I

NTRODUCTI
ONTOALCOHOL

Al :
coholAl
cohol
isanhomol
ogousser
iesi
nwhi
cht
hecompoundscont
ainaf
unct
ional
gr
oupcalledthehydroxylgroup( -
OH).Thegeneral
mol ecul
arf
ormulaforalcohol
sis
CnH2n+1OH.Alcoholsar eallderi
vati
vesofhydr
ocarbonsinwhichoneormor eofthe
hydr
ogenat omsinthehy dr
ocar bonhavebeenrepl
acedbyahy droxyl
group.The
hydr
oxylgroupisal
sor esponsiblefori
mparti
ngcertai
nchemicaland/orphysi
cal
pr
opert
iestothecompound.

Thef
ourmostcommonal
cohol
s,whi
char
eal
sot
hesi
mpl
est
,ar
emet
hanol
(CH3OH)
,
et
hanol
(C2H5OH)
,pr
opanol
(C3H7OH)andbut
anol
(C4H9OH)
.
METHODSOFPRODUCTI
ON

Ther
ear
eessent
ial
l
ythr
eemet
hodsusedt
opr
oduceet
hanol
:

1.
Manuf
act
uref
rom et
heneusi
ngst
eam (
the"
synt
het
ic"r
out
e)

2.
Product
ionf
rom sugar
sandst
archesbyf
erment
ati
on,
usi
ngy
east
s

3.
Product
ionf
rom bi
omasswast
e,usi
ngbact
eri
a.

1.
SYNTHETI
CETHANOL

Ethene,
producedbythecracki
ngofoi l
,i
sconvertedt
oethanolusi
ngsteam anda
catal
yst
.Thereact
ionalsoproducestoxicby-
product
s,sosynt
heti
cethanoli
snever
usedforhumanconsumpt i
on.Af ur
therpuri
fi
cati
onstagei
snecessar
yt oremovewater
andby
-pr
oduct
s,andnewermet
hodsar
emaki
nguseofsaf
err s.
eagent

Ty
pesofpr
oduct
ionbysy
nthet
icet
hanol
A.
Ethanol
from Et
hene

1
CONDI
TIONS

*Lowt emperat
ures,hi
ghpressur
esandamoderatel
yhighst
eam concent
rat
ionf
avourt
his
exother
micreacti
on.Inpr
acti
ce,atemper
atur
eof300°C,apr
essureof60-
70atmospher
es,and
asteam:et
heneratioof0.
6:1isused.

*Usi
ngt hesecondit
ions,ar
ound5%conver
siont
oethanol
occur
sperpassthr
oughthepl
ant
.By
cont
inuall
yrecy
cli
ngt heunreact
edet
heneandst
eam,anover
all
yiel
dof95%isachi
evedi
na
cont
inuousprocess.

*Et
hanol
ispr
oducedaspar
tofani
ntegr
atedsy
stem ofpet
rochemi
cal
product
ion.

B.
PURI
FICATI
ON

Ther eacti
onsinvolvedint heproduct i
onofsy ntheti
cethanol produceanet hanol andwat er
mixture.Fracti
onaldisti
llationalway sresult
sinami xt
ureof96%et hanoland4%wat er(i
nstead
of100%pur eorabsol uteet hanol).Thisisknownasanazeot ropi
corconst antboi l
ing
mixture.Conventi
onally,t
hi slast4%wat erisremov edfrom theazeot r
opicmi xtureeit
herby
ref
luxingwi t
hcalcium oxi de, adehydrati
ngagent ,orbymi xi
ngwi thbenzene, whichbr eaksup
theazeot r
opeandpr oducespur eethanol whenf urt
herdisti
l
led.Bot hthesepr ocessesincrease
theener gycostsofpr oduct ion,andbenzenei salsohighlytoxicandcar cinogenic.

