SMART BRICK KILNS –

(Brick Kilns Performance Assessment Report)

A S E MI N A R RE P O RT

S UB M I T TE D B Y

M USAIB NASEER BHAT

Enrollment No. 4619

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEER ING

IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

AT
SSM COLLEGE OF ENGIN EERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
DIVAR, PARIHASPORA, PATTAN, BARAM ULLA,
KASHM IR (J&K)

J ULY 201 8
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar report entitled SMART BRICK KILNS is a bonafide
record of the work done by Mr. MUSAIB NASEER BHAT Roll No. 4619 under our
supervision, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering from SSM College Of Engineering &
Technology for the year 2018.

ER. SHABINA MASOODI ER. TAHIR HUSSAIN

H.O.D (DEPT. OF CIVIL) SEMINAR COORDINATOR

ER. SHAISTA PARVEEZ ER. SHAHEEN NASIR ER. MOHI -UD –DIN
SEMINAR GUIDE SEMINAR GUIDE SEMINAR GUIDE

Date: (Department Seal)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
“ALL PRAISINGS TO ALMIGHTY ALLAH”

In the name of Allah, the most benefecial and most merciful and seeking the
benediction of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).
Words can hardly express a sense of gratitude and reverence to my guides Mrs.
Shaista Parveez Mam, Mrs Shaheen Nasir Mam , Mr. Mohi -ud -Din Sir and our
seminar coordinator Er. Tahir Huassain Sir for their abundant interest, constant
encouragement, competent supervision and stimulating criticism throughout the
preparation of this report. The completion of my paper wouldn’t have been possible
without their constant support and benediction. I also owe thanks to our esteemed
Principal & H.O.D. Thanks to all, it is my pleasure to take this opportunity to thank all
those who directly or indirectly helped me throughout the preparation of my report.

MUSAIB BHAT July 2018

En. No. 4619

Dept. Of Civil Engineering

SSM College Of Engg. & Tech.

Divar, Parihaspora, Baramulla, Kashmir, J&K

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 ABSTRACT
Introduction
India is the second largest producer of clay fired bricks, accounting for
more than 10 percent of global production. India is estimated to have
more than 100,000 brick kilns, producing about 150 -200 billion bricks
annually, employing about 10 million worke rs and consuming about 25
million tons of coal annually. India’s brick sector is characterized by
traditional firing technologies; environmental pollution; reliance on
manual labour and low mechanization rate; dominance of small -scale
brick kilns with limited financial, technical and managerial capacity;
dominance of single raw material (clay) and product (solid clay brick);
and lack of institutional capacity for the development of the sector.

In a first of its kind detailed performance assessment and the examination

of the energy and environmental performance for the five main brick
firing technologies given below to qualify for the Smart Brick Kiln is
made.

 Fixed Chimney Bull’s Trench Kiln (FCBTK)

 Zig-Zag Kiln (natural and forced draft)
 Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK)
 Down-Draught Kiln (DDK)
 Tunnel Kiln

Results
Energy performance
A large variation was observed in the energy performance of the
monitored kilns. DDK (least efficient kiln) consumes four times more
energy compared to VSBK (most efficient k iln). The VSBK kiln had the
lowest thermal energy requirement, followed by the, zig -zag kiln and
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FCBTKs. The tunnel kiln, which incorporates a dryer, had higher energy
use.

Environmental performance

 VSBK had the lowest emissions of Suspended Particulate Matter

(SPM) followed by zigzag kiln, tunnel kiln, FCBTK and down -
draught kiln. VSBK also had the lowest Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
emissions.
 Of the gaseous pollutants measured, variations in the SO2
concentration were observed, with the lowest levels in the biomass-
fueled DDK. This is because sulphur dioxide (SO2) is dependent on
sulphur in coal. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions were generally
below the detectable levels. The natural draught zig -zag kiln had
the lowest carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. CO 2 emissions show
similar ranking hierarchy as for energy.
 Both tunnel and VSBK had very low black carbon (BC) emissions,
followed by zig-zag. FCBTKs and DDK had the highest BC
emissions.

The way forward

The study recommends that the efforts to propagate Smart Brick Kilns or,
cleaner brick kiln technologies over the next decade should focus on
these specific technical measures:

 Adoption of cleaner kiln technologies (principally zig -zag and

VSBK)
 Promotion of internal fuel in brick making by mechanizing the
brick making process
 Promotion of mechanized coal stoking systems

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  Diversifying products (e.g. production of hollow and perforated
bricks)

 Promotion of modern renewable energy technologies in brick

making

Implementation of these measures can result in annual coal savings of

the order of 2.5 to 5.0 million tons/year in brick firing operation and
associated CO2 emission reduction of the order of 4.5 to 9.0 million
tons/year; significant reduction in air pollution (including SPM, black
carbon, CO); improvement in profitability of brick enterprises; and
improvement of working conditions for millions of workers employed in
brick kilns.
Implementation of these measures requ ires a concerted effort by the
Government of India and the brick industry. On the pol icy and regulatory
front, the Government of India may wish to refer to the policies and
regulations framed by some of the other developing countries in Asia.
Among these, of particular interest are: the sustainable building material
policy of Vietnam to promote resource-efficient brick production and the
recent environment regulation of Bangladesh proposing a time -bound
phasing out of FCBTK technology.
The next immediate steps proposed toward achieving these
recommendations include environmental regulation to phase out older,
inefficient technologies like FCBTKs, the predominant technology in use
today, and to introduce newer cleaner brick firing technologies; and
undertaking an Indian brick development programme to support
financing, technology transfer, an d skill development activities .

