UNIT 1 SOIL :ITS COMPOSITION AND

FORMATION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives

1.2 Soil : A Natural Medium of Plant Growth

1.3 Composition of Top Soil
1.4 Soil Phases
1.5 Soil Genesis
1.5.1 Weathering of Rocks and M~nerals
1.5.2 Soil Forniation
1.5.3 Factors affecting Soil Formation
1.5.4 Age of Land
1.5.5 Nomenclatures in Soil Fornling Procasa

1.6 Rocks and Minerals

1.6.1 Primary Minerals
1.6.2 Role of Primary Minerals
1.6.3 Secondary Minerals
1.6.4 Role of Secondary Mnerals
1.6.5 Igneous Rocks
1.6.6 Sedimentary Rocks
1.6.7 Metamorphic Rocks

1.7 Soil Morphology

1.7.1 fiaraderisation of Soil Profile
1.7.2 Soil Horizons
1.7.3 Soil Micromorphology

1.8 Sunlmary
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil is a complex dynamic system. It is difficult to give a unique definition of soil as its
observation is ~ub~jective in nature. Joffe (1949) defined soil as a natural body of mineral
and organic constituents, differentiated into horizons of variable depth that differs in
material below in morphology, physical make up, chemical properties, compsition and
biological characteristics. However, soil for the purpose of agriculture is defined as a
dynamic natural body formed due to pedogenic processes during and after weathering of
rocks possessing chemical, physical, mineral and biological properties and acting as a
medium for plant growth.
Soils are formed as a result of weathering of rocks and minerals by physical and chemical
processes. Before the processes of soil formation start, the parent material may be
transported through the action of air, water, ice and gravity and deposited to produce soil.
Coupled with weathering. climate (precipitation, temperature), organism (flora and fauna)
and relief (elevation, slope) act slowly over time (age) on parent material to form the soil.
The soil forming factors act sufficiently for long periods of time (20-50 years) at lower
depths and cause the development of soil morphology representing the succession of soil
horizons called soil profile. The soil, thus, in effect is a dynamic system.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
define soil,
state soil as a medium for plant growth,
describe the composition and phases of the soil,
list the processes involving the genesis of soil.
Physical Properties of Soils explain the activities behind soil formation,
explain the role of rocks and minerals in soil,
characterise soil profile, and
identify rnicromorphologic feature of soil.

1.2 SOIL: A NATURAL MEDIUM OF PLANT GROWTH

Although there are various uses of soil, but our paramount interest in soil will be as an
agricultural resource - a medium for plant growth. There are six major factors that control
growth and development of plant :
1) Light energy,
2) Heat energy,
3) Air,
4) Water,
5) Nutrients, and
6) Mechanical support.
Plant enjoys from the soil the following inputs:
- soil provides anchorage to roots enabling plants to stand erect,
- soil acts as a store house of water and nutrients for plant growth,
- soil acts as an abode for flora and fauna. It suitably transform nutrient for uptake
by plant roots and detoxify the harmful chemicals present,
- soil provides space for air and aeration which create a healthy environment for the
biological activity of soil organisms, and
- soil provides space to diffuse light and temperature in it.

1.3 COMPOSITION OF TOP SOIL

Soil is composed of partially weathered, unweathered and transformed products of rocks,
minerals and organic matter. The soil particles are present partly as an individual and partly
as aggregates or ped. The organic matter is often firmly combined with mineral particles
forming aggregates of various sizes and shapes.

1.4 SOIL PHASES

From a physical standpoint, soil may be viewed as a combinatiof solid, liquid and gas.

-
Approximate composition of these in a typical top soil can be represented in Figure 1.1.