C.
NEW PURI
FICATI
ONMETHODS

Newpur i
fi
cat
iontechniquesi nvol
vetheuseofzeol it
es,whichhav estruct
ureswi thholest hat
canabsor bandhencer emovewat erfrom t
hef i
nalmi xt
ure.Severalzeolit
eshav eapar ticular
ly
strongattr
acti
on,andt heyactasdehy dr
ati
ngagent satnormal temper aturesandpr essuresand
cant henbedriedbyheat i
ngandre-used.Thisproducesconsi derablesav i
ngsinener gyand
remov estheneedt ouset oxi
csubst ancesli
kebenzene. Thezeolitesusedar ereferr
edt oas3Å
(angstrom)zeoli
tes,ast heholesare3Åi ndiameter.Theangst r
om i sauni toflength,10-8cm.
10Å=1nm.Thehol esar elar
gerthanawat ermol ecul
e,butconsi derablysmallerthanet hanol.

2
2.
FERMENTEDETHANOL

Ferment at
ionhasbeencar r
iedoutf ormill
enniaandisthetr
adi
ti
onalmethodofcommon
alcoholproducti
on.Mostoft hewor l
d'sethanoli
sproducedbyfer
mentat
ion,usi
ngcr
opssuch
assugarcane, sugarbeet,
cor n,r
iceandmai ze.Munici
palwast
ecanalsobeusedasfeedst
ock,
reducinglandfi
l
ldisposal
andt ur
ningrubbishint
oav al
uabl
eproduct
.

Thef ermentati
oni sacomplexseriesofr eactionsthatconver
tcarbohydrates,mainl
ysugars
andst arches,i
ntoethanolandcarbondioxi de.Itworksbestattemperaturesintherange25°C-
37°Ci ntheabsenceofoxy gen(anaerobic),andwi ll
produceaqueoussol uti
onsofupt o14%
ethanol.Higheralcoholcont
entsrequir
ef urtherdisti
ll
ati
on.

FERMENTATI
ON

Ferment at
ionisacompl exseri
esofreacti
ons,whichconv
ertcarbohydr
ates,
mainlysugarsand
starches,i
ntoethanolandcarbondioxi
de.Severalenzy
mes,suchaszy maseinyeasts,catal
yse
thesereactions.Yeasti
salivi
ngorganism,andthesearetheproduct
sofanaerobi
cr espir
ati
on.

Condi
ti
ons

*Ferment
ati
onwithyeastwor
ksbestattemper
atur
esint
herange25-37°C,
int
heabsenceof
oxygen(
anaerobi
c)andwil
lpr
oduceaqueoussol
uti
onsofupto14%ethanol
.

*Below25°Ct
hereacti
onr at
eist
oosl
ow,
butathi
ghert
emper
atur
est
heenzy
messt
artt
o
denatur
eandl
oseeffi
ciency.

*I
foxygeni
spr
esent,
aerobi
crespi
rat
ionwi
l
loccurpr
oduci
ngcar
boxy
li
caci
ds,
int
hiscase
et
hanoi
caci
d(v
inegar
).

*Thet
oxi
cit
yofet
hanol
tot
heor
gani
smsusedl
i
mit
stheet
hanol
concent
rat
ionpossi
ble

Fer
ment
ati
onf
rom bi
omassandwast
e

I
nor
dert
opr
oduceet
hanol
from bi
omassandwast
e,t
wost
agesar
erequi
red:

A.Hy
drol
ysi
stobr
eakt
hemat
eri
aldowni
ntosi
mpl
esugarmol
ecul
es

B.Fer
ment
ati
ont
opr
oduceet
hanol

3
A.
Hydr
oly
sis

Thisprocessbreaksthelongcellul
oseandhemi cell
ulosechainsint
osimpl esugars.
Cell
uloseyiel
dsprimari
lyglucose(asix
-carbonsugar)whereashemi cell
ulose,i
nthe
regi
onof20%oft hemat er
ial
,giv
esami xturei
ncludi
ngsev eralf
ive-
carbonsugars.

Methodsofhydrol
ysi
sincludeusi
ngenzymesandusingdi
l
uteorconcentr
atedaci
ds.
Whereasint
hepasthy dr
ochlor
icorhy
drofl
uor
icaci
dmayhav ebeenused,sul
phur
ic
aci
disfoundinnewerprocesses.

B.
SugarSepar
ati
on.

Af
terhydrol
ysi
s,thesugarforf
erment ati
onmustbesepar at
edf rom t
heaci
d.Anew
pr
ocessdevelopedbythecompanyAr kenoli
ntheUnitedStates,whi
chisst
il
latthe
pi
l
otstage,makesuseofi onexchanget oimprovetheseparati
on,al
lowi
ngagreater
pr
oporti
onoftheacidtobeconcent ratedandre-
used.Fi
naltracesofaci
dare
pr
ecipi
tat
edas" gypsum"(cal
cium sulphat
e)byadditi
onofli
me.

