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Start with a square one

unit by one unit: 1
1
1 32 64

8 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
        1 1 16 1
2 4 8 16 32 64 2
1
This is an example of an 4
Power & Taylor Series infinite series.

1
This series converges (approaches a limiting value.)

1 1 1 1 1
Many series do not converge:        
1 2 3 4 5



In an infinite series: a1  a2  a3    an     ak Geometric Series:
k 1

In a geometric series, each term is found by multiplying

a1, a2,… are terms of the series. an is the nth term. the preceding term by the same number, r.
n 
Partial sums: S1  a1 Sn   ak a  ar  ar 2  ar 3    ar n 1     ar n 1
k 1 n 1
S2  a1  a2
a
This converges to if r  1, and diverges if r  1.
S3  a1  a2  a3 nth partial sum 1 r

If Sn has a limit as n   , then the series converges, 1  r  1 is the interval of convergence.

otherwise it diverges.

 

Example 1: Example 2:

3 3 3 3 1 1 1
     1     
10 100 1000 10000 2 4 8

.3  .03  .003  .0003    .333...

1 1 a 1 1 2
   
3  1 1 3 3
1    1
3 3  2 2 2
a 3 1 r
10  10  
1 9 9 3
1 r
10 10
 

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a 1  r n 
A power series is in this form:
The partial sum of a geometric series is: Sn  
1 r c x n
n
 c0  c1 x  c2 x 2  c3 x 3    cn x n  
0
a 1  r n 
n0

a or
If r  1 then lim 
n  1 r 1 r 

 c ( x  a)
n0
n
n
 c0  c1 ( x  a )  c2 ( x  a ) 2  c3 ( x  a ) 3    cn ( x  a ) n  

If x  1 and we let r  x , then: The coefficients c0, c1, c2… are constants.
1
1  x  x2  x3    The center “a” is also a constant.
1 x
(The first series would be centered at the origin if you
The more terms we use, the better our approximation graphed it. The second series would be shifted left or right.
(over the interval of convergence.) “a” is the new center.)
 

Once we have a series that we know, we can find a new Example 4:

series by doing the same thing to the left and right hand 1 1
Given:  1  x  x 2  x3   find:
1  x 
2
sides of the equation.
1 x
1
Example 3: This is a geometric series where r=-x.
1 x
d 1 d 1
 1  x    1  x   1 
1 2
1
 1  x  x 2  x3   dx 1  x 1  x 
2
1 x dx
x
To find a series for
1 x
multiply both sides by x. So:
1

d
1  x  x2  x3  
1  x 
2
dx
x
 x  x 2  x3  x 4   1  2 x  3x2  4 x3  
1 x
We differentiated term by term.
 

Suppose we wanted to find a fourth degree polynomial of

the form:
P  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  a4 x 4

that approximates the behavior of f  x   ln  x  1 at x  0

Taylor Series
If we make P  0   f  0 , and the first, second, third and fourth
derivatives the same, then we would have a pretty good
Brook Taylor was an approximation.
accomplished musician and
painter. He did research in a
variety of areas, but is most
famous for his development of Brook Taylor
ideas regarding infinite series. 1685 - 1731

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P  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  a4 x 4 f  x   ln  x  1 P  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  a4 x 4 f  x   ln  x  1

f  x   ln  x  1 P  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  a4 x 4 f   x   
1 P  x   2a2  6a3 x  12a4 x 2
1  x 
2
1
f  0   ln 1  0 P  0   a0 a0  0 1 P  0   2a2 a2  
f   0     1 2
1
f  x 
1 P  x   a1  2a2 x  3a3 x 2  4a4 x3
1 x
P  x   6a3  24a4 x
1
f   x   2 
P  0   a1 a1  1 1  x 
3
1
f   0   1 2
1 f   0   2 P  0   6a3 a3 
6
f   x   
1 P  x   2a2  6a3 x  12a4 x 2
1  x 
2

P 4  x   24a4
1
1 f  4  x   6
1
f   0     1 P  0   2a2 a2  
1  x 
4
2 6
P 4  0   24a4 a4  
1
f  4  0   6 24
 

P  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  a4 x 4 f  x   ln  x  1 Our polynomial:
1 2 6
0  1x  x 2  x3  x 4
2 6 24
1 2 6 f   0  2 f   0  3 f  4  0  4
P  x   0  1x  x 2  x3  x 4 has the form: f  0  f   0 x  x  x  x
2 6 24 2 6 24

x 2 x3 x 4 f  0 f   0 f   0  2 f   0  3 f  4  0  4
P  x  0  x    f  x   ln  x  1 or:  x x  x  x
2 3 4 0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

