live steam
j lvcs so that they only begin t o open when the bled-
inn1 valves are fully open o n a speed loop droop of
>ill 5%. Any additional speed error, requiring further
2 Steam chests. valves and loop pipes
iini supply, progressively opens the live steam valves
il they are also fully open.
I>uring start-up of the main turbine, the steam is
niil,lllied via the live steam valve. A common means of 2.1 Steam chest arrangements and
*asitring this automatically is t o superimpose o n the
am channel a limited maximum opening char-
construction
c as a function of bled-steam pressure, as shown Steam is admitted t o a turbine from the superheater
will keep the bled-steam valves ciosed outlets, via the high pressure steam mains, to the

Turbine piant systems
emergency stop valvcs and the associated govciriing
valves wliicir arc housed in steam ciiests. In order
lo reduce the lliermai stresses and lheilce ihc risk of
thermal fatigue, these sleani chests are of simple shapes
and are manufactured either from closed-dic alloy steel
forgings welded together, or from alloy steel castings.
Similar steam chests containing emergency stop valves
and interceptor valves are used in the hot reheat pipes
from the reheater to the intermediate pressure cylinder
o f the turbine. These steam chests are invariably
manufactured from alloy steel castings, which are thinner
but larger than the I I P steam chests because of the much
lower steam pressure conditions.
The steam chests are usually mounted alongside the
turbine: on 660 MW machines they are either o n swing
links or on springs to accommodate movement due to
thermal expansion and flexibility of tlie H P steam mains.
Tlie steam chests on 500 MW machines were keyed to
freely witli the steam piping.
On modern large machines, the usual practice is to
have four steam mains together with four emergency stop
valves and four governor valves, two on each side of
tlie turbine. On some of the early 660 MW nuclear
turbine-generators, however, the two stearn mains on
each side join into one large steam chest, so that there
are only two steam chests in total. These steam chests.
used for the reheat steanl chests at the 1P cvlinder.
On some current 660 MW machines, the stiam chest
arrangement is such that there is one steam chest on each
side o f the machine, which has an emergency stop valve
at each end and the two governor valves are co~lnected
to the common chamber between the stop valves. A
typical arrangement is shown in Fig 2.33.
Another steam chest arrangement employs the reverse
flow type of governor valve (see Section 2.6 o f this
chapter), permitting a more compact arrangement of stop
and governor valves. This requires two steam chests each
side of the machine, which have sometimes been inter-
connected before the emergency stop valve.
2.2 Steam chest materials
As stated in Section 2.1 of this chapter, the chests are
manufactured from alloy steel. On current 660 MW
machines operating at 565'C, the material is usually
0.5Cr Mo V steel, and on some recent machines operating
at 53e°C,the chest material is 2.25Cr steel. However.
011 larger unlrr operar~ngat 165'C'. it nin) be ncressar)
to utl11.c highcr-<hrunir. f s r r i t i ~,tech xirh impro\ed
creep resl,tatl;c in order lo avoid clndul) r11i.k :hc,t ualls
s hi;h wuuld prej~diceuprrational flr.xib~lit).Auctdnitic
sterlc would proside s gredrct impro\emml in crecp
resistance but experience with these has shown that
158
Steam chests, valves and loog (Jipes
tllerc ~vouldbe gl.obiems of crcep vatchcting.
'The iaaivcs clasc onlo i-enlovable-plate typ
which can be replaced when worn or damaged.
scats are secured in place either by tnealis of a sc
ring or by screws tllat are locked in piace, and s o m a
the seats are additionally prevented from rotating \ui
radial dowels. A diffuser is generally provided; ti
either integral with the valve seat or machined as
of the valve chest.
The mating faces of the valves and their seats are faccll
with Stdlite in order to resist wear, mainly due to erosio
by steam. Such wear is most likely to occur when 111
valve is cracked open: a jet of steam is then propelle
at liigh velocity by the large pressure differential throuplr
the narrow port opening. The Stellire facing also protects
against impact damage when the valves shut normally,
or during frequent liigh speed test closures. Cushioning
devices in the relay system or slow motion testing can
be used to alleviate this.
The valve spindles are supported and guided by means
of specially treated alloy steel sleeves in the valve covers,
the materials of the spindles and the sleeves being selected
both to avoid excessive oxide build-up between 30 000
I1 overhauls and to ensure the minimum wear of thr
components when subjected to the forces imposed 011
the valve from steam, vibration and the operating gear.
Tlie bushes are securely locked in place, the clearancc
between spindle and bush being suitable for the operating
conditions of the valves. In order to prevent steam
leakage to atmosphere, there is a gland steam leak-off
sub-atmospheric connection from a chamber between the
spindle and the bush to the turbine gland steam system.
Steam leakage from emergency stop \,alves is also
prevented by means of a stellite back seat o n the back
of the valve head against the lower valve spindle bush.
2.3 Cover seals
On large modern H P valve chests, it is difficult to
provide an adequate bolted joint between the valve
chest and its cover. Current practice on these chests
generally is to utilise pressure-assisted seal joints si-
milar to that shown in Fig 2.34. On reheat steam
chests, bolted flanged joints are used. These joints
usually have gaskets that are either of the Metaflex
type backed up by a metal-to-metal joint face, o r they
employ an lnconel ring. All such bolted joints are
designed not to require retightening for at least 30 000
hours of operation.
B
2.4 Steam strainers B
In order to prevent solid particles of foreign matter from 8
being carried into the turbine by the incoming steam and
causing damage to the blading, each stop valve is
surrounded by a cylindrical strainer which has many
i

Turbine plant systems
M A ' N E E L T governor
I:,<;.2.34 i ~ r e i s ~ ~ r e ~ i l ~seal i ~ t ~valve c o r c ~jumi
8 1 ~type
Small diamctei hoies, ranging frolll 5 - 2 mI11 depending
011 the o~anufacturer. Even particles of this size call
cause serious blading damage, it is tflelcfore esserltial
that a thorough steam blow o f all P ~ P C U ' O is~ ~carried
25 Stop valves
slop valves are to cut
TI,^ purposes of the
periods of s,,utdowll and
off the supply
flow in a,,
to Provide interruption of the
emergency trip.
In order to ensure that the valves will close in an
emergency, it is a requirement that they are tested on-
load regularly, at least once a month. During such testing
there is a load reduction, which can be minimised by
a Suitable interconnection downstream of the valves. The
On-load testing is carried out in sequence so that only
One valve is tested at a time.
Single-seated unbalanced plug type valves are normally
used, with an internal pilot valve that opens first. The
Pilot valve is small so that it may be opened against main
s e a m pressure. It also provides initial fine control and
reduces the loads required to operate the valve. Normal-
[Y, Once the machine has run-up to speed, the governor
which have been open, close in. It is then possi-
ble t o open the main stop valves as the Pressures
upstream and downstream of the valve are equalised.
A typical emergency stop valve is shown in Fig 2.35.
O n some 500 MW units and On some early 660 M W
machines, flap valves were used for reheat emergency
valves, where the steam pressures were moderate and
stearn
chests, valves and loop PiPC"
. i i w L PIN
"&LYE SPRING
T ~ ~ VBIYCS provide accurate control nl I
steam flow rate entering the turbine, thus controlliii~iI
generator load when the machine is synchroniscd I < ,
grid. The present practice for the control of the st
flow rate during turbine run-up to speed is also I <
the governor valves; however, on earlier 660
machines and also on 500 MW units, run-up is can!
HALF COUPLING
ed by use of the emergency stop valve pilot-valv
conjunction with the governor valves. O n 660
machines, the interceptor valves can also be used
governing mode, if required, to use the stored en
in the rcheatei to provide a quick response Lo frequ
variations
~h~ diameters valve opening are gei~erally EAM LEAK-OFF *
culated to give maximum steam velocities o f about
m ~ for
s ,lie valve head designs are such I I ~ Z
they are to steam-induced vibration duii~ri!
STEAM CHEST
paEssuaE TAPPING *
As with the stop valves, it is essential that these v
close in an emergency; they are therefore similarly o WER SPINDLE BUSH
load tested.
Figure 2.38 shows the 'mushroom' type o f govern01
valve which has a profiled head l o give a more lineal
flow/lift relationship. A 'guided flow' t),pc of valve head BOTTOM BUSH
has also been developed in order to control the flow
downstream of the seat so as to mini~nisenoise and vibra.
see Fig 2.39.
2.7 Loop pipework
The steam chests are connected to the turbine through
loop pipes. On present machines these are arranged to
be relatively short, in order to reduce the quantity of STEAM CHEST
entrained steam between the governing valves and the
turbine when the valves are shut. On earlier (500 MW)
machines, where the chests are firmly anchored to the
supporting steelwork or the concrete foundations, the
loop pipes are long and flexible in order to allow the
turbine and the pipes to expand freely without undue
forces/moments on the turbine cylinder.
AII loop pipe joints with the steam chests are welded, % SHOWN OUT OF POSITION
as are all other loop pipe joints, except where dis-
mantling flanges (see below) are provided. The loop pIC, 2.35 ~ypieaiemergency slop valve
pipes enter the cylinders, preferably radially, at the
Turbine plalit systems
Char,io Steam chests, valves and ioop pipes

STEAM INLET

DOWEL FOR
.--VALVE SEA7

V A L V E STEAM CHEST
BUSH RETAINING-
SLEEVE

I'ia. 2.39 'Guided now' iypc goveruor valve

SPIRAL WOUND GASKET

o f the loop pipes is made, to ensure that there is

no risk of water entering the turbine during start-up.
Where the pipes or the tee-pieces enter the double-
PRESSURE TAPP~NG V A L V E CHEST COYER
shell cylinder, provision is made on the pipe connecting
to the cylinder for a thermal sleeve which secures the
pipe to the outer cylinder. The loov~vine. .vasses
. to the
inner cylinder and the expansion between the pipe and
cylinder is allowed for by a sliding joint on the outside
o f the pipe, using either stacked continuous rings or split
piston rings. A more detailed description of this type
of joint is given in Chapter 1, Section 3.
BOTTOM HAIF COUPLING
SPRING CARRIER