3.
BIOTECHNOLOGY

Recentadvancesi
nbiotechnologyhaveledtothedevelopmentofapr ocesstoproduce
ethanolf
rom wast
ebiomassusi ngbacteri
a.Geneti
cal
lyengineeredE-coli
bacter
iaare
usedtoconvertpl
antsugarsintoethanol
,rat
herthantoethanoicorlacti
caci
das
usuall
yhappens.

4
Thisall
owset hanoltobeprocessedfr
om forestrywast
e,ri
cehulls,sugarcaneresidues
(cal
led"bagasse")
,andthemai ncropcanbegr ownasaf oodsour ce.I
tisexpectedthat
i
nt i
meet hanolwill
beabletocompet eeconomi cal
lywi
thfossi
lfuels,removi
ngt he
needforanet hanolfuel
subsidy.

Theuseofwast etoproduceethanolmayalsohel
psolvetheprobl
em ofdisposalt
hat
hasarisensi
ncemanypl aceshavebeguntobanburningcropresi
duesbecauseof
envi
ronmentalconcer
nsov eri
tsimpact
,orwhereploughi
ng-i
nwasteisnotpossibl
e
becauseofthesoilt
ype.

Pr
oduci
nget
honal
from wast
eandbact
eri
a

KO11

Agenet i
cal
lymodif
iedbact
eri
um,dev
elopedbythemicr
obiol
ogi
stLonnieI
ngram i
n
1987,hasenabledt
hesesugarst
obeconv er
tedtoet
hanol
.Thebacter
ium,r
efer
redto
asKO11, wouldnor
mallypr
oduceaci
ds,butt
hemodifi
cati
onmeansethanoli
s
producedinst
ead.

Theadvantageoveryeastisthatawi derrangeofsugarscanbepr ocessed,enabl

i
ng
theuti
li
sati
onofbiomasswast esuchaswoodwast e,cornst
alks,r
icehull
s,andother
organi
cwast e,
whichwouldot herwiserequir
edisposalbysomeot hermethod,orwhich
couldonlybepart
ial
l
yutil
isedbyconv ent
ionalf
ermentati
onmet hods,makingthem
uneconomic.

5
Pr
oper
ti
esofal
cohol
s

Phy
sical
proper
ti
es:

1.
Sol
ubi
l
ityi
nwat
er

Alcohol saresolubleinwat er
.Thi si
sduet othehy droxylgroupinthealcohol whi chis
ablet oform hydrogenbonswi thwat ermol ecul
es.Alcoholswi t
hasmal lerhydr ocarbon
chainar everysoluble.Asthel engthoft hehy dr
ocarbonchai nincr
eases, t
hesol ubil
i
tyin
wat erdecreases.Wi t
hf ourcar bonint hehydrocarbonchainandhi gher,t
hedecr easein
solubili
tybecomesv i
sibleast hemixt ureformstwoi mmi scibl
elayersofli
quid.The
reasonwhyt hesolubili
tydecreasesast helengthofhy drocarbonchainincreasesi s
becausei tisrequir
esmor eener gytoov ercomet hehy dr
ogenbondsbet weent he
alcohol moleculesast hemol eculesar emor eti
ghtlypackedt oget
herast hesi zeand
massi ncr
eases.

I
nt heimageabov
e,t
hepar
ti
all
ynegat
iveoxygenat
om intheet
hanolmol
ecul
efor
msa
hydrogenbondwi
tht
hepar
tial
l
yposit
ivehydr
ogenatom i
nthewatermol
ecul
e.

2.
Viscosi
ty

Viscosi
tyi
st hepropert
yofaf l
uidt
hatresi
ststheforcetendi
ngtocausetheflui
dto
fl
ow.Thev iscosi
tyofalcohol
sincr
easeasthesizeoft hemolecul
esi
ncreases.Thi
sis
becausethest r
engthoftheint
ermolecul
arf
orcesincreases,
holdi
ngthemolecules
mor efi
rmlyinplace.

