The Problem and It's Background: Methods of Criminal Research

METHODS OF CRIMINAL RESEARCH
Chapter 1 The Problem and It’s Background

I. PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
1.1 The Introduction and the Background:

 Should provide an overview of and rationale for the study.
 Should include background information on the importance
and the validity of the problem under investigation.
 Should capture the interest of the reader.
Preparation of introductory remarks entails:

 Reading a lot of literature in your field of concentration and
being critical;
 Attending professional lectures, colloquia or seminars;
 Subscribing to journals in your field, and;
 Building up some library materials
Ways of making Introduction:

 Define the major concepts to be used in the study;
 Cite some conclusions or findings of previous research which
prompted you to conduct a study or extension study on the
problem;
 Describe the prevailing situation of the phenomenon today;
 Cite available statistics showing the importance of the
problem.
Requisites of a good background:
 State the antecedent of your study.
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

ANTECEDENT- reasons why the topic is being proposed relative to previous

studies
 You may use variables which are interest to the writer and the
reader and define the parameters of the study.
Example:
Introduction
The school today has the dual function of developing in students

both cognitive power and an adequate self-concept. Too often, however,
our educational system is giving more emphasis on the acquisition of
intellectual skills primarily at the expense of the individual’s self-concept
and self-identity. The growth of both intellectual skills and a strong
character are indispensible necessities for boys and girls growing up in a
society like ours f they are to achieve productive, useful and decent lives
themselves. A disparaging self-concept does not permit the best growth of
intellectual power and an inadequate development of cognitive power,
and may in turn, hinder or may even cause harm in the growth of an
individual’s total personality. It is with these factors in mind that an attempt
is made to determine if our knowledge and understanding of the students’
self-concept would relate to his academic achievement thereby making
it valuable in assisting teachers and school guidance counsellors to identify
potential problem students.
Education is concerned with the broad construct of investigating

and exploring, in a very logical and systematic way, oneself. It is the belief
of the researcher that the self-concept of an individual are transformed
into his future. Learning about self is much more meaningful and relevant
to an individual when done in relation to his preparation for whatever plan
he has in life.

REMINDER:
 It is essential that you must make a smooth transition into the
next section which is a theoretical framework.
1.2. The Theoretical Framework:

THEORY- Integrated sets of propositions that serve as an explanation
for a class of phenomena.
 In general, theories are introduced into a science only after a
class of phenomena has already revealed a systematic set of
uniformities. However, it remain areas of conjecture of
incomplete knowledge of underlying entities or processes; and
propositions are formulated in order to fill in the gaps and to
afford a better understanding of the observed phenomena.
 Theories are based on limited empirical evidence and so on in
their initial stages are constructed on a foundation of inductive
reasoning.
Inductive Reasoning- Uniformities are observed in nature but certain

aspects are poorly understood or cannot be related to known facts.
 Using deductive reasoning, the scientist formulates

propositions or statements that will coherently and
systematically relate all observed phenomena.
 Theoretical framework require careful definition, preferably
in terms of already established facts or entities if they are to
be clear, precise, scientifically useful and ultimately
testable or verifiable.
 Theories also provide propositions for testing that may
subsequently, if verified, become new scientific laws.

Reminders in making Theoretical Framework:

 Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific
theories that underpin your study. This includes noting who are
the key theorists are in the field who have conducted research
in the problem you are investigating and when necessary, the
historical context that supports the formulation of that theory.
 Position your theoretical framework within a broader context
of related frameworks, concepts, models or theories.
 The present tense is used when writing about the theory.
 You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as
possible.
Strategies to develop an effective theoretical framework:
1. Examine your thesis title and research problem.
2. Brainstorm on what you consider to be the key variables in your
research. Answer the question, what factors contribute to the
presumed effect?
3. Review related literature to find answers to your research
question.
4. Lists the constructs and the variables.
5. Review the key social science theories that are introduced to
you in your course readings and choose the theory that best
explain the key variables in your study.
6. Discuss the assumptions and propositions of this theory and
point out their relevance to your research.

Example:
Theoretical Framework
A person’s self-regard is a focal component of personality that is an important

dimension of adjustment. What a person believes about himself constitutes a kind
of internalized roadmap for living. Monge (1973) claimed that a person’s beliefs
about himself serve as the central focus of his personal lifestyle and his pattern for
social living. He said that self-concept is largely a social product, developed
principally from the reflected appraisals of the significant others in one’s life.
Well adjusted people have reasonably satisfactory self-concept and accept

themselves as they are, quite reluctantly at times and without thinking very much
about it at other times (Allport, 1961)… They can admit and tolerate the discrepancy
between their self-concept and their concept of the ideal. Their self- actualization
is such that they do not need to pose or be defensive (Maslow, 1964 and Rogers,
1961).
According to Jersild and others (1975) the child’s view of himself never exactly
reflects other people’s picture of him, but it is certainly greatly influenced by others.
If these important people and groups in the child’s world perceive and conceive of
him as worthwhile, it is almost impossible for him to value himself highly. The evidence
indicates that these self- images are pretty well formed before children enter school.
This is one of the various reasons why numerous people believe that these early years
are crucial in personality development.
It is the theory that these study therefore tries to advocate, that is, the child’s self-
concept is considered to be an indispensable determinant of his social interactions
and personality adjustment. That the self-concept of the child is very important to
his achievement because it affects the level of aspiration and self-expectation is
the forearm of research. If the child has a poor view of himself, it will aggravate
inherent intellectual or cognitive problems and difficulties or such other physical
disabilities. Conversely, if the child views himself as worthwhile, it is possible that he
will value himself highly.