2.8 Crossover pipework

FIG.2.38 'Mushroom'type governor valve
P and bottom of the cylinders. On many current
chines, the'loop pipes from each side combine to form
'nlet into each half of the cylinder by means of a
CONNECT~NGROD SPRING LOCATING RING
,.piece connection. The loop pipes into the top half
nder are provided with dismantling flanges for
ntcnance purposes, used when the cylinder is opened
I>. These flanges have a gasket-type joint that has a
no. 2.36 Goverrmr valve tsign life of 30 000 h between replacements.
11 is important that adequate provision for drainage
The steam from the intermediate pressure cylinder oasses
to the low pressure cylinders through large diameter
IP/LP crossover pipes, which have to accommodate the
thermal expansion between cylinders by a combination
of various designs o f bellows which allow either bending
o r axial movement. The bellows arrangements either
incorporate hinge links or have tie rods in order to
transmit the pressure forces in the pipe, thus protecting
the bellows convolutions from the tendency to open out.
Any bellows units at the horizontal ends of the crossover
pipes are usually of the balanced type, incorporating tie
rods. A typical arrangement of this piping which includes
both types of bellows is shown in Fig 2.40.
On some designs of 500 MW machine, these pipes
are run along the sides or underneath the machine.
 Turbine plant systems Turbine protective devices

PRESSUREBALANCE
FIG. 2.40 IP/LI' crossover pipework
Some early 660 MW machines with pannier condensers
used both crossover pipes and cross-under pipes. Similar
bellows arrangements were used to accommodate thermal
3 Turbine protective devices
PRESSURE BALANO
ilkloicc is provided by separate ove!.speed trips. The
i l l $ ijiur cannot overspeed when the generator is connected
~ i i i i i in synchronism with the electrical power syslenl
iiri\:ork. The turbine is at risk during rurl-up and also
wiici, a disconnection occurs ori-load. Since disconiiec-
tioil can occur as a result of another tritl function,
circuit-breaker and the closure of the steam
first close the turbine steam valves. Whcn the
flow has reduced nearly to the no-load value, the
Itor may be disconnecred from the power system
ol-k without risk of overspeed. This is known as a
LPZ CYLINDiO
ry B trip and is particularly important in the
f water-ingress trips or a manual trip follou,ing
an incident. if the event caused distortion of the
I valves and they failed to close, simultaneous
LPI CYLINDER nection of the generator would promptly lead
sits connection, the unit can bc safety shut down
,y B trips. These include governor failure and
ring oil failure as well as overspeed, watcr-ingress
nd the operator's emergency stop button.
Excessive temperature differentials.
Excessive eccentricity.
If the plant is manned by responsible operating staff 011
a continuous basis, the last four items can be monitored
by supervisory equipment having preset alarm levels. Thir
to as Cotegory A trips.
allows the operator freedom to n~anoeuvrethe operatino
conditions to reduce the dangerous condition. If unablr
.oine.
. The turbine is then triotlcd
. . on low iobricating-ail
DSCSSIIIF.
in thc event of a compicte failure of the turbine gover-
ning system, i.e., failure of inlorc than one channel or
a failure whicii renders the governol. opci-ative, the gover-
- to send trin-initiating signals lo the protec-
nor is desiened
tion scheme.
Water ingress to the turbine can occur due to tnalfunc-
lion of boiler or feed controls, especially during a change
in load. In this case, wet steam or even slugs of water
could be introduced through the HP steam line. The
degree of hazard and the type of protection required
depends on the boiler type and steam conditions at the
inlet to the turbine. When a drum boiler is used to supply
superheated steam, turbine protection may not be
necessary, providing loss of boiler firing is adequately
detected and alarmed so that the operator can take the
necessary corrective action. In the case of a once-through
boiler supplying superheated steam, it is necessary to trip
the turbine on low steam temperature before saturated
steam conditions reach the turbine. The dangci is that,
if not tripped, severe distortion could occur, causing
seizure of the turbine steam valves or fracture of the
turbine blading. Once-through boilers supplying dry
saturated steam represent less of a hazard due to chill-
ing. However, the sudden ingress of wet stcaln could
result in severe thrust loadings on the turbine and
blading, so the plant must be designed to accept this or
be protected against it. Water ingress ,nay also occur
from feedheating plant via hack-flow to the tapping
points on the main turbine. The arrangements to protect
aaainst this are discussed in C h a ~ t e r3 on feedheating
plant.
3.2 Protection scheme
The trip-initiating devices as described in the previous

to do this, the operator must trip the plant manually.
3.1 Possible hazards The other dangers have more immediate effects
the plant and are generally detected by special trip g
Abnormal operating conditions, including those where W I I ~ Creleases
~ the protection system hydraulic press
the turbine and its systems are not working as designed, and thus closes all the steam valves and disconn
encountered are:
Overspeeding.
Lubricating oil failure.
from these devices, which are described in the re1
Governor failure. Overspeed would have serious consequences for
both plant and personnel, therefare the protective
Water ingress to blading.
arrangements have been designed to eliminate any
Thrust bearing failure. possibility of a dangerous overspeed.
The turbine governing system provides the first lirie
Excessive vibration. of defence against overspeed and t h e second line 01'
is excessive, the last-stage 1.P turbine blading
omc overheated and damaged. Since the prime
of poor exhaust-pressure is likely to be loss of
ow, it is usual practice to provide high exhaust
re unloading gear as part of the governing system
effort to reduce turbine load and avoid tripping.
clow a predetermined value. Note that there is a
.
paragraph will be of two types:
Devices where an electrical changeover contact
operates.
Devices capable of direct tripping of the hydraulic
fluid system.
The result of a trip initiation will be to close the turbine
steam valves and trip the generator circuit-breaker,
having regard to the division into Categories A ond B.
The tripping system includes redundancy, so that the
failure of any one element in the system does not prevent
tripping, and is also designed to avoid spurious tripping
as far as possible. Figure 2.41 shows schematically the
main functions of the hydraulic tripping system much
simplified. The interfaces with the electrical tripping
system and the stop and governor valve relays are also
shown. The diagram does not show the redundancy
associated with the electrical tripping system, which is
described later in this section.
165
 Turbine plant systetris
, I
INTERLOCK "NIT
NOTES
i SHOWN INTHE NORMAL RUNNING UNiRiPPEO CONOiTioN
2 ISOLalNGAND HESET P A C I I i i E S NOT SHOWN
FIG. 2.41 Hydraulic trip anil
The heart of the unit comprises two sets o f emernen-
.!IrlP \ 3 1 \ ~ i,l l 1 Illr l ~ l l 1 1 1 ~ : 1 ~C.i.:. C l \ . l ; ~ i l < ~ l1 3 l t i l
ill .,I . , ! ~ . r q > e : J t r ~bolt,
p ri~(,t~ntc.I
I:, ihc LIIYIII! ~ ~ i ~ L l . r . i
. h a i ~ .l.lujd .XI !I.&IIprr,>brc L~ ~!LI)I,II:.I to rlw dn,cri::n. -
cy trip valves so that if either is caused to trip, i.e., move
to the left, protection fluid is connected to drain via pipe
A or pipe B and closure of all the turbine steam valves
results. Control fluid pressure is maintained to avoid
excess fluid consumption from the FRF supply unit.
The emergency trip valves are operated by spring-
loaded trip plungers. When in normal operation, the
spring is held compressed by a spigot held in place by
the Y-shaped trip arm and latch. Initiation of the
overspeed trip, the manual trip or the solenoid trip causes
the spring-loaded latch to be released. H i g l ~pressure
protection fluid in the chamber at the left-hand end of
the emergency trip valve is thus released to drain and
mid-position, operation of any one overspeed trip will
cause both emergency trip valves to move to the tripped
condition.
The trip plungers and latches must be reset by ad-
166
CIiapt<:$ 9
-...., ..
p a\ritches that provide further inputs to initiate Catego,)'
:$,
I1
t oil the applicatioii.
FROM F R I
SUPPLY UNll
- simplified block diagraiii
ditional hydraulic units before the subsequent turbine
. run-up. For clarity, these have not been shown on the
diagram.
T o exercise the system and ensure that any faults in
the tripping system are identified and rectified without
delay, regular on-load testing is recommended. To test
the front emergency trip valve, the interlock unit is
shifted so that the left-hand ends of the trip cylinders
are isolated from each other. T h e same operator action
also blocks port A on the front emergency trip valves.
While in this condition, any solenoid, manual or over-
speed trip acting on the front trip valve will cause the
emergency trip valve to move to the tripped position.
Due to the isolation, protection fluid pressure is not lost
-
and the unit will run undisturbed throuehout the test.
A genuine trlp occurring during the test period will be
initiated by the rear trip valve and will result in the unit
tripping in the normal way.
The detailed implementation of the hydraulic tripp-
ing system by each turbine manufacturer will vary. GEC
Turbine Generators, mounts the complete unit in the
front pedestal, with a short direct connection to the
overspeed trip units. In the case of NEI Parsons, the
iii'i.iqic:cd trig, latcb levcr and t 1 . i ~lpii~iigerare in ihc
I t i i i i t pedestal of necessity, liowcuc~,ail llic otlicr iinils
ing the emergency lrip i,alves, lest inter.lock,
11sand reset faciiities are impletnented by means
piieiary co,npoi~ei~ts mounteil on a largc manifold
, iji. i outside the ti~ihinecasing.
3 Electrically-signalled trips
ectrical tripping scheme is also shown in outline
2.41. Any electrical trip function is signalled
front and rear trip solenoids via duplicated
rcli,!, contact systems. These relays are segregated into
('ulegory A and Category B trips. Separate contact sets
r , l l tllc same relays trip the cil.cuit-breakers directly in
1l1r case of the Calegory A trips and via low forward-
Imwcr relays in the case of Category B. To enable
IIIP mechanically-signailed trips, e.g., the overspecd
Irii,, to signal opening of the circuit-breakers, loss of
nlotection fluid oressure is sensed bv setsof Dressure
I? isit~svia the low foiward-power relays. The uressure
,.itjitches may also be used to trip the boiler and auxiliary
(lcvices, e.g., bled-steam non-return vaives, dependent
The low forward-power relays use power sensing via
voltage and current transformers to determine when the
power generated is less than about 1%. This ensures that
Ihe steam valves are very nearly closed and that an
ovcrspeed cannot result when the circuit-breakers are
opened, even if no further steam valve closure occurs.
The above general principles may be implemented in
iiifferent ways with either 'I out of 2' or '2 out of 3'
ii:ilundancy. Although the hydiaulic tripping system
previously described is a 'I out of 2' system, it will be
secn that compatibility with a three-channel electrical
system is still possible. Each of the two systems is
]now described in detail.
The redundancy of the 'I out of 2' system is more
complex than a simple interpretation of this title suggests.
Additional transducers are incorporated in each of the
two channels so that at least two transducers per channel,
or four transducers in total, are employed. Series-
connection of the two trip-initiating contacts in each
channel permits any single transducer to fail without
causing a turbine trip. However, no single failure of an
electrical component will prevent a genuine trip from
occurring. Identification of faulty components is picked
up either by supervision circuits or by routine on-load
lesting of the trip-initiating transducers of the 'front'
and 'rcar' systems in turn. Figure 2.42 shows a simplified
trip circuit for one Calegory A trip, one Category B trip
and the operator's emergency pushbuttons. The 'front'
and 'rear' circuits are completely independent being
powered by two different DC battery supplies. It is
necessary to energise the turbine trip solenoid SOL to
initiate a turbine trip via the emergency trip valve (circuit
2). As a back-up, circuit 3 shows a duplicate set of
1-urbine protective devices
contact5 ojlciatiog ihc siixi1ial.y relay 01'. Individual
sets o i contac~si l l tliis iclay theii encvgise llie solenoid
diio~ovalvcs of each stcao~ijalve relay. these being o f
Type 2.
Circuit I shows a typical CalezolyA tripping function,
Ihigl, LP turbine exhaust pressure, sensed by pressure
s\\~ircliesPS6 and 7. Tliesc are shown in the norn~al
running position; ivlien there is a trip conditioii, PS6
closcs and energiscs flag i-clay AXRI.1. Providing I'S7
also closes, TR3 is energiscd through contacts AXRI.l
and AXR1.2. If the 'front' system is being tcsted, the
test switch will be in the T1 posilian and, instead of a
trip initiation, lamp LPI will illuminate when PS6 and
PS7 close. Test facilities, interlocked with the test switch,
enable atmospheric pressure to be supplied to pressure
switches PS6 and PS7, thus comprehensively testing the
functioning of all components through to the lamp.
Circuit 4 is very similar, in this case PSI and PS2
provide the Category B low rclay fluid pressure trip
shown in Fig 2.41. Auxiliary relay TPR2.I is used t o
nrovide other interlocks as well as trips. One contact,
?PKZ.I is connected it1 parallel with other Calegory B
trip contacts to energise trip relay TR7. In torn, contacts
on this relay, which are not shown, initiate ciicuit-breaker
lripping via the low forward-powcr rclay.
The 'I out of 2' tripping concept is provided by the
duplication in the rcar channel circuit, where complete-
ly independent sets of transducers initiate tripping.
Because o f the configuration of the turbine hydraulic
tripping system, a trip occurs as soon as any one of the
turbine trip solenoids is energised.
The examples chosen to illustrate typical Category A
and B trips have each used two pressure switches in each
channel. For other tripping funcctions some other forin
of redundancy may be appropriate. Thus, in some
au~lications,
.. hinh L P exhaust temperature is used for
tripping, the sensing being carried out in each flow of
each exhaust. For a six-exhaust machine, 12 transducers
wouid be used, six in each channel combined in three
pairs to provide immunity from spurious tripping.
Figure 2.43 shows the second method of implemen-
ting the turbine-generator electrical tripping scheme using
a '2 out of 3' majority voting system. Using this techni-
que, it is virtually impossible for any single component
or transducer failure to cause a spurious trip. Likewise,
a single failure will not prevent a trip from occurring.
Auxiliary contacts, not shown in the figure, give the
operator an alarm if there is a failure and inhibits on-
load testing until the fault is rectified.
The circuit is very simple, with the main functional
blocks being.triulicated
. or duplicated as necessary. The
transducers are connected in three similar auxiliary tripp-
ing circuits. In auxiliary tripping circuit 1, PS7 provides
a typical Category A tripping function such as high L P
turbine exhaust pressure. It operates auxiliary relay RL7
through a flag relay. The equivalent auxiliary relays
in channels 2 and 3 are relays RL8 and RL9. On the
right-hand side of the diagram there are four circuits
each using a set of contacts from relays RL7, RL8
 Turh~nepldnl systems

