The Inventory Papers

A n t h r o p o l o g y f o d a * f
International Symposium on Anthropology

Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Incorporated An Encyclopedic Invent,ory

I

Prepared under the Chairmanship of

A. L . KROEBER

Contributors:

ERWIN H. ACKERKNECHT G. JAN HELD F. S. C. NORTHROP I

MARSTON BATES JULES HENRY KENNETH P. OAKLEY-/ ±j272 00201 7430
RALPH REALS HARRY HOIJER BENJAMIN D. PAUL
WENDELL C. BENNETT EDWARD A. KENNARD - ROBERT REDFD3LD >•
DAVID BIDNEY CLYDE KLUCKHOHN IRVING HOUSE
WILLIAM C. BOYD ALEX D. KRTEGER JOHN HOWLAND ROWE
G. S. CARTER CLAUDE LEVI-STRAUSS MEYER SCHAPrRO u
ALFONSO CASO OSCAR LEWIS MELFORD E. SFIRO
WILLIAM CAUDILL FLOYD G. LOUNSBURY JULIAN H. STEWARD •j
ELIOT D. CHAPPLE GORDON MACGREGOR WILLIAM L. STRAUS, JR.
PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDTN ANDRE MARTINET WM. DUNCAN STRONG
V. GORDON CHILDE
MARGARET MEAD J. M. TANNER ^
J. GRAHAME D. CLARK
ALFRED METRAUX STITH THOMPSON
DARYLL FORDE
CARLOS MONGE HENRI V. VALLOIS
JOSEPH H. GREENBERG i'
HALLAM L. MOVTUS, JR. S. L. WASHBURN "*
MARY R. HAAS
GEORGE P. MURDOCK HANSWEDJERT
A. IRVING HALLOWELL
RUSSELL W. NEWMAN GORDON R. WILLEY
ROBERT F. HEIZER

T H
With a Preface by Paul Fejos E X7NIVEBS l T y Q
* CHICAGO P RE 8 /
and an Introduction by A. L. Kroeber CHICAGO • I L L I N O I S ii

— ' • L
 c
'' * f f *'
arhe'INTEBNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ANTHROPOLOGY and the
jpublfc&Udn of the Inventory Papers were made -possible by funds granted
by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Incorpo-
rated, a foundation endowed for scientific, educational, and charitable pur-
poses. The Wenner-Gren Foundation is not, however, the author or pub-
lisher of this volume, and is not to be understood as endorsing, by virtue of
its grant, any of the statements made, or views expressed, herein.
_- J
.1 SZ
\- M T H E UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS, CHICAGO 37
Cambridge University Press, London, N.W. 1, England
Copyright 1953 by The University of Chicago. All rights re-
served. Copyright 1953 under the International Copyright
Union. Published 1953. Composed and printed by THE
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
h
P r e f a c e
DURING 1951, the Viking Fund, Incor-
porated, observed both its tenth anni- The Wenner-Gren Foundation Inter-
versary and a change of name to the national Symposium on Anthropology
Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthro- had its origin in the idea for a world
pological Research, Incorporated. The conference of anthropologists presented
occasion seemed fitting for an appraisal in a letter from the director of research
of the significance of the Foundation's to the members of the Board of Direc-
concentration of effort, during the first tors of the Wenner-Gren Foundation
decade of its existence, in furthering re- for Anthropological Research on Sep-
search and education in anthropology. tember 18, 1951. That letter proposed a
A volume, entitled The First Ten Years, symposium to which scholars from near-
resulted from this retrospective survey. ly all major regions of the world would
Throughout the preparation of this be invited, in order to assess the accom-
volume, one was impressed by the in- plishments of anthropological science to
crease in rate and amount'xif change in date and to solicit answers on what
anthropological thought during the direction future research would be like-
period under review. Since 1941, the ly to take, so that the Wenner-Gren
anthropological discipline has experi- Foundation might be provided with a
enced a world at war anct has witnessed concrete basis on which to erect its fu-
growing public awareness of other ture policies.
lands and peoples throughout all parts
Dr. Alfred L. Kroeber agreed to act
of the world. A sense of the interre 1
as president of the symposium. At his
latedness of all things emerged in a
trend toward scientific "team:research,M suggestion, the following anthropolo-
co-ordinated investigations, and the in- gists were invited to act as members
troduction into academic curriculums of of a planning group: Dr. Wendell C.
interdisciplinary area-study programs Bennett, chairman of the Department of
and field schools. Research in other dis- Anthropology at Yale University and
ciplines has made such contributions president for 1952 of the American An-
to anthropology as carbon 14 dating, thropological Association; Dr. Harry
from nuclear physics, and blood group- Hoijer, of the University of California
ing, from generics. Anthropologists have at Los Angeles, Memoirs editor, Amer-
given increased attention to the interre- ican Anthropological Association; Dr.
lation of the study, of culture and that Clyde Kluckhohn, director of the Rus-
of personality psychology; more anthro- sian Research Center at Harvard Uni-
pologists have concerned themselves versity and former president of the
with social anthropology, with contem- American Anthropological Association;
porary cultures, and with problems of Dr. Ralph Linton, Sterling Professor of
applied anthropology and action re- Anthropology at Yale University and
search. It has been the Foundation's former president of the American An-
privilege and pleasure both to be of thropological Association; Dr. David G.
service to and to follow the scholars Mandelbaum, of the University of Cali-
along the advancing edge of the con- fornia; Dr. WiUiam Duncan Strong, of
ceptual frontier. Columbia University, former president
of the American Ethnological Society;
and Dr. S. L. Washburn, of the Univer-
v
 Preface vii
Preface
vl
VJ The editorial team for the appraisal volume is a testimonial to Dr. Kroeber
sity of Chicago, president for 1952 of the American Anthropological Associa- volume eventually came to consist of and the members of the planning group,
the American Association of Physical tion at Chicago during November 15- Drs. Loren Eiseley, Irving Rouse, Sol who gave to it organization and selected
Anthropologists. These scholars, except 17, 1951. The members of the planning Tax, and Carl F. Voegelin. They met its contributors; to the authors of the
Dr. Linton, who was then confined in a group suggested issues which might be on March 8 with Dr. Kroeber, to define papers, who, on very short notice, so
hospital, met for the first time as a treated in specific inventory papers, as their task and determine on a division readily participated in the common
planning" group at the home of the aids in the preparation of invitations. of labor among themselves. effort.