-
Soil

-
I I I
So11d Phase Wquid Phase Gas Phase
x Volume (50) (25) (25)
I
~nor'ganic ~ r ~ a n i c Water Salts Soil Air
x Volume (40) (10)
X Weight (85) (5) Cations Aniom 2RH % lOOX

Sand Silt Clay

I
Humus
caZC
bfgeC
HCO;
SO:-
C%
Ar
0.5%
0.92
Colloids KC C1-
N$
Primary Minerals Secondary Minerals H+ N B
Quartz Layered Silicates HPO; -
A?+
Feldspar Hydrous Oxide H2PO;
Mica Colloids
0.001 - 0.01 M
or
100 - 1000 ppm
in pores and film on
eurfaces

Figure 1.1 :Composition ol Top Soil

 Soil :Its Con~position
and Formation

1.5 SOIL GENESIS

Soil genesis has two distinct steps. The first is weathering that involves disintegration and
decomposition of rocks and minerals whereas the second is the deposition involving
development of soil by pedogenic processes.
This can be represented as follows :
Soil Genesis A Two Step Process
Step 1
-
I
Transported Water

Rocks - Weathering - Regolith

(Unconsolidated)
Wind
Parent '

Material

I
Residual
(Sedentary!
Gravity
Ice

Step 2

Parent Material - Soil Profile

Fnrrning Processes b Soil Profile

1.5.1 Weathering of Rocks and Minerals

Weathering is the combined activity of destruction and synthesis of rocks in which rocks are
broken down physically into smaller sizes and further to minerals of which they are made
up. 111the process the minerals and rocks are also attacked by chemicals. Weathering and
soil development proceed almost simultaneously in case of soft rocks, whereas in case of
hard rocks weathering preceeds soil development. Weathering takes place through physical,
chemical and biological agents singly or in combination as discussed below :
Physicai Weathering
Physical weathering retains its original chemical and mineral composition. This is carried
out through following processes :
- Freezing and thawing - expansion and contraction,
- Heating and cooling,
- Abrasion,
- Rooting and mineral activity,
- Gravity - unloading and overburden, and
- Columnation - due to chemical weathering.
Chemical Weathering
This gives rise to drastic alterations in the constituent minerals, partially or wholly with the
formation of secondary minerals which differ markedly from the primary minerals. The
secondary products inay be formed by alteration in situ or by precipitation from solutions
under conditions favourable for it. Principal reactions involved in chemical weathering are
oxidation, reduction, hydration, hydrolysis, solution and carbonation.
Agents of chemical weathering are water, oxygen and carbon dioxide as given below:
Physical Properties oPSoils H 2 0 Response
Solution
AlCl) + H20 (1) + A13' (aq) + 3C1-(aq)
Hydration
A13' (aq) + 6H20 (I) +A I ( H ~ O ) ' (aq)
,~
Hydrolysis
AI(H~O): + A I ( H ~ O(aq)
)~ + H' (aq) + O K (aq)
Combination Response
SiO, (s) + 2H20 (1) + Si(OH)4 (aq)
(solution and hydrolysis)

CaA12Si20, (s) + 9H20 +C ~ ( H P ) T (aq) + 2 O K (aq) + A12Si20s(OH)4)

(Solution, l~ydration (Clay mineral)
and hydrolysis)
C 0 2 Response
C02 + H20 (1) + H2C03 (a@ +~ ' ( a q ) + HCO; (aq)
O2 Response
4Fe0 (s) + O2 (g) + 2 H20 (1) +4FeO(OH) (s)
(Ferrous) (Ferric)

- Fe in primary minerals, ferromagnesians, is ferrous ,and makes these minerals

vulnerable to weathering.
- In poorly drained soils (excess H20), ~e~~can be reduced to ~ e by~mottling
+ and
gleyzation.
Biological Weathering
In the strict sense, physical and chemical weathering is brought about by biological agents.
Plant roots evolve
- Carbon dioxide,
- Organic acids,
- Chelating agents,
- reducing environment, and
- widening cracks and crevices.
The weathering process could then be summarised as follows :
Disintegration
1) Rock Gravel, sand, silt ( i.e., increase in surface area )

Product of
2, .isintegration + [g2]
H20 Decomposition
Soluble constituents (aq) + Secondary minerals
i) ~ a * , ~ g * , ~ a ' , '
HCOT, SOT -, C1-
K i) Clay minerals
ii) Hydrous oxides of
Fe, A1 and Si
ii) Si(OH)4 iii) Carbonates
iv) Sulphates

1.5.2 Soil Formation

Parent materials formed due to weathering of rocks are transported from the place of their
origin and redeposited before they become subject to modification. The parent materials
transported are named according to the main force responsible for the transport and
redeposition as shown in Table 1.1. Soil :Its Composition
and Formation
Table 1.1 : Nomenclature of Soil Deposits