3.
Pol
ari
ty

Amide>Aci d>Alcohol>Ketone~Al dehyde>Ami ne>Ester>Ether>Al kaneAmi deis

themostpolarwhil
ealkaneistheleast
.Alcoholisrankedt
hirdintermsofpol ari
tydue
toit
shydrogenbondingcapabil
it
iesandpr esenceofoneoxy genatom inanal cohol
molecul
e.Carboxyl
icaci
dsaremor epolart hanalcohol
sbecauset her
ear etwooxy gen
atomspresenti
nacar boxy
li
cacidmol ecule.

6
4.
Flammabi
l
ity

Theflammabi l
i
tyofalcohol
sdecreaseasthesizeandmassoft hemolecul
esi
ncreases.
Combust i
onbreaksthecovalentbondsofthemolecul
es,soasthesizeandmassofthe
moleculesincr
eases,t
herearemor ecoval
entbondstobreaki
nordertoburnt
hat
al
cohol.Hence,moreenergyisrequir
edtobreakthebonds,t
heref
orethefl
ammabili
ty
ofal
coholsdecreaseassizeandmassofmol ecul
esincr
eases

Chemi
cal
proper
ti
es:

1.
Combust
ion

Alcohol
sburnsinoxygentoproducecar
bondioxi
deandwater
.Al
cohol
sburncleanl
y
andeasil
y,anddoesnotproducesoot.I
tbecomesincr
easi
ngl
ymoredi
ff
icul
ttoburn
al
coholsasthemoleculesgetbigger
.

Thegener
almol
ecul
arequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
ioni
s:

CnH2n+1OH+(
1.5n)
O2→ (
n+1)
H2O+nCO2

Exampl
e:-Combust
ionofet
hanol
:

C2H5OH(
l)+3O2(
g)→ 2CO2(
g)+3H2O(
g);
(ΔHc=−1371kJ/
mol
)

2.
Dehy
drat
ion

-al
cohol
toal
kene

Dehydrat
ionofalcoholsi
sdonebyheati
ngwithconcent
ratedsul
fur
icacid,
whi
chact
s
asthedehydrat
ingagent,at180°
C.Thi
sreacti
onusesalcohol
stoproduce
cor
respondingalkenesandwaterasby
product.

Exampl
e:-Dehy
drat
ionofet
hanol
:

7
3.
Oxi
dat
ion

-
alcohol
tocar
boxy
li
caci
d

Al
cohol
scanbeoxi
disedi
ntocar
boxy
li
caci
ds.

Exampl
e:-oxi
dat
ionofet
hanol
:

C2H5OH+[
O]→ CH3COOH+H2O

Oxi
dati
oncanbedonebyusingoxi
disi
ngagent
ssuchasacidi
fi
edpotassi
um
di
chromat
e(VI
),aci
dif
iedpot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)
..
..
..
oratmospher
icoxygen.

Ethanol
,i
flef
texposedtoai
r,canoxi
diseandbecomeet hanoi
cacid.Anexamplei
s
winetur
ningsourastheal
coholcont
ent,whi
chisethanol,i
soxi
disedbyatmospher
ic
oxygen.

4.
Est
eri
fi
cat
ion

Al
cohol
scanber
eact
edwi
thcar
boxy
li
caci
dtof
orm est
ers.

8
2.Et
hanol
andmet
hanol
gasol
i
nebl
endedf
uel
s

Methanolandethanolbasedliqui
df uel
scanbeusedassubst i
tutesforgasol
inefuel
s
i
nconventi
onalengines,suchasspar ki
gnit
ionengines,
withoutmodi f
icat
iont
ot he
engi
nes.Sever
al t
estfuelswereusedi nthi
sstudy.Thefir
stwasunl eadedgasoli
neasa
basefuel
.Theotherswer eethanolandmet hanol
blendedgasolinefuels.