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Executive Summary

I. Background
The growth in India’s economy and population, coupled with
urbanization, has resulted in an increasing demand for residential,
commercial, industrial, and public buildings as well as other physical
infrastructure. Building construction in India is estimated to grow at a
rate of 6.6% per year between 2005 and 20301. The building stock is
expected to multiply five times during this period, resulting in a very
large increased demand for buildi ng materials. Solid fired clay bricks are
among the most widely used building materials in the country. India is
the second largest producer of clay fired bricks, accounting for more than
10 percent of global production2. India is estimated to have more th an
100,000 brick kilns, producing about 150 -200 billion bricks annually3.
Brick making in India is characterised by the following features:
 Brick making is a small-scale, traditional industry4. Almost all
brick kilns are located in the rural and peri -urban areas. It is
common to find large brick making clusters located around the
towns and cities, which are the large demand centres for bricks.
Some of these clusters have up to several hundred kilns.
 The brick production process is based on manual labour, an d brick
kilns are estimated to employ around 10 million workers. Brick
production is a seasonal vocation, as the brick kilns do not operate
during the rainy season. Most of the workers migrate with their
families from backward and poor regions of the count ry. Families,
including young children, work in harsh, low paying conditions.
There is typically a lack of basic facilities, such as access to clean
drinking water and sanitation.
 Bricks are fired to a temperature of 700 -1100 o C, requiring a large
amount of fuel for the firing operation. Brick kilns are estimated to

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 consume roughly 25 million tones of coal per year, thus making
them among the highest industrial consumers of coal in the country.
 A rapid increase in brick production and the clustering of bri ck
kilns have given rise to environmental concerns:
o Combustion of coal and other biomass fuels in brick kilns results
in the emissions of particulate matter (PM), including black
carbon (BC), sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
and carbon monoxide (CO). The emission of these pollutants has
an adverse effect on the health of workers and vegetation around
the kilns. In recent years, the higher cost and a shortage of good
quality bituminous coal have resulted in an increased use of
high-ash,high-sulphur coal, as well as in the use of industrial
wastes and loose biomass fuels in brick kilns. All of these have
resulted in new air emission challenges.
o The use of large quantities of coal in brick kilns contributes
significantly to emissions of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ).
o Good quality agriculture topsoil is used for brick production.
Areas having large concentration of brick kilns suffer from land
degradation.
 Apart from the environmental concerns, the industry faces other
challenges, including:
o A shortage of workers, resulting in an increase in wages and
disruption of production.
o A rapid increase in the fuel cost and limited availability of good
quality coal.
o A shortage of good quality clay in some regions and an inability
of brick makers to adopt technolog ies to utilize alternate raw
material.
o Increased competition from other walling materials, such as
concrete blocks.
o New demands resulting from trend towards high -rise
construction.
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Despite its significance in the construction sector, its importance in the
livelihoods of the poor, its large consumption of coal, and its impact on
health and environment,, the brick making sector has seen very few
development interventions/programmes aimed at improving the industry.

II. Objective
The objective of the study was to find the Smart Brick Kilns or, Cleaner
Technological Kilns by carry out a comprehensive assessment of brick
making technologies to gain a deeper understanding of the energy
utilization and emissions from current technologies as well as
technologies that offer the promise of cleaner brick production.
By examining five brick kiln technologies: two traditional brick kiln
technologies widely prevalent in India – fixed chimney Bull’s Trench
Kilns (BTK) and Down Draught Kilns and three relatively newer
technologies – Vertical Shaft Brick Kilns (VSBK), Zig -Zag Kilns, and
Tunnel Kilns. Nine individual brick kilns were monitored for the
following parameters:
 Energy performance: Specific Energy Consumption (SEC)
 Environment performance: Emission measurements for particulate
matter (PM), black carbon (BC), and selected gaseous pollutants.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover Page 1
Certificate 2
Acknowledgement 3
Abstract 4
Introduction
Results
Energy Performance
Environmental Performance
The Way Forward
Executive Summary 7
Background
Objective
Chapter 1 Brick Firing Process in the Kilns 11
1. Steps in brick making
1.1. Firing process in the kilns
1.1.1. Heating
1.1.2. Soaking
1.1.3. Cooling
1.2. Quality of fired bricks
Chapter 2 Introduction to Brick Kilns 16
2.1 Classification based on nature of production process
2.1.1 Intermittent kilns
2.1.2 Continuous kilns
2.2 Classification based on air flow
Chapter 3 Fuels 21
3.1 Relevant fuel properties
Chapter 4 Specific Energy Consumption 23
4.1 Definition
4.2 Measurement of energy input (external and internal fuel)
Chapter 5 Methodology for Monitoring & Measurements 24
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Energy and Combustion Process Parameters
5.3 Energy & Environment Performance
5.4 Conclusion and Recommend ations

