Role of Microstructure in

Sucker Rod String Failures in

Oil Well Production
Sofiane Benhaddad, Global Thermoelectric Inc.; Glen Lee, Alliance
Engineering and Inspection Ltd.

From: S. Benhaddad and G. Lee, Role of Microstructure in Sucker Rod String Failures in Oil Well
Production, Practical Failure Analysis, Vol 1 (No. 2), Apr 2001, p 47–54

Abstract: Sucker-rod pumps are operating in very aggressive environments in oil well production.
The combined effect of a corrosive environment and significant mechanical loads contribute to
frequent cases of failure of the rod string during operation. Standards and recommendations have
been developed to control and avoid those failures. This study presents various failure cases of
sucker rods in different applications. The heat treatment of the steel material and the resulting
microstructure are an important factor in the behavior of the sucker rod. A spheroidized
microstructure presents a weaker resistance to corrosion affecting the rod life. Non-metallic
inclusions are a pitting preferential site leading to fatigue crack initiation. Heterogenous
microstructure as banded martensite and ferrite/pearlite decreases the ductility of the material
affecting the fatigue propagation resistance.

Keywords: Inclusions; Pitting

Materials: 8610 (Nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel); API J55 (Nonresulfurized carbon

steel)

Failure type: Corrosion fatigue

1. Introduction

The oil production wells in western Canada generally operate in

aggressive environments, including corrosive elements, high velocity
of the fluids, and considerable depth for completion. Determination
and analysis of the necessary data are required for selection of
materials for well components. Materials for the tubing, casing, and
sucker rod string, as well as a suitable coating or chemical
protection program are selected appropriately for each operating
well. In such an aggressive environment, the most vulnerable
downhole component is the sucker rod string due to its function.

Specifications and standards Ref 1, 2, 3, 4 have been written for the

improvement of the performance and life expectation of sucker rods.
The recommendations of these codes and standards are directed
towards a better choice of material for good corrosion resistance and
a better design of the rod string for an even distribution of stresses.
The resulting recommendations are restrictive and may pay
significant attention to economic factors. Therefore, many operators
continue to use carbon or alloy steel components with an
appropriate chemical inhibition program. Carbon steel is preferred
over other materials due to its machinability, high strength, and low
cost.

The use of carbon steel rod strings in aggressive environments,

without properly considering the complex interactions between the
material and its service environment, leads to failures. In this
context, numerous rod string failures have been studied through
metallurgical investigation that included macro-observation,
chemistry, fractography, microscopy, and hardness testing. This
paper summarizes several of the studied cases and divides the cases
according to the main root cause of failure: mechanically induced
failure and environmentally induced failure.

2. Mechanically Induced Failures

All sucker rod failure cases were related to the most commonly used
materials: carbon or alloy steel. These rod strings were operating
under one of three conditions: 1) in conjunction with a chemical
corrosion inhibition program; 2) in conjunction with a protective
coating; and 3) without any protection from the service
environment. Cases are summarized along with the details of the
failure analysis.
2.1 Role of the Microstructure

2.1.1 Observation. Three sucker rods broke at the pin end (Fig. 1) and
produced the same microscopic rupture with identical features. The
rods were fabricated from carbon or alloy steel. The observation of
the surface of the rupture revealed three distinct zones (Fig. 2). The
first zone, corresponding to the crack initiation, revealed pits and
corrosion. The second zone was flat and smooth, indicating a
macroscopically brittle fracture. The second zone surface was
covered with beachmarks, suggesting fatigue crack propagation.
The third and last zone was a shear lip. The third zone surface was
rough and covered with dimples (Fig. 3), showing that the final
rupture process was ductile overload. All these features indicated
that corrosion-fatigue was the cause of failure. This was confirmed
with the presence of fatigue striations on the surface of the second
zone (Fig. 4). The pitting of the surface of the rod introduced a stress
concentration at the “pit tips” and led to the initiation and
propagation of fatigue cracks due to cyclic loads resulting from the
operation of the pump. The aggressive down-hole environment may
have accelerated the crack growth.
Fig. 1 Sucker rod broken at the pin end

Fig. 2 Surface of the rupture of the sucker rod

Fig. 3 Surface of the last stage of the rupture

Fig. 4 Fatigue striations on the surface of the rupture

2.1.2 Microscopy. Microscopy observations were completed on sections

removed from the rod through the surface of the rupture. The
microstructure was ferrite and pearlite with numerous inclusions
dispersed throughout the structure (Fig. 5). The inclusions were
analyzed as MnS particles. The inclusions were elongated parallel to
the rod length and contained numerous micro-cracks. Additionally,
the inclusions provided preferential sites for pitting in the material
(Fig. 6).

