CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter presents the relevant theories, related literature and studies,

conceptual framework, hypotheses and definition of relevant terms used in the study.

Relevant Theories

This study is premised along the theories of: Charles Reigeluth‘s (1999)

Instructional Design Theory, David P. Ausubel‘s (1962) Subsumption Theory and John

Sweller‘s (1988) Cognitive Load Theory.

According to Reigeluth (1999), Instructional Design Theory is a twin pronged

instrument for facilitating learning and human development. Contending that the methods

of instruction and situations for learning are essential for learning to take place. Coming

up with the eight modules that break down the basic methods of instruction to illustrate

what is actually being learned and how to facilitate learning. Understanding the design of

instruction and what is being learned helped in developing the skills needed to improve

the quality of instruction. The modules cover the different kinds of learning, the invariant

task, like rote memory, classification of concepts, using procedures, using principals,

teaching for understanding, generic skills, like a applicable skill, and attitudes. The

research has lead educators towards chunking information to be learned into smaller parts

and scaffolding concepts.

This theory made significance in the present study since it became a reminder of

the proper procedures, appropriate content, and skills to be developed in the development
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of the proposed worktext in Statistics. It was a great help to be reminded how the

information to be transmitted into scripts will be a supplement to aid the readers for the

growth of the knowledge they need. The information that is being filed together and

come up with an instructional material that is appropriate to meet the needs of the

learners in dealing with all the computations, hence, integrating the application of

authentic situations that fit the degree they are into.

Subsumption theory, according to Ausubel et al. (1962), both rote and meaningful

learning could occur in two different modes, reception and discovery. The discovery

methods of teaching hardly constitute an efficient primary means of transmitting the

content of an academic discipline. This inefficiency was due to the extra effort required

by the learner. Where in reception learning the entire content of what is to be learned is

presented to the learner in its final form, discovery learning requires a much greater effort

in which learners must rearrange a given array of information, integrate it with existing

cognitive structure, and reorganize or transform the integrated combination in such a way

as to create a desired end product or discover the missing means-end relationship. In the

end, the discovered content is internalized just as in reception learning.

Reception learning is meaningful provided that the learner adopts a set to relate

the material to cognitive structure, and that the material itself is logically, i.e., non-

arbitrarily, relatable thereto. In other words, pupils do not independently have to discover

concepts or generalizations before they can understand or use them meaningfully.

The concepts of the aforementioned theory imply that by means of a given

instructional material, the learners will be able to work at their own pace. Since each

learner has their own copy of the instructional material, the digestion of information will
 11

be flexible on their own modes of learning. Though discovery learning requires great

effort, but the proposed instructional material will be an aid to lessen the effort of the

students to learn what they deserve to learn even if they will be working on their own.

Also, the receptive learning will be very meaningful since the material had provided

cognitive structures, thus, the learners will discover concepts and synthesize before the

consequential application.

Cognitive Load Theory of Sweller (1988) suggests that learning happens best

under conditions that are aligned with human cognitive architecture. The structure of

human cognitive architecture, while not known precisely, is discernible through the

results of experimental research. Sweller built a theory that treats schemas, or

combinations of elements, as the cognitive structures that make up an individual's

knowledge base. The contents of long term memory are sophisticated structures that

permit us to perceive, think, and solve problems, rather than a group of rote learned facts.

These structures, known as schemas, are what permit us to treat multiple elements as a

single element. They are the cognitive structures that make up the knowledge base.

Schemas are acquired over a lifetime of learning, and may have other schemas contained

within themselves.

The difference between an expert and a novice is that a novice hasn't acquired the

schemas of an expert. Learning requires a change in the schematic structures of long term

memory and is demonstrated by performance that progresses from clumsy, error-prone,

slow and difficult to smooth and effortless. The change in performance occurs because as

the learner becomes increasingly familiar with the material, the cognitive characteristics

associated with the material are altered so that it can be handled more efficiently by
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working memory. From an instructional perspective, information contained in

instructional material must first be processed by working memory. For schema

acquisition to occur, instruction should be designed to reduce working memory load.

Cognitive load theory is concerned with techniques for reducing working memory load in

order to facilitate the changes in long term memory associated with schema acquisition.

The idea of the use of schemas helped in the exposure of the students in solving

problems which requires numerous formula and various processes. The concept of the

theory which deals with the reduction of working memory load suggested much

information to consider of how the flow of the discussion of the lessons be written in the

material. Moreover, other features of the material, like the calculator tips and step by step

solution, is based on the said theory so that the schemas of the learners will be their

advantage which is believed to be beneficial for achieving solutions to different exercises

and problem solving.

Related Literature

Objectives. Vega (2006) stated objectives as statements of what will be achieved

as a result of the instruction the teacher is designing. Lesson or instructional objectives

were also called performance objectives because of the emphasis on outcomes as

manifested in their performance.

Being able to measure performance objectives was a critical piece in the

successful completion of any performance development plan and accountability review.

Therefore, a key element to writing a successful performance objective was to identify

the means of measurement. Identify the right measurement for assessing performance and

determining progress towards performance objective/s.

 13

Nature. Illinois Online Network and the Board of Trustees of the University of

Illinois (2010) reminded writers that when writing learning objectives, terms that cannot

be clearly understood by the readers should be avoided. It was considered as a necessity

to communicate an objective as clearly as possible to avoid misinterpretation.

In addition to that, they claimed that a useful objective successfully describes an

intended instructional result by describing the purpose of the instruction. The best

statement was one that excludes the greatest number of possible meanings other than the

one intended. In other words, it succeeds in communicating the intent of instruction yet

avoids misinterpretation.

Purpose. An article entitled The Importance of Learning Objectives of Kelly

(2011) stated that learning objectives are of key importance when creating lesson plans.

Objectives provided students with information about what they are going to be learning

while giving them an indication of how their learning will be measured. There were a few

rules to writing excellent learning objectives that should be followed. Unfortunately,

many teachers do not spend the time to create effective, measurable lesson objectives

before they write their lesson plans. Sharing a personal experience during the first time of

making specific and measurable objective, that is, found it to be able to use like a

blueprint to keep on task as teaching the lesson in the class took place.

Likewise, Combs (2011) in the article Objectives and Purpose of the Lesson

emphasized that objectives must be shared to the students at the beginning of the class;

they do not need to be stated necessary in the behavioral terms, but students need to have

a clear understanding of what the expected learning for the day is to be and what they

need to do to demonstrate competence. At the end of the lesson, during closure, the
 14

teacher will re-connect to the objectives and do a last check, before students leave the

room, to give a clear idea of whether they have mastered the objective/competency.

When the teacher states the objectives, it provides a clear information to the

student what to expect and what to be able to accomplish by the end of the instruction.

The objective should be specific in content and focus on observable behavior. The

objective should let the student know what was going to happen– restating the lesson

objective in their own words.

Procedure. Combs (2011) asserted that when a teacher teaches the objective, it

must generate in the learner overt behavior relevant to the objective in a way that is

efficient in the use of time, efficiency in the desired results and relevant point/s toward

the objective; and use explanation, questioning, responding to the learner in terms of the

learning or activities.