Refrences 32

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Chapter 1 Brick Firing Process in the Kilns

1 Steps in brick making

The typical steps involved in brick making process are – clay

preparation, moulding, drying of green bricks and then firing.
1.1 Firing process in the kilns
Firing is the last operation in brick making process. Green
bricks are fired in the
kilns to convert a fairly
loosely compacted blend
of different minerals into
a strong, hard, and stable
product i.e. fired brick.
The firing process
determines the
properties of the fired brick — strength, porosity, stability
against moisture, hardness etc. Depending on nature of clay and
quality of fired brick requirement, bricks are fired in a temperature
range of 800–1100oC.
The overall firing process can be categorized in three steps –
heating, soaking and cooling. The important physical and chemical
changes occurring in the brick during firing are briefly explained
in the subsequent sections. It is important to understand these
changes as they form the basis for proper operation of a brick
kiln.
1.1.1 Heating:
Heating of clay leads to removal of moisture and carbonaceous
material, chemical changes and colour change in the final product.

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 A detailed description of the various processes during clay heating
process is explained below. The chemical and physical chan ges
occurring at different temperatures during the clay heating process
are represented in Figure 3 and are explained below.

1 Removal of mechanical moisture : About 25-30% of water is

added to clay during the hand -moulding or extrusion process.
While most of the moisture is removed during drying,
generally 3-10% moisture still remains with bricks while loaded in
the kiln due to different climatic conditions. The first stage of
heating involves removal of this moisture (drying). Almost all the
mechanically held water is evaporated when temperature of the
bricks reaches around 150 0C. However, the clay still retains its
original characteristics.

2 Combustion of carbonaceous materials: The clay contains

carbonaceous organic matter (plant material such as roots, leaves
etc.). The amount of organic matter present in clay varies from
place to place. At some places, agricultural residues (whe at straw
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 and rice husk etc.) are added to clay as internal fuel. As green
bricks are heated up in the kiln and oxygen (in combustion air)
diffuses inside bricks, combustion of the organic matter is initiated
at about 400oC. The process is completed when the
temperature reaches 700oC.

3 Decomposition of clay molecules and release of combined water

(Dehydroxylation): Clay material consists of several chemical
compounds which have water molecules or hydroxyl groups
chemically combined with them. Kaoline is one such compound
which is the major component in clay (the chemical formula
of Kaoline is Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O). When clay is heated, it starts
decomposing resulting in release of combined water
4 Quartz inversion: Silica, a common constituent of brick
making soils, has its crystal structure in the form of –quartz
(alpha–quartz) in nature. At 573oC, its crystal structure changes
into from –quartz (Beta quartz) and this transformation is
accompanied by an expansion of volume by around 2%. During
cooling, change occurs again at temperature 573 0C. The heating
and cooling rates near quartz inversion temperature have to be
controlled to obtain near-uniform temperature throughout the brick
and thus avoiding excessive stresses which can lead to crack
formation in bricks.
5 Carbonate and sulphide decomposition : Carbonates and sulphides
present in the clay decompose at 600 – 800 0C releasing CO2
and SO2.
6 Vitrification: Vitrification entails partial melting of clay
particles at points of contact, to form a glassy bond, which
binds the whole mass together and give strength (Figure 4). The
extent to which a mass of clay is melted during firing depends on

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 (i) temperature of the clay mass, and (ii) duration of the heat
treatment.

Vitrification of clay approximately commences at around

900 0C. However, the vitrification temperature depends upon
the type of minerals constituting clay, their propo rtion and
particularly on how much fluxing oxides they introduce — ferrous
oxide, lime, magnesia and potash. Fluxing oxides are those which bring
down the temperature of vitrification. This explains for the wide
variations observed in firing temperature, w hich ranged between 800 –
0C
1100 at different locations.

As

temperature increases, more melting of clay mass occurs. In

practice, the heating must be restricted lest so much liquid
forms that the whole brick starts to become distorted under
the weight of the higher layers of bricks. In extreme cases,
the bricks may get fused together in the kiln.

1.1.2 Soaking

The bricks are maintained at the finishing temperature for few

hours in order to attain u niform vitrification throughout the brick.
This process is known as soaking.

1.1.3 Cooling:

During cooling the liquid solidifies to glass, bonding the whole

mass together. The cooling rate should be slow to avoid excessive
thermal stresses in the bricks, particularly once the quartz inversion
temperature (573 0C) is reached, since shrinkage occurs at this point.

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1.2 Quality of fired bricks

The quality of the fired bricks is a function of several parameters. The

important amongst them are:

 Quality and characteristics of the green bricks

 Characteristics of the firing process, e.g., the heating and cooling
rate, the maximumtemperature reached and the duration of the
soaking period.
Many countries have notified standards in order to define the quality of
clay fired bricks. Usually the standards classify bricks on the basis of
three properties — compressive strength, water absorption and
efflorescence.
In the same kiln or the same batch of fired bricks, the quality of fired
bricks may vary due to differences in the temperature profiles and the
duration of the soaking period. A good brick firing kiln should have as
uniform temperature as possible througho ut its cross-section so that the
quality of fired bricks are uniform and the percentage of good quality
bricks are high.