Thus the main purpose of this study is to determine whether the

self-concept of the high school students in two schools, one, a
private secondary school, and the other, a public secondary school,
is related to academic achievement and to other non-intellective
factors.
GUIDELINES CONCERNING THE THEORITICAL AND CONCEPTUAL

FRAMEWORKS
1. The research should have a theoretical underpinning that provides
the legitimate basis for defining its parameters. It is a theory, not the
existence of a relationship that provides or confers meaning on
relationship variables.
2. The goal of scientific investigation is to advance theories to explain

the realities it deals with. Hence, theories are assembles and modified
gradually through continuous interaction with an on-going
observation and data analysis.
3. Research is useful in evaluating and testing theories while theory is

used to guide and direct research. A theory can be compared to a
prospector’s map which leads a researcher to a rich mine that may
never be found by an unguided hit-or-miss search alone (Kerlinger,
p.45 and Kidder, p.43).
WHY USE THEORY IN RESEARCH?

Theory is used in research because:
1. As orientation, theories narrow down the range of facts that one
need to study.

2. Any problems may be studied in a number of different ways;

theory suggests which ways are likely to yield the greatest
meaning.
3. Theory summarizes what is known about an object of study and

states the uniformities that lie beyond the immediate observation;
hence may also be used to predict further facts which should be
found.
4. A theory is useful in organizing existing data meaningfully in a
scientific investigation.
5. A theory can be a useful device in interpreting, criticizing and

unifying established scientific laws, modifying them in the face of
unanticipated data, guiding the discovery of new and more
powerful generalizations.

I. Definition of Terms:
a. Paradigm or models or patterns- well- developed descriptive analogies
used to help visualize phenomena that can be directly observed.
- Is a projection of a possible system of relationships among
phenomena in verbal, material, graphic or symbolic terms
b. Replica Models- are usually material or pictorial representations made
with a change in temporal or spatial scale.
c. Symbolic Models- tend to be intangible, using abstract, verbal graphic
or symbolic representation to stand for conceptual systems (Kerlinger,
p.210).
Features of a Symbolic Model:
 It contains a set of representations (or symbols) of something.
 It processes and manipulates those representations based on
a set of rules programmed into the model.
 The rules operate on the representations according to their
'shape' or syntax, not according to what they represent (their semantics).
Example:
The symbol '1' is character. In normal text, it represents the number
one. When you read this text, you probably read it as a one. But this is a
matter of interpretation, not a property of the symbol itself. For example,
we could use the same symbol to represent the state of being 'on'. In fact,
we do use it in this way on certain appliances — switches often have '0' and
'1' marked on them to represent that the appliance is 'off' and 'on'
respectively. The interpretation of the symbol (its semantics) is independent
of the shape of the symbol (its syntax).

Research Paradigm (Conceptual Framework) - is a model that shows the

interrelationship among concepts stated in a theory.
- It serves to simplify and organize the process of research and
provides the grounds of interpreting and generalizing the empirical data to
be obtained later.
- The overall purpose of developing conceptual framework is
to make research findings meaningful and generalisable. Is your
developed conceptual framework conveying this message?
II. What inputs go into developing a conceptual framework?

a. Experiential knowledge of student and supervisor:

– Technical knowledge.
– Research background.
– Personal experience.
– Data (particularly for qualitative).
b. Literature review:
– Prior ‘related’ theory – concepts and relationships that are
used to represent the world, what is happening and why.
– Prior ‘related’ research – how people have tackled ‘similar’
problems and what they have learned.
– Other theory and research - approaches, lines of investigation
and theory that are not obviously relevant/previously used.
III. How might a conceptual framework be developed?
 The pieces of the conceptual framework are borrowed but the
researcher provides the structure. To develop the structure you could:
– Identify the key words used in the subject area of your study.
– Draw out the key things within something you have already
written about the subject area – literature review.
– Take one key concept, idea or term at a time and brainstorm
all the other things that might be related and then go back
and select those that seem most relevant.
 Whichever is used it will take time and a number of iterations
and the focus is both on the content and the inter-relationships.
IV. General Forms of Conceptual Frameworks:

a. Process frameworks
– Set out the stages through which an action moves from
initiation to conclusion. These relate to the ‘how?’ question.
10

b. Content frameworks
– Set out the variables, and possibly the relationship (with relative
strengths) between them, that together answer the ‘why?’ question.
V. Specific Forms of Conceptual Framework:

The possibilities include:
a. Flow charts- used in designing and documenting simple
processes or programs.
Figure 1. A flow chart of an Innovative Decision Making
b. Tree diagrams- Graphic tool which systematically breaks

down, and then maps out in increasing detail, all components or elements
of a condition, phenomenon, process, or situation, at successive levels or
stages.
11

Figure 2. A Tree Diagram of a changing costumer behavior
c. Shape based diagrams – triangles, concentric circles,

overlapping circles.
Figure 3. Triangle of needs
12

d. Mind maps- powerful graphic technique which provides a

universal key to unlock the potential of the brain.
Figure 4. Example of a MindMap
13

e. Soft systems- an approach to organizational process modeling

(business process modelling) and it can be used both for general problem
solving and in the management of change.
- primary use of SSM is in the analysis of complex situations where there
are divergent views about the definition of the problem .
Figure 5. Example of a Soft System Model
14

VI. Types of Conceptual Frameworks:

a. For Basic Research: Cause-Effect Relationship- this is usually
represented by the Independent-Dependent Variable Model.
Causal Diagram is a graphical tool that enables the visualisation
of causal relationships between variables in a causal model.
- Statements about association are usually stated in terms of a
relationship between an independent and a dependent variable. The
idea is that one variable is the effect of another variable or, to say it another
way, that one variable precedes and/or causes another.
- The dependent variable is the variable to be explained (the
‘effect”).
- The independent variable is the variable expected to account
for (the “cause” of) the dependent variable.
15

Figure 6. Example of a Causal Diagram
b. For Applied Research: Means-and-Ends Relationship

c. Means-end is a rigorous research method that employs the
laddering interviewing technique. It is used to uncover the underlying
emotions, consequences, and personal values that drive consumer choice.
It is a hybrid of qualitative and quantitative research approaches.
d. Is based on a theory that product and service attributes are
associated with consequences, or product benefits and risks, and even the
personal values the product can help consumers fulfill.
16