If we plot both functions, we see

5 1
4
that near zero the functions match This pattern occurs no matter what the original function was!
3
very well!
0.5
2
1 f  x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-1
-2
-0.5
-3
-4
-5 P  x -1  

example: y  cos x
Maclaurin Series:
(generated by f at x  0 ) f  x   cos x f  0  1 f   x   sin x f   0   0

f   0  2 f   0  3 f   x    sin x f   0  0 f  4  x   cos x f  4  0   1

P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
2! 3!
f   x    cos x f   0   1
If we want to center the series (and it’s graph) at some
point other than zero, we get the Taylor Series: 1x 2 0 x3 1x 4 0 x5 1x 6
P  x   1  0x       
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
Taylor Series:
(generated by f at x  a ) P  x  1
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10
    
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
f   a  f   a 
P  x   f  a   f   a  x  a    x  a   x  a   
2 3

2! 3!
 

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
example: y  cos  x  at x 
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10 2
y  cos x P  x  1     
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
   
f  x   cos x f  0 f   x   sin x f     1
2 2

1 f   x    sin x f     1
2  4   
f  4  x   cos x f    0
2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 f   x    cos x f      0
2
-1
 0  1 
2 3

P  x   0  1 x     x     x    
 2  2!  2  3!  2
The more terms we add, the better our approximation.
  
3 5

x  x 
    2  2
P  x    x      
 2 3! 5!
 

There are some Maclaurin series that occur often enough

that they should be memorized. They are on your
formula sheet, but today we are going to look at where
they come from.
Finding Common Maclaurin Series

Maclaurin Series:
(generated by f at x  0 )

f   0  2 f   0  3
P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
2! 3!

1 f   0  2 f   0  3 1 f   0  2 f   0  3
 1  x   1  x 
1 1
P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x   P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
1 x 2! 3! 1 x 2! 3!

f  n  x  f  n  x  f  n  0
List the function and its List the function
Evaluate and
column
its one
1  x  1  x 
1 1
derivatives. 1 derivatives.
1 for x = 0. 2 2 3! 3 4! 4
 1  1x  x  x  x  
1 x 2! 3! 4!
1  x  1  x 
2 2
1

2 1  x  2 1  x 
3 3
2 1
 1  x  x 2  x3  x 4  
1 x
6 1  x  6 1  x 
4 4
6  3!
This is a geometric series with
24 1  x  24 1  x 
5 5
24  4!
a = 1 and r = x.

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1 1 f   0  2 f   0  3
 1  x 
1
We could generate this same series for with P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
1 x 1 x 2! 3!
polynomial long division:

1  x  x 2  x3   f  n  x  f  n  0

1  x  1
1  x 
1
1
1 x 1 2
 1  1x  x 2 
3! 3 4! 4
x  x  
1 x 2! 3! 4!
 1  x 
2
x 1
x  x2
2 1  x 
3
2 1
x2 1 x
 1  x  x 2  x3  x 4  
x 2  x3 6 1  x  6  3!
4

3
x This is a geometric series with
24 1  x 
5
24  4!
a = 1 and r = -x.

 

f   0  2 f   0  3 f   0  2 f   0  3
cos  x  P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x   sin  x  P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
2! 3! 2! 3!

f  n  x  f  n  0 f  n  x  f  n  0

cos  x  1 sin  x  0
1 2 0 3 1 4 0 2 1 3 0 4
cos  x   1  0 x  x  x  x   sin  x   0  1x  x  x  x  
2! 3! 4! 2! 3! 4!
 sin  x  0 cos  x  1

 cos  x  1 x2
x 4
x 6  sin  x  0 x3 x5 x 7
cos  x   1     sin  x   x    
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!
sin  x  0  cos  x  1
Both sides are even functions. Both sides are odd functions.
cos  x  1 sin  x  0
Cos (0) = 1 for both sides. Sin (0) = 0 for both sides.
 

f   0  2 f   0  3
ln 1  x  P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
2! 3!

f  n  x  f  n  0

ln 1  x  0
1 2 2 3 3! 4
ln 1  x   0  1x  x  x  x  
2! 3! 4! We have saved the best for last!
1  x 
1
1

 1  x 
2
1 x 2 x3 x 4
ln 1  x   x     
2 3 4
2 1  x 
3
2

6 1  x 
4
6  3!

 

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f   0  2 f   0  3
ex P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
2! 3!

f  n  x  f  n  0

ex 1
1 2 1 3 1 4
e x  1  1x  x  x  x  
x
2! 3! 4!
e 1

x
e 1 x 2 x3 x 4
ex  1  x     
2! 3! 4!
ex 1

ex 1