The first concept of objectives was written about the need for goal directed

statements from teachers. For the apprehension that teachers appeared to be more

concerned about the content being taught than with what the students should be able to do

with the knowledge, that is, it is meaningful or can be applied.

Moreover, it was suggested that during the selection of objectives, they were at an

appropriate level by following the steps for task analysis which includes selection of

tentative objective, brainstorming for possible enroute learnings, weeding out of

nonessential enroute learnings, sequencing enroute learnings, and forming diagnostic

questions.

Format. Bell (2013) claimed that the adjustment of the visual presentation of a

document was usually in a manner consistent with the guidelines of a style manual during
 15

the formatting stage. Formatting ensured that the features of the document are consistent

in appearance, purpose, and order.

Formatting a document or text was usually easier to do throughout the writing

process than it was after one has completed the writing task, he adds. Formatting the new

document in its required style from the beginning of the writing process saves the writer

the time and trouble of making an already written document fit those requirements later.

Nothing was apparently exempt from the rules and regulations of style manuals or

style handbooks — including debatable issues among teachers and publishers of grammar

texts, such as the presence or the lack of a comma in front of a coordinating conjunction

in a series. That which might seem trivial to others is essential to the publishers and users

of style manuals or style handbooks.

Structure was another word for format according to Copeman (2006). It was

included in the article How to Craft a Great Article, Part I: Structure, Focus, Unity and

Flow that an appropriate structure may enable to fit the facts of an article into the right

slots to make an engaging and interesting read.

Moreover, five main types of article structure were presented to select from

namely the Inverted Pyramid, the Double-Helix, the Chronological Double-Helix, the

Chronological Report and the Storytelling Model.

Layout. Microsoft (2013) explained layout as the sizing, spacing, and placement

of content within a window or page. Effective layout was crucial in helping users find

what they are looking for quickly, as well as making the appearance visually appealing.

Effective layout can make the difference between designs that users immediately

understand and those that leave users feeling puzzled and overwhelmed.
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Quality. Hahn (2013) asserted in the article entitled Formatting your Essay that

academic essay will not only be judged on the writing and how well one present your

evidence along with the quality of that evidence regarding how it supports a thesis, the

printed format for the essay is also important. In addition, showing the knowledge of

following instructions, a properly formatted essay is also easier for the instructor to read

and grade.

This also includes the common formatting instructions specifically printing or

typing on regular white, 8½″ × 11″ paper, stapling the pages together or unless instructed

otherwise, using of at least 12-point type size all throughout in a regular serif font such as

Times New Roman or Courier, using double space for the text, setting up margins of at

least one inch on all four sides and including title page. These were some basic formats

being required on writing handouts in every institution.

Content. Vega et al. (2006) emphasized situated learning as a higher-order

thinking processes rather than the acquisition of facts independent of the real lives of the

participants. Content situated in learner‘s daily experiences becomes the means to engage

in reflective thinking. Retention of content was not the goal of learning. By placing

content with the daily transactions of life, the instructor, in dialogue with learners,

negotiates the meaning of content, frames it in terms of the issues and concerns within the

learners, provides the opportunities for learners to cooperate in investigating problem

situations, and makes content applicable to the ways in which learners will approach the

environment. Application rather than retention becomes the mark of a sound instructional

encounter.
 17

Logical Presentation. Price (2003) noted down that logic, though not strictly part

of style or presentation, is central to good academic and professional writing.

Statements were always facts, premises or deductions. A fact was something

scientifically incontrovertible, for example, as that mean annual rainfall in Bangor is

higher than that in London, which one may need to quote evidence or a written source in

scientific writing. Unlike, premise was an assertion that your readers can be expected to

agree with an increase in profit is desirable, all else being equal. Conversely, a valid

deduction followed inescapably and without exception from premises and facts.

Putting therefore in front of a dubious deduction does not validate it. On the

contrary, it would draw attention from critical readers. The same applies to hence and so.

The conjunction surely inserted at the beginning of a sentence is a rhetorical device

usually intended to sway people emotionally.

Consistency. Mariconda (2012) believed that inconsistency was often most

apparent when the testing of writing begins. Because teachers of lower grades often do

not feel the pressure of having their students‘ writing formally assessed by the state, and

because there are no clear guidelines for instruction at their grade level, they spend little

time teaching specific writing skills. They do not feel a great responsibility to teach

specific writing skills, as these skills may not be tested at their grade level. As their

students move up, usually into 3rd or 4th grade where writing is tested for the first time,

the pressure on the upper grade teachers exponentially increases. These 3rd and 4th

graders are suddenly expected to get to goal in a hurry. This is unrealistic and not the best

way to nurture young writers or to maximize the efforts of teachers. In fact, in talking

with a number of teachers in one state, where students were tested in writing in Grade 4,
 18

there were actually shortages of 4th grade teachers – the pressure to deliver four or five

years of writing instruction in one year was overwhelming.

In most areas of the curriculum the basic content to be taught was carefully

outlined. The skills, content, knowledge, and application opportunities are clear. Teachers

are provided with detailed curriculum, resource materials, and a scope and sequence for

instruction. Additionally, states often provide standards for each grade level that drive

instruction.

One curriculum area that was typically less well defined is the instruction of

writing. Even when looking at state or district standards in writing, there was often little

in terms of specific resources, methodology of instruction, and basic assured experiences

by grade level designed to help teachers successfully implement instruction.

Because of this, the instruction that took place from classroom to classroom,

grade to grade was usually inconsistent at best. Teachers interpreted writing as a process

differently, and often, because of the demands of testing in reading and math, writing is

seen as less critical. It was not unusual for children in the same school, same grade, but

different classrooms to receive vastly different levels of instruction and opportunities for

writing. When these same children are promoted to the next grade, and assigned to

several other classrooms, their new teachers have no idea where to begin due to the fact

that children come to them with a very wide range of needs. In these cases the teacher

makes no assumptions, and begins to recreate the wheel so as to insure some level of

shared experience. Valuable instructional time was lost.

Quality. White (2006) included in the article the two components of any copy,

whether it's an article, a Web site, or a book: content and appearance.

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Content means the words that actually appear on the page – the message. It can be

serious, humorous, elegant, bold, technical, or conversational in tone. But the message is

the words themselves what and how you're saying. Content includes grammar, spelling,

jargon, acronyms, and the like while appearance relates to the way of the content of

words look on the page.

These were things that affect the way the words look on the printed page or

monitor, for Web copy all of which goes in to making your copy easy to read.

It was suggested that it must be checked whether the paragraphs were all piled up,

one on top of the other, with no graphics, subheadings, or other means of breaking them

up. Also, the manageability of size and easiness to digest. A paragraph was supposed to

contain one chunk of related information. Sometimes they can get fairly lengthy and still

be in correct literary form but keep your reader in mind. It was also stated that if there's a

way to break up one big, gigantic, one-and-a-half-page paragraph, then do it.

Organization. Hall et al. (2012) said that one way to help make a curriculum

more supportive of students and teachers is to incorporate graphic organizers. Graphic

organizers come in many varieties and have been widely researched for their

effectiveness in improving learning outcomes for various students. Five sections present a

definition of graphic organizers, a sampling of different types and their applications, a

discussion of the research evidence for their effectiveness, useful Web resources, and a

list of referenced research articles. It was focused on the overview of applications of

graphic organizers to reading instruction, with the intention of later expanding the

discussion into other subject areas.