Figure 7. Example of a Means-End Relationship Model
c. For Evaluation Studies: The System Model or the Input-Process-Output

 System Model was devised by Stoner, Freeman and Gilbert, Jr.
(1995).
 A system model has flows of information, materials and energy
(including human energy) that enter the system from the environment as
inputs (raw materials, for example), undergo transformation processes
within the system (operations that alter them) and exit the systems as
outputs.
 A feedback mechanism is installed and is considered as the
key to system controls.
 As operations of the system proceed, information is fed back
to the appropriate people and, perhaps to a computer, so that the work
can be assessed and, if necessary, corrected.
Figure 8. Example of a Universal Systems Model
17

“The Security Policy and Procedures in the Computer Network Facility of

Selected Government Institutions in Metro Manila”
VII. Why are conceptual frameworks useful?
18

Conceptual frameworks provide researchers with:

– The ability to move beyond descriptions of ‘what’ to
explanations of ‘why’ and ‘how’.
– A means of setting out an explanation set that might be used
to define and make sense of the data that flow from the research question.
– A filtering tool for selecting appropriate research questions and
related data collection methods.
– A reference point/structure for the discussion of the literature,
methodology and results.
– The boundaries of the work.
VIII. What are the limitations of a conceptual framework?
Conceptual frameworks, however, also have problems in that the
framework:
– Is influenced by the experience and knowledge of the
individual – initial bias.
– Once developed will influence the researcher’s thinking and
may result in some things being given prominence and others being
ignored – ongoing bias.
– The solution is to revisit the conceptual framework, particularly
at the end when evaluating your work.
References
Brion Juan C., DPA,Thesis and Dissertation Writing Without Anguish.
Vaughan Roger, Conceptual Framework, 2008
LESSON 4. Statement of the Problem
19

After you have identified your problem which may have come from
the following sources – your specialization, observations, institutions, or both
from undergraduate programs. Your job or occupation, events in related,
theories, practices/ need or may be off-shoot or extension of previous
studies, replication of studies, from funding agencies or research sponsors,
habits, and interest, authorities, friendly conversations advisers/professors,
other teachers, in lectures or seminars, from technological changes, class,
discussion, interactions, professional, journals or personal curiosity, you can
now state your research problem.
You have to settle first the problem of selecting which problem to
research on. You may use any of the following criteria as the basis for
selecting your problem: Technical and personal.
TECHNICAL CRITERIA PERSONAL CRITERIA
 Significant to chosen field/  interest
advancement of science or  training
specialization  expertise
 Pioneering or novel  financial capacity
 Originality  time factor involved
 Arouse intellectual curiosity in the project
 Relevance to degree
 Availability or manageability of
data
 Availability or instruments
The statement of the problem I an important introduction materials

found in Chapter 1. We are aware that the starting point of any research is
the identification and definition of the research problem. This step is the
most difficult one because, while there are some guidelines in the selection
and narrowing down of problem, these are unlike the technical rules and
requirements in the choice of research design and measurements. Often
20

these are only based on interest, skills or workability. It is the basic issue or
area of concern, the situation which exist and then how it ought to be. It
should be defined precisely and the summary questions which will be
answered by the proposed research should be stated. The problem may
be stated in question from or given as a declarative statement.
WAYS OF STATING YOUR RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Statement of Research Objective. Focus on a clear goal or
objectives. State your precise goal. The problem should be limited
enough in scope making a definite conclusion possible. The major
statement or questions may be followed by minor statements or
questions. The introductory statement must be the purpose / aim or
the objective of the study.
Example:
The main objective of this study is to determine the causes of
insurgency in Cagayan. Furthermore, it attempts to find out how two groups
of respondents differ in their perception of the causes of insurgency in the
province.
You will notice that this is clearly stated sentence or two which tell
exactly what you expect to do.
2. Statement of hypothesis to be answered or tested by the research.
If the goal is specifically to test a given hypothesis then state so. In

many cases, the objective will be a more general statement than
that of a hypothesis alone.
Example:
21

The primary objective of this study is to test the hypothesis that there
is a relationship between salary increase and job satisfaction.
3. Statement of problem questions to be answered by the research.

These are sometimes called investigation questions.
Investigative questions are the specific topical questions that

you must resolve in order to achieve your research objective or to
test your hypothesis.
Example:
Specifically, It attempts to find answers to the following questions:
1. How do the local government administrators , the religious group and
the logging and agri-business managers perceive the problem of
insurgency in Cagayan in terms of:
1.1 causes of insurgency
1.2 the extent of strength and influence of the insurgents on the
people of Cagayan and the
1.3 Strategies and dissident activities of the insurgents?
2. What is the perception of the three groups of respondents regarding
the impact of insurgency on the local government administration of
Cagayan?
3. What is the perception of the three groups of respondents regarding
the impact of insurgency on business in Cagayan?
4. How do the three groups of respondents perceive the impact of
insurgency on the social life of the Cagayanos?
5. What solutions do the three groups of respondents suggest which the
local government administrators and the residents of Cagayan should
make to solve the problem of insurgency in Cagayan?
22

If you analyze the specific investigative questions, you will notice that
they were written in quantifiable terms. The question ‘’how’’ makes them
quantifiable. This is one important characteristics of a good question. In the
first sample, the question ‘’how do they perceive …in term of’’ is amenable
to measurement. Quantification and measurement provide more direction
to the investigation which is one vital characteristics of a good question.
The specificity you have set will ascertain just what questions you need to
answer. Quantification and measurement will give more direction to the
investigation. If the question is too broad. It has to be broken down into
smaller ones using the Mapping Sentence Approach of Clark et al. (1998,
p. 49).
Examples:
Poor: How effective are homogenous and heterogeneous groups?
Improved: What is the effect of homogenous grouping on the
achievement in science among Grade IV pupils?
Poor: Will there be differences between the more accepted and the
less accepted freshman students?
Improved: Will there be differences between the more accepted and
the less accepted students in terms of personal and social adjustments?
Poor: What is the creativity level of college freshman students?