TRIP

-- CATEGORY h
TRIPRELAY
TR3

TEST SViTCH
LPI
I
I /

AUXILIARY RELAY

TRiP
CiHCUlTl EMERGENCYSTOP
PUSHBUiiONS

TRlP
CIRCUlla . TO OTHER
CATEGORY 8

r__

CATEGORY B
TRIP RELAYTR7

NO.2.42 Sinlplified trip circuit employing ,I out of 2' redundancy,

168
 ~ ~ , protective
b i ~ devices
~
Turbine plant svstems
-.-
aiid R1.9 co~~rrecled in a '2 otlt o f 3' vutii~g fasliiol~.
'The l'irsl two sets o1,eralr tltc Sraot and rear. ttrbine lhave simiiar requirclnents for. tlicii , i i ; , ~ i ~ ~ , i i ,
trip solenoids, wbiic the sccond two sets operate trip rates. The overspeed trip is set in tiie ran(,,c O I I
relays TR3 a i d TR4 to give a direct trip of the circuit- speed. This rccognises norlnal govcrrioi ;ictt<,i
breaker. t 1% speed range.
A feature of this system is that on-load testing can
be carried out on each transducer in turn and circuit
operation checked sight through to the operation of the
turbine trip solenoid. Thos, if the front solenoid is arrangement is shown in Fig 2.44. Oiie trii
hydraulically isolated and test switch contacts T F arc
closed, t~.ansducerPS7 can be vented to atmosphere so
that it gives contact closure, energising RL7 and the front
turbine trip solenoid. axis of rotation and, at low speeds, is held
Actual operation of this can be indicated to the a spring. At 109u overspced, tlic out of hi $01
operator via a relay fluid pressure switch monitoring the overcomes the spring force, causing the bolt I
protection fiuid pressure at an appropriate point on the beyond the shaft where it trips the static trip I
front eniergeltcy trip valve. Durine- testinr. -. the rear
~ ~~

turbine trip solenoids provide protection in the event of

a genuine trip. Similar test facilities are provided for most
of the transducers, the test inputs being applied by a
soienoid valve adjacent to each transducer. This enahles
all on-load testing to be cairied out from the trip gear selecting either the 'front' or 'rear' system for
cubicles, with a full set of indications to the tester so thus autotnatically isolating the associated en
that faults can readily be traced and rectified. trip valve. An interlocked movement of the
The Coregory B circuit is vecy similar to that descrih-
ed for Category A . Here the tripping contacts from all
the tripping parameters are connected in parallel. Thus shaft, through porting wliich directs it to tile o\
several similar sets in channel 1 are in parallel with PSI speed bolt under test. This then fiies out and trips
and RLll and they all operate relay RLI, which is one emergency trip valve via the lever and trip plonl
of the auxiliary tripping relays forming the ' 2 out of 3' ~ o l l o w i n grelease of the test pressure, these items
contact sets to operate the turbine trip solenoids and the reset and the second bolt selected for test.
Category B tripping relays TR7 and TR8.

3.5 Mechanically-operated trips

3.4 Overspeed trip Included under this heading are any trips which may
The overspeed trip is the final protectido against catas- be implemented by means of a direct mechanical ai
trophic failure of the turbine following a load rejection, hydraulic action onto the latching trip lever.
causing the unit to become disconnected from the power The low lubricating-oil pressure trip Is sometimes
system. Additionally, an oversoeed mav be caused hv implemented in this manner (Fig 2.45). Lubricating oii
under pressure is supplied to a single-acting spring-loaded
.. -
would cause a rapid acceleration of over 10% speed per
trip cylinder. The oil is supplied via a deadweighl
aCCUmUlat01 common to front and rear channels. This
second. In documented cases where this has occurred, smooths out fluctuations in oil pressure and, in the event rlc. 2.44 Overspeed ~WeInor
the centrifugal Stress limits of the rotating parts have of a sudden loss of oil pressure, will maintain the pressure
been exceeded and a major rupture has taken place with to the trip cylinder for several seconds, thus allowing
components penetrating the casing. Speeds as high as possible recovery by starting of the emergency pumps. the front protection system is isolated. its two ass'.
180% have been recorded.
The manufacturer normally carries out a works
Similarly, a direct high exhaust-pressure trip is often As the condenser pressure rises, a point Is
is counter.balan~ed
ciated exhaust pressure detectors can be tested ln turn
valve adm'.t-
implemented using the same spring-loaded trip cylinder leached where the spring by s ~ o w raising
i~ the pressure by a needie
overspeed proof test at 120%, well below the design limit a furiher pressure increase causes the leak-eff,valve Of the trip
as shown in the upper part of pig 2.45. For the front the ting atmospheric a i r This permits
at which failure could occur. The setpoint of the is lost
tripping System, there are two sets of detectors Labelled to iubricatinF.oil poirIt if desired'
overspeed trip is such that this speed would never be vacuum trip unit, B is moved downwards by
1 and 2. Lubricating oil is supplied to the detectors via
exceeded even at the maximum acceleration rate of the an orifice plate. The downstream pressure is controlled spring form and the pressure in the short length
turbine. Because of the delay time associated with the by a leak-off Valve, actuated by a bellows unit. The top pipe C is lost. If detector 2 also trips. lubricating 01'
drain,
mechanisms, the finite response time of the valve relays half of the bellows Is evacuated and sealed at a reference Supplying the front trip cylinder is connected 3.6 Operator tripping facilities
and the stored energy in the form of steam and water Pressure close to zero mbar absolute. The lower half of thus releasing the trip latch. A similar pair of, exhaust l t is normal practice 10 provide direct
within the turbine, it is logical to split the 20% range the bellows is connected to the condenser. The leak-off p_sun detectors the trip cgInder of the front pedestal'
by a me- means of tripping the turbine
of 'available' overspeed equally between the governor a i d valve is normally fully seated, since the force supplied the rear system, On-load is Originai1y2this was an
safeguard 'Or persOnnel
that when
the overspeed trip. The stop valves (operated by the by spring A the condenser j chanicd inlenoc~on the trip test lever, r 171
 'Turbine insrrumentatioil