 20

This graphic organizer was a visual and graphic display that depicts the

relationships between facts, terms, and or ideas within a learning task. It is sometimes

referred to as knowledge maps, concept maps, story maps, cognitive organizers, advance

organizers, or concept diagrams, which are believed to be of great help for organizing

ideas for different information.

Unity and Ideas. Copeman (2006) presented unity as making sure that everything

being write down contributes to the article and that nothing that have been written

detracts from the flow. An article has flow when the reader can read through the article

from beginning to end as smoothly as possible, without ever having to stop to reread a

paragraph or get something straight in mind. An article with flow and unity is read to the

end. Without it, the reader will give up and read something else instead.

In its simplest form, everything included into the article must contribute to the

point being made and does not go off on some interesting but unrelated tangent. If

working out the focus of the piece, then keeping the unity of the article should be easy.

To check the unity of the article, it is ensured to keep these two simple commands in

mind, that is, leave out unnecessary facts and keep the same style throughout.

Coherence. Reyes et al. (2007) believed that coherence equals connection and

consistency. All sentences in a paper should be related logically and grammatically to

make a whole that allows the reader to follow the writer‘s train of thought step by step.

Body paragraphs should flow smoothly from one to the next, that is, the first sentence in

each new paragraph serves as an effective link to the preceding paragraph. In addition,

minor supporting ideas were linked together within the paragraphs in a smooth manner.

Within a paragraph, there are three major ways to develop coherence through related
 21

sentences namely repetition of important words and pronouns, synonyms and

substitutions, and transitional expressions.

Emphasis. Wikipedia (2013) suggested that bold font weight makes text darker

than the surrounding text. With this technique, the emphasized text strongly stands out

from the rest; it should therefore be used to highlight certain keywords that are important

to the subject of the text, for easy visual scanning of text. For example, printed

dictionaries often use boldface for their keywords, and the names of entries can

conventionally be marked in bold.

Small capitals were also used for emphasis, especially for the first line of a

section, sometimes accompanied by or instead of a drop cap, or for personal names as in

bibliographies.

However, in typography, emphasis was the exaggeration of words in a text with a

font in a different style from the rest of the text—to emphasize them. The most common

methods in Western typography fall under the general technique of emphasis through a

change or modification of font: italics, boldface and small caps. Other methods include

the alteration of letter case and spacing as well as color and additional graphic marks.

The human eye was very receptive to differences in brightness within a text body.

One can therefore differentiate between types of emphasis according to whether the

emphasis changes the blackness of text. A means of emphasis that does not have much

effect on blackness is the use of italics, where the text is written in a script style, or the

use of oblique, where the vertical orientation of all letters is slanted to the left or right.

With one or the other of these techniques, usually only one is available for any typeface;

words can be highlighted without making them stand out much from the rest of the text
 22

with the use of inconspicuous stressing. Traditionally, this is used for marking passages

that have a different context, such as words from foreign languages, book titles, and the

like.

Relevance to Discipline. Wikipedia (2013) asserted that information science and

information retrieval, denotes relevance as how well a retrieved document or set of

documents meets the information need of the user.

The concept of relevance is studied in many different fields, including cognitive

sciences, logic, and library and information science. Most fundamentally, however, it was

studied in epistemology also known as the theory of knowledge. Different theories of

knowledge have different implications for what is considered relevant and these

fundamental views have implications for all other fields as well.

Recently, Zhao and Callan (2010) showed a connection between the relevance

probability and the vocabulary mismatch problem in retrieval, which could lead to at least

50-300% gains in retrieval accuracy.

Language. Bilash (2009) considered communication as the process of

transmitting information from one person to another. The language arts are all important

to the communication process. Listening and speaking are basic to oral communication;

reading and writing were basic to written communication; and viewing and visually

representing are basic to visual communication. Listening, reading, and viewing were

ways of receiving information. Speaking, writing, and visually representing are ways of

conveying information.


Communicative Function. Bilash (2009) introduced a theorist who is closely

linked with communicative language teaching who suggests that language teaching
 23

should be organized into notional which relates to meaning and functional that relates to

communication syllabi. In place of communicative function, they substitute language

function, referring to what people do through language.

The concept of communicative language teaching has grown out of the notion that

solely teaching grammar is not enough to prepare students for using the language

independently. This method of teaching proposes that students need to understand the

meaning and the communicative function of a language in order to learn the language.

Language Function. Piantadosi et al. (2012) defined ambiguity as a pervasive

phenomenon in language which occurs at all levels of linguistic analysis. Out of context,

words have multiple senses and syntactic categories, requiring listeners to determine

which meaning and part of speech was intended. Morphemes may also be ambiguous out

of context, as in the English –s, which can denote either a plural noun marking (trees), a

possessive (Dylan‘s), or a present tense verb conjugation (runs). Phonological forms are

often mapped to multiple distinct word meanings, as in the homophones too, two, and to.

Syllables are almost always ambiguous in isolation, meaning that they can be interpreted

as providing incomplete information about the word the speaker is intending to

communicate. Syntactic and semantic ambiguity is frequent enough to present a

substantial challenge to natural language processing. The fact that ambiguity occurs on so

many linguistic levels suggests that a far-reaching principle is needed to explain its

origins and persistence.

Chomsky (2002) said that one might imagine that in a perfect communication

system, language would completely disambiguate meaning. Each linguistic form would

map objectively to a meaning, and comprehenders would not need to expend effort
 24

inferring what the speaker intended to convey. This would reduce the computational

difficulties in language understanding and comprehension because recovering meaning

would be no more complex than, for instance, compiling a computer program. The

communicative efficacy of language might be enhanced since there would be no danger

of comprehenders incorrectly inferring the intended meaning. Confusion about ‗‗who‘s

on first‘‘ could not occur. Indeed, the existence of ambiguity in language has been argued

to show that the key structures and properties of language have not evolved for purposes

of communication or use. The use of language for communication might turn out to be a

kind of epiphenomenon. If one wants to make sure that it is never misunderstood by

another, for that purpose language is not well designed. If one wants to have the property

that the things that would like to say come out short and simple, well, it probably doesn‘t

have that property.

Meanwhile, Bilash (2009) suggested a language ladder which is a resource that

models different ways to express oneself through different functions of language. Each

language ladder encompasses one function of language. It includes several ways in which

the function of language can be expressed ranging from formal to less formal. Also, it

includes a visual in order to provide some context for the learner and is written in the

Target Language.

The purpose of the language ladder was to provide language learners with the

tools needed to express different functions of language in multiple contexts and

situations. By using language ladders in the classroom, teachers were able to provide

supports and structure for students so that they can learn and use functions of language

successfully. It could also be used to introduce new concepts, review previously learned
 25

materials or as everyday supports for classroom commands and expressions. Language

ladders could also be used as an activity for students where they are responsible for

creating their own.

Usability. Wikipedia (2012) stated that there are plenty usability tips and

techniques from an incalculable number of sources. Many are taken seriously have sound

logic, but it‘s even more validating when one finds actual data and reports to back up

theories and conjectures.