1 Agents Deposited in or by Name of Deposit

Stream (flood plain, terraces) Alluvium

Lacustrine
Ocean Marine

[Ice
Ice
IMeltwater 1 Till, Moraine

Loess (Silt).
Dunes (Sand)
} I
I I I

1 Gravity I Gravity Colluvium 1

1.5.3 Factors affecting Soil Formation
Soil is the result of combined activity and reciporcal influence of parent material, plant and
chemical organisms, climate, age of land and topography as outlined below :
1) Climate Precipitation and temperature
2 ) Organisms Forest, grassland and microbes
The above factors vary on a large scale geographically (i.e., regional)
3) Parent material Mineral composition and texture
4) Topography Erosion and drainage
5) Time
The above three factors vary on a small scale geographically (i.e., locally).
Climate
The precipitation and temperature are two most important climatic factor that affects
physical, chemical and biological weathering. The rise in temperature also increases rate of
biochemical reactions. The rainfall in substantial quantities create favourable environment
for plant growth. The vegetation varies from areas of high rainfall to low rainfall and hence
varying organic matters in soils.
Organisms
Activity of soil organisms plays a significant role in soil formation by accumulating organic
matter and cycling of nutrients. In addition the living organism, bacteria (azotobacter) fix
atmospheric nitrogen into the compounds which can be easily used by plants.
Parent Material
Soil texture is greatly influenced by parent material which in turn affects movement of
water and nutrients. Similarly, mineralogical and chemical composition of parent material
have direct bearing on weathering. For example, soil acidity in humid condition can be
delayed in case of soils made up of limestone.
Topography
Topography is generally described in terms of slope, elevation, etc. The steep slope is
vulnerable to erosion whereas flat land weaken the process of erosion.
Time
The time determines the effect of weathering. The alluvial material generally does not get
sufficient time to develop in comparison to upland soils.
In fact two or more of the factors described above act simultaneously and affect the soil
formation. Hence, their interaction and interdependence make it difficult to assess how a
given soil was formed.

1.5.4 Age of Land

The span of period from inception to the present stage is termed as age. Soil formation is
very slow process; therefore, the age may vary from few years to several thousand years.
Approximate age of soil can be arrived at by the following methods:
Physical Properties of Soils - Radioactive dating
- Pollen analysis
- Carbonate carbon in caliche layer
Mohr and Van Baren recognised five stages of development of tropical soils as follows :
1) Initial stage Unweathered parent material
2) Juvenile stage - Weathering just started
3) Virile stage Easily weatherable minerals which have been decomposed
for Ule greater part. The clay content has increased and
certain mellniness is discernible. The content of soil
components less susceptible to weathering is still appreciable.
4) Senile stage Decomposition arrives as a final stage, and only the most
resistant minerals have survived.
5) Final stage Soil development has completed and the parent material is
fully weathered.
In pedology, soils are described as young or mature.
Young Soil
This means the soil where the fdctors of soil formation and pedogenic process are still
operative and changing the properties of soil in the profile and the processes have not made
a distinct impression on soil profile clay content which also decreases with depth.
Mature Soil
Clay is more or less in eyuillibrium with primary minerals. Clay content also increases with
depth of profile, accumulating at an intermediate depth.
If the soil is removed by erosion or deposited over by a fresh transported parent material, a
new cycle of soil formation starts.
1.5.5 Nomenclature in Soil Forming Process
The fundamental processes involved in the formation of soil are
- addition of organic and mineral matters of soil (humification)
- leaching inaterial from the surface to a horizon (eluviation)
- translocation of material from one profile and deposition at another (illuviation)
- Transformatioil of the mineral and organic matter in the soil and formation of
definite profile (horizonation)
The specific processes involved in soil formation are
Calcification :Formation & accumulation of CaC03.
Gypsification :Formation & accumulation of gypsum.
Decalcification :Removal of CaC03 from soil horizon.
Podzolization :Eluviation of oxides of Fe and Al, and humus under acidic condition.
Laterization : Migration of silica out of soil solum.
Salinization :Accumulation of soluble salts such as SO:- and C1 of Na, K, Ca
and Mg .
Desalinization :Leaching thus removalof soluble salts.
Alkalisation :Increase of soil pH, i.e., accumulation of sodium ion.
Dealkalisation : Decrease of soil pH.
Gleization :ReducTion of iron due to anaerobic (i.e., water logged) condition.
Pedoturbation :Intermixing of soil horizon of iron in water logged soils with
function of mottles and concrets of Fe and Mn.
Argillation :Leaching of dispersed clay particle from upper horizon to lower
horizon.
 Soil :Its Composition
and Formation