e Slmfl ~icreniriciiy Thc peak-to-peak radial escursio~r

or lhe rotor reiative to the non-rotating parts is
iricasuied oil each rotor lo oionitol. qualitati\,e cllanges
I ili this chaptcr, need to be controlled and any in the bchavioor of the rotor whicii may indicate
,#ti conditions drawn to the operatol"~attelltion. abnormal or unsafe conditions.
~ i l : requirements
~i for instrumentatioo are dealt
I! tlte appropriate subsection. Specific transducer e Shofl speed A single measurement of sliaft spced is
iit~d icchniques of measurement are described required, independent of the turbine governor, for
SPRING A--_.I..-
l ~ ~ r r F,
l r Chapter 4. The purpose of this section operator ~efel.ence,particularly during turbine run-up.
REFERENCE---_I_~
PRESSURE loscribe, in broad terms, the different categories
e Steom valve positions An analogue ineasurement
~rinn,entation that are supplied and the part they
of the position o f each steam valve is useful to
the opeiatoi- foi- general reference, to check the
capability for carrying more load or for assistance

!icy instrumentation. . in fault finding.

Metal 2emperolure meusurcments These provide a
knowledge of the thermal state o f the turbine during
both transient and steady state operation. Measuring
Allxiliary system instrumentation.
points are located in the walls of the HP and intercep-
LU~R~CAT~NG i~,iidilionmonitoring instrumentation. tor steam valve chests, and in the HP and IP cylinders.
OIL SUPPLY

li~:.l\umentation associated with protection and e Tlirust bearing ,*'ear This measurement ensures that
cc>tiivolequipment. thrust pads wear is maintained within safc design
limits.
a i\i!,tiiimentation to p ~ o v i d cpost-incident records.

All of these parameters are displayed to the operator

ORlFiCE PLATE COP)
OlL FROM
LUBOlL
Flo. 2.45 Mechanicaiiy-operated trips (front tiipping system
provides a n independent and very direct means of
shutting down the turbine-generator, should a plant
attendant observe local conditions which are hazardous
t o men or the machine. For the same reason a n
electrically-signalled pushbutton trip is provided near
the generator-end of the machine.
A remote emergency stop pushbutton is also pro-
vided in the control room, where the operator has
only)
load.
4 Turbine instrumentation
A large modern turbine-generator comprises a num-
ber of cylinders coupled together to form a rotating
shaft line, Chapter 1 has described this arrangement
Classification of instrumentation
Supervisory instrumentation
h r t l ~ operation within the defined limits and (b), to
~ : i v v advance warning of deterioration or change ill the
hiiiin turbine-generator behaviour, which may require
rillicl- maintenance attention or a temporary restriction
11) lile operating role.
'The parameters measured are:
l<otor oxial position In conjunction with cylinder
expansion measurements, this enables the relative
axial movement to be measured so that adequate
clearance margins are maintained under all conditions
of operation. Typically this measurement is provided
on each cylinder of the machine.
r Cylinder expansions In addition to its use in deter-
mining clearance margins between the rotor and
cylinders, differential measurement systems are pro-
vided to monitor the expansion and movement of
cylinders relative to each other and their support struc-
tures. Measurements are provided on each cylinder
of the machine.
a Bearing pedestal vibrations These are measured at
each bearing to continuously monitor the dynamic
behaviour of the machine.
either on continuous, direct-reading instruments o r on
a VDU format associated with a computer-based data
processing system. If a VDU display is used, it is se-
lectable for continuous access and scanned at intervals
of less than 10 s to ensure that the operator is kept
informed of the current value. Certain parameters, such
as steam valve positions and speed, can change substan-
tially in a fraction of a second. It is essential that the
operator has available a true value of the present reading,
therefore direct reading is always employed.
Because of their close association with the running
machine, generally using transducers mounted in a
severe environment, highly specialised and tlioroughly
proven equipment is essential. This aspect is described
in Volume F. The processing equipment is cubicle-
mounted and includes, where necessary, alarm outputs
SO that the operator's attention can rapidly be drawn
to parameter excursions requiring corrective action.
Where computer processing is involved, the whole
scheme is subject to careful review to ensure that
if the computer fails, the operator still has sufficient
information to continue running at a steady load o r
to permit safe shutdown.
All of the turbine supervisory parameters are used
to provide post-incident records. Some are also used
in the control equipment for turbine run-up.
4.1.2 Efficiency instrumentation
These are instruments required to determine o r infer
the operating efficiency of the plant, both for short
term monitoring and the detection of long term trends.
Turbins plarlt systems
I'hc teo~l~eratures and pressures of steam and water
are o~casuredlo confirm tliat the plant coinponcnts are
aperatiiig efficiently and in the intended manner. For
exampic, measiirclnellt of the steam and water condi-
tions at the inlet and outlet of a feedwater heater enables
an operator lo confirm its satisfactory operation.
Unsatisiactory operation is unlikely to prejudice the
continued running o f the planl but does affect its ef-
ficiency. This category of instrumentation therefore
draws attention to maintenance activities which are
efficiency-related.
Alarms are derived from some parameters in this
category, for example, steam temperatures upstream of
the H P stop valves. These alarms are less critical than
those derived froin supervisory instrumentation and
thcrcfore the alarm processing may be carried out
exclusively in the data processing computer. Steam
temperatures upstream of the turbine H P stop valves are
used to provide data for the long term history.
Some o f the parameters in the efficiency insfrwnoi-
ration category are used for the heat rate test instl-umeri-
tation identified in the condirion nioniioring category.
The rcquil.ement for accurate, calibrated instruti~entsfar
a heat rate test often pl.ecludes the use of the same
transducers as tliose used for efficiency instrumentation.
4.1.3 Auxiliary s y s t e m instrumentation
These instruments confirm the satisfactory operation
of plant auxiliary systems. The description of thesc
systems forms the content of this section and more
systems are described in Chapters 3 to 6. All these
systems require instrumentation for local operation or
fault finding. Wherever their operation is essential
to the main turbine-generator unit, facilities for re-
mote alarms and indications in the control room are
necessary.
4.1.4 Condition monitoring instrumentation
This defined list o f instruments is used on a periodic
basis to confirm the absence of long term trends which
might lead to unplanned outages and to define acti-
vities for future outages. T o this extent, some of the
instrumentation in this category is of a diagnostic
nature.
The defined subcategories are:
Heat rate test intrumentation
Machine level instrumentation.
Shaft vibration instrumentation
The purpose and scope of each of these subcategories
is described below.
Hear rare fesr instrumentofion
This comprises all the equipment necessary to conduct
a thermal performance test on the plant as described
in llritish Standard 752. Sincc many ol thc transdiicers
have to be ixecalibsaled, UK practice requires that l l i t
illant is built with piovisioii for fitting the instrumei,ts
when a test is required, Thus thc manufacturer sup"lies
pockets for insertion of tliermocouplcs and pressule
tapping points up to and including the primary isolatinji
valve. Where possible, stcam and coniensate flaws ale
measured by differential pressure devices and so tlic
provision made on the plant as-built can again be confil~.
..~ .
ed to fixed orifices with suitable tannine ooints. The mail,
condensate flow measurement is one o f the most critical.
Provision is generally made to insert the calibrated orificc
plates in sections of condelisate pipework parallel to the
main path. When tests are to be performed, the maiii
path is isolated and ail the flow passes through the orifice
plates. Provision is also made for the connection of ;i
transmission-type dynamometer to messure the power
supplied by the boiler feed pump turbine (if fitted).
In some plants, a more limited range o f parameters
is measured on a permanent basis to provide a routine
on-line efficiency monitoring scheme, usually combined
with boiler plant. Such schemes inevitably provide
less-accurate illformation than would be obtained from
plant acceptance tests, using recently calibrated trans-
ducers. The value of on-line monitoring is that it enables
trends to be identified and appropriate maintenance work
scheduled. Where alternative plant operating strategies
are possible, for e x a m ~ l c ,selection of a standbv feed
pump instead o f a fauliy duty pump, then the opirator
can take measures to improve the efficiency of the plant
on-line. The scheme is implemented by a series of
algorithms processed by a dedicated computing system
and is capable of displaying trends in overall performance
given by changes in heat rate, as well as the performance
of individual components.
Machine level insfrumenrarion
This comprises equipment for automatically measuring
and recordinc- c h a n-~ e sin the relative levels of the turbine-
~ ~
generator bearing pedestals. Primarily used for fault
diagnosis, this equipment is sometimes sunplied ..
by the turbine manufacturer. A n alternative approach
is to provide facings and connection points on the
pedestals so that portable equipment can be used to make
the checks during maintenance outages.
Shafl vibration insfrumenfafion
The scope of the measuring points required for this
is more complex than the provision made for turbine
supervisory purposes. At each bearing, two transducers
measure vibration in the same plane but displaced at
90' to each other. This facilitates the recording of shaft
vibration signatures on run-down and also orbit plots
may he taken on-load so that a complete picture of
changes in shaft dynamics can be formulated by an expert
o r a n expert computing system. Such a n analysis can
lead to improvements in the "rediction of maintenance
routlnes
I Instrumentation associated with protection
*md control e q u i p m e n t
'I i i i , comprises imtrumenlatioii used in conjunction
~ ~
ivilli ;i control loop, either locally or for tlic )nail1 plant
,.iiiituoI systems. The turbine governing system (de-
it.tibed in Section I of this chapter) is an exaniplc o f
l l b ~latter, whilst any local control loops not covered
Iby Auxiliary Systems form part of tlie former. These
Ioriil controls are used to onerate plant prior to a unit
aluii-ul~or following maintenance, where operator action
Srolrl the control room is not necessary. Also, some plant
tcijiiires controls which may not be immediately con-
rlcotcd with the minute-by-minute operation of the unit.
I'iirtlier local controls are sometimes needed to permit
i t detailed fault analysis to be carried out following
iili:l~tificationof a problem in the central control room.
8.1.6 Instrumentation t o provide post-Incident
tocords
'ilic detectors required to provide these records are
ileiived from other categories of instrumentation, mainly
liilin the supervisory instrumentation. These records
)xovide critical plant data for desisnated periods be-
l u r c and after a n incident to enable the cause to be
ii~vestigated. Thc recording is initiated by a unit or
pI23nt trip (for example, the trip of a feed pump), or
cliicctly by the operator on demand. These records are
l>r~duced by data processing computers and, since con-
linoous scanning of all the input parameters is necessary,
some compromises have to be made in the scanning
spccd. Thus, assuming a minimum scanning interval
of 3 s and depending on their relative positions in the
scnoning cycle, a parameter might respond up to 3 s
liefare or 3 s after the recording shows the trip to have
operated. In specifying the requirements of the data
logging system, the turbine plant designer considers these
limitations to provide a compromise which is both cost
~ ~~~~~
cffcctive and valuable to operators.
built-in
6 Turbine foundations
'The turbine-generator
. foundations consist of the support
structure, the sub-foundation and the subsoil; they
perform the following functions:
Support the static load of the turbine-generator and
associated pipe loads, and transmit these forces to
the subsoil.
e Restrain the plant from undue movement due to
dynamic forces resulting from the load torque,
unbalance forces, electrical faults, etc., by trans-
mitting and absorbing the associated energy.
Maintain the alignment of the plant under all op-
I erating conditions.
r i ~ r h i n efoundations
Acconimodate the thermal capansiorr of tllc stsuctilre
conditions.
and stalic parts of tiic platit under all ollerating
Raise thc plan1 above the ~ u r b i n chouse floor to
provide access for electrical connections and pipe-
work, Bottom connection of the main stcam pipe-
work is particularly desirable to avoid dismantling
pipcwork during maintenance and to prevent the
pipework draining into tlie turbine. The height o f
the turbine abovc the basement floor level is partly
determined by thc need to accomnlodate the con-
denser and condenser neck, when an underslung
condenser is used, and partly by consideration o f
condensate drainage iequiretnents. The bled-steam
piping should drain away from the turbine and the
drains from L P heaters must be returned to the
condenser. For this to be achieved with gravity
drainage requires a certain minimum height differ-
ence between turbine and condenser hotwell.
For inain turbine-generator plant, these require-
ments have been satisfied by eithcr reinforced concrete
or steel support structures, which are described in
more detail in later sections.
It is also necasary to monitor the movement of
Uhe foundations througliout the life of the station.
Settlement of the whole foundation in service is
not very serious, provided that it is not large enough
to affect electrical and steam connections, but dif-
ferential movement between bearing supports must
be avoided if the alignment of the plant is to be
maintained within reasonable limits. Multi-limb mano-
metric level measuiing systems are therefore installed
on tlie bearing supports to monitor relative level
chanees. A schematic diagram . of such a system is
"
shown in Fig 2.46.
'Slave' units are fitted to each bearing support, with
a master reference unit at one point and the whole
system is filled with water. A uniform level is thus
established by the water surface and movement of
the bearing support relative to the fixed water level
can be detected by suitable sensors fitted on each
slave unit. Sensors using micrometer adjustment of
a n electrical contact probe, and floats with LVDT
position measurement have been used in the past,
but both systems have disadvantages. Present day
systems use a n ultrasonic sensor fitted in the base
of each slave unit which measures the position of
the water surface by sound reflection technique.
Accuracy of measurement is typically k0.05 mm, with
a minimum measurement range of +2.5 mm about
nominal level.
Cooling water is circulated around jackets on each
slave unit to eliminate errors due to manometer water
temperature variations. Air pressure variations are
nullified by connecting the air spaces of each slave
unit together in an 'air balance box' (not shown in
figure). The balance box is then vented to atmos-
phere at a single point.
 Turbine plant systems Turbine fout?dations