Improved: What is the creativity level of college freshman students in
this study in terms of fluency, Flexibility and originality?
Poor: What is the performance of the middle level and the upper level
managers?
Improved: is there a difference between the performance of the middle
level and the upper level managers in technical, human relations and
conceptual skill test?
23

The Mapping Sentence Approach of Clark et al. (1998)

There are three stages in writing a mapping sentence. First, describe
the variables, normally, we have at least three types of variable; the
independent and the dependent variable to which an added the subject
variable (intervening variable) such as the characteristics of the sample you
are controlling. Second, lay out the range of variation for each of the three
variable types. Finally, express the logic of the methodology of the study in
terms of the variables.
Example in an experiment.
Identify the factors which influence the recall of TV advertisements.
STAGE 1: IDENTIFY THE POSSIBLE VARIABLES

1. Subject variables: gender, age, economics status.
2. Intervening variables (variable that is suspected to influence the
casual relationship between independent and dependent
variables); experience of the product, no experience of the product,
interest in the product, no interest in the product).
3. Independent variables: time from image recall, gender of principle
figures, single or group features, price quoted/not quoted, color of
background, humor/no-humor, and length of advertisement.
4. Dependent variables: No. of advertisements recalled by the subjects
STAGE 2: WRITE NOW THE MAPPING SENTENCE:
24

Using gender as our subject variable we can now create a

hypothesis for a problem such as:
A male (gender) subject having experience of the product (intervening
variable) and having interest in the product (intervening variable) will recall
more advertisement depending upon length of advertisement (dependent
variable).
RESULT:
A male subject having experience of the product and having interest
in the product will recall more advertisements depending upon the length
of advertisement.
Laying out this way allows the researcher to see at the variables and
to select the ones of interest (Clark et al 1998 p. 49).
You may formulate a problem which elicits a hypothesis that could
be tested statistically. Example of a problem would be; is there a significant
difference in the perception of the local government administrators and
the clergy as to the factors that cause the rise of Insurgency in Cagayan?
Such a problem question calls for a null hypothesis which could be stated
thus:
There is no significant difference in the perception of the local government

administration and clergy as to the factors that causes the rise of insurgency
in Cagayan.
The problem should be stated in a declarative statement or in question

form.
Kerlinger (1973 p 17) has provided us the criteria for assessing whether
or not research question or problem statement is a ‘’good one’’: (1) the
problem statement should deal with the relationship between two or more
variables; (2) the research question should be possible; and (3) the problem
25

should be stated in such a way as to imply the possibility of its solution

through empirical research.
SOME MISTAKES COMMITTED IN PROBLEM FORMULATION
1. Undertaking research without reviewing the existing professional
literature on the subject.
2. Collecting data without a well – defined plan or purpose
3. Taking available data and attempting to fit meaningful research
questions to it.
4. Defining objectives in general or ambiguous terms causing
interpretations and conclusions to be arbitrary or invalid.
5. The research makes no contributions to the general body of
knowledge.
6. Failure to recognize the limitations of your approach.
7. Failure to base research on a sound theoretical and/or conceptual
framework.
8. Failure to anticipate alternative rival hypothesis that would also
account for a given set of findings and which could challenge the
interpretations and conclusions reached by the investigation.
LESSON 5. The Hypothesis

Gay (1976) defines hypothesis as a tentative explanation for certain
behaviors, phenomena or events which have occurred or will occur.
McGulgan (1978) says that hypothesis is testable of a potential relationship
between two or more variables. A hypothesis therefore is a categorical
statement indicating a conjectured relationship between variables which
can be tested and which the researchers believes will be demonstrated
after hypothesis testing. Some terms synonymous to hypothesis which are
used by other researchers are working hypothesis, motivated hypothesis,
alternate hypothesis, etc.
26

IS HYPOTHESIS NECESSARY?
A basic reason why a hypothesis is necessary is to keep you from
being biased. Your biases might affect the research process when you state
the expected relationship among variables. You usually expect the
relationship to occur based on your experience or in the course of
reviewing some related literature. You might have been influenced by early
researchers when they disseminated their findings.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
It is usually to see several ways of stating hypotheses as they are
discussed in books. These are the null hypothesis, the operational,
theoretical or research hypothesis. The objective of researchers is to reject
the null hypothesis, therefore, it is advisable that you state your hypothesis
in the null form.
Since hypothesis, is the intelligent answer to the researcher’s stated
problem, this is his/her position or conviction regarding the problem. It can
therefore be stated declaratively.
Examples:
Research Hypothesis: People – oriented administrators are more
productive than product – oriented administrators
Let us symbolize the research / theoretical hypothesis this way: H1

The research hypothesis is not the hypothesis that is tested. Instead, the null
hypothesis is the one that is statically tested. If the null hypothesis is rejected,
we are sure that there are sufficiently large difference to reject the idea of
the research results occurring by chance, then research hypothesis is
supported or accepted.
27

If the research problem would be stated this way. Who is more

intelligent, the ale or the female? Could lead to biased researcher females
or vice versa.
A biased researcher tends to believe his/her position or conviction.
Thus for objectively, the researchers should not always use the null
hypothesis where A = B. Also, it is almost impossible for researchers to test
hypotheses under many and various possible conditions. Hence it would be
better to reject it using the null hypothesis. To nullify the theoretical,
operational or research hypothesis. We can have:
Null Hypothesis: People – oriented administrators are less productive
than product – oriented administrators. (Directional
Hypothesis)
Another way of nullifying is: People-oriented administrators are
equally productive as product oriented administrators (A = B)
Let us symbolize the null hypothesis as: Ha these may be stated in
other ways:
Product-oriented administrators are more productive than people -
oriented administrators or Production levels between product oriented
and people – oriented administrators will not differ.
The null hypothesis is a categorical statement indicating that the

relationship specified in the research or theoretical hypothesis does not exist
or will not exist. The null hypothesis is sometimes called the no-difference
hypothesis. Null means ‘’no existence’’ the following hypotheses are null
because there is no existence of effect, of interaction, of relationships, and
of difference.
1. There is no significant effect of three feeding schemes on the
weight of malnourished eight-year-old children.
28