Foundation on November 9-10, 1951. On December 1, 1951, Drs. Kroeber, The concept of an "inventory paper," Especial praise must be given to all
At this meeting the scholars were pre- Kluckhohn, and Bennett met again at the interrelation of the full range of members of the Wenner-Gren Founda-
sented with copies of "A Tentative Pro- the home of the Foundation, and the topics covered, and the function of the tion staff, who participated directly or
posal for an International Symposium following recommendations were for- inventory papers in the International indirectly in the preparation of this
on Anthropology," setting forth the re- mulated: (1) that the international Symposium on Anthropology are dis- work, particularly to the Executive Sec-
suits of informal preliminary conversa- symposium should be held June 9-20, cussed by Dr. Kroeber in his Introduc- retary, Mrs. G. W. O'Brian. Warmest
tions by the director of research with 1952; (2) that the tentative program tion, which follows. personal thanks are extended to the
Drs. Kroeber and Washburn. This pa- for the international symposium be On behalf of the Board of Directors Foundation's Assistant Director, Mr.
per established "A World Survey of the adopted; and (3) that Drs. Fred Eg- of the Wenner-Gren Foundation, I wish William L. Thomas, Jr., and to Miss
Status of Anthropology" as the theme gan, Alexander Spoehr, Irving Rouse, publicly to extend grateful thanks to all Anna Pikelis, whose combined task
for a symposium to be held in late Carl F. Voegelin, and W. W. Howells who have participated so generously in principally has been to close the gap
spring of 1952 and suggested that the be invited to act as editors for the the realization of this volume. Truly, between the dream and the reality of
symposium participants be selected not second volume, stemming from the the extent of co-operation has been the Wenner-Gren Foundation Interna-
merely as outstanding specialists but symposium discussion, great. Scarcely a year will elapse be- tional Symposium on Anthropology.
for their ability to synthesize the views By December 18,1951, all invitations tween the origin of the idea and the
distribution of the published work, and PAUL FEJOS
of others and their broad grasp of an- to attend the symposium had been dis-
thropology in its totality. It further sug- patched to thirty-one foreign scholars thus one of the prime requirements of
an "inventory" or "stock-taking"—that N E W YORK CITY
gested that plarming for the symposium, and, by December 21, to fifty-eight
as well as for the publications likely to United States scholars. By January 10, of being "up-to-date"-is fulfilled. This June 29, 1952
result therefrom, be in terms of three 1952, sixty-five replies had been re-
categories: (1) an inventory of mod- ceived; of these, six indicated regrets
ern anthropology, (2) an appraisal of that previous commitments prevented
modern anthropology, and (3) a hand- their attendance, A meeting was held
book of world resources for research with Dr. Kroeber on January 15 to
and education in anthropology. select substitutes for these scholars.
The planning group first selected On February 2, members of the plan-
forty-eight topics for inventory papers ni n g group met with the United States
most needed as a basis for discussion; scholars invited to act as co-chairmen
second, they suggested the names of f o r fae various sessions of the interna-
scholars best qualified to deal with tional s y m p o s i u m a n d with the editors
these topics. It was recommended that rf ^ a p p r a i s a i v o u i m e . The purpose
all authors of inventory papers be in- rf ^ m e £ t i w a s t0 brfef e a d l ^ ^
vited to attend J e international sympo- m a n Q n ^ ^ o n o f ^ s e s s i o n o f fte
smm. Many of the suggestions made at n .-, . „ ,* u
o. ' . 6& . , . . symposium to all other sessions, so that
this meeting were incorporated mto a /. r , . ,L , . _i \
preliminary "Announcement of an In- di^ussion might be organized to pro-
ternational Symposium on Anthropol- V l d e maximum contomty. The final
ogy," copies of which were later sent to Program, including the names of pnn-
members of the planning group for c i P a l ojscussants, was formulated, ses-
sion
comment. by session, at that time, with full
The director of research, with Profes- responsibility for organization and pres-
sor Meyer Fortes from England, met entation at each half-day session trans-
again with Drs. Mandelbaum, Strong, mitted to its respective co-chairmen—
and Washburn at the annual meeting of one American, one from overseas.
 Applied Anthropology in Government:
Nations have had to abandon the pur-
suit of their science to devote them-
selves to their administrative duties.
UNESCO is the best placed of all
the specialized agencies, so far as an-
A p p l i e d A n t h r o p o l o g y i n G o v e r n m e n t : thropology is concerned. It has a De-
partment of Social Sciences, and its
program lies partly in the domain of
U n i t e d N a t i o n s
science; for these reasons it has been
able to draw upon the services of an-
By A L F R E D M&TRAUX thropologists to carry out projects fall-
ing clearly within ihe competence of
their science.
The establishment of an expanded
program of technical assistance for the
economic development of underdevel-
IT SHOULD be plainly stated, at once, izing that there is a practical value in
oped countries through the United Na-
that anthropology has so far played a anthropology. The services rendered by
tions and the specialized agencies, coin-
very slight part in the work of the anthropologists to British colonial ad-
ciding as it has with the development
United Nations and the specialized ministration have considerably influ-
of fundamental education, should open
agencies, and there is no reason to enced the status of anthropology in
up new and extensive prospects for an-
suppose that this situation will change international administration,
thropology. The hopes raised in anthro-
in the years to come. It is true that The following queries included in
pologists by administrators and the
several anthropologists have served, or the questionnaire sent by the Trustee-
representatives of member-states have
are now serving, on the staff of these ship Council to trust' territories consti-
not all been fulfilled; but it should be
international organizations, but they tute, so to speak, an official recognition
borne in mind that this program has
have seldom been employed in their of the importance of anthropology in
only just been set on foot and that cer-
capacity as anthropologists; while, colonial administration; "Does the terri-
tain administrative regulations put diffi-
therefore, their specialized knowledge tory maintain a Department of Anthro-
culties in the way of the recruitment of
may have proved useful to them, it has pology or a government anthropolo- *
anthropologists.
not been indispensable. It is chiefly gist? If so, describe the organisation,
under the general heading of "social duties and result of the work. If not,
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
scientists" that anthropologists have what provisions are being made for
AND ANTHROPOLOGY
been enrolled in the Department of continuous, systematic research by
Social Affairs and the Trusteeship De- trained social scientists into both the Technical assistance, the field in
partment of the United Nations, or in traditional and the changing social, po- which anthropology will have a note-
the United Nations Educational, Sci- litical, religious and economic life of worthy part to play in the United Na-
entific, and Cultural Organization the indigenous inhabitants?" tions, may be broadly defined as a
(UNESCO) or the World Health Or- Any international program applied United Nations scheme to bring to the
ganization (WHO). to an underdeveloped country—the nat- economically backward countries the
The United Nations turn to anthro- ural preserve of anthropologists—ought technical knowledge and methods that
pologists, first and foremost, on ac- to afford opportunities for enlisting will enable them to raise their stand-
count of their familiarity with a given their co-operation. It is reasonable, for ard of living and to have their share
geographical area. It is for this reason, instance, that anthropologists should in the progress of the highly industrial-
rather than because of the methods have accompanied visiting missions to ized countries. This form of assistance
and views that they uphold, that they trust territories or been put in charge was suggested to guard against possible
are asked to help in the work of the of fundamental education projects; but accusations of imperialism and to en-
United Nations. Their very existence they have rarely been given a chance able the areas in need of assistance to
might be overlooked, were it not point- to apply their science in practice or apply for it without any loss of dignity
ed out by English-speaking officials, even to add to its theory. With few ex- or any fear of thereby forfeiting their
who seem to be almost alone in real- ceptions, anthropologists in the United sovereignty. The chief aim of technical
880
United Nations 881
assistance is to narrow the present gap
between the living standards of the
industrialized and the underdeveloped
countries. The inequality in this re-
spect to be seen in all parts of the
world is a threat to peace. Not only
does the contrast encourage an incli-
nation to rebel, but the poverty preva-
lent in large areas of the world is a
handicap to the more fortunate coun-
tries, in that their level of production
is directly affected ,by the economic
weakness of potential customers.