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Chapter 2 Introduction to Brick Kilns

A large variety of kilns are used for firing bricks. These can be
classified in several ways, e.g. on the basis of the production process
(intermittent and continuous kilns); direction of air flow (up -draught,
down-draught and cross-draught kilns); or on the basis of the
method of production of draught (natural draught and induced /forced
draught kilns).

2.1.Classification based on nature of production process

Depending upon the nature of production process, brick

kilns can be classified as intermittent kilns and continuous kilns.
The classification is represented in Figure 5 below:

2.1.1 Intermittent kilns

In intermittent kilns, bricks are fired in batches; fire is allowed to die

out and the bricks are allowed to cool after they have been fired. The
kiln must be emptied, refilled and a new fire has to be started for
each load/batch of bricks. In intermittent kilns, most of the
heat contained in the hot flue gases, fired bricks and the kiln
structure is thus lost. Intermittent kilns are still widely used in
several countries of Asia, Africa and South and Latin America.
Intermittent kilns can be further sub -divided into two categories: –

Intermittent kilns without stack: The kilns which do not have any
stack/chimney to guide the flue gases. In these kilns the flue
gases can be seen coming out of the kiln from the sides or from

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 all over the top surface of the kiln. Clamps, scove and scotch
kilns are the examples of intermittent kilns without stack.
Intermittent kilns with stack: As the name suggest, these kilns
have a stack/chimney to create draught for releasing the flue
gases at a higher point in the atmosphere. Down - draught kiln and
climbing kilns are the example of intermittent kilns with stack.

2.1.2 Continuous kilns

In a continuous kiln fire is always burning and bricks are being

warmed, fired and cooled simultaneously in different parts of the
kiln. Fired bricks are continuously removed and replaced by green
bricks in another part of the kiln which is then heated. Consequently,
the rate of output is approximately constant. Heat in the flue gas is
utilised for heating and drying of green bricks and the heat in the fired
bricks is used for preheating air for combustion. Due to incorporation
of heat recovery features, continuous kilns are more energy
efficient. Continuous kilns can be further sub -divided into two
categories: moving fire kilns and movin g ware kilns.
Moving fire kilns: In a moving-fire kiln, the fire progressively
moves round a closed kiln circuit while the bricks remain
stationary (Figure 10). The kiln circuit can have oval,
rectangular or circular shapes. Figure 11 represents a part of the
moving fire kiln showing the typical air flow path through the bricks
stacked in the kiln. The fire travel takes place in the direction of
airflow. Ambient air enters from the left and cools down the fired
bricks in the kiln. After combustion, the hot flue gases pass through the
green bricks stacked ahead of the combustion zone resulting in
preheating of the green bricks (and cooling of flue gases). A
chimney stack and/or a fan provide the necessary draught for airflow.
Hoffman kilns, Fixed Chimney Bull’s Trench kilns and zigzag kilns are
the examples of moving fire kiln.

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Moving ware kilns: In a moving ware kiln, fire remains stationary,
while the bricks and air move in counter -current paths. In tunnel kiln,
which is a horizontal moving ware kiln, goods to be fired are passed
on cars through a long horizontal tunnel (see Figure 12). The
firing zone is located at the central part of its length. Cold air is drawn
from the car exit end of the kiln and it cools the fired bricks. The
combustion gases travel towards the car entrance losing a part of
their heat to the entering green bricks. The cars can be pushed
either continuously or intermittently at fixed time intervals.

Vertical shaft brick kiln is another example of moving ware kiln. In

this kiln the movement of bricks is in vertical downward direction and

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 upward air movement is brought about by natural convection (see
Figure 13).

2.2 Classification based on air flow

Based on the direction of air flow with respect to the brick setting in
the kiln, brick kilns can be classified as up draught kilns, down
draught kilns and cross draught kilns. The classification is
represented in the figure below:

Up-draught kilns: In an up-draught kiln, air enters the kiln from

below, gets heated from the fire and moves upward through the
brick setting transferring the heat to the bricks. The upward
movement of heated air is a nat ural phenomenon and it does not require
a stack or fan to cause the air flow. Clamps and vertical shaft brick
kiln (VSBK) are examples of up - draught kilns.

Down-draught kilns: In a down-draught kiln, air is first heated up

with the fire. The hot air is then made to enter the kiln from top and is
brought down through the brick setting with the help of draught

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created by a stack. In this type of kilns, usually bricks are not in
the direct contact with fire. Down -draught kiln, as the name s uggest, is
an example of this category of kilns.

Cross-draught kilns: In cross-draught kiln, air flows horizontally

through the brick stacking. The air movement is caused by either the
draught created by the chimney (natural draught) or the draught
provided by a fan (forced draught). These are also called horizontal
draught kilns. Hoffman kilns, fixed chimney Bull’s trench kiln and
tunnel kilns are example of cross - draught kilns.

