Research on Filter Circuits

Principles of Communication

Submitted by: Jan Michelle A. Lamboso

Submitted to: Mr. Rommel Gallegos
I. RC Filters
RC filters use combinations of resistors and capacitors to achieve the desired response. Most
RC filters are of the low-pass or high-pass type. RC filters are used primarily at the lower
frequencies. They are very common at audio frequencies but are rarely used above about 100
kHz.
a) Low Pass Filters
A first-order, low pass RC filter is simply an RC series circuit across the input, with
the output taken across the capacitor. A low-pass filter is a circuit that introduces no
attenuation at frequencies below the cutoff frequency but completely eliminates all
signals with frequencies above the cutoff. Low-pass filters are sometimes referred to
as high cut filters.
When and where to use: when filtering high frequencies

b) High Pass Filters

A high-pass filter passes frequencies above the cutoff frequency with little or no
attenuation but greatly attenuates those signals below the cutoff. In the circuit
diagram below, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low frequencies so the
capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals at VIN until the cut-off
frequency point is reached. Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the
capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act more like a short circuit allowing all
of the input signal to pass directly to the output.

c) RC Notch Filter
Notch filters are also referred to as bandstop or band-reject filters. Band-reject filters
are used to greatly attenuate a narrow range of frequencies around a center point.
Notch filters accomplish the same purpose, but for a single frequency. A simple notch
filter that is implemented with resistors and capacitors is called a parallel-T or twin-
T notch filter.
Below are diagrams that show a basic twin-T notch filter.
II. LC Filters
LC filter is one of the most basic filters in electronics,
which comprises of just one inductor and
one capacitor in its simplest form. An LC filter is
made up of an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C). An
inductor resists changes to the current flowing
through it, while a capacitor resists changes to the
voltage across it.

a) Butterworth Filter
The Butterworth filter effect has maximum
flatness in response in the pass b and a
uniform attenuation with frequency. The
attenuation rate just outside the passband
is not as great as can be achieved with other
types of filters.
b) Cauer Filter
Also known as an elliptic filter, a Cauer filter is a signal processing filter with
equalized ripple behavior in both the passband and the stopband. Cauer filters
produce an even greater attenuation or roll-off. However, they do this with an even
higher ripple in the passband as well as outside of the passband.
c) Bessel Filter
The Bessel filter is a linear form of filter that provides a maximally flat group delay
or propagation delay across the frequency spectrum but offers a slower transition
from pass-band to stop-band than for other forms of filter of the same order.
However, the Bessel filter is not used as widely as the Butterworth of Chebyshev
filters for RF applications, although the fact that it has a maximally flat group delay
means that Bessel filters are often used in audio applications such as audio cross-
over networks.
III. Switched Capacitor Filters
Switched capacitor filters, as opposed to digital filters, are analog sampled-data systems. A
switched capacitor is an electronic circuit element used for discrete-time signal processing.
It works by moving charges into and out of capacitors when switches are opened and closed.
Usually, non-overlapping signals are used to control the switches, so that not all switches are
closed simultaneously. Filters implemented with these elements are termed "switched-
capacitor filters” and depend only on the ratios between capacitances. This makes them much
more suitable for use within integrated circuits, where accurately specified resistors and
capacitors are not economical to construct.
a) Parasitic-Sensitive Integrator
This filter is used to provide accurate
voltage gain and integration by
switching a sampled capacitor onto an
op-amp with a capacitor in feedback.
One of the earliest of these circuits is the
parasitic-sensitive integrator
developed by the Czech engineer
Bedrich Hosticka.
b) Switched Capacitor Resistor
The simplest switched-capacitor (SC) circuit is the
switched-capacitor resistor, made of one capacitor C and
two switches S1 and S2 which connect the capacitor with a
given frequency alternately to the input and output of the
SC.
c) Parasitic Insensitive Integrator
The delaying parasitic insensitive integrator
has a wide use in discrete time electronic
circuits such as biquad filters, anti-alias
structures, and delta-sigma data converters.