2. The mean for the boys equals that of the girls on the Torrance
Verbal Test of originality.
3. There is no significant interaction effect of sex and socio-economics
status on the spatial concept development of Grade One children.
4. Sex is independent of positive or negativeness towards some
concepts among senior high school boys and girls.
5. There is no significant relationship between organizational climate
in terms of eight subscales and leadership behavior among
administrators in selected government agencies.
The use of the null hypothesis has been recommended by research

experts or researches themselves on the ground errors in accepting or
rejecting the hypothesis can be easier avoided if the expectations are in
the null form. Moreover, they claim that since it is a statistical hypothesis. It
is intended for testing. It suits statistical techniques that can determine
whether the obtained relationship or difference is due to chance or to true
relationship or difference.
The other type of hypothesis is alternative. This is considered the
operational statement of the research hypothesis. It is the expectation
based on theory. Ary et al (1972) call this as the deductive hypothesis. If the
related literature points to the findings that a certain technique of teaching,
for example, is effective, you have to assume the same prediction. If the
studies surveyed, however, indicate that the technique is not affective,
your hypothesis runs as null. In this case, the research and the null
hypotheses are one.
Always bear in mind that the null hypothesis is the one which is
statistically tested and not the research hypothesis. The research hypothesis
is the one stated but the null hypothesis is the one tested.
29

DIRECTIONAL AND NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS

The research hypothesis is that which the researcher actually
believes. However, the hypothesis he believes in may be directional or non-
directional. They either predict the direction of research outcomes or they
predict inequality. The directional hypothesis states the direction of the
outcome that is predicted rather than predicting inequality only.
Example of a directional hypothesis
People-oriented administrators are more productive than product-
oriented administration or
Product-oriented administrators are less productive than people
oriented administrators.
A is better than B or A is less than B or A is positively related to B.

In a directional hypothesis, you already can design what statistics
you are going to use because it commands a one-tailed statistical test.
The relationship between the variables studied is one of inequality.
Examples:
The numerical reasoning of females is lower than the males. (A is less
than B).
The Numerical reasoning of females is higher than the males (A is

greater than B)
The numerical reasoning of females and males will differ (A is not

equal to B)
The non-directional hypothesis is where the direction of the outcome is not
predicted. Therefore, the hypothesis can be tested through the two tailed
statistic that the reason why this is sometimes called the two – tailed
hypothesis. Your hypothesis cascades from your stated specific problems.
30

Some theses have assumptions just like some dissertation. They even
occupy prominent place in the report. In other theses, the investigators do
not have a section titled as such because the assumptions have been
integrated in the introductory part of their report. According to Gay, 1976,
assumptions are important facts presumed to be true but not actually
verified. This pertains to events or situations that seen so true that they are
taken for granted. Unlike the hypothesis, assumptions do not need testing
or confirmation.
Some assumptions that some researches have taken are as follows:
1. That the interviewee answered the interview questions accurately.
2. That the respondents rated some situations truthfully.
3. That the attitude of a group of respondents are stable.
4. That perceptions can be quantified and therefore be measured.
5. That the subjects of the study all being to the low socio-economic
status group.
Lesson 6. Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The scope describes the coverage of the study, it specifies what is
covered in terms of concept, number of subjects or the population
included in the study, as well as the timeframe when the study was
conducted.
The delimitation describes the factors or variables that are not to be
included and the boundary in terms of time frame, number of subjects,
participants or respondents who are excluded. Specify that which you will
not deal within your study.
Below are examples of Scope and Delimitation of a thesis and a
dissertation:
Title of Thesis: Motivational Patterns and Level of Job Satisfaction of the
Participants to the BBM Program of PUP
31

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This is a study which revolves on the motivational patterns of the
executive group of students enrolled in a special program of PUP, called
the Bachelor of Business Management, otherwise and popularly called
as BBM for the year 20012-2003. There are two thrusts of the study, first, on
the discussion of the motivational patterns of the respondents, identified
and isolated as economic. Professional and personal; second, on the
level of job satisfaction and how the level of job satisfaction vary when
grouped according to the economic professional and personal
motivational patterns.
Interpretation of data was confined only for the respondents and
specific group - the executive group enrolled in the BBM, Program for the
year 2001-2003, who later on pursued the course In Masters in Business
Administration for Executives, PUP, in school year 2003-2004.
Sample in a Dissertation
Title of Dissertation: Perceived Management Ambience of the AFP Mutual
Benefit Associations, 1985: An Assessment
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The study sought to be determine the current status as of 1985 of the

management of the AFP Mutual Benefit Association with the ultimate aim
of suggesting certain innovations for the improvement of certain aspects
of the organization. To achieve these objectives a survey of the
organization was inducted using three questionnaires, namely, the
leadership, organizational climate and Job satisfaction, Questionnaires on
leadership behavior was describe in terms of four interim measures,
namely, support, describe in terms of four interim measures. Namely,
32

support, good emphasis, work facilitation, and work interactions. On the

other hand, organization climate describes the prevailing atmosphere in
the organization as to whether or not there was a pleasant Interaction
between and among members of the organization. These questionnaires
were constructed and validated by the Organizational Development
Research Program of the Institute for Social Research on a random sample
of 45 teachers of the institute.
Comparative and relational analysis-were-performed in order to
optimize the use of the collected Information from the random sample of
10 respondents as describe in chapter 3, using two major intervening
variables, namely, sex, and level of management. The time reference of
the study are fiscal years 1984 and 1985.
The kind of conclusion that may be drown from the respondents of the
randomly chosen subjects is statistical in nature. Such conclusions are
therefore, necessarily probabilistic and not deterministic.
Lesson 7. Significance of the Study