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Chapter 3 Fuels

In brick kilns, generally solid fuels are used e.g. coal; wood; sawdust;
agricultural residue like mustard stalk, rice husk, coffee husk;
industrial waste and bye-products like used rubber tyres, pet -coke,
etc. Apart from solid fuels, bricks are also fired from natural gas,
diesel, bio- gas, producer gas, etc.

3.1 Relevant fuel properties

The characteristics of fuel that should to be considered for assessing

the suitability of a fuel for combustion process are:

1. Calorific value

The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy contained

in the fuel. It is the amount of heat/energy which is released or
available for use after complete combustion of a unit amount of fuel.
Higher the calorific value, higher is its heat content. It is
measured either as Gross Calorific Value (GCV) or Net Calorific
Value (NCV). The difference being the latent heat of condensation of
the water vapour produced during the combustion process. Gross
Calorific Value assumes that all the vapour produced during the
combustion process is fully condensed at the end of combustion
and takes into account the latent heat of condensation. Net
Calorific Value assumes that the water vapour leaves with the
combustion products without being condensed.

2. Volatile matter:

Volatile matters are the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and

carbon monoxide, and incombustible gases like carbon dioxide and
nitrogen found in fuel. Thus the volatile matter is an index of the
gaseous fuels present. Volatile matt er content proportionally
increases flame length and helps in easier ignition of fuel.

3. Fixed carbon:

Fixed carbon is the solid fuel left after the moisture and volatile
matter are driven off. It consists mostly of carbon but also contains
some hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur which are not driven
off with the gases. The amount of fixed carbon and volatile
combustible matter directly contribute to the heating value of fuel.
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While volatile matter helps in initiation of the burning, fixed carbon
acts as the main heat generator during the burning.

4. Ash content
Ash is an impurity that will not burn. Lower the ash content better
is the fuel. Higher Ash content reduces the burning capacity and
also increases the handling costs. Ash can also cause clinkering and
slagging.
5. Sulphur Content:
Sulphur content affects clinkering and slagging tendencies. It
corrodes metal chimney and other equipment such as induced
draught fans etc. and limits the exit flue gas temperature.
SO2 produced due to the combustion of sulphur affects nearby
vegetation.

Following table shows properties of some important fuels.

Parameter Bituminous coal Saw dust Coffee husk Wood chips

Volatile matter % 20-35 65-70 75-77 55-60

Fixed carbon % 40-45 15-20 ~3 15-20

Calorific value
4,000-7,000 3,500-4,500 4,300-4,500 3,500-4,500
kcal/kg

Ash content % 10-35 5-7 5-7 2-5

Sulphur % 0.5-3 0-0.5 0-0.2 0

Ignition Point

For fuel to burn, it requires to be heated to a minimum

temperature, which is known as ignition temperature of the fuel.
Therefore, it is important to know the ignition temperature of the
commonly used fuels.
0
Fuel Ignition Temperature C

Coal 450 – 750

Wood, sawdust 350 – 450

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Chapter 4 Specific Energy Consumption
4.1 Definition

Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) is defined as the energy in MJ

consumed for producing 1 kg of fired brick. SEC is usually used as a
parameter to compare energy performance of brick kilns.
The SEC of the kiln is given by:

Where,

Mfbr = Mass of fired bricks produced during one firing cycle/batch

= Average mass of fired brick x number of bricks fired in one

firing cycle/batch

Hinput = Total energy input to the kiln for the duration of one

firing cycle/batch

= (Energy input from external fuels fed in the kiln) +

(Energy input from internal fuels added during moulding in
the bricks) + (Energy input from the organic matter present in
the brick soil

𝑛1 𝑛2

= 𝑊𝑓−𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑖 × 𝐺𝐶𝑉𝑓−𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑊𝑓−𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖 × 𝐺𝐶𝑉𝑓−𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖

𝑖=1 𝑖=1

4.2 Measurement of energy input (external and internal fuel)

In order to accurately identify energy inputs, a material balance chart

should be prepared for the kiln. The energy for firing of bricks is being
supplied through addition of fuel and carbonaceous material present in
the green bricks.Fuel can be added in two ways – 1) externally and 2)
mixed internally in the soil while green brick preparation. Both internal
and external fuel needs to be accounted f or calculating the heat input in
the kiln.

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Chapter 5 Methodology for Monitoring & Measurements
5.1 Introduction

Table 1 provides the list of parameters that were measured. In addition

to these parameters, fuel and clay samples were collected and tested in
laboratory.
Table 1: List of Technical Measurements

Principle of
Process variable measurement or Sample Location Type
analysis
Weighing of fuel and
Fuel feeding rate Fuel P
time measurement
Temperature of flue gas Thermocouple Stack/ flue duct R
Temperature of bricks K-type Thermocouple/ Inside the kiln/ outside
P
& surfaces Infrared thermometer surface of kiln
Stack flow*** Pitot tube Stack P