In terms of website usability, findings of a research results to eye-tracking studies,

reports, analytics, and usability surveys and improvements. Usability tips are as follows:

forget the three-click rule, enable content skimming by using an F-shaped pattern, don‘t

make users wait, then speed up the website, make the content readable, don‘t worry about

the fold and vertical scrolling, place important content on the left of a web page,

whitespace of text affects readability, small details make a huge difference, don‘t rely on

search as a crutch to bad navigation and remember the home page isn‘t as important as

one think.

Effectiveness. Another design strategy to increase effectiveness was introduced

by Wikipedia (2013) to offer redundant navigation, especially for ambiguous situations.

Although this may create inefficient paths, it allows the user to work effectively by

making more than one choice lead to the correct outcome. This can be especially valuable

in interfaces which support infrequent users or those often unfamiliar with the content

domain.
 26

It was defined as the completeness and accuracy with which users achieve

specified goals. It is determined by looking at whether the user‘s goals were met

successfully and whether all work is correct.

It can sometimes be difficult to separate effectiveness from efficiency, but they

are not the same. Efficiency is concerned primarily with how quickly a task can be

completed, while effectiveness considers how well the work is done. Not all tasks require

efficiency to be the first principle. For example, in interfaces to financial systems such as

banking machines, effective use of the system -- withdrawing the correct amount of

money, selecting the right account, making a transfer correctly – are more important than

marginal gains in speed. This assumes, of course, that the designer has not created an

annoying or over-controlling interface in the name of effectiveness.

The quality of the user assistance built into the interface can have a strong impact

on effectiveness. The effectiveness of an interface often relies on the presentation of

choices in a way that is clearly understandable to the user. The more informative an

interface can be, the better users are able to work in it without problems. Good interface

terminology will be in the user‘s language and appropriate to the task.

Efficiency. Wikipedia (2013) described it as the speed with accuracy in which

users can complete the tasks for which they use the product. It also defines efficiency as

the total resources expended in a task. Efficiency metrics include the number of clicks or

keystrokes required or the total time on task.

It is important to be sure to define the task from the user‘s point of view, rather

than as a single, granular interaction. For example, a knowledge base which doled out

small snippets of information might be very efficient if each retrieval was considered one
 27

task, but inefficient when the entire task of learning enough to answer a user‘s question is

considered.

Navigation design elements such as keyboard shortcuts, menus, links and other

buttons all have an impact on efficiency. When they are well-designed, with clearly

expressed actions, less time and effort are needed for the user to make navigation and

action choices.

Satisfaction in the Content of Use. Wikipedia (2013) allowed their users to build

on not only their prior knowledge of computer systems, but also any interaction patterns

they have learned through use in a predictable way. Predictability is complementary to

interface consistency. A consistent interface ensures that terminology does not change,

that design elements and controls are placed in familiar locations and that similar

functions behave similarly. Predictability expands this to place information or controls

where the user expects it to be. This concept has been discussed in connection with Palm

Pilot design– and especially important if you make an interface which goes beyond the

boundaries of simple platform design standards. Good use of predictability requires

careful user analysis and observation, but can make new functions easy to learn by

providing controls where the user expects them to be.

An interface was engaging if it is pleasant and satisfying to use. The visual design

is the most obvious element of this characteristic. The style of the visual presentation, the

number, functions and types of graphic images or colors especially on web sites, and the

use of any multimedia elements are all part of a user‘s immediate reaction. But more

subtle aspects of the interface also affect how engaging it is. The design and readability

of the text can change a user‘s relationship to the interface as can the way information is
 28

chunked for presentation. Equally important is the style of the interaction which might

range from a game-like simulation to a simple menu-command system.

Like all usability characteristics, these qualities must be appropriate to the tasks,

users and context. The style of engagement that is satisfying for a repetitive work tool is

different than an e-commerce site. Even within the same class of interfaces, different

users may have widely divergent needs. What is important is that the design meets the

expectations and needs of the people who must use the interface.

One of the biggest objections to usability comes from people who fear that it will

be used to create products with a low barrier to entry, but which are not powerful enough

for long, sustained use.

But learning goes on for the life of the use of a product. Users may require access

to new functionality, expand their scope of work, explore new options or change their

own workflow or process. These changes might be instigated by external changes in the

environment, or might be the result of exploration within the interface.

An interface which is easy to learn allows users to build on their knowledge

without deliberate effort. This goes beyond a general helpfulness to include built-in

instruction for difficult or advanced tasks, access to just-in-time training elements,

connections to domain knowledge bases which are critical to effective use.

Worktext. According to Knapp (2006), many workbooks were actually

worktexts, containing both instruction and practice, providing both drill and review.

Unfortunately, workbooks and worktexts often rely on a trivia-based approach to

learning, where students simply re-hash the same information, over and over, in the

course of several exercises. While this was a good approach for attaining rote
 29

memorization it does not provide adequate opportunity to apply the knowledge to new

situations or in practical or ways. Better quality worktexts include problem-solving items

that encourage this kind of higher-level thinking in addition to the traditional fill-in-the-

blank and define-the-term exercises.

Related Studies

The following are the studies culled in the study to shed light on the problem

being undertaken.

The study of Soberano (2009) attempted to probe that strategic intervention

materials will significantly address the least mastered skills in chemistry. A true

experimental research was employed using the pretest-posttest comparison design and

samples were determined using the purposive or deliberate sampling technique. Results

of the Otis Lennon Mental Ability Test were used to reveal the intelligence of the

students and sixty six students with the same school ability index were matched and

grouped as the experimental and control groups. The 65 items teacher made test was

created and subjected to parallel pilot testing. The items in the test were analyzed and

those which were not within the range of 0.20 to 0.80 difficulty index and 0.30 to 0.80

discrimination index were discarded and items fell within the prescribe limit were

retained. The validated test was finalized and pilot pretests were administered to two

groups of respondents. In addition, the SIM focusing on thirteen least mastered skills

were also developed with the help of nine experts. The experimental group was given set

of the validated SIM while the control group was exposed to conventional way of

teaching. Performance from both groups was constantly monitored and showed that there

was no significant difference in the pretests before the intervention and there existed
 30

significant difference in the posttests after the intervention. It registered t-value of 8.289

at tabular value 1.67 and degrees of freedom 64 and 0.05 significance level. This

suggested that the strategic intervention materials significantly contributed to the mastery

of chemistry concepts.

Likewise, Mopera‘s (2010) was concerned with the construction, validation, and

acceptability of a Science based modular worktext for enhancing grammar learning

among the 90 first year high school students in the secondary Science Curriculum School

and 10 English teachers from the secondary and tertiary level schools in Lucban, Quezon.

This study used the descriptive design since the researcher developed a new instructional

material which she subjected to validation by administering a pretest and posttest. The

acceptability measure using the questionnaire which was adopted from Abrencillo (2008)

and Ilagan (2006) was conducted after the administration of the material. The findings

revealed that a science based modular worktext was developed for enhancing grammar

learning of first year high school students. The obtained z-test value of 10.12 surpassed

the tabular value of 2.58 at 0.01level of significance. The level of acceptability of the

instructional material among English teachers in terms of content, appeal to target users,

and originality was acceptable. Its clarity, on the other hand, received an overall weighted

mean of 3.52 which fell under the very acceptable descriptive rating while the level of

acceptability of the instructional material among first year high school students was very

acceptable since each of the criterion basis- content, clarity, appeal to target users, as well

as originality is concerned. Thus, the constructed modular worktext is said to be valid and

acceptable. For this reason, it was recommended that English teachers should adopt this
 31

constructed and developed science based modular worktext for enhancing grammar

learning in teaching English subject.