The United Nations regard this dis-
parity as a growing source of danger.
For any technical progress tends to act
as a stimulus for further discoveries,
in that it creates new demands and
gives rise to fresh solutions for certain
technical problems. "The under-devel-
oped areas thus tend to fall farther
and farther behind and they are likely
to continue to do so unless deliberate
and effective measures are taken to
bring to them the benefits of modern
science and technology."
The development that technical as-
sistance seeks to achieve in the under-
developed countries has been defined
as "a cumulative process where agri-
cultural improvements, health, educa-
tion, social measures and industriali-
zation are introduced in a gradual
interplay." The promoters of technical
assistance are fully aware that eco-
nomic development is bound to affect
all aspects of a people's life to varying
degrees. Food, health, social welfare,
and education are the main fields in
which they wish to introduce changes,
and they are persuaded that, "given a
wide and equitable distribution of its
benefits, it is likely to result in a sub-
stantial increase in the security of the
individual and in social stability."
There is a most important principle
that must not be overlooked when the
implications of technical assistance
projects are being considered. Help
may be given only- on requests from
 Applied Anthropology in Government: United Nations 883
Anthropology Today
882
governments, and it must not overstep ards of behavior and to modify them population and by means of appropri- fective if it is understood that their serv-
the limits laid down in such requests, to suit new conditions. ate changes in economic and social ices do not dispense with the necessity for1
structure." the closest possible contact with those
Above all, technical assistance is de- Fundamental education and techni- persons in the local population who are
signed to equip the peoples with the cal assistance are closely linked not But the clearest definition of the
place that should be given, in every best able to interpret the national culture.
tools of their future prosperity and to only administratively but, above all, by One of, the main functions of the social
give them the opportunity of self-de- the similarity of their aims and the project, to the cultural and social con- scientist, indeed, will be to make sure that
velopment in accordance with their essential relationship between their ac- siderations comes from the Food and the opinions of such people are given the
own material and,spiritual interests. Its tivities. Technical assistance can suc- Agriculture Organization, which, in fullest consideration.
aim is to encourage them to shape their ceed only if the peoples for whom it is one of its reports, expresses the view When a mission is sent to survey the
future with their own hands. intended are able to listen to and act that "the successful implementation of technical needs and problems of a given
any programme of assistance to under- country, in response to its request for tech-
Fundamental education, one of upon the advice of the technicians. In developed countries depends more nical assistance, an expert should be in-
UNESCO's most important activities, other words, no program of economic upon the method of approach than cluded in the team to conduct on the spot
has become a prominent feature of rehabilitation can be drawn up save upon any other single factor." In the a survey of the sociological implications of
technical assistance, although the ad- hand in hand with a fundamental edu- same document we find the following the projected assistance programme. The
ministrative services dealing with it cation campaign. So strongly has this statements, which cannot but meet primary function of this expert should be
were set up long before the technical need been felt that in the first year of to advise in protecting the native cultures
with the full support of anthropolo- as the protection of national cultures is one
assistance services. Indeed, from the technical assistance twenty-seven coun- gists: "Past traditions must be re- of UNESCO's duties.
very beginning, fundamental education tries appealed to UNESCO for educa- spected and the expert must be ready
has been regarded as one of UNESCO's tional assistance, to work through existing patterns, uti- The experts concerned must obvi-
primary functions. One of the main principles of funda- lizing to the fullest the inherent po- ously have a thorough knowledge of
What is meant by "fundamental edu- mental education and of economic de- tentialities It will often be well to the culture within which the technical
cation"? It has been defined in many velopment alike is that they must be present new ideas as an improvement assistance- program is operating and
different ways and has become the based upon the social, human, and eco- on an older method, not only because must also be able to describe it objec-
nucleus of a whole philosophy. In brief, nomic environment which they have to this is psychologically sound but also tively, so as to foresee the effect that
fundamental education may be de- transform and must bring about a "suc- because such improvements, may be the changes introduced will have on
scribed as a form of instruction for cessful synthesis between traditional better than an entirely new method." that culture as a- whole. Anthropolo-
communities in the underdeveloped forces and ideas and the modern pro- Need for a global approach is stressed: gists are the scientists best fitted by
areas of the world, comprising entire gressive "movement through schools," "Sometimes the problem which appears their training to meet these require-
zones or isolated localities in the more The increasingly frequent allusions paramount may itself be caused by ments.
highly developed territories. It aims made in various documents to the need other and more fundamental situations
not only at teaching the three "R's" for taking the social factor into consid- which need first attention." CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIAL CHANG-
but also at "improving the life of the eration surely testify to the indirect and ES WARRANTING THE PARTICIPA-
In UNESCO's report prepared at the TION OF ANTHROPOLOGISTS
nation, influencing the natural and so- doubtless unconscious influence of the request of the Economic and Social
cial environment and imparting knowl- warnings uttered by social scientists, The task which the, technical assist-
Council we find the following para-
edge of the world." In the resolution adopted by the Eco- ance and fundamental education serv-
graphs, which are worth quoting in
Its aims, which we do not intend to nomic and Social Council on March 4, ices propose to allot to anthropologists
full:
list in full, include some of direct con- 1949, it is expressly stated that "due is an extremely delicate one; it aniounts
cern to anthropologists: (1) knowledge attention shall be paid to national sov- Such examples make it obviously neces- to guiding the transition from one form
and understanding of the human en- ereignty and national legislation of the sary to associate with projects of economic of culture to another in order to avert
vironment (economic and social, or- under-developed countries and to the development specialists with experience in the disastrous consequences that many
anthropology and sociology. Their advice countries of the world have suffered
ganization, law, and government); (2) social conditions which directly affect wij[l help to ensure that the economic de-
the development of qualities to fit men their economic development" (our em- from such changes in the past.