O2 Electrochemical Stack/flue duct R

Inferred from O2 Stack/ flue duct R

CO2
Infrared absorption Diluted exhaust R

Electrochemical Stack/ flue duct R

CO
Electrochemical Diluted exhaust R

Barium-Thorin
SO2 Stack I
titrimetric method
Gaseous sampling
followed by
NOx Stack I
colorimetry using
phenoldisulfonic acid
Suspended Particulate
Gravimetric Stack I
Matter (SPM)
Electric potential
methods using ion
HF Stack R
selective membrane
electrode

PM2.5 Gravimetric Diluted exhaust I

Elemental and organic Thermal-optical

Diluted exhaust I
carbon analysis

Light absorption Filter transmittance Diluted exhaust R

Light scattering Scattering sensor Diluted exhaust R

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 Size-resolved carbon Cascade impactor plus
particles thermal-optical analysis
* Average of single-point observations (P); Integrated sample (I) taken over many minutes; Real-time observations (R)
averaged for presentation.
5.2 Energy and Combustion Process Parameters
Table 2-2 provides the measurement methodology for the measurement
of the energy and combustion process parameters.
Table 2.2 Measurement methodology
Objective
Determination of specific energy consumption
(SEC) in MJ/ kg of fired bricks
Understanding temperature profile of the kiln
(temperature plotted along the length of the
kiln) and temperature distribution in the firing
zone
Determination of excess air, flue gas loss and
understanding combustion
Heat loss in fired bricks
Radiation and Convection heat loss from kiln
structure
Heat used for drying of bricks
Heat required for completing irreversible
chemical reactions during firing of bricks
5.3 Energy & Environment Performance
Diluted exhaust I
Measurements
Measurement of the quantity of fuel used
during a specified time period (generally 24
hours). In case of Down Draught Kiln,
measurement of fuel fed during one complete
kiln firing.
Number of bricks fired in case of FCBTK
and zig-zag during the specified time period of
fuel measurement; number of fired bricks
produced in VSBK and tunnel kiln during the
specified time period of fuel measurement;
Total number of bricks loaded in case of Down
Draught Kiln.
Determination of calorific value of all the
fuel samples in the lab.
Measurement of weight of 20 randomly
selected fired bricks, to determine average
weight of the fired brick.
Sample temperature measurements inside the
kiln using K-type thermocouples.
Flue gas analysis in the chimney or the duct
connecting the kiln with the chimney to
measure CO, O2, SO2 and temperature of flue
gas.
Ultimate and proximate analysis of fuel
samples in the lab.
Measurement of temperature of fired bricks
at the unloading point.
Measurement of temperature of outer surface
of kiln walls and roof.
Moisture content in green bricks at the time
of loading into the kiln.
Chemical analysis of clay samples in the lab.
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Energy Performance
The Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) is the amount of thermal
energy required to fire 1 kg of brick. Lower SEC signifies efficient
operation of the kiln. The SEC for the monitored kilns are presented in
Table 4. The improved VSBK kiln from Vietnam had the lowest SEC
requirement at 0.54 MJ/kg of fired brick, followed by the zig -zag kilns
(1.12 MJ/kg of fired brick) and FCBTKs (1.22 MJ/kg of fired brick).
The tunnel kiln, which incorporates a dryer, had a higher SEC of 1.47
MJ/kg of fired brick. The DDK had the highest SEC (2.9 MJ/kg of fired
brick), and it consumed 4-5 times more energy than a VSBK.

Table 3 SEC of the Monitored Kilns

Electricity/
SEC-Thermal energy mechanical power
Firing Technology Process
(MJ/kg fired brick)* used in the production
process **
Manual moulding &
FCBTK 1.22 None
sun-drying
None in case of
natural draught
36 lt diesel/day (SEC:
Manual moulding & 0.015 MJ of primary
Zig-zag 1.12
sun-drying energy/kg of fired
brick primary energy)
for operating the fan
in
Indian VSBK: Manual
moulding & sun-
the forced draught
 VSBK 0.95 0.54 drying Vietnam:
kiln
Extruder moulding &
shadedrying
Indian VSBK: 10 lt
Vietnamese VSBK:
diesel/day (SEC: 0.03
15 kWh/1000 bricks
MJ of primary the extruder, lifting of
(SEC: 0.1 MJ of
energy/kg of fired bricks, operation of
primary energy/kg of
brick) for operating unloading mechanism.
fired brick) for
the conveyor (for 1-
operating
shaft operation).
Manual moulding &
Down draft 2.9 None
shade drying
40 kWh/1000 bricks
(SEC: 0.3 MJ of
Extruder moulding, primary energy/kg of
Tunnel– Vietnam –
shade-drying, & 1.47 *** fired brick) for
Internal Fuel
tunnel-drying operating the
extruder, tunnel dryer,
tunnel kiln, etc.

Notes:

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*The SEC values for FCBTK and zig-zag are a simple average of the three FCBTKs and two zig-zag kilns respectively;
for all the other kiln types, the data is for a single kiln.
**Energy/fuel used for producing heat for firing and drying processes.
*** The kiln and the dryer are interconnected. The SEC also includes the energy required in the tunnel dryer.