Moreover, results from the research of Abarro (2004) revealed that the 165-item

instructor made test used in determining the validity of the developed worktext in

Principles and Methods of Teaching was composed of 21 items for the Easy, 124 items

for Very Good and 41 or 26.21 percent a reliability coefficient was interpret as highly

reliable. The computed t-value on the difference between the overall mean performance

of the students in pre-test and post-test in thirteen learning areas of the developed

worktext in Principles and Methods of Teaching resulted to the rejection of the null

hypothesis. The overall-weighted mean on acceptability of the developed worktext in

Principles and Methods of Teaching in terms of evaluation criteria as evaluated by the

students and instructors are deemed as highly acceptable and interpreted as acceptable

respectively. The computed t-value on acceptability of the developed worktext in terms

of evaluation criteria was resulted to the rejection of the null hypothesis.

On the basis of the summary of findings, it was concluded that the developed

worktext in Principles and Methods of Teaching is valid as evidenced by a significant

difference in pre-test and post-test scores of the students. Also, the developed worktext in

Principles and Methods of Teaching is Acceptable in terms of Sufficiency of Lessons,

Organization and Presentation, Language and Style and Usefulness.

Thi Thuy (2011) developed a worktext based on the cognitive levels in English of

grade 11 students. Specifically, the study sought to answer the cognitive level in English

of the respondents in terms of knowledge, comprehension, application, and analysis; the

kind of worktext that can be developed to enhance English cognitive level of the
 32

respondents; and the level of acceptability of the developed worktext in terms of

accuracy, sequencing of lessons, text element, graphics, and originality among the

respondents. This study used the descriptive method since it involved the construction of

a worktext in English. The respondents of this study were 90 grade 11 students of Thai

Nguyen Specialized Upper Secondary School. The study utilized a test with 60 items, and

it was distributed to the respondents to check their knowledge, reading comprehension,

application and analysis. A worktext was also to help the students improve their cognitive

level as well. To determine the level of cognition experienced by English teacher, and the

acceptability level of worktexts, weighted mean was used.

It was found out that the students in their cognitive level are very satisfactory in

knowledge, comprehension level, application, and analysis; a worktext in English based

on the students' cognitive levels is developed based on the cognitive areas: knowledge,

comprehension, application, and analysis; and the acceptability level of the worktext as

evaluated by the respondents were: Content Accuracy, Sequencing of Lessons, Text

Element, Graphics as acceptable while fairly acceptable in Originality. Thus, it was

concluded that the cognitive level of the respondents are very satisfactory; a worktext in

vocabulary was ready for pilot test and validation; and the worktext could enhance the

cognitive ability of the students since it is generally perceived as acceptable. However, it

was still recommended that all aspects of vocabulary including phonology must be taken

into account in the worktext; a parallel study must be conducted in order to establish

continuity regarding the research on students‘ cognitive ability, other dimensions such as

appeal to target users and appropriateness or suitability of the worktext must be given

focus, and further improvement should be done on the worktext in the aspects of
 33

arrangement of lessons, text presentation and use of graphics. It was recommended that

the developed worktext may be adapted by English Teachers.

According to Sunday et al. (2010), instructional materials were vital to teaching-

learning process. It was potent in reducing abstraction that characterizes Mathematics

concepts. However, research reports have shown that these materials are grossly

unavailable in most schools. Few available ones are either inadequate or underutilized.

This paper is a case study of availability, adequacy and utilization of Mathematics

instructional materials in southwestern Nigeria. Two (2) schools were randomly selected

in each of the 3 senatorial districts of each state, making a total of 36 schools. The

findings revealed 34.5%, 18.0% and 22.5% availability, adequacy and utilization rates of

instructional materials respectively. The teachers know little implications of the use of

instructional materials. Various means of improvisations and sourcing for these

instructional materials were recommended. It was also recommended that the teachers

should be trained in the appropriate use of instructional materials.

Since the development of worktexts or workbooks became a subject for most

studies, include its acceptability, it then became an encouragement of how previous

studies resulted to an outstanding if not very satisfactory outcome. However, these

aforementioned studies considered two groups of student respondents which were not

included in the present study.

Gravoso et.al (2008) stated that the efforts to improve students‘ learning outcomes

have suggested the need to embed the use of educational technology in a learner-centered

learning environment where students construct their own meanings. In this study, video

documentaries that asked students to explore problems associated with farmers. Use of
 34

ecologically unsound agricultural techniques were developed and used in a student-

centered class. Their learning outcomes and experiences were compared to a group of

students who studied the same topics in a teacher-centered learning environment. Results

showed that the improvement of the student-centered groups understanding of the

problems was consistently higher than the teacher-centered group. Data on learning

experiences also showed that the learner-centered learning environment tended to engage

students in knowledge construction, while the teacher-centered environment, information

absorption. Overall findings suggest that technology can change and improve the quality

of learning outcomes if designed to support knowledge construction in a learner-centered

learning environment.

According to Tennyson (2010), the employment of the research and practical

experience in the field of educational psychology, with a specialty in instructional design

and technology, would be likely to reflect on the theoretical foundations of instructional

design. The purpose was to show the growth of the field through theories associated with

learning psychology and educational technology. Both human psychology and

technology were the main foundations for instructional psychology. Evaluation and

assessment continue to be integral to the field but more in the form of tools. Included was

view of the field in reference to work, since colleagues have done those that were labeled

as a linking theory of instructional design. That was, linking learning theory directly with

research findings and practice, it became an arguement that educators need to clearly

propose and define their own theoretical foundations when engaging in the design of

effective learning environments.

 35

During the development of the worktext, the studies gave reminders based on the

results on what to do and avoid in the instructional material. Findings became a

foundation to also help in a development of a more effective worktext which would be

employed in the Philippine setting.

The study of San Andres (2005) was undertaken to develop and validate a

worktext in Linear Algebra intended for College students. The study was conducted at

University of Rizal System Morong during the Second Semester of School Year 2004-

2005, using the 36 fourth year students of the Institute of Arts and Validation of the

developed worktext and the 18 Mathematics mentors who tested its acceptability as an

instructional material.

Descriptive method of research was utilized in the study. Teacher made test was

used to test the reliability of the developed worktext, utilizing the U-L Index Method and

the t-ratio. The researcher also included the acceptability testing of the developed

worktext as perceived by the students and the 18 Mathematics mentors, 14 of them are

Master of Arts in Teaching Math students and 4 instructors of URS handling Linear

Algebra.

The developed worktext included topics like, linear systems, system of three

linear equations, algebraic properties of matrix operators, echelon form of Matrices and

special types of matrices, vector in the plane, vector spaces and subspaces, linear

independence and basic dimension, Gran-Schmidt process, orthogonal complements and

homogeneous system arid rank of a matrix.