In this part of the thesis or dissertation, you define who will benefit out
of the findings of your study. Try to describe how the problem will be solved
and specifically pinpoint who will benefit from such findings or result. Usually
the recipients of the advantages derived from the study are those experts
concerned about the problem, the administration or policy-makers who
make the decisions or implement programs, the subject themselves, future
researchers and those who are directly or indirectly, affected by the
problem. You also look into any contribution of your study to the field of
specialization or discipline you are in any advancement or new knowledge
that your study contribute to the science or the state-of-the-art. State in this
portion of your study the specific sectors who will benefit from the study. This
part also justifies the rationale of the undertaking.
Example:
33

Title of Dissertation: ‘’Livelihood Projects of the Bureau of Jail Management

and Penology for the Inmates of Three Major City Jails in the Philippines’’.
Arturo W. Alit, DPA
Significance of the study
This study is deemed significant for the number of reasons:
The result of the study can be a benchmark in enchanting

rehabilitation programs in all jail facilities nationwide, the results may also
be applied in the area of family and community reformation, Barangay
officials, especially those –involved in the peace and order efforts may find
relevance of this study in the crime prevention and conflict – resolution.
Business, specially small and medium enterprises, may derive strategies
based on the observations and experiences in the implementation of
livelihood projects in jails. This could provide a new dimension in the study
of business activities in a much different setting.
In addition, this study is undertaken to elicit information and findings
that may prove useful to the following:
The Inmates, who are the subjects of this study, that they may realize
the importance of work programs and thus may participate more actively
in the rehabilitation activities, knowing that these are being undertaken for
their welfare; the penologist, criminologist, sociologist and psychologist,
who may better understanding the impacts of work programs within the
backdrop of a Philippine cultural setting that they may improve their stock
knowledge in the correctional field; the academic community which may
be use this study as reference in their specific discipline, specially those who
are engaged in social sciences and those who are conducting further
researches in crime and penology.
34

The public administrator who may be provided with knowledge and

management skills in dealing with similarity situated workforce as jail
inmates;
The human rights advocates who may find a positive alternative in
supporting the downtrodden, the handicapped and the less fortunate in
society, and
Society as a whole, for reinforcing its positive values of charity and social
responsibility, that it may look into the degenerative lives of inmates more
closely and help in their reformation instead of treating them with
contempt and condescension.
At this point , it is well to take note of the reawakening of the humanism in
the Philippine social melodrama, marked by a period of soul searching , as
made evident in the refocusing on the ‘’common tao’’. This this is further
highlighted by the abundance of church denominations alternatively
appearing on television screens proclaiming on era of heightened
spiritually. This study keeps in step with the tune of the times – of renewed
awareness of society to its social responsibility towards the underprivileged
and the less fortunate, and inviting attention to the value of the individual
person.
In writing this portion, answers these questions. Why make the study
of all? What benefits would be derived from it? Will the benefits of
knowledge gained worth the express in money, time and effort? Who are
the direct beneficiaries of the result of the study should the problem be
solved? To what extent will the solution affect them? How much change
can your study make?
Lesson 8. Definition of terms

Any term not commonly used by the potential reader of your thesis
or which may have certain meaning and you are using it in specific way
35

should be defined. Important terms are needing clarification which you use
in your own sense must be definite accordingly. We call this operational
definition. You must be aware that terms are usually equivocal, therefore,
they are ambiguous or vague. In order for the reader to have a full and
good grasp of the problem. The terms must be clearly defined. Here are
some terms defined by Dr. Alit in his Study which he defined operationally.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
The following terms are defined according to their operational use in this
study:
Adequacy – the term refers to the sufficiency of quantity of resources in

terms of amount, volume, number of equivalent and materials, knowledge,
technology manpower and financial support provided by the BJMP and
other GOs, NGOs in the implementation of livelihood projects in jails.
Custodial Force – It refers to the unit that provides security in a jail facility
and may be composed of male and female members of the BJMP.
Effectiveness – in the study, the term refers to the quality or potency of a

program or project to produce a reformative result in the physical and
psychological well-being of the inmates.
Inmate – it refers to a person confined in a prison, jail or detention house.
Livelihood Projects – Refers to a form of rehabilitation for the offenders who

are incarcerated in any penal institutions. It involves work activities that
provide training, education and possible economic returns, it is
interchangeably used in this study with work programs.
36

Physical Effect – it refers to the impact manifested in the bodily constitution

of the inmate in terms of vigor and vitality of the physique and includes the
effect that are harmful and cause ailments on the person.
Psychological Effect – this refers to the impact on the inmate’s mental

emotional, personal, social, interpersonal relationships, financial security
and values.
Rehabilitation – this term refers to a program of activity aimed at restoring

an inmate’s dignity and self – respect thereby making him a law-abiding
citizen after his release from jail.
References:
Brion, Juan C. DPA, Thesis and Dissertation Writing Without Aguish.
Chapter 2 Related Literature and Studies
Related Literature
37

• These materials are usually printed and found in books,

encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and
other publications.
• Composed of discussion of facts and principles to which the present
study is related. For instance, if the present study deals with drug
addiction, literature to be reviewed or surveyed should be
composed of materials that deal with drug addiction.
These materials are classified as; Local, if printed in the Philippines and
Foreign, if printed in other lands regardless of the citizenship of the author.
Related Studies
• Are inquiries, investigations, researches already conducted to which
your proposed study is related or has some bearing. They are usually
unpublished materials such as manuscript, theses and dissertation.
They may classified as; Local, if the inquiry was conducted in the Philippines;
and Foreign, if conducted in foreign lands.
Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

• A survey or review of literature and studies is very important because
such reviewed literature and studies served as a foundation of the
proposed study. This is because related literature and studies guide
the researcher in pursuing his research venture.
1. They guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research
problem or topic. By reviewing related materials, a replication of a similar
problem may be found better than the problem already chosen.
Replication is the study of research problem already conducted but in
other place.
38