Environment Performance
The environmental performance results are presented below.
Suspended Particulate Matter
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) is a term used for airborne
particles of diameter less than 100 μm. The emission factor in terms of
g/kg of fired brick for SPM is presented in Table 5. VSBK had the
lowest SPM emission factor, followed by zig -zag kiln, tunnel kiln,
FCBTK and DDK, respectively. Due to the addition of powdered fuel
with the clay and steady-state combustion conditions, VSBK and tunnel
kilns were among the lowest emitters of SPM. Better combustion
conditions resulted in lower SPM in pr operly operated zig-zag kilns
compared to FCBTK
Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
Emission norms in India do not address PM2.5 specifically, but it is
frequently monitored because of its environmental and health effects.
Fine particulate matter (diameters less th an 2.5 μm) can penetrate more
deeply into lungs than larger particles. It also has a longer atmospheric
lifetime and a disproportionately greater effect on visibility and
climate, relative to larger particles. VSBK technology had the lowest
PM2.5 emissions, and DDK had the highest PM2.5 emissions.
Gaseous Pollutants
Kilns were monitored for sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) carbon monoxide (CO) emissions and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Table 5 provides the emission factors for various pollutants mon itored
in the study, normalized to grams of pollutant/kg of fired brick.
SO2 emissions stem from the sulphur content of fuel; therefore
significant variations in the SO2 concentration were observed in the
monitored kilns. SO2 concentration was lowest in t he down draft kiln,
which uses biomass fuel with negligible sulphur content.
NOx emissions were generally very low and below the detectable
levels.
Emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) are an indication of incomplete
combustion of fuel. Zigzag kilns had the l owest CO emissions. Within
the zig-zag technology, the monitored natural draught zig -zag kiln had
much lower CO emissions as compared to the monitored forced draught
zig-zag kiln. Good fuel-feeding and operating practices support this
improvement.

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 CO2 emissions are directly related to the SEC and carbon content of
fuels being used in the kiln. Hence the CO2 emissions show a similar
ranking hierarchy to SEC.
Table 4 Emission Factors for the Monitored Kilns
Emission Factors (g/kg of fired brick)
Technology
SPM PM2.5 SO2 CO CO2
FCBTK 0.86 0.18 0.66 2.25 115
Zig-zag 0.26 0.13 0.32 1.47 103
VSBK 0.11 0.09 0.54 1.84 70
DDK 1.56 0.97 n.d 5.78 282
Tunnel 0.31 0.18 0.72 2.45 166

Notes:
The emission factors for FCBTK, zig-zag and VSBK are a simple average of the three FCBTKs, two zig-zag kilns and
two VSBK kilns respectively; for all the other kiln types, the data is for a single kiln.
n.d. = not detectable (measurement below detection limit

Black and Organic Carbon

Black carbon (BC) is a combustion product predominantly composed of
strongly bonded graphitic-like carbon rings. This composition causes
black carbon to be thermally stable at high temperatures and to
strongly absorb visible light, causing warming. Organic carbon (OC)
comprises all carbon species that are neither black nor carbonate
carbon.
This study represents the first-ever measurements of BC from brick
kilns, despite the fact that brick kiln upgrades have been targeted as a
strategy to reduce BC. In November 2011, the United Nations
Environmental Program in its assessment, Near -term Climate
Protection and Clean Air Benefits: Actions for Controlling Short -Lived
Climate Forcers, proposed replacing traditional brick kilns wit h more
efficient ones, particularly VSBKs, as a measure to reduce BC.
Two methods were used in this study to measure light -absorbing
carbon.
1. Thermo-optical analysis measured ―elemental carbon‖ which is
stable at high temperatures and is considered a synony m of BC.
This analysis also measured OC.
2. Particle light absorption measured in units of square meters (m2),
together with scattering measurements, can be used to calculate
the effect of particles on visibility and radiative transfer. The
single scattering albedo7 is a measure of particle lightness, with
pure BC having a value of about 0.22, polluted urban air about
0.7, and pure white particles 1.0.

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 Results of elemental and organic carbon measurements; absorption and
single scattering albedo, are shown in Table 6.

Elemental Absorption
Organic Carbon Single Scattering
Technology Carbon (g/kg (m2/kg fired
(g/kg fired brick) Albedo *
fired brick) brick) *
FCBTK 0.13 0.01 0.22 0.67
Zig-zag 0.04 0.02 0.16 0.64 **
VSBK 0.002 0.06 0.06 0.77
DDK 0.29 0.09 1.13 3.5
Tunnel n.d . n.d . n.d . 0.13

Notes:
The results for FCBTK, zig-zag are VSBK are a simple average of the three FCBTKs, two zig-zag kilns and two VSBK
kilns respectively; for all the other kiln types, the data is for a single kiln.
n.d. = not detectable (measurement below detection limit)
*At red wavelength (660 nm)
** Excludes natural draught zig-zag kiln, where scattering measurements were spurious and may be affected by
measurement error, as the readings are much higher than expected for the measured levels of particulate matter.