velopment scheme conforms to the way of
to live in the modern world, such as phasis). life valued by the people themselves. The Progress, in the form in which the
personal judgment and initiative, free- An official document lays down that assistance of social scientists is obviously United Nations seeks to propagate'it
dom from fear and superstition, sym- the forms of economic development in not enough in itself to enable a scheme to throughout the world, must inevitably
• -j.-—, f™ ri^fl:Prftnt advanced countries cannot be applied avoid all the risks inherent in major social destroy the many forms of local cul-
changes, but at least it gives some hope ture still surviving on several conti-
that these risks will be considerably re- nents. These cultures have their de-
duced. Their help will be particularly ef- fects, no doubt, but they are nonethe-
 Applied Anthropology in Government: United Nations 885
884 Anthropology Today
might perhaps be avoided. The impact contrary, they may even, in certain
less the outcome of a long adaptation governments and peoples of the under-
of mechanization is appalling in its cases, have a disintegrating effect. Any
to local conditions, and their followers developed countries. And they are
leveling-down effect. Anyone who has educational system which is not suited
find in them a satisfaction for which traveling along the path of progress
ever visited a mining camp or a sugar- to a particular form of culture will tend
even the most advanced technology faster than their advisers had expected,
cane plantation can bear witness to the to undermine its intellectual and moral
cannot always compensate. The mem- They are trying to go ahead too quick-
degradation brought about by the foundations, replacing them by stand-
bers of a village community often en- ly—at a dangerous rate. If any attempt
transfer from the tribal way of life to ards which are not its own. As a result,
joy a measure of protection that they is made to check them, they raise the
that of the hired laborer. Our own so- we find these groups of uprooted, mal-
will lose when swamped in the prole- cry of "reaction" or assert that they
ciety has passed through a similar cri- adjusted individuals, who are a dead
tariat of a new type of society. The are being made the victims of a sinister
sis, and, the wiser for our experience, weight and a danger to peoples at the
leisurely well-ordered rhythm of coun- imperialism. Heads of missions often
we might perhaps be able to save other transitional stage of culture. There is
try life has all too often been replaced find that one of their most difficult
cultures from making the same mis- nothing more pathetic than the fate of
by joyless, soul-deadening toil. W e problems is to restrain ill-timed en-
takes and enduring the same sufferings the colored student who, having taken
have learned by now that no culture thusiasm and curb the impulse toward
as ourselves. When the transformation his degree at some great Western uni-
has succeeded in bringing into play premature innovation. Nowadays it is
is on a vast scale, the original culture versity, refuses to return to his own
all the potentialities of human nature the most highly cultivated representa-
may be shaken to its foundations or country or, returning there, tries to get
and that some of the humblest forms tives of the colored races who protest
even destroyed. As Dr. Gordon Bowles himself accepted by the representatives
of culture have solved problems that most vehemently when white men ad-
so aptly remarks: "The tragedy lies, of Western civilization. If he succeeds,
baffled the more highly developed, vise them to maintain their traditional
not in the disappearance of a culture, he becomes the enemy of his own
Higher standards of living—industrial- customs. They even tend to regard an-
it lies in the replacement of a func- group; and if, as more often happens,
ization—will inevitably destroy such thropologists as the agents of an in-
tioning society with a mass of disunited he fail's, he sinks into discouragement
values and thus tend toward the im- sidious imperialism which, under the
individuals who, as victims of circum- or turns to politics as an outlet for his
poverishment of the human race. The cloak of respect and affection, is striv-
stance, can fall easy prey to exploi- resentment.
choice lies not between gun's and but- ing to perpetuate its supremacy and
tation of one sort or another." All changes imposed from without,
ter but between butter and certain to debar the colored races from all
forms of art, certain religious or pfiilo- access to power and happiness, It all too frequently happens that the even when" supported by a central gov-
sophical traditions. The danger of A good example of the impatience plans made for assisting economically ernment, inevitably meet with oppo-
standardization is largely theoretical, shown in this respect by representa- backward peoples make no allowance sition, varying in intensity from one
for it must be remembered that re- tives of former "colonial" peoples is to for the tastes and feelings of those who country, background, and social class
quests for technical assistance and fun- be found in a United Nations report are to benefit from the so-called "im- to another. The apathy for which for-
damental education are being received on the Non-self-governing Territories provements." Economists and techni- eign experts so often blame native
from countries where development is (1951, p. 94). During a committee de- cians, because they deal in statistics workers is due in many instances to a
in full swing and which have to a great bate on vernacular languages, Mr. and handle practical problems, become latent antagonism which remains hid-
extent broken with their past traditions. Lopez, delegate from the Philippines, imbued with an alarming self-confi- den until, suddenly intensified, it breaks
It is the materially and spiritually im- said among other things that he "did dence. They seldom have any inkling out in open revolt. Indifference may
poverished countries which are calling not understand the somewhat roman- of the relationship that exists between also result from a lack of incentives.
most urgently for help in overcoming tic attachment evidenced in some quar- the various institutions of a group and Customs and institutions which to us
their present difficulties. ters for indigenous culture as such, fail to realize that its culture cannot seem harmful and incompatible with
be altered piecemeal. It requires the our conception of human happiness
No reasonable person could suppose however little developed it might be."
experience and acquired instinct of the may nevertheless represent, to the mem-
that it would be possible to turn vast He himself felt that the indigenous in-
anthropologist to foresee what reper- bers of certain groups, a source of satis-
areas of the world into preserves for habitants must be given access to a
cussions any slight change may have faction for which they are given no
the protection of native cultures. Even broader and more highly developed
on a society as a whole. It is the far- substitute. This applies particularly to
if, for sentimental reasons, we might culture in order to free them from prim-
reaching consequences of an appar- improvements that require a period of
wish to do so, the representatives of itive superstition. Sentimental consider-
ently desirable reform which, when years in which to make themselves felt.