2. They help the investigator understand his topic for research better.
Reviewing related literature and studies may clarify vague points about his
problem.
3. They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is
duplication if an investigation already made is conducted again in the
same locale using practically the same respondents. This is avoided if a
survey of literature be made first.
4. They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related
information. This is because bibliography of a study already conducted
indicate references about similar studies.
5. They help and guide the research design especially in:
a. the formulation of specific questions to be researched on;

b. the formulation of assumption and hypotheses if there should be
any;
c. the formulation of conceptual framework;
d. the selection and application of the methods of research;
e. the selection and application of sampling techniques;
f. the selection and/or preparation and validation of research
instruments for gathering data;
g. the selection and application of statistical procedures.
h. the analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data;
i. the making of summary of implications for the whole study;
j. the formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions, and
recommendations.
6. They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his
findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end in view of
39

formulating generalization or principles which are the contributions of the

study to fund knowledge.
Characteristics of related Literature and Studies

1. The surveyed materials must be recent as possible. This is important
because of the rapid social, economic, scientific, and technological
change. Findings several years ago may be little value today
because of the fast changing life style of the people.
2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some materials
are extremely or subtly one sided, either political or religious, etc.
Comparison with these materials cannot be made logically and
validity. Distorted generalizations may results.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have
some bearing or similarity to the research problem at hand should be
reviewed.
4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original
and true facts or data to make them valid and reliable. These are
cases where fictitious data are supplied just to complete a research
report (thesis, dissertation). Of course, this kind of deception is hard
to detect and to prove. Thus, this is a real problem to honest
researchers.
5. Reviewed materials must not be few or too many. They must only be
sufficient enough to give insight into the research problem or to
indicate the nature of the present investigation. The may also
depend upon the availability of the materials.
40

Reviewing Related Literature and Studies

After preparing Chapter 1 which discusses your problem, your
hypothesis and some definition of terms, it is necessary for you to review
information, facts, data available, or theories that have some relationship
with your hypothesis which you posed on your stated problem or research
question. In fact even before you were conceptualizing your study, you
should have already read some volumes of literature on your topic or
subject matter.
Just like Chapters III, IV, and V, introduce your chapter somewhat like
this:
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OR RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
This chapter presents the literature and studies reviewed by the

researcher which have significance bearing with the present study.
You can subdivide your presentation into foreign literature and

foreign studies. The other section could be local literature and local studies.
Reviewing Literature is systematic examination of a general
information, research studies, data and theories which have been
discovered over the years or found earlier by earlier or recent researcher
related to the variables of your interest. Review of related literature is
synonymous to review of related information. Its purpose is to determine
what knowledge and data pertinent to the variables and their relationship
exist, in order to generate appropriate hypothesis and investigative
questions which you wish to answer. It will also inform you whether your
problem or hypothesis were examined sufficient
41

What, Where and How of Finding Information

• 1st List down all the important variables which you need in your study
and any theories which you think can generate your hypothesis and
those that can explain the relationships among your variables. Check
all the variables that you cited in your hypothesis.
• 2nd Continue your search for information related to your problem
being studied.
• 3rd Check the population you want to include in your study.
• 4th Know how to write citation where you can include the author, the
title, the publisher and the date of publication, the volume number,
the page number, information about the study and the findings.
• 5th Review and synthesize those findings that support or reject your
hypothesis or research questions.
• 6th Use on-line computers for searching and retrieval of information.
• 7th Synthesize the reviewed literature.
How to Present Your Information

Roth (1999) suggest some possible approaches to literature reviewing:
1. Analyze and examine the topic in the literature. You can view it or
review it from more than one perspective. Involve your own ideas.
2. Criticize or evaluate the literature. Judge the literature about some
quality of it.
3. Compare and contrast the ideas. Show the similarities and
differences that exists or are evident when someone looks closely at
your subject. To compare is to find similarities, to contrast is to find
differences. These are usually linked because some similarity
between elements must be established before a contrast is possible.
42

4. Established Relationship among the ideas of the different author or

theorists. Show how they may have drawn from each other or are
related in other ways to each other.
Do Not Commit Plagiarism

 Always remember the quotation mark. Keep an accurate record of
the source. Plagiarism is using the words or ideas of another person
without proper credit to the one who devised them. Print and non-
print materials are protected by copyright laws. To present your
researched materials as your own when they are not is to break the
law as well as to act unethically. Paraphrases and summaries may be
plagiarized. Varying a word or changing singulars to plurals won’t
protect you from the label of “plagiarist”.
How to prevent Plagiarism
1st Use quotation marks around all words and phrases from any research
source, and also cite the source, both on note cards and in the text of your
paper. Quotations require both kinds of acknowledgement.
2nd Credit the source of any ideas including summaries and paraphrases by
documenting them when you take notes and when you write on your
paper.
3rd Be sure every source you document in your paper is also in the works
cited at the end of the text. That is acknowledging something that is not
original must appear both in the written part, the text, of your research
paper and the works cited list at the end of it.
4th Give an adequate introduction otherwise clearly delineate borrowed
words and ideas. Always give enough information for your readers to tell
clearly what is your original work and what is not.
Kinds of Notes
43

1. Summary is a statement in your own words of the main ideas of a

passage. It tells only what the author has said and may not include
your own interpretation or comment on the meaning. It will be shorter
than the original. Develop the skill of being able to make the
distinction between what is important from what is less important.
2. Paraphrase is a phrase-by-phrase statement in your own words of
the original passage. It has the same organization and is also
approximately the same length as the original. Just restate it.
Paraphrasing is a complete rewording not just a game of rearranging
words.
3. Direct Quotation copies exactly what your source said or wrote and
is therefore the easiest kind of note card to write. Be as accurate as
you can with punctuation of the spoken word and copy the written
words accurately, down to every comma or possible misspelling.
Resist using direct quotation notes because it becomes a cut-and-
paste collection of other people’s words and their styles of writing.
Take direct quotation because: the material is so significant or
controversial that wording must be exact; the style is so perfect, so
suitable, or so vivid that it seems beyond changing; the source is so
authoritative that you want to be sure not to violate the precision of
the wording; and the wording of the source needs to be transmitted
with absolute accuracy. If directly quoted, always indicate the page
number of the source.
4. Personal Comment
5. Combination of two or more of the four
Writing Style
• Vary sentence structures and sentence length.
• Write in the active voice rather than the passive voice.
• Avoid opinions or unsubstantiated generalizations.
44

• Do not commit the fallacy of hasty generalizations.