2.
1Bl
endpr
oper
ti
es

Eachf uelhasitsownsetofcombustion-
rel
atedproperti
es.Theseproperti
eschange
theengineperf or
manceandemi ssi
oncharacter
ist
ics.Labor
atoryt
estswer ethen
carri
edoutusi ngASTM test
sstandardst
odet er
minet hecombusti
on-relat
edpropert
ies.
Alistoffuelpropert
iest
hatcomparesethanolandmet hanolgasol
i
nebl endedfuel
sis
givenintable

9
PERFORMANCEOFS.
IENGI
NE

Theper formanceandemi ssionchar act eristicsofthespar kignit

ionengi ner unni ngon
ethanol andmet hanol blendedwi thgasol inewer eevaluatedandcompar edwi thnea
gasol inefuel .Appar atusesusedi nt hepr esentst udywer eanengi ne, ady namomet er
andanexhaustanal yzer.Theschemat icdi agram oftheexper i
ment alset-upi sshowni n
Fi
gur e1.Asi nglecy li
nder ,carbur etted, four -
stroke,sparkigni t
ionnon- roadengi ne( type
Ber nardmot eur es19A) ,waschosen.Non- roadgasol ineengi nesdi fferfr
om aut omot i
ve
engi nesi nsev eral technical speci fications.Becauseoft hesedesi gndi f
fer ences, t
he
effectsofal cohol /gasol i
nebl endedf uel changesonper formanceandemi ssion
char acteristi
csf r om non- roadgasol ineengi nesar equitedi f
ferentfrom theef f
ect sof
al
cohol /gasol i
nebl endedf uel changesonper f
or manceandemi ssionsf rom aut omot iv
e
gasol ineengi nes.Thi sengi nehada56mm bor eanda58mm st roke( t
otal
displacement143cm3) .I t
sr atedpowerwas2. 2kW.Thei gnit
ionsy stem was
composedoft heconv ent i
onal coilandspar kpl ugarrangementwi t
ht hepr imar ycoi l
ci
r cuitoper atingonapul segener atoruni t.Theengi newascoupl edt oahy dr auli
c
dynamomet er.Exhaustgaseswer esampl edf rom theout l
etandt henwer emeasur ed
onl inebyanexhaustanal yzerBosch.

Fig.1.Theschematicdiagr
am oftheexperi
mentalset
-up.(
1)Engine,
(2)Dynamomet er
,
(3)Shaft
,(4)Fl
ywheel,
(5)Exhaustpi
pe,(6)Dynamometercont
rolunit
,(7)Gasanal
yzer,
and( 8)Fuelmeasur
ementsy st
em.

10
Aser i
esofexper i
ment swer ecar r
iedoutusi nggasol i
ne, andv ariouset hanol/met hanol
blends.Thet estbl endswer epr epar edjustbef or estartingt heexper imentt oensur et hat
thef uel mi xturewashomogeneousandpr eventt her eact i
onofet hanol withwat erv apor .
Theengi newasst artedandal lowedt owar m upf oraper iodof20–30mi n.Bef ore
runningt heengi newi thanewf uel blend,i
twasal l
owedt or unf orsuf fi
cienttimet o
consumet her emai ningf uelfr
om t hepr evi
ousexper iment .Al lthebl endswer et ested
underv ar y
ingengi nespeedcondi t
ions.Engi net estswer eper for medatmaxi mum t o
i
dlingr pm engi nespeed.Ther equiredengi nel oadwasobt ai nedt hr ought he
dynamomet ercont r
ol .Theengi nespeed, fuel consumpt ion, andl oadwer emeasur ed,
whilet hebr akepower ,braketor queandbr akespeci fi
cf uel consumpt i
on( BSFC)wer e
comput ed.Foreachexper iment ,t
hr eerunswer eperformedt oobt ai
nanav eragev alue
oftheexper iment al data.Af t
ert heengi ner eachedast ablewor kingcondi tion(st eady
state) ,emi ssionpar amet erssuchasCO, CO2, HC,andNOxf rom anonl ineexhaustgas
analy serwer er ecorded.CO, CO2, HC, andNOxemi ssionsr eachedav eragev aluesoft he
acqui reddat awi thin20sf oreachst ableoper atingcondi t
ion.Theconcent rat
ionofeach
gaswasmeasur edcont i
nuousl ybydi gi
taldataacqui siti
on.Theexhaustgas
temper aturewasmoni t
oreddur ingt heexper iment st oensur et hatt heengi newasi na
steadyst atecondi ti
on.