1.6 ROCKS AND MINERALS

Rock is the solid material contained in tlle shell or outer crust of the earth, a layer about 16
to 40 krn thick. It is defined as an aggregate of one or more minerals; most commonly, two
or more. All rocks are classified into three types based on their mode of origin.
1) Igneous : Formed by the cooling and consequent solidification of magma, a hot
fluid mass or rock melt.
2) Sedimentary : Forn~edfrom material derived from the weathering of
pre-existing rock as a result of erosion, transportation, deposition, and
lithification, principally by action of water; much less frequently, involving ice
(glacial) or wind action.
3) Metamorphic : Fomned by chemical and/or physical transformation
(metamorphism)of igneous or sedin~entaryrcxk by means of heat and/or
pressure. Water and other chemical agents often aid in this process.
A mineral is a naturally cxcurring chemical element or compound formed as a product of
inorganic processes. Soil scientists, however, often include within the term soil mineral the
inorganic, amorphous (non-crystalline)components fornled in soil. Plant scientists also use
mineral to connote those essential pl'ant nutrients derived from the soil. The intended
meaning is dependent on the context in which it is used.
1.6.1 Primary Minerals
Based on origin, minerals are classified into two groups, primary and secondary. Primary
minerals are formed at temperatures andlor pressure higher than Uiat normally encountered
at the earth's surface (one atmosphere, and < 100'C) ,and found in igneous ,and metamorphic
rocks.
Primary minerals are those minerals. which have gone through little change since they were
formed, e.g., quartz, mica, feldspar etc. You have already gone through the composition and
physical properties of various minerals in Unit 1 of Block 2 of Earth and its Environment.
Now, we shall discuss their role in soils.
1.6.2 Role of Primary Minerals
Quartz
Quartz is the most common and abundant mineral contained in the sand silt in most soils.
Because of its abundance in sand, quartz and s,md have often been used synonymously.
However, if mineralogical determinations are made, sand in soil is found to contain many
other minerals.
Quartz is very insoluble, both in water or acids. Because of no cleavage and high hardness,
it is not readily reduced in particle size. A low thermal coefficient of exp'ansion results in
insensitivity to rapid temperature change ,and the consequent reduction in particle size. As a
result of this it has high resistance to chemical and physical weathering.
Feldspar Gmup
In soil, feldspar is found in the sand 'and silt and, only in small amounts, in the clay. The
amount of feldspar in a soil depends on the coniposition of the rock from which it has
formed and the amount of weathering that has taken place. In soil, feldspar may be a source
of the plant nutrients, K and Ca. Weathering of it releases small quantities of Potassium and
Calcium which is too slow to meet immediate plant needs with in a growing season,
however, it may meet long term supply of K and Ca.
'+
Weathering of feldspar by reaction with water results in the release of K+,c a 2 + , ~ 1 in
Physical Properties ofsoils some form, and silicon as silicic acid, Si(OH)4.
Layered Silicate Group
The layered silicates are found in the sand and silt particles in soil. The kind of layered
silicate depends on the t y p of rock from which the soil is formed. Muscovite is most
common because of its greater resistance to weathering than either biotite or chlorite. Upon
weathering these layered silicates may be altered to vermiculite or montmorillonite, which
are layer type silicates.
Other Ferromagnesian Silicates
Their presence in soil depends on the rock type being weathered and the weathering
intensity. On weathering these minerals form hydrous iron oxide along with some clay
mineral or gibbsite. These are long-term sources of Ca, Mg, and Fe for plant nutrition.
Apatite
Apatite is the original source of soil phosphate. The amount found depends on the apatite
content of the parent rock and the intensity and duration of weathering that has occurred. In
acid soil, it. is slowly transformed to an iron or aluminum phosphate, or adsorbed by clay, to
form an insoluble form in the clay. Since phosphate anions readily react with various soil
constituents - clay minerals, iron and aluminium hydrous oxides. It is very immobile in soil.
1.6.3 Secondary Minerals
Secondary minerals are formed under conditions of temperature and pressure found at the
earth's surface by the weathering of preexisting minerals. In this process, with water being
an almost ubiquitous participant, elements are released into solution. Part of these elements
are leached out of the soil material and end up in ground water, streams and eventually,
ocean. Some of the released elements are adsorbed and retained on the surface of the fine
soil particle and serve as a readily available source of plant nutrients. Other released
elements recombine, along with water, to form secondary minerals. Minerals such as silicate
clays and iron oxide, which are formed by breakdown and weathering of less resistant
materials, are the examples of secondary minerals.
1.6.4 Role of Secondary Minerals
The secondary minerals most commonly formed are the clay minerals and hydrous oxide.
Other secondary minerals found in soil are forms of silica, calcite, gypsum and apatite.
Silica
The sand fraction of soil derived from sedimentary rock consists in part of grains of chert
(Si02). Soils derived from some limestones often contain large amounts of golf ball to
fist-sized pieces of chert. Being resistant to weathering, they persist as coarse fragments in
soil often in sufficient quantity to result in a cherty fraction of topsoil. They are called
phytoliths literally plant rocks. Silica oxide released into solution by weathering is
absorbed by plant (grass are notable for this) and deposited along the cell walls. Upon the
death of the plant and subsequent decomposition of the organic remains the opal
(Si02.nHzO)is left in the surface soil.
Clay Minerals
Layer silicated of various types and an amorphous silicon aluminum water containig
material are common in soils.
Besides 02-, O H , AI?+ ; they can contain Mg, Fe, K in large amounts.
The clay minerals occur characteristically as particles less than 2 pm in size. The colour of
pure mineral (consisting of only one mineral) depends on chemical composition. One is
white and is used as a coating on paper to produce high-quality, glossy finish. Other types
vary from gray to light yellow to dark-brown. In soil the clay sized partcles are invariably a
mixture of various clay minerals and are coated with hydrous iron oxides and/or organic
material (humus) resulting in various shades of yellow to brown, red, orange and even black.
A characteristic of clay minerals is to swell on wetting with water. I t can absorb water
within the crystal particles and swell to a much greater extent than the others. It is often
referred to as the expanding lattice type, clay minerai. Lattice in this context means crystal.
Mixtures of clay minerals are present in almost all soil and are the dominant constituents of
the clay fraction. The kinds of clay minerals found in a soil is dependent, primarily on the
type of the rock from which the soil formed and the weathering intensity to which it has
been subjected. Because of their small particle size and consequent high surface area, they
 are the source of chemical property of soil (cation adsorption and release or cation Soil :Its Composition
and Formation
exchange) which is important in soil fertility.
Oxides, Hydroxides or Hydrous Oxide Gmup
The red, orange and/or yellow to brown colouration in soils is caused by the presence of