Fig. 5 Inclusions in the microstructure

Fig. 6 Pits at initiation stage of the rupture

Several studies have highlighted the detrimental effect of inclusions
in the steel Ref 5, 6, 7, 8 and shown that MnS particles create a
micro-galvanic couple with the steel: MnS being the anode and the
steel the cathode. Our observations were consistent with previous
works that showed that the presence of MnS inclusions at the
surface leads to pit formation in acid environments.

The pits formed at the surface of the rod provided local stress
concentration that altered the resistance to fatigue initiation. The
pits, coupled with the cycles created in the operation of the pump,
have served to initiate fatigue. The crack is then propagated through
the thickness of the rod.

In one of the failure cases studied, elongated bands in the

microstructure were observed (Fig. 7). These bands corresponded to
the rupture features of the fracture surface. Microhardness testing
of the bands and the bulk of the structure showed a significant
variance, with the hardness of the bulk being 293 HV and the band
significantly harder at 411 HV. The high hardness of the bands is
indicative of a brittle material. It corresponds to the location of
inclusions and micro-cracks in the material. Additionally, the band
areas show segregation of chrome, which leads to the higher
hardness. The banding resulted from partial austenitizing, which
caused the original banded ferrite and pearlite microstructure to
transform to bands of very hard martensite and bands of
ferrite/pearlite. The presence of the hard martensite bands
combined with MnS inclusions to promote the initiation of fatigue
cracks and lead to a decreased resistance to crack propagation.
Fig. 7 Bands in the microstructure

A high number of inclusions in the steel is extremely detrimental

and the use of higher quality steel is preferred. Changes in the
fabrication process for the rods, including improved quality control,
resulted in homogeneous microstructure with an even chemistry and
hardness and decreased the tendency for failure.
2.2 Coating and Design

Two of the major factors contributing to the failure of sucker rods

are:

Corrosion at the surface of the rods and,

Stress concentrations induced by mechanical design.

The elimination of these factors is achieved by:

a) Protection of the surface with the application of either a corrosion

resistant coating or chemical inhibition of the oil field environment,
and/or
b) Better design of the sucker rod to remove stress concentrations.

2.2.1 Observation. In the following case, although design

improvements were made, the rod failed in service. A socket was
tightened around the pin to reduce the stress concentrations applied
on the pin end of the rod. However, the rod broke right at the edge
of the socket after a few months of operation in sour service (Fig. 8).
The surface of the rupture was examined after acid cleaning. The
fracture surface contained the same features as previously
discussed: three distinct zones corresponding to the initiation,
propagation, and final fracture portion of the failure (Fig. 9). Cracks
and corrosion deposits were observed on the initiation zone.
Striations and hammering marks were observed in the propagation
stage zone. Dimples covered the final rupture zone. The sucker rod
failed by corrosion-fatigue mode. The corrosion particles were
determined to be iron sulfide (x-ray diffraction) indicating the
aggressive nature of the service environment.

Fig. 8 Sucker rod broken at the edge of the socket

Fig. 9 Surface of the rupture of the sucker rod

2.2.2 Microscopy. A transverse cross section through the diameter of

the rod showed that crack initiation was followed by the
propagation of a nearly straight crack. Small curves were observed
as the crack passed through the coating due to the presence of voids
in the coating layer (Fig. 10). Micro-cracks were observed near the
surface and a large secondary crack was observed at the end due to
the high deformation (Fig. 11). The rod material was of type 8610
and spray coated with a Ni-Cr-B eutectic alloy. Since the material
was operating in sour service, it should conform to the requirements
of NACE Standard MR0176. 1 The composition of the coating was
slightly different than the minimum NACE recommendation. 1 Both
chrome and boron contents were just over the recommended
maximum. The hardness of the coating was 63 HRC, while the
minimum required 1 is 55 HRC, and the coating thickness was 0.3
mm while the minimum required 1 is 0.25 mm.
Fig. 10 Initiation stage

Fig. 11 Propagation and final stage of the rupture

These results lead to the conclusion that the sprayed metal coating
conformed to the reference requirements. The main cause of the
failure was the stress concentration at the end of the socket where
the rod failed. This stress concentration along with the accumulation
of abrasive corrosion by-products, iron sulfide, led to the creation of
a physical notch at the surface of the rod. The cyclic load on the rod
caused the initiation and propagation of the crack and resulted in a
fatigue failure.