Engi
neemi
ssi
onchar
act
eri
sti
cs

Toi nv estigatet heef fectofdifferentethanol /met hanol gasol inebl endedf uelson
exhaustemi ssions, resul t
soft heengi net estat2000r pm wi thf ull thrott
lev alve
openi ngwer esel ect edf orcompar i
son, asshowni nFig.8. COi sat oxi cgast hatist he
resultofi ncompl etecombust i
on.Whenet hanol andmet hanol cont ainingoxy genis
blendedwi t
hgasol ine, t
hecombust i
onoft heengi nebecomesbet terandt hereforeCO
emi ssioni sreduced( Stumpetal .,1996; Yasar ,2010) .Asseeni nFi g.8, thev aluesof
COemi ssionar eabout3. 654%( 3.637%) ,3.161%( 3.145) ,2.842%( 2.825), 2.337%
(2.306%) ,
1.851%( 1.824%)and1. 275%( 1.248%)f orE5( M5) ,E10( M10) ,E20( M20) ,E40
(M40) , E60( M60)andE80( M80)f uel
s, respect i
vel y.CO2i snon- toxi cbutcont r
ibutest o
thegr eenhouseef fect .TheCO2concent rationsat2000engi nespeedwi thf ullthrottle
valveopeni ngusi nget hanol andmet hanol gasolinebl endswer edecr easedi n
compar isont ogasol ine.Becauset heet hanol andmet hanol cont ainl essCat omst han
gasoline, itgivesof flowerCO2( Knapp, 1998; Celik,2008) .Thev alueofCO2emi ssioni s
about13. 88%f orgasol inefuel,whi l
ethev aluesofCO2ar eabout13. 12%( 12.96%) ,
12.95%( 12.78%) ,12. 25%( 12.12%) ,11.73%( 11.68%) ,10.42%( 10. 39%)and9. 78%
(9.57%)wi thE5( M5) ,E10( M10) ,E20( M20) ,E40( M40) ,E60( M60)andE80( M80)
fuels,
r espect i
vely.

11
TheHCconcent rationint heexhaustgasemi ssionat2000r pm wi thf ullthrottl
ev al
ve
openi ng, forgasol i
nef uel was345ppm, whi l
etheHCconcent rationofE5( M5) ,E10
(M10) ,E20( M20) ,E40( M40) ,E60( M60)andE80( M80)f uelswas341( 304) ,
301( 297),
282( 223) ,265( 234) ,273( 261)and380( 372)ppm, r
espect i
vel y.TheHCconcent rat
ion
at2000r pm usi ngE5( M5) ,E10(M10) ,E20( M20) ,E40( M40)andE60( M60)was
decr easedby8. 98%( 11. 88%),12.75%( 13. 91%) ,18.26%( 35.36%) ,23. 19%( 32.17%)and
20.86%( 24. 35%) ,respect i
vely,whil
et heHCconcent r
at ionofE80( M80)f uelswas
i
ncr easedby10. 14%( 7.83%) ,r
espect ivelyi ncompar isont ogasol ine.Theser esults
i
ndicat ethatet hanol andmet hanol canbet reatedasapar tiallyoxi dizedhy drocarbon
whent heyar eaddedt ot heblendedf uel.Ther efore, HCemi ssionsdecr easet osome
extentaset hanol /met hanol addedt ogasol i
nei ncrease.Thel owet hanol /
met hanol and
highet hanol/met hanol cont entblendsr educet hecy l
indert emper at ureast heheatof
vapor izationofet hanol /met hanol i
shi gherwhencompar edt ogasol ine.Thel ower
temper aturecausesmi sf i
reand/orpar ti
al burni nther egionsneart hecombust ion
chamberwal l
.Ther efore, HCemi ssionsi ncrease, andengi nepowercansl ightl
y
decr ease.Thi sbehav iourhasbeenr epor tedbyot heri nv estigat orsonv ari
oust y
pes
ofengi nesandcondi ti
ons( Celi
k,2008; Naj afietal.,2009) .