. geothite and hematite which commonly occurs as coating on the surface of soil particles of
all sizes but in particular the clay particles. Gibbsite is found in highly weathered soil in the
tropics or semi-tropics. In some of these soils gibbsite and hydrous iron oxides are the most
abundant consituents. Weathering is sufficiently intense to remove, by leaching, practically
all elements except ferric iron and aluminum, which form highly-insoluble oxides or
hydrous oxides and are, therefore, very immobile.
'
In the past, these soils were called
laterites but are known today as oxidols.
Besides being a possible source of plant nutrient, these iron minerals provide an indicator of
leaching and of the drainage status of a soil. In soils called spodosols (formerly podzols) a
white, bleached layer occurs near the surface from which all the hydrous iron oxides have
been removed. Drainage status of a soil may also be indicated by the hydrous iron oxides.
Well-drained soils have sufficient oxygen present to maintain iron in a ferric state, which
results in bright-red, brown and orange colours. If water fills the pore space in soil, reducing
the oxygen supply for extended periods of time during the year, some ferric iron is reduced
to ferrous iron and gray colour becomes mixed which is called motting. Degree of
development of motting can be used as a measure of the drainage status.
Carbonate group
Calcium carbonate remains in a soil in arid or sem-iarid areas. Lesser the rainfall,
carbonates are found closer to the surface. Calcite is hard, cemented layer in a soil, resulting
from the accumulation of carbonates. When rainfall exceeds about 640 mm, per year, as in
humid areas, carbonates are completely leached out of a soil. Limestone-derived soils form
insoluble residue (mostly silicates) gets accumulated as the carbonates are leached away.
Sulphate I