The protective coating on the surface of the rod increased the

corrosion resistance of the rod material but did not prevent the
failure. This failure case confirms the fact that both chemical
protection of the surface and design must be considered to prevent
failure.

3. Environmental Induced Failures

Although the sucker rods failed mainly in corrosion fatigue mode,

other types of failure of sucker rods are also encountered. The
following case describes a sucker rod downhole tubing failure where
a long rod string composed of rods of varying diameters was
operating in sour conditions with the presence of CO2.
3.1 Observations

The rod string consisted of the rod diameters 24.9 mm, 22.12 mm,
and 19.1 mm with the largest diameter rod sections being near the
well surface. Two distinct types of surface damage were observed on
the rod sections immediately after removal from service:

Rod sections #1 and #3 (Fig. 12): Large corrosion imperfections

aligned along the length of the rod on the same side with no
apparent corrosion attack adjacent to the corroded regions.

Rod section #2 (Fig. 13): Total erosion along the length of the rod.
Fig. 12 (a) Rod section #1 (b) Rod section #2

Fig. 13 Rod section #2

Fig. 14 Tube sections

The production tubing revealed severe corrosion attack with

pinholes aligned along one side of the length of the tubing. After acid
cleaning, the I.D. surface revealed large corroded areas with a flat
bottom and stepped edges. Most of the corroded areas were hollow.
No corrosion attack was observed in the areas adjacent to the region
of extensive corrosion (Fig. 14).

The corrosion deposits found on both corroded surfaces of the

tubing and the sucker rod #3 were primarily iron sulfide and some
iron oxide (Fig. 15). The deposits collected from the sucker rod
section #3 were composed of iron sulfide, iron carbonate, plus some
manganese.
Fig. 15 (a) XRD analysis of corrosion deposits in tube; (b) XRD analysis of
corrosion deposit on rod #3

3.2 Microscopy

Metallographic sections were prepared from the tubing and the

rods. The tube microstructure was composed of ferrite and poorly
formed pearlite (Fig. 16). Numerous inclusions were also observed
and were most likely MnS. The hardness of the tubing material was
176 HV corresponding to 565 MPa in tensile strength. The tube
material conformed to API Grade J55. 9
Fig. 16 Tube microstructure

The rod section #1 had a microstructure of pearlite with pro-

eutectoid ferrite and some martensite indicating a partial
austenitizing heat treatment, temperature between A1 and A3, with
moderate cooling (Fig. 17). The hardness value was 280 HV
corresponding to 899 MPa in tensile strength.
Fig. 17 Microstructure of rod #1

The rod section #2 had a microstructure of ferrite and martensite

indicating fast cooling from a temperature higher than A1 (Fig. 18).
The hardness of the rod section #2 was 292 HV corresponding to 930
MPa in tensile strength.

Fig. 18 Microstructure of rod #2

The rod section #3 revealed a similar microstructure (Fig. 19) to the

tube material (Fig. 16), but with a larger volume of pearlite in the
rod, indicating higher carbon content or a faster cooling through the
austenite ferrite region. The hardness of rod section #3 was 179 HV
corresponding to 576 MPa in tensile strength.
Fig. 19 Microstructure of rod #3

3.3 Comments

The conditions of service were aggressive, with the water containing

H2S and CO2 at a down-hole temperature greater than 50 °C. In a
wet environment, CO2becomes aggressive. CO2 corrosion can be
distinguished as one of three types, depending on the flow: Pitting in
moderate flow, mesa-type attack in medium flow, or flow induced
localized corrosion (FILC) in critical flow. 10

The observation on the tubing and on rod sections #1 and #3

suggests a mesa-type corrosion or FILC, as grooving was observed
on the ID of the tube. The mesa-type corrosion is influenced by the
following factors: 10

Environmental: water composition and partial pressure of CO2,

temperature and corrosion product deposits

Metallurgical: steel chemistry and heat treatment

Hydrodynamics: gas/fluid velocity

The x-ray analysis indicated an iron sulfide scale. The adhesion of
iron sulfide to surfaces is weaker than carbonate scale and spalling
of scale is caused by high velocity fluids. The corrosion attack of the
tubing and rod sections was consistently along one side. This is most
likely due to the local turbulence at the effected sections of the
tubing or rods. The variation of sucker rod diameters in the rod
string contributed to the turbulence.