5.2 Concrete foundations

SlhVL UNiiS
LXCITAllON UNIT
DISPLAY
1'10 2.46 Sclleiiinlic diagram of a
T o allow any relationship between bearing support
level changes and foundation structure temperatures
t o be studied, temperature sensors are buried in the
foundations during construction or attached during
erection.
5.1 Tuning
The foundations need to combine rigidity, to avoid
excessive movement, and flexibility, to prevent excessive
forces being Present at the bearings. Dangerous re-
sonances at all speeds must be avoided and the natural
frequencies o f the foundation as a whole must not be
close to running speed.
Two methods of avoiding resonant conditions and
unacceptable vibrations are possible:
Overtuned Or high-tuned, the natural frequency of
vibration Of lhe foundation structure is above the
running speed of the machine and away from any
harmonics of this speed. This is referred to as a
sfiff foundation.
Undertuned or low-tuned, the natural frequency of
vibration o f all or some of the foundation structure
is below the operating speed of the machine, hi^ is
sometimes referred to as a /lexible foundation.
iurbillc mnnomclric level iridicnlloii riid ineusuri#~p,
eqtiip8llent
Analysis during the design process and before con
struction to establish design values of natural frequei
cy (and harmoriics o f that frequency) well remove
from runni~lgfxequency and its harmonics.
Incorporation within the support structure of a means
for adjusting the natural frequency after erection and
commissioning to remove o r control unwantcd
resonances and forced vibrations.
Analysis methods used at the design stage model
plant and its foundations mathematically as a series
o f masses, beams and springs as shown in ~i~ 2.47.
Because of the complexity of the model and the num-
ber Of possible modes and frequencies of vibration,
computer programs are used to assess the forces and
deflections in the structure in response to a variety of
static, transient and oscillatory forces. The design studies
also consider the response of the foundation to the
effects of shaft misalignment, out.of.balancc forces, and
load and electrical fault torques,
The subsoil elasticity is important at some sites but
the effects vary with subsoil type and foundation type.
These can be ignored.
Rigidity is achieved by establishing the mass of thc
Support Structureand sub-foundation at about ten times
the mass of the rotating shafts. With flexible support
structures, the foundation mass can sometimes be re-
'The traditional foundatiori used in the CEGB lor
turbine-geneiator units up to 500 M W was reinforced
concrete. For small units, the support stiucture was a
rigid monolithic block on a substantial sub-foundatioo.
with openings to accommodate plant arid pipework.
This type of foundation was invariably high-tuiled and
moveinent at the bearings was restricted at the expense
of high bearing forces. The dynamic energy associated
with machine vibration was transmitted through the
support structure and sub-foundation and absorbed
by these structures and the subsoil.
As unit size increased, the problems of designing a
high-tuned foundation with adequate access for pipes,
conimctions and ancillary plant became more severe, and
the larger units now in service with concrete support
structures generally use a low-tuned design. Examples
; ,,, 2.47 ~ e l ~ i e i e n ~ a t iofo na li1rbii,c-8eneiaiorarid in of low-tuned rcinforccd concrete supDort structures are
iouiidalion urcd for analysis shown in Figs 2.48 and 2.49. The structure is generally
I,, ,,,i,clicc, the com~icieturbine and supper1 sIrueiure arc
l,,l~,r\cilicdby a full three-dimessional assembly of nlasres. in the form of a series of portal frames, linked with
~,vl,,,,, illid ~prinp,~.'fhc efieci of the subsoil is inof rigtliii- horizontal beams at the top to form the platform on
c,,,,I i,, ciicun?itanccs and can tllen be i88iored. which the turbine and generator are mounted. The struc-
ture is designed to limit the differential settlement o f
bearing supports to about 0.5 mm, although for bearings
close together differential movement of half this value
is more appropriate.
When designing a concrete foundation, margins on
calculated natural frequency have to be allowed because
of the wide range of values of Young's modulus for
concrete which can be met in practice. Concrete also
shrinks during curing and this can continue for a long
time after construction. Most of the shrinkaae occurs
during the first six months, so turbine-generator erection
on the support structure is normally programmed to
occur nine months after construction.. Further shiitlka~e
~ .
continues to a lesser extent for some time and minor
changes to machine alignment may be necessary for up
to four gears. Concrete also creeps under stress and this
continues throughout the life of the support structure.
In fact creep is one of the mechanisms by which the
stresses resulting from shrinkage are relieved. Special
concrete mixes have been developed for minimum
shrinkage to alleviate this problem but these are some-
times difficult to pour and compact.
ation, it becomes necessary to tune the structure Thermal expansion of concrete is significant and,
. TWO basic methods are available for this:
together with its poor thermal conductivity, can give rise
to alignment changes between hot and cold conditions
hdding massto columns or panels at selected locations due to differential expansion. Thermal shielding of parts
to reduce vibration amplitude. of the concrete support structure is therefore employed
to reduce these effects and one UK power station has
* ~ d d i n g(or removing) structural strength to (from) been fitted with cooling pipes embedded in the concrete
lilt foundation structure to change its stiffness and to control temperatures directly.
move the natural frequency away from a plant ex-
citation frequency.
. .~ ~~

In designing turbine-generator foundations it is therefore
necessary to consider 'tuning' the foundations and there
are two aspects to this:
duced as the elasticity o f support reduces the dynamic
forces transmitted to the sub-foundation and subsoil.
in calculating the loads on the structure, account
must be taken o f pipework loads (both hot and cold)
)lot11 methods have been used, separately 01 in corn-
\,ination, on occasions, although post-commissioning
tuning is generally not necessary.
tion might be expected to be greater than with other
types of support structure. This has not been the case
in practice, and post-construction tuning of reinforced
concrete support structures is rarely necessary. If tun-