Itshowst hatast heper cent ageofet hanol/met hanol inthebl endsi ncr eased,NOx
emissionwasdecr eased.TheNOxconcent rationi ntheexhaustgasemi ssionat2000
rpm withfull thr
ott l
ev alv eopeni ng,forgasol i
nef uelwas2247ppm, whi letheNOx
concent r
ationofE5( M5) ,E10( M10) ,E20( M20) ,E40( M40) ,E60( M60)andE80( M80)
fuelswas1957( 1945) , 1841( 1828) ,1724( 1574) ,1498( 1379) ,
1366( 1338)and1223
(1207)ppm, r
espect i
vely.TheNOxconcent rationsat2000r pm usi ngE5( M5),E10
(M10),E20( M20) , E40( M40) ,E60( M60)andE80( M80)f uelswer edecr easedby
12.91%( 13.44%) ,
18. 07%( 18. 65%) ,23.27%( 29. 95%) ,33.
33%( 38.63%) ,39.21%( 40.45%)
and45. 57%( 53.72%) ,respect iv
el yincompar i
sont ogasol ine.Sinceet hanol/met hanol
haveahi gherheatofv apor izationr el
ativetot hatofneatgasol i
ne, thebl ends
temperatur eatt heendofi nt akest rokedecr easesandf i
nal l
ycausescombust i
on
temperatur et odecr ease.Asar esult,engine-outNOxemi ssionsdecr ease( Heetal .,
2003;Cel i
k, 2008) .Thef uel blendscont ai
ninghi ghratiosofet hanol andmet hanol had
i
mpor tantef fectsont her educt i
onexhaustemi ssions.Exper imental r
esul t
s
demonst ratet hatt hemostsui t
abl efuelswer eE40andM20i ntermsofHCemi ssion.
CO, CO2andNOxconcent rationsofE80andM80wer ethel owestwhencompar edto
theotherbl endf uel s.

12
Concl
usi
on

Thepr esentchapt erdemonst ratesthei nfluencesofet hanolandmet hanoladdit i

onto
unleadedgasol ineonnon- roadSIengi neper formanceandemi ssioncharact er
istics.
Theuseofet hanol gasoli
nebl endedf uelsi ncreaset hebrakepowerandbr aket orque,
anddecr easest heBSFC.Met hanolgasol inebl endedf uelsshowl owerbrakepowerand
braket orqueandhi gherBSFCt hangasol ine.Theper formancechar acteri
sticsof
met hanol gasolineblendedf uelsarewor set hanf orethanolduet otheinfl
uenceoft he
combust i
on-relatedpr oper
ties.Theuseoff uel blendscontai
ninghi ghr at
iosofet hanol
andmet hanol ,
at2000engi nespeedwi thf ullthrottl
ev al
veopeni ng,havesignificant
effectsont her eductionexhaustemi ssions.

Est
ersandFor
mat
ionofest
ers

Ester
sandwat erarefor
medwhenalcohol
sreactwithcarboxyl
icacids.Thisr
eact
ioni
s
call
edester
ifi
cat
ion,whi
chisar
ever
sibl
ereacti
on.Thisty
peofr eactioniscal
leda
condensati
onreacti
on,whi
chmeansthatwatermolecul
esar eeli
minatedduri
ngthe
react
ion.

13
Pr
oper
ti
esofEst
ers

*Est
ersarerathernonpol
arduet
othepr
esenceofanal
kyl
grouponei
thersi
deoft
he
cent
raloxygen.

*Thepresenceofthebul
kyal
kylgr
oupst
hatareadj
acentt
oitmeanst
hatt
heoxy
gen
atom i
slargel
yunablet
opart
ici
pat
einhy
drogenbondi
ng.

*Et
hers,t
her
efor
e,hav
elowerboi
l
ingpoi
ntscompar
edt
oal
cohol
sofsi
mil
armol
ecul
ar
weight
.

*However
,astheal
kyl
chainoft
heet
her
sbecomesl
onger
,thedi
ff
erencei
nboi
l
ing
poi
ntsbecomessmall
er.

*Thisisduetotheeffectofincr
easedVanderWaal
sinter
actionsasthenumberof
carbonsincr
eases,andtherefor
ethenumberofel
ect
ronsincreasesaswell
.Thetwo
l
onepai r
sofelectr
onspr esentontheoxy
genatomsmakei tpossibl
eforet
her
stofor
m
hydrogenbondswithwat er.

*Et
her
sar emorepol
arthanal
kenes,
butnotaspol
arasest
ers,
alcohol
sorami
desof
comparabl
estr
uctur
es.

14