The metallurgy and heat treatment of the steel are important

factors. 11 Both tubing and rod section #3 were heat treated with a
fast cooling rate, leading to a soft material with a poorly formed
pearlite. The lamellae of cementite in the pearlite were not long and
thin to provide good corrosion resistance. The cementite lamellae
were short shaped lamellae. Some bainite was also present in the
microstructure of rod section #3. The observed bainite has cementite
lamellae with large spacing, offering weak resistance to acid attack
of the ferrite.

Rod section #1 had a duplex microstructure of ferrite/pearlite and

martensite. The material was hard. The microstructure was
obtained by partial austenitizing followed by moderate cooling from
a temperature between A1 and A3. During cooling, austenite bands
transformed to martensite, leading to heterogeneity of the
microstructure and microhardness. Rod section #2 had a hard
microstructure obtained after moderate cooling from a temperature
between A1 and A3 followed by tempering. The cementite lamellae
are short and wide due to tempering. The hard microstructure was
subject to erosion corrosion of the high velocity fluid. The erosion
corrosion led to the removal of a thick layer of material.

For this case, it is recommended to use a normalized microstructure,

if strength requirements can be accomplished. 12 It is also
recommended to use steel with less inclusions and specify at least
1% Cr in the composition of both the tubing and sucker rod
materials. It is also recommended to “design out” flow disruption in
the downhole assembly and apply a corrosion inhibitor program
following NACE Standards RP0195 3 and MR0174. 2

4. Conclusion

The studied failure cases revealed the importance of the material

microstructure on the service life of sucker rods. Other factors
contributing to failure include the fabrication process, the lack of
corrosion inhibition, and the design of the string.

The most common failure encountered for the sucker rods was
corrosion-fatigue. The initiation was caused by pitting of the surface
leading to a stress concentration at the pits. The pits initiated
primarily at inclusions sites. The propagation of the crack was
caused by cyclic operations of the pump. To avoid this problem, a
clean steel is recommended. The microstructure of the rod should be
nearly free of inclusions. Corrosion protection of the surface with
application of a suitable chemical program and/or coating of the
surface with a corrosion resistant material is also recommended.

In an aggressive environment, the failure mode was localized

corrosive attack caused by turbulence and erosion corrosion. The
corrosion failure process was enhanced by the high velocity and/or
acidity of the fluid. Another contributing factor was the
microstructure of the material. Different microstructures were
observed in the rod sections of the string. The cementite lamellae
were observed with various morphologies. The recommended
microstructure is a ferrite/pearlite obtained after normalization for
moderate strength requirements. For higher strength requirements,
a strengthened microstructure of steel (quenched and tempered) is
recommended along with a suitable chemical protection. The
selection of the chemical inhibition program is completed following
NACE Recommendation MR-0174. 2

References
NACE Standard MR0176, Metallic Materials for Sucker-Rod Pumps
for Corrosive Oilfield Environments, NACE International, Houston,
TX, 1994.

NACE Standard MR0174, Recommendations for Selecting Inhibitors

for Use as Sucker Rod Thread Lubricants, NACE International,
Houston, TX, 1995.

NACE Standard RP0195, Recommended Practice for Corrosion

Control of Sucker Rods by Chemical Treatment, NACE International,
Houston, TX, 1995.

API Specification RP11BR, Recommended Practice for Care and

Handling of Sucker Rods, 8th ed., American Petroleum Institute,
Washington, DC, Oct 1, 1989.

A. J. Sedricks: Int. Metal Rev., 1983, vol. 28 (5), p. 295.

G.S. Eklund: J. Electrochem. Soc., 1974, vol. 12, p. 467.

K.J. Blom: NACE Corrosion 82, n 87, NACE International, Houston,

TX, 1982.

P.E. Manning: Corrosion, 1979, vol. 35, p. 151.

API Specification 5CT, Specification for Casing and

Tubing, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1999.

European Federation of Corrosion Publications, CO 2 Corrosion

Control in Oil and Gas Production, M.B. Kermani and L.M. Smith,
ed., n 23, Institute of Materials, London, 1997.

D.E. Cross: NACE Corrosion 93, n 118, NACE International,

Houston, TX, 1993.

R.W. Manuel: , 1947, vol. 3(9), pp.197–206.

Related Information
Fatigue Failures, Failure Analysis and Prevention, Vol 11, ASM
Handbook, ASM International, 2002, p 700–727

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