!) 3 Steel foundat~ons
nG. 2.48 'i'lie use of a welded steel support structure for the
support rtrueture for a SW MW turbine-generator sitti underslung condenser
This is a low-luned design. turbine-generator has several advantages:
B A Steel support structure is lighter than one of
reinforced concrete, reducing the static load on the
sub-Foundation.
r Steel is a uniform material with accurately known and
dependable properties, giving greater accuracy in
analysis.
e Offsite fabrication is possible, independent o f the
weather, and site erection time is reduced. A site
erection programme time of three montlls would be
typical for this type of support structure.
Plant erection can be done immediately the support
structure is complete, as it is not necessary t o wait
for curing or shrinkage. This has obvious advantages
for the construction programme.
A steel support structure gives improved access for
pipework and generator connections.
Steel support structures are fabricated as a 'table
top' of cellular construction supported from the sub-
foundation o n box construction columns. The 'table
F'O. 2.49 Concrete suPPOrfltiueture for a 500 MW turbine-generator with side-mounted condensers inreaial top' is designed to provide support
. to the bearing
I
~
with the LP cylinders pedestals, turbine cylinders, generator and exciter.
The HP eld of the slructure is similar to that of Fig 2.48, but the structure is lower and is not required to provide LP
cylinder support. The mass of concrete used is about 60% that of the structure in Fig 2.48. This is also Examples of steel support structures are shown in
a low-tuned design. Figs 2.50 and 2.51.
Turbine fou~idations
A steci sui)port SII.LICIIII.C is liiore flexible liiiiri the
ctjnivalenl rcinforccd concrete structure and is alw,ays
low-tuncd. Tiie flexibility o f t h c support colu~rinsisolates
the dynamic forces produced by the rotating shafts from
the sub-foundation to some degree and may ailow a
reduction in sub-foundation mass. This isolation also
Ireips thc causes of unusual vibration bchaviour of
the plant to be determined as the effects are more lo-
calised than with stiffer support structures. Any attacli-
ments necessary 011 the ~upp01.tcolumns arc strictly
controiled to ensure that the structure characteristics
and integrity are maintained.
With a steel foundation, the responsibility for de-
signing and supplying the support structure usualiy rests
with the turbine-generator contractor, rather than with
the civil engineering contractor, l'his is generally regarded
as a n advantage, as tile same contractor is responsible
both for the plant whicil generates the dynamic forces
and the structure which must respond to, and partially
absorb them. Shrinkage is not a problem with a steel
structure and working support structure temperatures are
below those liable to give creep in the steel. The use of
good-quality weldabie steel is very important to accom-
modate the static and dynamic loads, and the steel inust
have good impact properties. Steel to BS4360 grade C
is typical of the types used. Thorough non-destructive
testing (NDT) is used on a random check basis for all
weids, with particular emphasis o n critical and site welds,
to ensure freedom from defects.
The thermal expansion coefficient of steel is less
than that of concrete and, together with the good
thermal conductivity, reduces problems of differential
thermal expansion upsetting shaft alignment in the
vertical direction. In the axiai and transverse direc-
tions, the thermal expansion characteristics of the
support structure arc almost the same as those of the
static parts o f the plant which it supports: this ex-
pansion is readily accommodated by flexing of the
support columns. Attachment of bearing pedestais to
the support structure is quite simple for there is no
need to use grouted-in fixing plates, as on a concrete
structure.
The design analysis includes for the effects o f ro-
tating out-of-balance loads and considers the fatigue
conditions at welded joints to ensure the long term
integrity of the structure.
The accuracy of analysis possible with a steel struc-
ture gives confidence in the performance of the struc-
ture in service and post-commissioning problems have
only rarely been experienced. If problems do occur, the
structure can be 'tuned' more easily than a reinforced
concrete structure by three methods:
Adding steel struts t o the structure.
Adding weight external t o the columns.
r Adding weight inside the sections of a box construc-
tion column.
179
Turbine plant systems
TURBiNE
NO. 2 i . P
LOCATlON
No 1 L.P. TURBINE
H P TURBINE
LOCATION '\
,
BEAMSUPPORT
COLUMNS
FIG.2.50 Steel suppoil structure for a 660 M W ioibinc-generator with two LI' cyliiideis and aii underslung condcnsci
Differential settlement can also be corrected by jacking-
up each of the affected columns and inserting packing
between the column base and the sub-foundation.
5.4 Spring foundations
As the natural frequency of a low-tuned foundation
support structure decreases, the isolation between the
support structure and the sub-foundation increases,
and the sub-foundation is called upon to absorb less
of the energy resulting from dynamic and transient
forces generated in the shaft line and static sections
of the plant.
The closest practical approach to complete dynamic
isolation results from mounting the turbine-generator
plant on springs and this approach has been used
successfully overseas. In the UK, condensers of the
underslung type have been spring-mounted, as have
smaller items of plant, but spring mounting has not yet
been used for main turbine-generators.
Established overseas practice uses springs of the
helical-coil or plate type supporting a reinforced con-
crete deck on which the turbine-generator is mounted.
Chapti') 2
...-
H.P. STEAM CHEST
SUPPORT
I course, depends on subsoil conditions at the par-
Springs mounted in rows on structural concrete walih
or in groups at the top of support columns have bee11
used and viscous dampers are sometimes employed i n
conjunction with the springs. Natural frequencies of
about 3 Hz for movement in the vertical direction arc
claimed for these systems. A hydraulic locking system
is used to pre-load the springs to a set deflection for
construction and plant erection purposes. The sanie
locking system can be used to allow the insertion of
packers, above a spring or spring-group, to correct for
foundation column settlement: this also allows sprin
to be changed after erection for others having a different
springrate, if it is necessary to change the characteristics
of any part of the spring support system.
Such low natural frequencies are accompanied b
the possibility of greater plant deflection under tra
sient conditions. Under generator load rejection or
short-circuit conditions, torsional rocking of the plan1
can impose vertical movements of 1-1.5 mm at the
111.line-generator, and the sub-foundation mass is es-
springs, so pipe and electrical connections must be
designed to accommodate this.
Because the sub-foundation is well isolated from
dynamic loads, it is possible to reduce the mass of the
sub-foundation towards that necessary to support the
F~o.2.51 Steel support structurefor
a 5W MW t ~ r b i n e - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ihree
The condenser support columnr are not shown.
ilic load only, or even to dispense with a mass
licrele sub-foundation and install individual foun-
lions for each support column. The precise design,
'Tlle spring support, concrete deck and support
Itrmns are no cheaper than other support structure
x s : the economic advantagc claimed for spring
andations lies in the possible reduction in mass of the
I1.foundation. Cost reductions of 25% are claimed in
vourable circumstances.
6 Sub-foundation
?art from any special designs associated with spring
undations, the sub-foundation must be a massive
11 rigid concrete base designed to transmit and dis-
the static and dynamic loads of the support
e and plant above it to the subsoil. Rigidity is
ry to limit differential settlement of the bases
support columns to a value acceptable to the
blished from design analysis to limit plant vibration.
he sub-foundation of a modern turbine-generator
CEGB station, the mass is typically
ombined mass of the plant and struc-
Lubrication systems
a t o 1.P
~ and pannier condensers
The thickness of the sub-foundation should not be
less than one tenth of its length. The need for piling is
determined by the nature of the subsoil at a particular
site. Discontinuity between the sub-foundation, the
basement floor of the station and the foundations of
other plant is attempted to prevent transmission of vibra-
tions to other plant and the building structure.
6 Lubrication systems
6.1 Lubrication requirements and typical
arrangements
Forced lubrication of the turbine bearings is essential
in order to prevent damage due to wear or excessive
white metal bearing temperature. Before starting to
turn the main rotating elements, it is necessary to lift
the rotors clear of the bearing surface: the jacking oil
system used to achieve this is described later in Section
6.9 of this chapter.
The purposes of the forced lubrication of the main
bearings are:
(a) T o provide a hydrodynamic oil wedge between
the bearing surface and the journal bearing of
sufficient thickness so that the particles of debris
 Turbine plant systems Chapti:i 2

normally jpiese~it in tile oil will 1101 damage the ex~~eriencc has sliowr~that lin~itingtllc oii tempeiariili
bearing surfaces. leaving a bearing to 71CC, gives satisCac1ol.y heiliiiljr
~ ~

(b) To provide a fiow of cooling fiuid sufficient to
maintain the bearing white metal temperature be-
low ilOeC, dissipating the heat at the bearing
due to:
@ Thermal conduction.
0 Friction between tlie journal, oil film and white
metal.
Turbulelice with the oil itself.
The majority of the oil fiow is needed to cool the
bearing. Because o f the problems of accurately mca-
suring the white metal temperature at the point of
maximum hydrodynamic pressure in the oil wedge,
ilf~.
On older units. the lubricating oii system !i;ri
integrated with tile turbine control and protectio~, oil
system, with the lubricating oil being supplied throiiirl~
a pressure control valve. A typical arrangement is shoiu18
on Fig 2.52.
On modern units, the control system (see Sectioii 1.6
of this chapter) normally requires a fire-resistant fliiiil
(FRF) system with a pressure between 70 and 175 bar.
The lubricating oil system on these units (Fig 2.53)
is provided using a directly-driven centrifugal punip
delivering oil at around I1 bar. The oil from the pump
passes through an oil turbine which drops the oil
pressure to around 3 bar; the oil turbine drives a
booster pump which supplies oil from the main oil
tank to the centrifugal oil pump suction. This arraotc.