It was found out that the developed worktext in Linear Algebra as revealed by the

80 items teacher-made test is reliable as shown by the r-value of 0.736 for the half test
 36

and 0.793 for the whole test and the validity was depicted by the t-ratio of 4.15 which

exceeds the tabular t-ratio of 2021, thus revealing valid result.

The descriptive method of research was employed in the study of Bugayong

(2008) which aimed to develop and validate a worktext material in College Algebra for

the students enrolled in the College of Arts and Sciences and College of Education of

Columban College, Olongapo City during the 1st Semester of AY 2006-2007 based on the

curriculum description and requirements set by the Commission on Higher Education

(CHEd).

The findings of the study showed that the instructor-respondent were mostly

female; felt between the age bracket 30-39; teaching and handling the subject College

Algebra for 5 years and more; continuously and regularly attending seminars and training

(local and national) for the past 3 years; either doctorate degree holders or master‘s

degree holders or have already acquired units in their post-graduate studies strongly

agreed in the proposed worktext with an over-all assessment of excellent. As assessed by

instructor-respondents, the total mean score of all the area were 4.5 for objectives; 4.6 for

contents; 4.7 for instructional design; 4.6 for exercises; and 4.7 for language respectively.

The over-all mean score of 4.6 with a perspective rating of excellent shows that the

worktext materials was valid as assessed by instructor-respondents. The post-test results

in the three topics were higher than the pre-test scores. The average increase in the scores

in the three topics was 16.2. The computed t-value for the three set of test scores shows

that there was significant difference between the students‘ pre-test mean scores and post-

test mean scores.

 37

The findings of the study led to conclude that the profile of the instructor-

respondents shows how flexible, credible and skilled they are. Hence, they were fitted to

be called experts who assessed and validated the worktext materials in College Algebra.

The instructor-respondents strongly agreed and accepted the worktext materials on

College Algebra; therefore, it was valid on their assessment. The mean difference

between the pretest and post-test scores of the student-respondents on the three

summative tests and the t-value shows that here was an adequate improvement in the

performance of the students using the proposed worktext materials. Hence, the valid

worktext materials were also reliable.

Since the worktext material was valid and reliable, and then it can be used as an

effective instructional material that may improve the performance and skills of students

in the course College Algebra in the College of Arts and Sciences and Education of

Columban College, Olongapo City.

The contribution of Amoin (2007) was presented as an aim to develop and

validate a worktext in Mathematics of Investment in the University of Rizal System

during the second semester school year 2006-2007. The study made use of the descriptive

research method and the experimental method utilizing the randomized matched subjects,

post-test only group design. The respondents of this study were the 30 first year students

in Mathematics of Investment of the University of Rizal System Pililla, Rizal enrolled

during the second semester school year 2006-2007.

The findings of the study revealed that the 80-item instructor made test used in

determining the validity of the developed worktext in Mathematics of Investment was

composed of Easy, Moderately Difficult and Difficult items. On the other hand, 28.75%
 38

are very good and 71.25 percent are relatively good items. The instructor made test

possessed a reliability coefficient of .85 for the half-test and .92 for the whole test and

interpreted as highly reliable. The computed t-value on the difference between the over-

all mean performances of the students in post-test in four learning areas of the developed

workext resulted to the rejection of the null hypothesis.

The acceptability level of the developed in Mathematics of Investment in terms of

Clarity of Instructors, Design Characteristics, Aids to Instructions and Learning Activities

by the instructors was interpreted as Highly Acceptable. The significant difference in the

level of acceptability of the developed worktext in terms of Clarity of Instructions,

Design Characteristics, and Aids to Instructions and Learning Activities yielded a result

to the rejection of the null hypothesis.

On the basis of the summary of findings it was concluded that the worktext in

Mathematics of Investment is acceptable and can therefore be utilized by Mathematics

Instructors, not only as supplement but also as a main method of teaching mathematics.

The student acquires enough knowledge after they are exposed to the developed worktext

in Mathematics of Investment. And the developed worktext is a valid and reliable

instructional material in promoting knowledge in Mathematics of Investment.

The study of Castiniares (2005) implied the aim to develop, validate and

determine the level of acceptability of worktext in Advanced Algebra which will serve as

supplementary instructional material in teaching Math IV. This was conducted during the

School Year 2005-2006. The study employed the descriptive and the experimental with

pre-test and post-test design utilizing questionnaire checklist, Pre-test and Post-test and

developed work text as the research instrument.

 39

No significant difference exists between the evaluation of the two groups of

respondents on the acceptability of the developed worktext in Advanced Algebra with

respect to content, relevance, language and style and reinforcement exercises. However

significant difference exists with respect to organization and presentation.

Based on the findings of the study, conclusions are drawn as performance on the

experimental group in the pre-test and post-test differ significantly. Similarly,

performance on the control group in the pre-test and post-test differ significantly.

However, ore-test of the two groups has no significant difference while their post-tests

differ significantly with the experimental group obtaining better performance in the post-

test due to the utilization of the developed worktext in Advanced Algebra. Also,

evaluation of the two groups of respondents on the level of acceptability of the developed

worktext is similar with respect to content, relevance, language and style and

reinforcement exercises. However, for organization and presentation, evaluations of the

two groups differ significantly. Lastly, academic performance in Mathematics and

English are contributory to the performance of the students in the post-test in selected

topics in Advanced Algebra while sex is not a determinant.

Marino (2005) focused to develop, validate and determine the effectiveness of

Plane Trigonometry Worktext was conducted during the second semester of school year

2004-2005 at the University of Rizal System Antipolo City in the Institute of Education

and Home Technology. The findings revealed that on the level of performance of

students in the pre-test and post-test of the seven chapters, it was found out that the

students really improve on their post-test scores after utilizing the worktext. About the

significant difference of the performance of students in the pre-test and post-test in the
 40

seven chapters, it was revealed that there was a significant difference. Meanwhile, the

effectiveness of worktext in Plane Trigonometry with respect to subject matter,

organization and presentation, language and style, and usefulness, the student-

respondents evaluated the worktext as ―Very Highly Effective‖, while the instructors‘

evaluation was ―Highly Effective‖. Finally, the significant difference of the evaluation of

student-respondent and instructors with respect to the above mentioned criteria, it was

found out that there was no significant difference on the following criteria: subject

matter, organization and presentation, language and style, while on the usefulness it was

revealed that there was a significant difference on their evaluation.

Mallari‘s (2003) study focused on the evaluation and validation of a Worktext

with MATLAB software guide in terms of relevance of contents, adequacy of scope and

appropriateness of teaching procedures. Primarily, this study was undertaken to

determine whether the use of worktext with MATLAB software guide in the teaching

System of Linear Equations could enhance the capabilities of the students. To evaluate

effectiveness of the worktext in terms of relevance of the contents, adequacy of the scope

and appropriate of teaching procedures, five (5) mathematics teacher respondents were

selected based on their skills and ability to use the worktext with MATLAB software

guide. The study made use of questionnaire to determine the acceptability of the worktext

and the data gathered by the researcher was statistically analyzed leading to the finding

that the mathematics experts evaluated the relevance of the contents, adequacy of the

scope, and appropriateness of the teaching procedures of the Worktext as highly

acceptable with a grand mean of 4.82.