Gypsum is found only in some arid area soils. It is by far the most water-soluble and
therefore, the mostreadily leached. In soil, it is found below calcite which is less soluble
and hence less mobile. Small quantities are used as sources of the plant nutrients, e.g.,
calcium and sulphur. It can be used to amends the highly alkaline soils in arid areas that
contain excessive sodium (sodic soils) and as a result, are unsuitable for agricultural
purposes. Large application of gypsum result in replacement of sodium by calcium,
reducing alkalinity. The physical condition of the soil is also greatly improved.
Apatite - Rock Phosphate
Small amounts of apatite are found in the silt and sand even in highly weathered soil. The
insolubility of apatite, under most soil conditions, prevents it from supplying adequate
amounts of Phosphate for plant growth. Ground rock phosphate if used as a fertilizer, must
be very finely ground and be applied at much higher rates than manufactured phosphate
fertilizers.
1.6.5 Igneous Rocks
Approximately 95% of the 10 mile thick crust at the surface is igneous in origin. This rock
forms by the cooling of a molten magma, which results in formation of a hard mass of
interlocking crystals. Thus igneous rocks are often referred to as crystalline or hard rock.
Occurrence of fossils is precluded because of the high temperatures involved. Igneous rocks
are classified on the basis of two properties, texture and mineral composition. Texture,
which refers to size of mineral grains, IS determined by the rate of cooling of the magma.
Rapid cooling such as would occur at the earth's surfact; with lava (extruded magma)
results in fine textures with grains too small to be seen with the unaided eye. Slow cooling
as happens when magma is enclosed within the crust, forms crystals sufficiently coarse to
be seen and identified with the naked eye. Minera!~in igneous rock are divided into
essential minerals which are present in large amounts and determine the rock type and
varietal and accessory minerals which nay be present and occur in smaller anlounts.
Essential nunerals are a combinatin of one or more of the primary minerals. Quartz, feldspar
and ferromagnesians, amphibole and pyroxene.
Two igneous rocks, granite and basalt are the most abundant types within the crust and our
attention will therefore be devoted to these.
Physical Properties of Soils Granite
This is a coarse-grained rock which is granular or crystalline in appearance. Orthoclase and
quartz comprise about 90% of the rock, giving it a white to pink colour. The black speckeled
appearance is due to the occurrence of biotite and or amphibole which make up most of the
remaining 10%. It is major rock type underlying the continents.
Basalt
Basalt is a fine-grained dark-coloured rock which underlines the ocean basin. Most lava
eruptions result in formation of basalt. Pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase in about equal
proportions, comprising approximately 95% of rock. A minor amount of olivine or
amphibole may be contained. A coarse-grained equivalent of basalt is called gabbro.
Diabase is a smaller rock intermediate in grain size between basalt and gabbro.
SAQ 3
Which rock type is known as hard rock '' Nnrllc two varelies.