I'ii;. 2.53 1.ubricaliiip oil syarczn lor modern turbine-generator platit

Inrbll allows the oii tank iocation to be optimised with
fci:ard to oil drainage under gravity, whilst meeting the
centrifugal pump suction-head requirements. T o protect
lhc System against overpressurisation, a connection is
Inken from the bearing oil supply line to a relief valve
lounted on the oil tank.
' he directly-driven main oil pump provides a n
cmeiy secure source o f lubricating oil under normal
ing conditions. For normal start-up and shutdown,
11 AC auxiliary oil pump provides the lubricating oil
rpply. For emergency shutdown, when the AC supplies
arc not available or the AC pump fails to start when
seal-oil system (see Chapter 6 , Section 5) is provided to
prevent hydrogen transfer to the main oil system; on
these units, the supply from tlie main lubricating oil
system is used as a back-up.
On modern units, the lubricating oil system supplies:
Each journal bearing on the turbine/generator/exciter
rotating line.
The main thrust/surge bearing.
The generator hydrogen seals, either as the sole supply

AUXillARY
O i l PUMP
required, a DC auxiliary oil .

ullit can be brought

~
oumo . is .vrovided. Auto-
malic sequefitial starting of these pumps is arranged
llpon falling lubricating oil pressure to ensure that the
- to a standstill without damaee
~~~~ ~

-- tn
~

--
. o r as a back-up system.

The bearings on the turbine.driven boiler

where this plant is provided,
pump,

flit bearings, and to ensure that the bearings d o not

overheat due to conducted heat. Oil filters and strainers, oil cooler, tank vents and
Lubricating oil is also used for the generator hydrogen oil purifier connections are provided o n the lubricat-
hcals and the supply is taken from the 70-170 bar oil ing oil system. Details of these features are described
FIG. 2.52 Lubricating and relay oil system for older turbine.generatar plant piessure manifold. On some modern units, a separate below.
 Lubrication systems

station cleall and dirty oil tanka, and also to the ,ii in pig 2.54.
l~urificaliotl system, with the pipework and JOURNAL BEARING

necessary to permit the transfer of oil:

THRUST BEARING
0 From the station clean-oil tank to the unit oil tank.* 6.2 oil pumps O I L DISCHARGE

e From the station used-oii tank to the oil ta,,k,* Details of the various oil pumps used arc dcic,ii
JOURNAL BEARING
in the paragraphs that foilow.
To drain the whole of the oii inventory from the
LOCKlNG PLATE
unit oil system into the unit oil tank, and from the
unit oil tank into the station used-oil tank. 6.2.1 Main lubricating oil p u m p

JOURNAL BEARING. -VENTILATION HOLE

TO EXPANSION
in the unit tank or the oil in the station ~ l e a n - ~ i l COUPLING
tank. The pump is not self-priming and requires a su
oil pressure of around 3 - 4 bar. COUPLlNG FLANGE
Through a portable unit oil purifier to process TURB~NE E L E C T R ~ C A L TO DRWE SHAFT
IIIRNING GEAR END
the 0ii in either the unit tank o r the station c ~ e a ~ . ~ i l
tank. 6.2.2 Turbine-driven oil b o a s t e r p u m p
In order to ensure the security o f lubricating oii siii,.
ply, oil from the main oil pump discharge is passvil
* These transfers are made using the oil purification through a n oil turbine. ~h~ turbine is mou,,,cil IOOITOM HALF
PUMP SHAFT
unit. on top o f the oil tank and drives a submerged ocn. NECK R l N C

BOTTOM HALF
WEAR RiNClS
JOURNAL BEARING
OIL OUTLET

-.~.~ TEST PRESSURE

GAUGE CONNECTiON
OIL LNLET FLANGE

--._01L DISCHARGE
FLANGE

FIG. 2.55 Main iubricating oil pump

-
.--. LUBIliUiiNrOii
rn"PASS
- U#*CriU"lO"I
- URA,WS system as the A C pump, or the pipework which feeds
vEMr 6.2.3 AC a n d DC motor-driven auxiliary oil oil directly to the bearings at around 1.5 har. Each pump
M NoM.~~un.vALv. has a capacity o f around 70-120 litres/s.
The AC and DC auxiliary oil pumps which supply oil
to bearings under start-up and normal shutdown, or
under emergency shutdown respectively, are centri- 6.2.4 Jacking-oil P u m p s a n d priming P u m p s
fugal pumps with a submerged suction. They are also The jacking oil pumps deliver oil at around 300 bar
suspended from the tank top and their arrangement to the individual bearings. The pumps used are motor-
FIG. 2.54 Lubricating oil transfer and conditioning system is very similar to Fig 2.56, hut with an AC or DC driven positive displacement and either multi-plunger
 Turbine plant systems

P V M P BODY

SEALING RiNG

TURBINE C I \ S $ N G

DISCHARGE PIPE---
TURBINE TOP

JOURNAL BEARIN0

TAXE-OFF

PEDESTAL

LOW PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
OUTLET PLUG
TAKE-OFF

PlSTON SPRING
PVMP COVER W i L E T Poll7

YAPOUR BLEED------- OUTLET V I \ I V L

ASSEMBLY

1:lc. 2.57 Mulfi.piunger jacking oil pump

DISCHARGE BEND
P U M P BOD"

l i ~ cdischarge pressure is the same as for the other Pump duty Type Drive
jacking oil pumps. Purifier/oil conditioner Gear Electric motor
- oil
6.2.5 Other pumps Purifier/oil conditioner Electric motor
Various other pumps are used on the lubricating oil - water
PIG. 2.56 Turbinc-driven o i l booster pump system and oil transfer systems as follows:

pumps Or
Oil tank water/oil Centrifugal Electric motor 6.3 Oil tanks
gear Pumps, see Figs 2.57 and lubricating oil manifold and the gear pumps have vapour extraction On modern units, the main oil tank has a capacity of
2.58. around 75 m3 for the lubricating oil system oil inven-
a motor-driven positive displacement two-shaft gear
The arrangement utilises either one gear pump per Oil tank hydrogen/ Centrifugal Electric motor tory, with a normal working level volume of 50 m3:
pump.
bearing or one motor/pump unit for either one or oil vapour extraction a typical arrangement is shown on Fig 2.59. The tank
On some designs the turning gear is provided with
two bearings. The pumps require a positive suction a separate jacking oil pump. hi^ pump is a motor. Clean and used Gear or Electric motor, is designed with the oil return and the pump suction
pressure. The multi-Plunger Pumps are fed from the driven, positive displacement, two.shaft gear pump; separated by baffle plates, to assist in de-aeration and
oil transfer diaphragm or air
186
I 1urbtne piatit systems
kt6 2 58 Gear i)pe jackmg o#l/primlng pump
settlement and also to prevent the formation of stag-
nant pockets of oil. The quantity of oil in the tank
and the internal design of the tank provide around
seven minutes oil transit time from return to suction,
with the normal time limits being between five to
ten minutes.
The trend on modern systems is to provide a self-
contained section of the overall oil tank for the hy-
drogen seal-oil system, the objective being to eliminate
the risk of hydrogen gas passing into the main lubri-
cating oil system. Where a self-contained system is
used, a back-up supply of oil to the hydrogen seals
is provided. Where the lubricating oil system provides
the hydrogen gas-side seal-oil, special precautions are
taken to ensure that any entrained hydrogen is released
and vented to atmosphere. A separate seal-oil loop
detraining chamber is used to ensure that all hydrogen
is removed before the oil is mixed with the main oil
system.
Coarse-mesh strainers are provided on all oil returns
t o the tank to assist de-aeration and to catch any large
foreign material. Problems have arisen in the past with
corrosion at the air/oil interface in the main oil tank
due to the presence of water/water vapour in the oil.
The main oil tank is now fabricated either in stainless
steel or mild steel with a special phenolic paint protec-
tion against corrosion.
O n the top of the oil tank, in addition to the sus-
pended oil pumps and the bearing oil pressure relief
188
Chdlill
--
8001 SEAL
O-RING ' 1
0 4 L SEAL
valves, two vapour extraction pumps are also mounted.
One to remove water and oil vapour from the tank and
the other to extract hydrogen and oil vapour from thc
detraining tank.
6.4 Piping
Pressure oil piping for both jacking ail systems and
lubricating oil systems on modern units is subject to
special design precautions against oil leakage and fire
risk. The oil piping is sized so that the oil velocity is
between 1-5 m/s. Oil piping from the pump discharge
is contained within an enclnsure/duct and the pipe-
runs between pipe joints are as long as is possible.
All pipe joints are o f Class I welded construction.
At the exit from the ducted area, the pressure oil pipe
is contained within a protective pipe, so that any oil
leakage would be contained and would be detected at
'tell-tale' drains. Pipe material up to the filters is mild
steel; on some designs, the pipe-runs after the filters
are in stainless steel to minimise the risk of corrosion
products damaging the bearings. Automatic air venting
of the pipework system from its highest points to the
oil tank is provided where the air is not vented through
the bearings. Oil filters are also provided with air vents
to the oil tank; these ensure that any air accumulation,
either in service o r as a result of servicing or inspection,
is vented to the oil tank.
i Lubrication systems
A C MOiORORlVLN A C MOIORDR8YEN
LU6HICATlNCIOIL PUMP
F ~ G2.59
. Main oil lank
6.5 Oil coolers
'The function of the oil coolers is to ensure that the oil
fcmperature leaving the bearings is below the permitted
limit by removing the heat absorbed by the oil within
(lie pumps and the bearings. Redundant coolers are
provided in order to enable repairs and tube cleaning
lo be carried out whilst the unit is on-load. Normally,
three 50% duty coolers are provided, but two 100% units
nre sometimes used.
'The oil coolers are mounted vertically with a two-pass
water flow through the tubes and a single-pass oil flow
through a series of baffles, to ensure even cooling. The
cooler shells are of mild steel and modern practice
is for the tubes to be made of titanium. The tube
nest has a fixed and a floating tubeplate to contain
lllermal expansion. The coolers are provided with re-
movable end plates so that cleaning can be carried
nut without dismantling the water pipes. The heat
-
'
OILFLOW
' MPOIII1
- general ariangenleni
dissipation requirements are around 2 MW per cooler.
On some designs, the oil coolers have the main
lubricating oil filters integral with the cooler shell. A
typical example of a n oil cooler, which also shows the
integral oil filters, is shown on Fig 2.60.