IV. Crystal and Ceramic Filters

 Crystals and ceramic elements are widely used in oscillators to set the frequency of
operation to some precise value, which is held despite temperature and voltage variations
that may occur in the circuit. Crystals and ceramic elements can also be used as circuit
elements to form filters, specifically bandpass filters.
a) Crystal Filter
A crystal filter is an electronic filter that
uses quartz crystals for resonators.
Quartz crystals are piezoelectric, so their
mechanical characteristics can affect
electronic circuits. In particular, quartz
crystals can exhibit mechanical
resonances with a very high Q factor. The
crystal's stability and its high Q factor
allow crystal filters to have precise center
frequencies and steep band-
pass characteristics.
b) Ceramic Filters
Ceramic filters are very small and
inexpensive and are, therefore, widely
used in transmitters and receivers.
Although the Q of ceramic does not have
as high an upper limit as that of quartz, it
is typically several thousand, which is
very high compared to the Q obtainable
with LC filters. Typical ceramic filters are
of the bandpass type with center frequencies of 455 kHz and 10.7 MHz. These are
available in different bandwidths depending upon the application. Such ceramic fi ters
are widely used in communication receivers.
c) Surface Acoustic Wave Filters
A special form of a crystal filter is the surface
acoustic wave (SAW) filter. This fixed tuned
bandpass filter is designed to provide the exact
selectivity required by a given application. SAW
filters are now used in mobile telephones, and
provide significant advantages in performance,
cost, and size over other filter technologies such
as quartz crystals, LC filters, and waveguide filters.

V. Active Filters
An active filter is a type of analog circuit implementing an electronic filter using active
components, typically an amplifier. Amplifiers included in a filter design can be used to
 improve the cost, performance and predictability of a filter. An active filter can have complex
poles and zeros without using a bulky or expensive inductor. The shape of the response, the
quality factor, and the tuned frequency can often be set with inexpensive variable resistors.
In some active filter circuits, one parameter can be adjusted without affecting the others.
a) State Variable Filter
A state variable filter is a type of active filter. It consists of one or more integrators,
connected in some feedback configuration. A state variable filter realizes the state-space
model directly. The instantaneous output voltage of one of the integrators corresponds
to one of the state-space model's state variables.
b) Biquad Filter
A biquad filter is a type of linear filter that implements a transfer function that is the ratio
of two quadratic functions. The name biquad is short for biquadratic. It is also sometimes
called the 'ring of 3' circuit.
c) Multiple Feedback Filter
Multiple feedback topology is an electronic filter topology which is used to implement
an electronic filter by adding two poles to the transfer function.

MULTIPLE FEEDBACK FILTER

STATE VARIABLE FILTER

BIQUADRATIC FILTER
Other types of filters are:
a) Bandpass Filters
A bandpass filter is one that allows a narrow range of frequencies around a center
frequency to pass with minimum attenuation but rejects frequencies above and below
this range.
b) Mechanical Filters
This type of filter uses resonant vibrations of mechanical disks to provide the selectivity.
The signal to be filtered is applied to a coil that interacts with a permanent magnet to
produce vibrations in the rod connected to a sequence of seven or eight disks whose
dimensions determine the center frequency of the filter. Mechanical filters are designed
to work in the 200- to 500-kHz range and have very high Qs. Their performance is
comparable to that of crystal filters.
c) Band-reject Filters
Band-reject filters, also known as bandstop filters, reject a narrow band of frequencies
around a center or notch frequency. At frequencies above and below the center rejection
or notch frequency, the LC circuit impedance is high compared to that of the resistance.
Therefore, signals at frequencies above and below center frequency are passed with
minimum attenuation.

Seven-Resonator
Torsional Mechanical
Filter

Operation of a Bandstop
Filter
 SOURCES
Frenzel, L. (2016) “Principles of Electronic Communication Systems.” New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Education.
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_3.html
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_2.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterworth_filter
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/band-stop-filter.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_filter
https://www.radio-electronics.com/info/rf-technology-design/rf-filters/bessel-rf-filter-basics.php
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_capacitor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_filter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_acoustic_wave#SAW_devices
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_filter_topology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_variable_filter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_filter