1.6.6 Sedimentary Rocks

Although comprising only 5% of the 16 km crust, sedimentary rock tornls about 75% of the
surface exposed rock and as sucli are very important as a source of soil parent material.
Sedimentary rock, formed from the consolidation (lithification)of loose accumulations of
sediments usually having been transported by and deposited in some body of water. They
may be subdivided, depending on the manner of deposition into: (1) mechanical type, which
form from particle settling out of suspension and (2) chemical types, which form by
precipitation of ions from solution, either inorganically or by a biological process. When
settled from water, sedimentary rocks characteristically have stratified or layered
appearance. Many of these rocks contan tossils of organisms now extincl thal lived in the
remote geologic past.
Machanical
a) Sandstone is a coarse-grained secondary rock, which consists of sand grains cemented
together by finer material. The sand composed principally of quartz, chert and rock
fragmerils along with smaller an~ountsof potassium, feldspar and muscovite mica. The
cement consists of hydrous oxides, clay minerals, carbonate and or silica. The colour
may be white, gray, yellow, brown or red. Conglomerate, which consists of consolidated
gravel, pebbles or boulders is much less abundant than sandstone.
b) Shale is a fine-grained rock consisting of silt and clay sized particles with a finely
layered or laminated structure. Although clay minerals are dominant in shale quartz,
mica feldspar, hydrous oxides and calcite also occur. It is most abundant seconda~yrock
type.
Chemical
Limestone is a fine grained chemical precipitate which often contains numereous fossil
remains of organisms. Calcite and dolomite are the principal minerals. Various amounts of
quartz, chert, feldspar clay minerals, and hydrous oxide may be found in limestone.
Dolomitic limestone forms from alteration of a previous calcitic limestone by magnesium
replacing part of the calcium. The dolomitic limestone is somewhat hard and more resistant
to weathering than the calcite limestone. The physical appearance of the two rocks is very
similar but they may be distinguished by the rapid effervescence of the calcitic type when
treated with a dilute acid. Dolomite must be powdered to produce a notable reaction.
Of the sedimentary rocks on the earth's surface about 80% are shale, 15% sandstone
(including conglomerate) and 5% limestone.
SAQ 4
Hnw do sedimentary rocks orig~nate!' Nal~lcd~cirvanclics. Which IS 111enlost
abundant sedimentary rock on earth's hut tackh '
 1.6.7 Metamorphic Rocks Soil :Its Composition
and Formation
When igneous or sedimentary rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures, as a
result of earth crust movements, for example, recrystallization of elements and alignment of
crystals frequently occur causing a bonding, foliation or finer lamination, the process is
called metamorphism. Minerals present in metamorphic rock are primary. The
. metamorphosed equivalents of the igneous and sedimentary rocks described are as follows :

Pre-existing Rock Metamorphic Equivalent

I
Granite Gneiss
I

I Basalt

Sandstone Quartzite
I
Shale , Slate
I

I Limestone 1 Marble I
Gneiss
Gneiss is a crystalline rock with a banded appearance. Light-coloured minerals, feldspar,
quartz, and mica roughly alternate with bands of dark, fenomagnesian minerals.
Schist
Schist is a finely-foliated or laminated rock composed principally of micas and or chlorite,
together with some quartz and ferromagnesian minerals.
Slate
This is a very finely textured rock with minerals tocr small to be seen. It characteristically
splits into relatively thin smooth sheets. Mica, chlorite and quartz are the principal mineral
in slate.
Quartzite
It is non-foliated rock, composed almost wholely of quartz grains cemented together by
silica cement. This resultsin a very tough hard rock. It is distinguished from sandstone by
fracture surface passing through, rather than around quartz grains.
Marble
Marble is a non-foliated crystalline rock, composed of calcite or dolomite. Individual grains
may range in size from very fine to grains sufficiently coarse to manifest the typical
rhombohedra1 cleavage of carbonates.

1.7 SOIL MORPHOLOGY

Soil morphology is the description of the soil body, its appearance, features and general
characteristics which are expressed in the profile of a soil. This is also expressed by number,
k i d s and arrangements of the different horizons and their observable and measurable
characteristics.
A soil horizon is a layer of soil approximately parallel to the soil surface with characteristics
produced by soil fonning processes.
An individual soil body may be literally bounded by other soil bodies or by non-soil
materials. This is a natural unit in the landscape characterised by particle size, slope, profile
and other features.
A pedon in the smallest volume that can be recognised as a soil individual and has the
smallest area for which we should describe and sample the soil to represent the nature and
arrangement of horizons and variability in other properties of the sample. The area of pedon
varies from 1-10m2 and the depth unit is somewhat vague extending upto depths of plant
root or genetic soil horizons. A schematic sketch of a soil pedon is given in Figure 1.2.
A group of similar pedons that are bounded on all sides by "non-soil" or by pedons of unlike
character is called a plypedon.
Physical Properties of Soils

- -- - --
' \
\
\
t

Solum

Po!ypedon
roil)
(ind~v~dual

Figure 1.2 :Schematic of a Soil Pedon

1.7.1 Characterisation of Soil Profile

Characteristics studied in the field include leaching the soil horizons, based on colour
difference. Where this is not possible, horizons are differentiated on the basis of variations
in other soil characteristics.
Each of the differentiated soil horizons are described in tenns of the following characters:
Genetic characters
Thickness PH
Colour (munsell notations) Ec
Texture CO; -
Structure HCO;