the cultures concerned would undoubt- ations must not be allowed to become
perceived by the members of a particu- It is worth mentioning that economic
edly be the first to wish to escape from an obstacle in the path of progress of
lar society, give rise to opposition for development programs seldom take
their traditional way of life and to de- indigenous peoples, although that prog-
which the technicians and economists into account the gap between the tra-
nounce our efforts as unjust and dis- ress must be achieved gradually,
can find no explanation. Hygiene and ditional standards of life and the un-
criminatory. It must be remembered It cannot be denied, however, that
literacy are not in themselves a source bridled consumption which often fol-
that the initial impetus toward change too high a price is often paid for the
of happiness and prosperity. On the lows the rapid expansion of a new
and development has to come from the introduction of industrialism, and this
 886 Anthropology Today
type of economy. Anthropologists' have ate in the necessary changes. As Mar- Applied Anthropology in Government: United Nations 887
called the attention of economists to garet Mead has so aptly remarked, an ects than for technical assistance. As assistance or fundamental education
the demoralization which frequently innovation may produce widely differ- regards their nature and the kind of program. In this assessment, both the
accompanies a sudden increase in pur- ing results, according to the category data they are designed to assemble, methods applied and the resultant
chasing power and in supplies of con- or group of men who accept it: they are exactly similar to traditional changes should be taken into account,
sumer's goods whenever new wants in short, what the United Nations ethnographical inquiries. They merely If a technical assistance or fundamen-
are not simultaneously being created, and the specialized agencies require concentrate on the institutions and the tal education project is to be fairly
A tie-up must be established between
are the services of a number of good customs with which the educators will judged as a whole, a series of oper-
the interests of a culture and those re-
anthropologists whom they could em- have to deal in the country where they ations is necessary, roughly as follows:
sulting from the economic development
ploy in their economic development are to work. (1) preliminary "survey; (2) definite
or exploitation of a given region. Many
programs as well as in their technical UNESCO proposes to intrust these statement of aims in relation to meth-
troubles arising within communities
assistance and fundamental education investigations to a team headed by a ods; (3) keeping of systematic records;
which are in process of change come
projects. The main function of these social anthropologist but including (4) surveys of progress achieved and
precisely from the difficulty of harmo-
experts would consist of explaining to such other specialists as agronomists, effectiveness of methods used; and (5)
nizing traditional needs with the fresh
foreign
luieigii technicians the nature
Lecnmcians tne nature ot
of the
the medical practitioners, nutritionists, ex- follow-up survey to check on persist-
opportunities opened up by technologi- culture amid which they are working perts in soil conservation, etc. Anthro- ency of effects, a certain number of
pologists cannot fail to be grateful for years after end of project,
cal transformation. a n d in acting as spokesmen and in-
this support. No anthropologist, how- This schedule is, of course, appli-
No change will be accepted or pro- terpreters of scientific ,and industrial
ever able, can bring to the study of a cable to every one of the activities in-
duce a lasting effect unless it is based civilization to the members of that cul-
culture all the technical knowledge eluded in technical assistance pro-
on a system of values. The chief task ture. In this connection it should be
that is needed in order to understand grams, but the social sciences and an-
of the anthropologist in technical as- pointed out that an anthropologist not
it properly. Thus, when I was carrying thropology may well take it as their
sistance programs will be to discover only must be familiar with exotic cul-
out research in Marbial, I was glad to guide when assessing the general cul-
the psychological motives underlying tures but must also be able to take an
have the assistance of an agronomist, rural and social consequences,
customary behavior. If a culture is to objective and scientific view of the one
who, though knowing nothing of eth- The joint field working party which
be transformed, the innovations intro- • to which he himself belongs by birth
nography, was able to tell me about will be sent in 1952 under technical as-
duced, while meeting the wishes of and upbringing,
peculiarities in the local agriculture sistance to the Andean regions of South
individuals, must not clash with atti-
that I would have entirely overlooked. America to develop action programs in
tudes deeply rooted in that'culture. It WAYS IN WHICH ANTHROPOLO-
GISTS PARTICIPATE IN TECHNI- By studying in the light of modern countries with large indigenous popu-
is not enough, therefore, for the an-
CAL ASSISTANCE AND FUNDA- agronomy the agricultural methods lations has been instructed to adopt an
thropologist to be acquainted with the
MENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS used by the peasants, he was able to annroanh " m n W u- - - • -•"
social, economic, and religious struc-
show me their merits or faults as the approach "guided by a scientific and
ture of a group; he must also analyze It may be necessary for an anthro-
case might be. The same applies to all therefore objective evaluation of all the
the traditional usages, ideas, and sys- pologist to take part in each of the
aspects of the culture in question cov- complex social and economic variables
tem of values which together make up three phases of a technical assistance
ered by other branches of science. involved in the life and work of se-
what is called the ethos of any human project. While it is desirable that an-
group. thropologists should be included in any UNESCO is of the opinion that an lected indigenous groups." The official
The United Nations official publica- team of technicians and education ex- inquiry may be undertaken at the very document adds: "Only by a rigorous
„„~«™. *._«.*. u> iwjjiuuiuB aim euuuauun ex- application of scientific methods in-
outset of a project and that the data
tions outvie one another in declaring perts, so as to help them in their task j---,™^ «j.w mat tne aata eluding careful experimental design
that educational
all development in the assembled should be translated forth- a n d comparative checking of results
and spheres musteconomic and to guide their relations with the
be car- local population, their presence is al- with into action, for the inquiry ought achieved can practical' lessons be
ried out with and by the people to most a necessity at the preliminary to give the education expert or tech- learned .that will be applicable on a
whom technical assistance is given. stage. The Department of Social Sci- nician an insight into the problems he regional scale." Therefore, it has been
This principle imposes a further obli- ences of UNESCO attaches special im- will have to solve and show him their decided that the party will be headed
gation upon the anthropologist: that portance to the exploratory missions relative importance. by an anthropologist.
of seeking out, in the community con- which pave the way for any technical
cerned, those men who not only have assistance project and specifies that a Technical assistance and fundamen- As UNESCO is preparing a pam-
tal education are attaching increasing phlet on the methods applied in social
real authority but who also serve as social scientist must be included among
importance to evaluations. After sev- surveys, it is hoped that it will be pos-
models and examples to the rest of the five specialists stipulated. eral years, an anthropologist will be sible to make specific recommenda-
the population. It is they who must Preliminary surveys are even more asked to assess the nature and extent tions "on procedures and techniques
be won over and induced to co-oper- needed for fundamental education proj- of the changes that have been brought for an, objective evaluation of progress
about by the execution of a technical achieved."
 ^ r
Applied Anthropology in Government: United Nations 889
888 Anthropology Today must come from the countries them- important—by making an active contri-
The specialized agencies are contem- tical form to the mass of the people selves, which have to state both the bution to the mission, they will dispel
plating joint action to facilitate these who must apply it to the business of nature of the assistance and the type a prejudice entertained by various ad-
evaluations. The World Health Organi- living." This training will be focused of technicians required. No country has < ministrative circles with regard to an-
zation has already adopted an instru- mainly on the social sciences, with spe- felt the need for anthropologists or thropologists. The latter are often ac-
ment for such measurements and has cial reference to anthropology, psy- asked for their inclusion in a mission, cused of antiquarianism, of being en-
with the exception of Liberia, which grossed in all the traditional forms of
a standard pattern for reporting. The chology, and ecology, requested, at the suggestion of the late the cultures with which they are con-
methods adopted by WHO require that It is intended to inculcate
Dr. John Embree, an anthropologist cerned. It is feared that they uncon-
"the staff member in charge of a proj- ^ techni of c o m m u n i t y s t u d i e s . m e
as head of the group of educators it sciously take the side of the most con-
ect define his objective and measure u s e o f s o d a l s c i e n c e m e m 0 Q S j oi statistical
needed. The choice of a competent servative elements in the cultures in
his success m achieving as an integral ^ a census
and census techniques,
tecnimjucj, „* of cartography, of
part of his work." It should, however, " 1-1- ~~*
a L anthropologist for such a responsible process of transformation. By playing
technical* (health and n««fmltnral1
agricultural) sur- sur- position appeared indispensable in a direct part in an economic develop-
be added that WHO is not yet con- veys, the use of community studies as a view of the cultural diversity of the ment project, the anthropologist will
basis for educational and economic plans;
cerning itself with the socio-economic the necessity for striking a balance be- region and the impossibility of apply- allay these misgivings and no longer
implications of its missions. tween planning and the spontaneous de- ing an educational scheme regardless be styled "reactionary."