 41

The purpose of the study of Daguman (2003) was to develop and evaluate a

worktext in Analytic Geometry for Engineering Technology Students. Specifically, it

sought answers to the following questions: What is the evaluation of the mathematics

teachers and students on the worktext in terms of content, organization and presentation,

language and style, and effectiveness and usefulness? Second, do the faculty members

and students agree in evaluating the worktext in Analytic Geometry? Third, does the use

of the worktext improve the achievement of students in Analytic Geometry?

After data gathering and analysis, the following findings were obtained: Based on

the survey, the ten teachers answered yes to the need for the development of a worktext;

the teachers evaluated the worktext with the descriptive rating of ―agree‖ on content,

organization and presentation, effectiveness and usefulness, and rated ―strongly agree‖ on

language and style. The corresponding quantitative ratings of the teachers‘ evaluation on

the worktext were the following: 4.14, 3.96, 4.045 and 4.375. The students uniformly

rated the worktext with ―agree‖ on all four criteria; the achievement test was reliable as

indicated by the reliability of coefficient of 0.92; the computed correlation coefficient of

0.997 showed a high degree of relationship between the teachers and students evaluation

scores on the worktext; the computed t-value of 14.6535 showed that there was a

significant difference between the pre-test and post-test mean scores of students.

Based on the findings of the study, the worktext met the criteria as to the content,

organization and presentation, language and style, and effectiveness and usefulness. It is

the recommended that the worktext be used by other teachers for further evaluation and

that further study maybe conducted to determine the effect of the use of the worktext in

other areas of Mathematics and in other disciplines.

 42

Likewise, the present study which was focused on the development and validation

of a proposed instructional material was specifically for the learning progress of student

in Mathematics subject. Since the aforementioned studies have already taken account

various subject areas such as Linear Algebra, College Algebra, Mathematics of

Investment, Advance Algebra, Plane Trigonometry, use of MATHLAB softwares and

Analytic Geometry, therefore, Statistics was chosen to be the main focus of discussion

for this time. Nevertheless, similarity in criteria for evaluation was included like

organization, language, effectiveness and usefulness.

Tala‘s (2004) study has shown that there is no significant difference between the

assessments of the administrator and the instructor respondents as regards to the validity

of the content. This is proven by the computed t-values of 0.159 for the introduction,

0.144 for the objectives, 1.01 for the subject matter, 0.138 for the discussions, 1.76 for

the learning activities, and 0.24 for the vocabulary words.

It was found that these computed t-values were less than the tabular t-value .

Therefore, there is no significant difference between the assessments of the administrator

and the teacher respondents as regard to the level of acceptability. This is revealed by the

computed t-values of 1.27 for the usability, 0.259 for the adequacy, 0.07 for clarity, and

.06 for relevance.

It was found that the highest, median, and lowest score of the experimental group

in the post-test is higher than the highest, median, and lowest scores of the control group.

The experimental group had performed better than the control group. It was found that all

the experimental group of students passed the post-test with scores 77% to 96%, while

the control group, 37 or 13.50% students got scores below 70%.

 43

Unlike the work of Tala, the present study included different groups of

respondents – instructors and students. Two groups of student-respondents were not also

part of the study since it targeted specific students who were exposed on the lessons

included in the worktext.

Constantino‘s (2005) study was conducted in the College of Science, University

of Rizal System, Morong, Rizal, SY 2005-2006. It aimed to develop and validate

worktext in Differential Equations. One hundred percent or 72 third year BS MATH/CS

students and 10 math faculty from different colleges and campuses were the respondents

of the study.

The topics included in the worktext are: Basic Concepts, Linear Equations of

order One, Applicants of First Order Differential Equation, Linear Equations of Higher

Order, The Laplace Transform, and the inverse Laplace Transform. There are problem set

and activity in every topic.

The study utilized the descriptive method of research for it sought how reliable

and valid the develop worktext. An instrument constructed intended for pre-test and post-

test have a reliability of .48 using the Pearson r. though it means moderately small

positive correlation it is significant at 0.05 levels, and has a t-value of 2.57 which means

the test constructed is reliable. Furthermore, to test the validity of the worktext in terms

of pre-test and post-test, t-value of 23.97 was obtained. Hence, the null hypothesis that

the developed worktext is not valid is rejected

Based on the finding and conclusions made, it was recommended testing the

effectiveness of the worktext and using it as main reference in differential equation and

allotting fund for the production of the worktext.

 44

The study of Oladejo et al. (2011) examined the effect of using standardized and

improvised instructional materials on Academic Achievement of Secondary School

Physics Students in Oyo State, Nigeria. The research design adopted was quasi-

experimental of the pretest – posttest non-randomized control group. Purposive sampling

was used to obtain a sample of three co-educational secondary schools. Each school

provided one S.S. III class for the study. Two instruments were used in the study, the

Physics Achievement Test (PAT) to measure students‘ achievement and Teachers

Instructional Guide (TIG) to train the teachers in the experimental groups. The instrument

was pilot tested to ascertain reliability. The reliability coefficient was 0.76. Three

hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. Data were analyzed

using ANOVA and ANCOVA. Findings revealed that there is a significant difference in

the achievement of students taught using standard instructional materials, those taught

with improvised instructional material and those in the conventional instruction. Thus,

the students taught with improvised instructional materials obtained the highest

achievement score at posttest (F=74.94), followed by those with standard instructional

materials (F=63.07), while the control group scored the lowest (F=39.89). Also, there was

no significant effect of gender on students‘ achievement in Physics although, females did

better than males. Finally, there was no significant interaction effect of treatment and

gender on student achievement in Physics. Thus, Physics teachers need to be resourceful

in instructional materials selection, planning and utilization so as to reduce the cost of

production and maintenance of instructional materials. The researchers conclude that the

utilization of improvised instructional materials promote and enhance effective teaching-

 45

learning process, thus, Physics teachers should be encouraged to use them in secondary

education programme.

The present study which focuses only on the development and validation of a

proposed instructional material differed in the study made by Oladejo et al. because it

entailed a deeper aspect for an instructional material. The said study scrutinized the

effectiveness of a standardized and improvised instructional material which means

consideration of the level of acceptability of the material. For the level of acceptibility,

another study may be done to attest effectiveness of the proposed instructional material in

the present study to the learners.

The objective of the study by Kaewmak et al. (2011) was to examine the status,

problems, and needs of instructional materials for English teachers in private secondary

schools, Songkhla Province. The subjects included 96 English teachers in private

secondary schools, Songkhla Province. The data were collected through the use of

questionnaires asking about the status, problems, and needs of instructional materials for

English teachers. The returned questionnaires were 77, about 80.20%. The data were

analyzed by using statistics, including frequency, and percentage. The data from open-

ended questions were grouped, summarized and presented in recurring themes. It was

found out that there were more female than male English teachers in private secondary

schools, Songkhla Province. Their ages were between 20-30 years old with a bachelor

degree in English. Most English teachers used books, word and picture cards, realia as

instructional materials. Most instructional materials were created by the teachers. Some

were commercially bought by the schools. The reason for using instructional materials

was that students paid more attention to the lessons. And the criterion to select
 46

instructional materials was that it had to be in accordance to the lesson and objectives of

learning. Many English teachers used these materials when teaching. No time for

producing teaching materials, lack of educational technology in material production, and

no budget from schools were problems of creating instructional materials. English

teachers wanted to attend a seminar and participate in a workshop. Moreover, the

respondents believed that the school where they worked should play a vital role in

promoting the teachers to create instructional materials.