Arrangements are made for automatic by-pass of
the oil coolers upon excessive pressure drop across the
coolers. Automatic control of the oil outlet temperature
is provided.
6.6 Oil strainers and filters
The oil strainers are coarse wire-mesh basket type
assemblies which are designed to catch large foreign
material from the oil drains into the main oil tank.
thus ensuring that material reaching the centrifugal
pump suction will not cause pump damage. They can
 Tiirhine plant systems Chapii'i 1 Lubiication systeins
.

C "llii, i .,: ,.,

__
-.
iioss i O i i
iiiFRNO I'OI:KFI VIIRBOXAIII
LlDSS FOR R T i i h S E CONNECIIONS
OiSlANCE
IIIFRMOMFIER -.
C W <>"TIE? -- COOiFRUODYhiii
RFLFASE CONNSCilONS
VIAISRBOX COV

IWICT,O"llli .-

TOI'TUBFPLAT
Oil. OUTLET-

BOSS FOR DlSiANCE

THERMOMFTEA

BAFFLE PLATES

i l L l E i l CHAMBER
C O O l l H BODY ACCESSCOVERS i

-IILIERCIIAMBFR
OIL ,Nlil---..
FLIERCHAtIIIEH AIR
RELEASE CONNFCIION

04l'ltREN1IAI PRESSURL
GAUGE CONNLCTiONS

FlOWDiAGRAM

FIG. 2.60 Oil cooler with iniegral f i l m

be lifted out of the tank to remove and inspect any
debris collected.
Two main systems of filtration of the lubricating
oil are used:
(a) Curlridge fillers fitted into the oil cooler casing
which are designed to filter 13 litres/s of hot oil
per cartridge, to a nominal particle size of 10
microns. Each cooler can have up to four dispos-
able cartridges giving a total filtration capacity of
around 52 litres/s, with two coolers required for
100% duty.
(b) Duplex filters fitted after the oil coolers. These
can be either multiple disposable filters, with facilities
for on-load replacement, or a duplex plate filter
which can be cleaned on-load. The plate-type filter
consists of two compartments, each with five filter
assemblies. Each assembly consists of a series of
plates and spacers, which give the required degree
of filtration of 15 micron. Each compartment
normally passes 50% of the oil: facilities exist to
pass LOO% flow through one compartment in order
to allow replacement, maintenance or inspection
190
of one compartment whilst the unit is on-load.
Facilities are provided to enable a filter to bc
primed and pressurised after service, before ~ u t .
tillg a filter cimparllnent back into service. The filtej
norinally provides a capacity of around 106 litres/s
under a pressure drop of 0.3 bar with both com-
partments in service. Normal filter cleaning is
Fit. 2.61 Plate lyne oil filter
carried out automatically when a rising pressure
differential reaches 0.45 bar across the filter. Ro-
tation of each plate filter assembly then occurs
against a scraper bar; the debris off each filter falls 'The oil for these duties is taken from the filtered oil housing and the cold lubricating oil, which results in
into a sump at the bottom of the filter irousing and supply to the bearings and passed through a duplex condensate being dispersed through the oil. The oil
is cleaned out on a regular basis. A typical arrange- plate-type filter system similar to that described above also collects wear particles, oxides, soluble acids and
ment of a plate-type filter is shown on Fig 2.61. and shown o n Fig 2.61. This additional filter has only sludge. These need to be removed from the oil to
four plate filter assemblies in each compartment and ensure its long life and efficient lubrication. There
lhas only manual filter cleaning. The filter provides are two main systems used o n continuous by-pass duty
Where a plate-type filter is used in the main oil supply
a capacity of 16 litres/s under a pressure drop of whilst the unit is in operation, and an oil regeneration
t o the bearings, additional filtration is required for 0.2 bar with'both compartments in service. system is also used in the station oil system. The on.line
the oil supply to: systems are described in the sections which follow.
. The main thrust and surge bearings.
The shaft turning gear, jacking oil pump, gearing
and clutch,
6.7 Oil purifiers and coalescers
The main source of contamination of lubricating oil
is the leakage of steam from the rotor gland seals.
6.7.1 Centrifugal separation systems
This type of system has been used for many years but
requires careful adjustment for maximum efficiency,
as well as considerable maintenance. A schematic ar-
The main oil pump, thrust bearing and cooling sprays. This steam condenses upon contact with the bearing rangement of the system is shown on Fig 2.62.
 Tuibii?c plaiit systems
Lubiicatioii systems
~=:+=:z:-~
-1 1 Oil is taken froin tile inain oil tank at a rate of 17010
of the oil i~lventoiyper hour. Thc oil initially passes
lliir)ilgi~ a scrics arrangement of fine-nlesli sloping
screens. Thc water coalesces on the screens in water
droplets which iilil down to the bottom of each screen
and are led to drain. The oil then passcs through a series
o f polyolefinic bags which filter out the particulate
matter. Finally, the ail is pumped through a 5 micron
pressure filter and delivered back into the main oil tank.
The oil passes through the purifier at its operating
temperature and because it is not heated the risk of
bacterial/fungal growth may be greater (see Section
6.8 of this chapter).
Provision is made for the regeneration of used oil
within the station oil transfer system. Oil for regen-
eration is taken from the unit oil tank or the station
dirty-oil tank at around 1.1 m3 per hour and processed
in the plant shown schematically on Fig 2.65.
The oil is healed to 54.4"C and is then sprayed into
a chamber with a vacuum maintained at 913 mbar
below atmospheric. Under tiiese conditions the water
boils o f f , is removed by the vacuum pump and con-
densed. The dry oil is then pumped out of the vacuum
chamber and through a filter. The filter comprises a
pack of nylon-backed filter papers clamped between
perforated steel plates, and filters the oil to 10 microns.
From the filter, the oil is taken into the clean oil tank
prior to being pumped back into the unit oil tank after
it has been cleaned.

6.8 Oils and greases

6.8.1 Oils
The oils used in steam turbines must provide ciean,
stable and efficient iubrication whilst exposed to the
severe operational conditions. They are also required
to be efficient at absorbing the heat generated in the
bearing. These conditions require the use of oils in-
corporating additives, particularly for the inhibition
of corrosion and oxidation.
The basic turbine lubricating oils are to British
Standard 489: 1983: CEGB Standard 207001 covers
lubricants for use by the CEGB and Table 2.1 is a n
extract which covers turbine lubricating oils. The spe-
cific grade used on the modern 3000 r/min tandem
turbine-generator is TO-32.
Additives are now used to inhibit oxidation, corro-
sion and foaming. An oxidation inhibitor is added to
stabilise the oil against oxidation and to passivate the
metals which act catalytically to increase oxidation. These
inhibitors maintain a low neutralisation value (acidity)
of an oil over many years of service. A rust inhibitor
in the oil protects carbon-steel surfaces from rusting
when in contact with water or moist air entrained within
192 5 nc 2 63 011 purifier bowl operat~on the oil circulating system.
f
193
 Turbiiie plant systems Lublication systems

PEHTORATEO UEAEHKIING
PLATES IN VACUUM DRUM

FIG. 2.64 Static oil purifier

Detergeni additives arc used to inhibit high [em- 6.8.2 Greases

peralure oxidation, the formation of low temperature
sludge and the deposition of contaminants.
Viscosity index improvers reduce the fall in viscosity
with temperature rise. Pour-poilit dqressents have
the opposite effect and reduce the temperature at which
the oil becomes immobile.
Anli-foaming agenis are added to suppress the ten-
dency of aerated oil to foam and assist in the release
of air from the oil.
The acidity (total) of new oils is normally within the
range 0.02 to 0.10 mg of KOH/g, or slightly higher in
additive-conditioned new oil. In service, oils tend to
oxidise to organic acids and this is accompanied by an
increase in total acidity. The acidity levcl of the oil
is therefore a useful guide to the condition of the oil
and the need for purification or conditioning.
Water ingress into the turbine oil is the most com-
mon problem with oil systems. The Presence of excess
water in oil, particularly if stationary for any length
of time, may result in bacterial and fungal contamina-
tion of the oil systems. This can reveal itself as a
yellow/black stringy grease-like material. This growth
can take place in sediment in oil tanks or other plant
items. It can be particularly difficult to clear from
~ l t l the ~ ~ hof many manufactu
~ ~products
utiliscd, there are three basic greases used for tul-
Silicone-based grease containing tnolybdellii
disulphide. This has a working range of - 50°C 1
. 300°C.
Mineral oil with this grease
slightly lower temperature limit of 260°C.
Lithium-based grease. These greases are used foi 81
wide range of lubricating duties including ball a,
roller bearings. The requirements for the testing
this type of grease are laid down in CEGB Stand;irl
No. 207001.
The first two greases listed are for the lubricatiox> ol
high temperature sliding surfaces, such as turbirl
palms and steam valve pivots.
6.9 Jacking oil systems

.
When a turbine-generator shaft is rotating very slowiy, TANK ORAIN
tube nests. The basic precautions are: the normal lubricating oil supply cannot ensure that
ensure that the water of the oil in a hydrodynamic oil wedge will be maintained. Also
-I OIRIY OIL (WITH WATER1
operation is kept low by regular use of [he oil puri. additional lubrication measures are required to preven

. fier; the water content should not exceed 0.05qo. bearing damage and to minimise breakaway torqil "..- . DiRiY OIL (WATER FRtEl
when starting a turbine-generator from standstill. In b
To remove sludge deposits from the oil system circumstances the jacking oil system provides h . CLEANOIL
plant-sumps on a regular basis. pressure oil to the base of the bearing and floats

If bacteriai/fungal growth becomes a problem, the is capable of sustaining an adequate bearing oil wed
--- VACUUM

addition of the correct biocide to the oil will kill the (above 200 r/min), the jacking oil system and the no
bacterial/fungal growth. ma1 lubricating oil system are run in parallel. FIG.2.65 Oil regeneration plant - flow diagram

194