velopment of a project by popular activity of the cultural backgrounds of the vari- Although anthropologists can, in a
ESTABLISHMENT OF A BRIEFING ous ethnic groups living within the pinch, be experts on education or agri-
CENTER
CENTER FOR FOR EXPERTS
EXPERTS IN THE in response
IN THE 1
to local
locai needs
iwwua as « they
«« 7 are __ felt
FIELDS OF FUNDAMENTAL EDU- and expressed; '"'• the^ impossibility
imnossibilitv of impos- borders of this Negro republic. Other- culture, there is one role they must
CATION AND TECHNICAL ASSIST- ing progress upon a people; the need for wise, even when technical assistance never undertake—that of administrator.
ANCE periodic assessment of progress, the tech- deems the participation of anthropolo- Control of a project and ethnographic
The problems and difficulties that nique of evaluation against the bench mark gists in a project to be desirable, it re- research are utterly incompatible. One
may be encountered by technical as- of W survey, language problems and the frains from making any such suggestion and the same person cannot be asked
. / i r '.T -.a- codmcahon and use ot vernacular lan- out of consideration for the wishes of to distribute work, appoint or dismiss
sistance experts when unfamiliar with ,„„ the country concerned. a staff, take decisions regarding build-
, ,r _ , . i,-, euages. As there is no prospect of any change ings or the adoption of new methods,
or utterly ignorant or the cultural back- in this situation, anthropologists will and, at the same time, go from hut to
ground of the country in which they Instruction in educational methods hut collecting information on the be-
be able to perform the useful services
are working have not been overlooked will also be largely based on the ex- liefs and the customs of the people.
expected of them only if they are as-
by the techncial assistance services. At perience of anthropologists and their The ethnographer is obliged to show a
signed to a mission not in their ca-
a meeting of the technical assistance recommendations, so that the experts certain humility and familiarity which
board in Paris, UNESCO suggested the may gain a clear idea of the approach pacity as anthropologists but as ex-
perts who can take an active part in are inconsistent with the authoritative
establishment of a center for training necessary for illiterate and so-called attitude that must be assumed by the
and orientation of European technical "primitive" peoples (the avoidance of any given project. Apart from their
general scientific training, they will be administrator. How could he refuse his
assistance experts, on the understand- paternalism, the treatment of super-
required to have a practical knowledge main informers the positions and ad-
ing that a similar center would be set stition and taboos, the use of appropri-
of one of the fields in which most ap- vantages they ask of him? It would be
up in the United States of America. ate symbolisms, etc.).
plications for technical assistance are difficult for him to recommend the in-
One of the chief aims of such a cen-
ter would be to arrange for anthro- LIMITATIONS AND DUTIES received: fundamental education, agri- troduction of health measures and mod-
pologists to give instruction to experts 0 F
ANTHROPOLOGISTS cultural propaganda, health, drives, etc. em hygiene if he spends his time ques-
to enable them to "perform their as- Having thus defined the functions of It is possible—and this is borne out by tioning medicine men and coaxing them
signments with a minimum of friction the anthropologist, we shall now turn facts—to combine a broad training in to give information on their practices.
and a maximum of understanding and our attention to what has actually been anthropology with practical skill. It is The ethnographer acting as a member
adjustment to the cultural environment accomplished. It must be admitted that, in this technical guise, then, that an- of a technical assistance or fundamen-
of under-developed countries." in practice, the hopes of anthropolo- thropologists may be assigned to field tal education mission should have the
UNESCO has also engaged in the gists have been disappointed. In a work for technical assistance. And this standing and the functions of adviser,
training of experts, so that, quite apart year only one anthropologist has been will be no disadvantage to the anthro- together with absolute freedom.
from their technical knowledge, they employed in a UNESCO technical as- pologists. The need to take part in the The monograph Fundamental Edu-
may be acquainted with fundamental sistance project. This failure to give "spadework" will give them a clearer cation, in which UNESCO has summed
education methods "to assist the assimi- practical effect to clearly expressed in- realization of the difficulties encoun- up its concept of the methods and aims
lation of skills and ideas, in other words tentions is attributable to the ma- tered by technicians. And—still more of fundamental education, contains a
to enable these specialists to interpret chinery employed for the granting of
their technology in digestible and prac- [ assistance. As we- have seen, requests
890 Anthropology
paragraph which might well be pon-
dered by anthropologists. Among those
things experts should ask themselves
when evaluating the results of a funda-
mental education project, we find the
following criteria, in the form of ques-
tions:
Is there evidence that the people are
taking increasing interest in studying their
traditions, customs and institutions with a
view to developing better standards and
to adjusting them to the requirements of
modern living? Are they keeping up their
traditional practices and attitudes of fam-
ily solidarity without developing in the
youth undue hostility towards or depend-
ence upon paternalism? Do they examine
their beliefs and practices so as to rid them
of superstitious elements? Is their friendli-
ness increased rather than diminished as a
result of their contacts with "civilization"
and the ways of "civilized peoples"?
These questions presuppose that ed-
ucators know what are the best ele-
ments in any culture. The anthropolo-
gist may reasonably wonder whether
this is so, and he is entitled to ask
fundamental education services to de-
fine the ethical principles which guide
them in deciding whether an institu-
tion is good or bad.
Educators could, of course, hand
over this responsibility to anthrqpolo-
gists. The latter would, however, doubt-
less find it perplexing, wedded as they
are to their ethnocentric view of cul-
ture. Furthermore, they would have to
ask themselves the following questions:
ds*. L11CI113G1VCO un, muu.. ^—£, -j
Are cultures so precious that they are
worth preserving at the expense of
their representatives? Is culture of
greater value than the people in whom
it is vested? Do not the members of
any given culture have the right to re-
ject it outright if they think fit? And
are not the essential features of a cul-
ture better preserved in many cases
by the acceptance than by the rejec-
tion of changes?
The time has surely come to arrange
Today
for specialists to discuss these weighty
problems. The question was raised at
a meeting of the Committee on Inter-
national Relations in Anthropology;
and the American Anthropological As-
sociation, on the recommendation of
this committee, adopted the following
proposal:
That the Executive Board of the Ameri-
can Anthropological Association recom-
mend to the Director-General of UNESCO
the establishment of a representative^ In-
ternational Commission of UNESCO to
define the meaning of culture in terms of
the positive right of peoples of the world
to their ways of life.