The study by Dahar et. al (2011) investigated the effect of the availability and the

use of instructional material on academic performance of students in Punjab (Pakistan).

Instructional material plays very important role in the teaching learning process.

Population of the study comprised all secondary and higher secondary schools, secondary

teachers and secondary students in Punjab. Overall, a total of 288 schools, then 20

students and 10 teachers from each school were randomly selected as the sample of the

study. The study used the value added approach. School Profile Performance, a

questionnaire for teachers and Result Sheet were the instruments of the study. Pearson

correlation was used to find out the relationship (association) and Stepwise Regression

analysis with linear function was used to find out the differential impact (causal-

relationship). The study identified that there is a great deficiency in the availability and

the use of instructional material. The study concluded that the less availability,

misallocation and the deficiency in the use of instructional material lead to the wastage of

resources, the less effectiveness of instructional material and lower academic

performance. The policy implications of the study are that instructional material can have
 47

an enormous effect if it was properly allocated, equalized per student and efficiently used

with the standard quantity and quality.

Though the works of Kaewmak et al. and Dahar et al. dealt with the issues about

instructional materials, it was unlike the present study which sought only to develop and

validate an instructional material because the said works sought to investigate on its

availability of in the learning process and how it affects the performance of the students.

Nevertheless, the findings of the aforementioned studies aided the present study not to

exclude the effectiveness of the proposed instructional material even if effectiveness were

only evaluated and not put into test. To add in the issue of effectiveness, the present study

have only considered it as per the usability of the worktext was concerned and not on the

concerns of its availability, adequacy, and allocation as how it was discussed in the

studies of Kaewmak and Dahar.

The findings from the study of Cowie (2010) suggested that student engagement

with self-instructional course materials (readings, learning guide, multimedia, etc.) are

the result of complex interactions between a student's preferred approach to engagement,

their locus of control and the method of integration of the course materials. The majority

of participants preferred to engage with the course materials using a deep approach.

Participants with an external locus of control reflected the assumptions and approaches

they perceived from the method of integration. Participants with an internal locus of

control engaged with the course materials using their preferred approach unless they were

convinced that another approach served their needs better. The majority of participants

exhibited an external locus of control. When a presentation or supplemental method of

integrating was used, participants were more likely to engage with the course materials
 48

using a surface approach to engagement. They were also more likely to spend less time

engaging with the course materials and place a lower value on the course materials.

When a discussion or springboard method of integration was used participants were more

likely to engage the course materials using a deep approach to engagement. They were

also more likely to spend more time engaging with the course materials and place a

higher value on the course materials.

Likewise, it was first and foremost a priority in the development of the

instructional material to involve students more in the learning process. For it was

beforehand an aim to develop an instructional material that would provide learning to the

students not only during class hours but also be able to learn when the teacher is not

allowed or even more work on their own. Those were the reason why the proposed

instructional material in Statistics provided various activities and engaged students in the

real life situations.

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 presents the paradigm of the study.

The study used the Input – Process - Output scheme: Frame 1 represents the input

that contains the reference study to mathematics faculty members‘ suggestions, reference

books in Statistics and the course syllabus aligned with the objectives approved by the

Commission on Higher Education; Frame 2 represents the process that comprise of the

criteria focus of the proposed worktext namely: objectives, format, content, organization,

language and usability; and Frame 3 represents the output that is the proposed worktext in

Statistics being developed and which underwent validation by the students and

instructors.
 49

INPUT OUTPUT PROCESS

Figure 1. Paradigm of the Study

Hypothesis of the Study

The lone null hypothesis is that there is no significant difference in the evaluation

of the faculty and students on the proposed worktext in Statistics was tested.
 50

Definition of Terms

The following terms were defined conceptually and/or operationally:

Content referred to the things that are held or included in something and the

substance or material dealt with in a speech, literary work, etc., as distinct from its form

or style. Theoretically speaking, it indicates all the subjects or topics or lessons which

would be the coverage of the book. In the study, it implies the topics being organized by

the researcher in the making of the proposed instructional material that would meet the

course requirement of the institution.

As used in the study, content refers to the topic or message that the worktext

contains from the very beginning up to the end. It also conveys the topics being discussed

on the worktext.

Format. In the study referred to the shape, size, and presentation of a book or

periodical. It shows the display of a work in terms of its page layout or the style of the

text in the word processing document. It also applies to the font size, font color, line

spacing and page margins. In short, format refers to the communication design of the

output: layout, shape, design and arrangement of all the data included in the worktext.

Language was said to be the human capacity for acquiring and using complex

systems of communication. The scientific study of language is called linguistics.

Languages in the world depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages

and dialects. Natural languages were spoken or signed, but any language can be

encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual or tactile stimuli, for example in

graphic, braille, or whistling. It is because. Human language is modality-independent.

When used as a general concept, language may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and
 51

use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up

these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules.

As used in the study, it is the means in which the proposed instructional materials

are written to communicate learning to students by the use of the printed material.

Objectives. According to Gallagher and Smith (1989), educational objectives

were properly constructed educational objectives represent relatively specific statements

about what students would learn at the end of a lesson.

To attain the learning objectives, it should be observable behaviors or actions. The

words used to define learning objectives are often teacher centered and ambiguous. It is

formulated in a way that specifies how learning will be observed or measured and is

intertwined with evaluation methods. Including words that describe what the student will

do to show that he or she understands is more useful.

As used in the study, objectives pertained to the learning competency that a

student must achieve at the end of every lesson, in quantity and quality.

Organization. When one talks about effective writing, the very first ideas would

be about elements like word choice, grammar and mechanics, and content or evidence.

But a really important part of effective writing is clear, logical organization. When things

were laid out in some sort of order, we can work with them more easily. If one can

imposed some kind of order on information, the information was easier to talk about,

understood, and remembered. Choosing a clear, recognizable pattern (for a single

paragraph, and also for a whole essay), select details and choose transitions, help your

readers to discover relationships that connect things, that make things seem more

coherent.
 52

In this study, it was referred to one kind of order called topical order. It refers to

organization that emerges from the topic itself. For instance, a description of a computer

might naturally involve the separate components of the central processing unit, the

monitor, and the keyboard, while a discussion of a computer purchase might discuss

needs, products, vendors, and service. A discussion of a business might explore product,

customer, and location, and so on. Topical order, then, simply means an order that arises

from the nature of the topic itself. Transitions in this pattern are considering things

like another factor, the second component, in addition, and so on.

Usability was the ease of use and learns ability of a human-made object. The

object of use can be a software application, website, book, tool, machine, process, or

anything a human interacts with. A usability study may be conducted as a primary job

function by a usability analyst or as a secondary job function by designers, technical

writers, marketing personnel, and others. It is widely used in electronics, communication,

and knowledge transfer objects such as a cookbook, a document or online help and

mechanical objects such as a door handle or a hammer. As used in the study, it is defined

as the usefulness of the proposed instructional materials in learning the English language.
 53

Notes in Chapter II

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