Consistency Ca++
Clay lense Mg++
Roots ~ a +
Crotorians K+
Pores Total soluble salts
Water holding capacity Cation exchange capacity
Mottlings Anion exchange capacity
Concretions Organic carbon
Artefacts Primary and jecondary minerals
External characters
Form Drainage condition
Linearity Ground water level
Sloped
Erosion
You will study these characters in details in subsequent units.
1.7.2 Soil Horizons
Soil horizons tell much about the history of soil formation; of the several horizons, the
master horizons are the results of the fundamental soil-forming processes viz. accumulation
of humus (humification), leaching of organic matter and salts (eluviation) and deposition of Soil :~ t Composition
s
and Formation
clays (illuviation). These are designated by capital letters 0, A, E, B, and C. 0 represents
organic horizon whereas A, E, B, and C represent mineral horizons.
In case of sedimentary soils these horizons overlie the bedrock whereas the alluvium it has
above the parent meterial.
The master horizons may not be uniform through the depth in the characteristics by which
they have been designated and may be subdivided to indicate the deviations. The
sub-divisions are indicated by placing arabic numbers after capital letter such as 01,0 2 , A1,
B 1 ,B2 etc. A secondary arabic number is used to indicate further sub-divisions viz. O11, 0 1 2 ,
All, B11, etc.
In addition to the above designations the following symbols are also used to indicate
accumulation of other specific features of the horizons. The symbols used are
Cs = accuinulation of calcium sulphate.
b = bumed soil horizon.
Ca = accunulation of calcium carbonate.
Cu = accumulation of concretion or hard non-concreting nodules enriched in
sesquioxides with or without phosphorus.
f = frozen soil.
g = gleying.
h = illuvial humus.
ir = illuvial iron.
m = strong cementation, induration.
p = ploughing or other disturbance.
Su = accumulation of soluble salts more soluble than calcium sulphate.
Se = accumulation by siliceous material soluble in alkali.
t = illuvial clay.
x = fragipan character (high bulk density).

1.7.3 Soil Micromorphology

Examination with optical aid reveals more detailed features which are helpful in
understanding pedogenesis. This is known as soil nlicromorphology. This can be done by
hand lens to same extent but rigorous examination needs preparation of a thin section of a
selected ped. The ped is impregnated with resins which on drying becomes as hard as rock
and can be cut into thin sections for examination under a petrographic microscope. A good
deal of information, viz., origin of parent material, exogenic processes, soil forming
processes and land use management etc. are deciphered.
SAQ 5
Explaln O I P , Alh, B , , .

1.8 SUMMARY
In this unit you studied process by which soil is formed and the morphology it bears. Soil is
a natural medium of plant growth. It is formed from the disintegration and decomposition of
rocks and minerals. Such material when tran~portedand deposited, form the morphology of
soil.
Physical Properties of Soils Soil is composed of disintegrated and decomposed rocks and minerals. Thus, the mineral
nutrients present in them are also found in the soil.
Soil are formed involving specific processes viz. calcification, gypsification,
decalicification, silication, pddzolification, laterisation, salinisation desalinisation,
alkalisation, dealkalisation, gleyation, pedoturbation and argillation.
During the process of formation soil may be at initial stage, juvenile stage, virile stage,
senile stage or final stage. Pedologically these may be called young or mature soils.
Soil formed on its maturity develop soil horizons based on colour differentiation. Various
physio-chemical and biological features of these soils are studied to describe the soil profile.
Miaomorphologic features of soil are studied to examine origin of parent meterial,
exogenic processes and land use management.

1.9 KEY WORDS

Peds : Soil particles or aggregate.
Alluvium Deposited by stream.
Lacustrine Deposited in lake.
Marine Deposited by ocean.
I~es Silt transported through winds.
Dunes Sand transported through winds.
Colluvium Parent material transported through gravity.
Young soil No distinct impression on profile.
Mature soil Clays accumulated at an intermediate depth.
Humification Accumulation and transformation of raw organic material into humus.
Eluviation Leaching of organic matter and salts.
Illuviation Deposition of clays.

1.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Please refer preceding text for the answers of all SAQs.