This commission would be instructed
to define the concept of culture and to
specify its practical implications in the
revolutionary period through which we
are passing, for, as Professor Hersko-
vits so rightly remarks:
The time has come, it would seem, for
wider dissemination of its [culture] impli-
cations, so that it can be used by all whose
concern is to make most effective the ad-
justment, especially of native, primitive
peoples, to an expanding world scene.
This proposal was sympathetically re-
ceived, and action is being taken with
a- view
- — to the convening of the confer-
ence contemplated in the resolution,
HUMAN RIGHTS AND
ANTHROPOLOGY
Under UNESCO's auspices, the sup-
port of physical and cultural anthropoi-
r _ ^ j
ogy has been enlisted for the campaign
against racial prejudice and discrimi-
nation. UNESCO has assumed respon-
sibility for propagating and winning
public
for the support throughout
Universal the ofworld
Declaration Hu-
-- • ' •"-• i - •
man Rights issued by the United . r Na-
TT__
tions. This responsibility fell to it by
reason of its structure and functions.
In the campaign to combat racial prej-
udice, which has become almost a re-
Iigion, it was necessary to secure the
Applied Anthropology in Government: United Nations 891
co-operation of anthropologists, who the majority of well-known geneticists
have long demonstrated the absurdity and physical anthropologists, so as to
of the so-called "scientific" bases of receive their approval or criticism be-
racial prejudice. fore its final publication.
The Economic and Social Council,, We may question the expediency of-
at its sixth session, voted a resolu- statements drawn up by a group for
tion by which the director-general of subsequent presentation to the public
UNESCO was requested "to consider as the Voice of Science. Scientifically,
the desirability of initiating and rec- such declarations serve some useful
ommending the general adoption of a purpose, in that they compel scientists
programme of disseminating scientific to take general stock of their field of
facts designed to remove what is gen- knowledge so as to ascertain where full'
erally known as racial prejudice." As agreement may be reached and where
a result, the general conference of it is still remote. UNESCO, by encour-
UNESCO, at its fourth session, adopt- aging such meetings, breaks down the'
ed the following resolutions for the isolation of certain scientists and brings
1950 program: *To study and collect them into contact with the representa-
scientific materials concerning ques- tives of related disciplines. Lastly, it is
tions of race, to give wide diffusion desirable for the public to know that
to the scientific information collected, common sense and science do not find
and to prepare an educational cam- the same answers to certain questions
paign based on this information." and that it is rash to pass judgment on
Such a program could not be carried problems that have not yet been solved
out unless UNESCO had at its disposal by patient research.
the "scientific facts" mentioned in the
The Department of Social Sciences
resolution of the Economic and Social was instructed to carry out a number
Council. In view of the confusion exist- of surveys into the sociological aspects
ing with regard to the concept of race of the racial question. In its chbice of
and the diversity of opinions on the subjects, it was'guided by the principle
implications of that concept, it was that surveys should be planned from
found necessary to convene a group the international standpoint and should
of experts and' seek their opinion. In produce practical results that hold
December, 1949, ten -anthropologists good for the whole community of na-
and sociologists met in Paris to draw tions. We possess a considerable body
up a statement in which they endeav- of information on the nature of racial
ored to summarize the present attitude prejudice, its effects and dangers. The
of scientists toward the question of time has come to turn our attention to
race. This document received wide- definite'matters: first and foremost, the
spread publicity and met with the ap- study of societies where the existence
proval of the general public. However, of different races has not led to conflict
it was sharply' criticized by physical but to a modus Vivendi which can be
anthropologists and biologists, espe- described as successful or tolerable.
cially in England, and a second confer- Such is the case in Brazil. Accordingly,
ence^ was convened, confined this time in 1951, UNESCO undertook a large-
to representatives of the biological sci- scale survey of the main aspects of rela-1
ences. A second statement was drafted, tions between the black and white
the conclusions of which, though no peoples in five typical areas of that
different' from those of the first, were country: Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de
free of the faults which had been cen- Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and the inland areas
sured. This new text was submitted to of the northeast. These surveys, which
 892 Anthropology Today
Applied Anthropology in Government; United Nations 893
were conducted by Brazilian scientists CONCLUSIONS
tionship has been implanted, the only lacking in the younger generation, they
with the co-operation of a few foreign The place that may be taken by an- service that anthropology can render to must refrain from taking sides with the
scientists, have shed much light on the thropology in the work of the United the United Nations will be the provi- former. Anthropological method does
real nature of interracial relations and Nations and the influence it may exert ..»..*.with
sion of advisers to work u^j uiv
the piuvi-
tech- nnf in if-cdf oT~«~ „..XE-~ *~
the causes of friction that are beginning depend entirely upon the future of the sion of advisers to work with the tech- not, in itself alone, suffice to qualify an-
to emerge under the pressure of eco- social sciences. It may be doubted nical assistance and fundamental edu- thropologists as interpreters of alien
nomic factors. whether the world is yet ready to sub- cation missions. The scope of their cultures; a long familiarity with such
UNESCO's present program provides mit its conflicts and tensions to scien- functions must, however, be strictly cultures is indispensable, as are quali-
for a general critical study of the posi- tific analysis. UNESCO's Department limited. They will be merely the inter- ties of mind and heart that science can-
tive measures that have been or are be- of Social Sciences was intrusted by the preters or, so to speak, the advocates not confer. Anthropology makes it pos-
ing taken in various countries to en- general conference, at which sixty of two cultures between which contact sible to obtain a clear and rapid in-
able racial minorities fully to enjoy states were represented, with the task is established. It is not for them to de- sight into a complex body of institu-
their rights. The practical value of such 0 f investigating the origin of tensions cide what changes shall be introduced tions, but it does not always bring with
research therefore depends on whether likely to lead to war. This investigation or to act as dictators, for, whether they it a feeling for the shades of thought
the effectiveness of the methods so far w a s skilfully conducted by qualified will or no, they belong to a particular and emotion that are inseparable from
employed to prevent racial or other specialists, but it cannot be said to have culture and share its ideals and its prej- the values of any culture. That is why
discrimination can be scientifically as- had the slightest practical effect. udices. They_, must rest content
—^w.^ with in- the
..mi un- uie task
LasK of
or the
tne anthropologist
antnropologist is
is so
so dif-
dif-
sessed. The Subcommission on Preven- Are we to resign ourselves to the dis- dicating those underlying influences by ficult and why the results he achieves
tion of Discrimination and Protection appointment of the hopes that many which the men of a given culture are are sometimes equaled by people who
of Minorities has already listed the con- people had placed in social science? I impelled—remembering that cultures lack his scientific training,
stitutional and legislative provisions do not think so. The results achieved evolve and that they are far from being By proclaiming the importance of
which all the member-states of the by patient investigation will sooner or identical, even within one homogeneous culture, by pointing out the danger of
United Nations have enacted to insure later become part of the common her- society. They must be conscientious preaching science and industrialization
civic equality for all. In many cases the jtage of our civilization and will influ- enough to restrain their sympathy for with injudicious zeal, anthropologists
letter of the law is far from being ob- e n c e the outlook of those responsible any particular group and give fair treat- have indirectly rendered a signal serv-
served in actual practice. The tremen- f 0 r the conduct of international affairs. ment to recalcitrants and opponents. If ice to the United Nations and to such
dous advantage of anthropological Natural science will no longer be alone in a given society the elders seem to governments as have been willing to
methods is that they enable us to come j n setting up trends of thought which them to possess a charm and wisdom listen to them.