Both tunnel and VSBK had very low BC emissions, as indicated by low
values for elemental carbon and high values for single scattering
albedo. In the tunnel kiln, the BC emissions were below the detection
level. The low BC emissions in the tunnel and the VSBK can be
attributed to the steady-state combustion conditions in these kilns and
the use of internal fuel. FCBTKs and DDK had the highest BC
emissions. In both of these kilns, fuel feeding is intermittent, and
combustion conditions show large variation with time. The results
show that large BC emissions take place around fuel feeding intervals.
Improved combustion conditions in zig -zag kilns, in the form of
continuous feeding of fuel in small quantities and better m ixing of fuel
and air, lowered BC emissions compared to FCBTKs

5.4 Conclusion and Recommendation:-

India’s brick sector is characterized by traditional firing technologies,
with high emissions; reliance on manual labour and low mechanization
rate; dominance of small-scale brick kilns with limited financial,
technical and managerial capacity; and dominance of a single raw
material (clay) and product (solid clay brick).

This report suggests that development of a cleaner brick production

industry in India over the next ten years should aim at:

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 Adoption of cleaner kiln technologies : The FCBTKs and DDKs should
be replaced with zigzag, VSBK or other cleaner kiln technologies by
2020.

 Zig-zag kilns appear to be the logical replacement for FCBTKs,

because of low capital investment, easy integration with the existing
production process, and the possibility of retrofitting FCBTKs into
zig-zag firing. The zig-zag kiln performance strongly depends on the
kiln operation practices; also, the zig -zag natural draught kiln
appears to perform better than the zig -zag forced draught kiln. These
aspects need further study before finalizing recommendations and
formulating a large-scale dissemination programme for zig -zag
kilns.

 VSBK appears to have a limited market, mainly because of its

inability to produce good quality bricks from all types of clays and
its low productivity under the Indian conditions. Incorporation of
features of Vietnamese VSBKs into Indian VSBKs may help in
improving the VSBK technology package. VSBK dissemination
needs to be properly targeted.

 The tunnel kiln technology is capital intensive, and the current

technological knowhow and experience is limited in India. Adoption
of the tunnel kiln also requires extensive modifications in brick
moulding, drying and material handling. Widespread adoption of
tunnel kiln technology is not foreseen in the immediate future.

Promotion of internal fuel in brick making by mechanizing the brick making

process;

Internal fuel addition significantly reduces SPM a nd BC emissions.

Cheaper fuels, such as coal slurry, coal dust, charcoal dust, and sawdust
can be used as internal fuels and can help reduce fuel cost. Management
of internal fuel addition is extremely difficult in the manual molding
process. Semi-mechanization of moulding needs to be promoted to
support the use of internal fuels. Semi -mechanization of the brick
moulding process would have other benefits, including an ability to use
inferior clay resources and wastes, reduction in drudgery and better
working conditions for workers, and the potential to produce hollow and
perforated bricks.

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Promotion of mechanized coal stoking systems:
High PM and BC emissions in FCBTKs occur during the period of fuel
feeding. Continuous feeding of properly sized fuel, usin g a coal stoker
in an FCBTK or a zig-zag kiln, can reduce the emissions significantly.

Diversifying products (e.g. hollow and perforated bricks):

Hollow and perforated bricks require less clay and fuel as well as
provide better thermal insulation of wall s and hence need to be
promoted.

Promotion of modern renewable energy technologies in brick making:

Apart from the CO2 emissions caused by firing coal in brick kilns, the
current brick making practice has a very low carbon footprint. Any
mechanization of the brick making process, as proposed above, would
require the use of electricity. Captive power generation using diesel fuel
is expensive and has a high carbon footprint. Renewable electricity
generation options using biomass gasifiers and solar PV need to be
promoted. Semi-mechanization of the brick moulding process also
requires artificial drying, which may increase the coal consumption in
brick making. There is a need to develop more efficient drying systems
based on the use of modern solar thermal and biomass energy
technologies.

To achieve these goals, recommendations to the government of India,

include:

Modification in environmental regulations to phase-out FCBTKs:

Environmental regulations can be amended to phase -out FCBTKs and
replace them with cleaner brick firing technologies. Any action on
environmental regulations needs to be supported by complementary
supporting actions, which may include:

 Preparation of standard zig-zag and other cleaner kiln technology

knowledge packages (containing desig n, construction and operation
guidelines).
 Training and certifying a cadre of technology providers in cleaner
brick firing technologies.
 Educating/training brick kiln owners, supervisors and workers in
cleaner brick firing technologies

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 Supporting a modest R&D programme to consider improvements in
the zig-zag firing package, e.g. mechanical stoking of fuel;
replacement of ash layer on the top of the kiln.
 Conducting environment monitoring of kilns to gain further
understanding and guide the policy action.

1
References
1. Report on ‘Small-scale brick making’ published by International Labour Office, Switzerland, 1984.
http://www.pssurvival.com/ps/bricks/Small-Scale_Brickmaking_1984.pdf
2. Report on ‘Brick Kiln Performance Assessment’ available at
http://www.unep.org/ccac/Portals/24183/docs/Brick_Kilns_Performance_Assessment.pdf
3. Sameer Maithel, PhD Thesis, ‘Energy Utilisation in Brick Kilns’
4. ‘Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities – Guidebook for National Certification Examination for Energy Managers
and Energy Auditors’, Published by Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Govt. of
India.

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