to closer grips with reality and to dis- g i v e a new turn to the course of history. BIBLIOGRAPHY
pel illusions based on appearances and x h e concept of culture and environ-
official statements. BOWLES, GORDON T. 1950. "Point Four
m e n t is certainly the most valuable Fundamental Education: Description and
and Improved Standards of Living," Programme. 1949. "Monographs on Fun-
Accordingly, the Department of So- contribution that anthropology has Annals of the American Academy of Po-
cial Sciences would uke to make a made to contemporary thought. When litical and Social Sciences (March), pp. damental Education." Paris: UNESCO.
study of the real effects of the assimi- this concept has penetrated the public 144-47. The Haiti Pilot Project. Phase One, 1947-
lation policies pursued in various colo- as a whole, it will no doubt breed a 1949. 1951. Paris: UNESCO.
Expanded Programme of Technical Assist- HOYT, ELISABETH E. 1951. "Want Devel-
nial countries and to assess the nature spirit of tolerance between the various ance. 1951. Third report of the Techni- opment in Underdeveloped Areas,"
and scope'of the changes which the ef- nations and cultures which is far from cal Assistance Board to the Technical Journal of Political Economy, LIX, No.
forts of the colonizers have brought existing at present. The idea of bio- Assistance Committee, United Nations, 3 (June), 194-202.
about in the customs and mentality of logical predestination will give way to Economic and Social Council, E/2054.
KENNARD, EDWARD A. 1948. "Cultural An-
the native peoples. The educated native the idea that change is unending and Experience with Human Factors in Agri- thropology and the Foreign Service."
is one of the burning problems of the that man is master of his fate. Nothing cultural Areas of the World. 1949. U.S. Reprinted from American Foreign Serv-
world today, and one that a better is more valuable to the politician and Department of Agriculture: Extension ice Journal (November), pp. 18-19, 42,
Service and Office of Foreign Agricul- 44.
knowledge of his cultural background the administrator than a sense of the
tural Relations.
and the changes it has undergone may interrelationship of cultures. That alone LINTON, RALPH. 1950. "An Anthropologist
Fundamental Education: Common Ground Views Point Four," American Perspec-
help us to understand. This is a com- can provide the adaptability which is for All Peoples. 1947. Report of a Spe-
plex and important task on which needed in dealing with men of so many tive, IV, No. 2 (spring), 113-21.
cial Committee to the Preparatory Com- MEAD, MARGARET. 1946. "Professional
UNESCO may have, sooner or later, to different ethnic groups. mission of the United Nations Educa- Problems of Education in Dependent
u tional, Scientific, and Cultural Organi-
embark. Until this sense of cultural interrela- Countries," Journal of Negro Education,
zation. Paris: UNESCO. XV, No. 3 (summer), 346-57.
 Anthropology
894
„ and the UNESCO pilot-Project of Mar-
bial (Haiti)," America indigena, IX, No.
,3, (July), 183-94.
——. 19Ella. "Technical Assistance and
Anthropology" American Anthropolo-
gist, .LIII, No. 3 (July-September)',
419-20.
. 1951&. "UNESCO and Anthropol-
ogy," ibid., No. 2 (April-June), pp. 294r-
300.
MOORE, WILBERT E . 1948. "Theoretical
Aspects of Industrialization " Social Re-
search, XV, No. 3 (September), 277- Technical Assistance for Economic Devel-
3p3.
Non-self-governing Territories: Summaries
and Analyses of Information Transmit-
ted to the Secretary-General during
1950, Vol. III. 1951. New York: United
Nations.
Today
the Trusteeship Council, 25 April, 1947.
1947. New York: United'Nations, fras-'
teeship Council.
Technical Assistance for Economic Devel-
opment: A Human Approach^ 1951.
("UNESCO and Its Progr'amme," No.
5.) Paris; UNESCO.
Technical Assistance for Economic Devel-
opment: Plan for an Expanded Cooperd-
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Lake Success, N.Y.: United Nations.
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and the Specialized Agencies. 1950.
("International Conciliation" No. 457.)
New York: Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace.
T e c h n i c a l A i d s i n
A H i s t o r i c a l
By J O H N H O W L A N D R O W E
INTRODUCTION
THIS PAPER, deals w i t h -the application
of technological knowledge and labo-
ratory methods to the problems of an-
thropological research and teaching.
One important part of this field, the
subject of age determination, is omitted
because it is, being covered in other
papers by Robert F. Heizer and Ken-
neth Oakley. Eyen with this omission,
the subject is a vast one, with an abun-
dant and widely scattered literature,
and time has not permitted} me to cover
it-with any degree of thoroughness.
We owe to Paul Fejos the first or-
ganized treatment of the'field of tech-
nical aids in anthropology, offered as a
course in Columbia University in 1951-
52. It was this course which inspired
the planning committee to include the
subject in the program of the Interna-
tional Symposium o n ' Anthropology.
Fejos generously placed his wide expe-
rience at my disposal, and this paper
owes much to his guidance and coun-
sel. My appreciation -is due also to nu-
merous other colleagues who have been
most generous with bibliographical ref-
erences, and -information about unpub-
lished, new developments. I am espe-
cially grateful to A. >L. Kroeber, Junius
B. Bird, Lita S. Binns, Margaret T. J.
Rowe, Robert F. Heizer, Theodore D.
McCown, S. L. Washburn, John Collier,
895
A n t h r o p o l o g y :
S u r v e y
Jr., Barbara R. Honeyman, Lucile E.
Hoyme,' Clement W. Meighan, Sol Tax,
Robert H. Lowie, C. W. Asling, and
Bernard G. Hoffman. Only lack of time
prevented me from approaching many
other colleagues with long lists of ques-
tions.
In taking stock of the situation of
anthropology in 1952, the reader will
probably want to ask how much use
has been made of technical aids in an-
thropological research. The material in
this paper will help to answer this ques-
tion, but it has certain limitations
which must be kept in mind:
1. I have used a broad definition of
anthropology in selecting the studjes to
be surveyed, including any project
which has some relevance to subjects
that anthropologists are interested in.
Many of these studies are not by an-
thropologists and were not published
in ap anthropological context.
2. In spite of a deliberate effort to
include studies made in other countries
in this survey, I have not succeeded in
covering developments abroad in the
same detail as those in the United
States.
3. The fact that some technological
method has been used successfully once
or twice in solving a problem of an-
thropological interest does not by-any
means indicate that it is common