• Write straightforwardly.
• Contractions such as “don’t”, “won’t”, etc. are informal.
• Be consistent in referring to individuals.
• Guards against wording that shows bias regarding a person’s
gender, age, political line, religious beliefs, sexual orientation or nat’l
origin.
Use Gender Sensitive Language

The University Center for Women’s Studies (UCWS) of the University of
the Philippines prepared a primer on Non-Sexist language for writers and
researcher to develop a gender-sensitive culture free of biases against
women. Sexist language, according to UCWS, apart from being inaccurate
and misleading, excludes women and minimizes their contributions in
society. Sexist language renders women invisible.
Integrating Documented Information into the Text of your Thesis
• Vary the wording of your introductory phrase which we fondly call as
the preamble. You can refer to a thesaurus if you run out of words.
• Document Information anywhere in a sentence or in a paragraph.
At the beginning of a sentence and a paragraph, Within a sentence
and in the middle of the paragraph and at the end of a sentence
and/or the end of a paragraph.
Citing Your References

• A thesis is a contribution to scholarship (Valiukenas, 1987). It complies
information from a variety of sources. It provides a convenient list of
work on the subject. When one does not acknowledge what he or
45

she has borrowed, it is said to be plagiarizing. It may be done

intentionally or not still that is theft.
When a material is taken directly from a book, article, speech, statement,
remarks, the internet or some other source, the writer must provide proper
attribution.
Chapter 3 Research Methods
46

INSTRUMENTATION
Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a
measurement device (survey, test, questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish
between instrument and instrumentation, consider that the instrument is the
device and instrumentation is the course of action (the process of
developing, testing, and using the device).
Four categories in collection of data into, as follows: (1) observation, (2)
interview, (3) inquiry forms, and (4) psychological tests and inventories.
1. The types of observation are naturalistic and participant. The
preferred method of conducting observation nowadays involves the use of
unobtrusive techniques. ”Unobtrusive“means that the observers are not
visible in the setting or they do not play an active role. One-way mirrors,
hidden cameras, and films are some of the techniques that have been
developed to observe behaviour and unobtrusively.
Many authorities agree that the interpretation of the meaning of
behavior described and recorded should be deferred until a later time. The
reason for this is that simultaneous recording and interpretation often
interfere with objectivity. Devices used for recording information include
checklist, rating scale and score card.
Unstructured Observation
 A method of collecting research data that has both opponents and
proponents.
 Structured observation
 Preparation of record-keeping forms such as category systems,
checklist and rating scales.
 Researcher typically has some prior knowledge about the behavior
or event of interest.
2. The interview is an oral questionnaire. The respondent or interviewee
gives the needed information verbally in a face-to-face relationship. If
47

interviewer is skilful enough and is able to establish rapport, he or she is likely

to draw from interviewee certain types of confidential information which
the latter might be reluctant to put in writing. Here, the interviewer can
explain the purpose of investigation and the information he/she once. If the
subject misinterprets the question, the interview may follow it with a
clarifying question. One can evaluate the sincerity or insight of the
interviewee.
These are four main kinds of interview: (a) the structured interview;
(b) the unstructured interview; (c) the non-directive interview; and (d) the
focus interview;
a) The structured interviews are formal because. Sets of questions
known as interview questionnaire are posed to each interviewee
visited and the response are recorded on a standardized schedule.
It is therefore characterized as being a closed interview situation.
b) The unstructured interview is the less formal type in which although
sets of questions may be used, the interview freely modifies the
sequence of questions. Changes the wording and sometimes
explains them or adds to them during the interaction. Hence the
researcher has to be careful in order not to deviate from his focus.
The atmosphere is often casual. This is conducted in what is
characterized as and open situation because there is more flexibility
and freedom in the interaction.
c) The Non-Directive Interview or the un guided gives excessive
freedom for the respondent to express his or her ideas subjectively
and spontaneously as she chooses or is able to.
d) The Focus interview as the name suggest, focuses on the
respondent’s subjective responses and experience on the subject
matter to elicit more information.
48

The Inquiry Forms, the questionnaire has been defined as a list of

planned, written questions to a particular topic, with spaces provided for
indicating the response to each question. Intended for submission to a
number of persons for reply. It is usually sent by mail to individuals who are
called respondents but it can also be administered personally to groups of
individuals. Its advantages are the opportunity of the researcher to explain
the purpose of the study, the availability of many respondents in one place
makes it possible an economy of time and expense and such availability of
many respondents in one place provides a high proportion of usable
responses. Although it is probably the most used, it may also be the most
criticized data-gathering instrument.
Questionnaire
 This is a data collection instrument mostly used in normative
surveys. This is the systematically prepared form or document with
the set of questions deliberately designed to elicit responses from
respondent or research informant for the purpose of collecting
data or information
 It is a form of inquiry document. Which contain a systematically
compiled and well organized series of question intended to elicit
the information which will provide insight into the nature of the
problem under the study
 It is a form that contains a set of questions on a topic or group of
topic designed to be answered by the respondent.
 The respondents are the population sample of the study.
The effective use of questionnaire for data collection depends on the
mode of formulation and administration of the questions. The medium of
delivering the questionnaire and the method of contacting respondent for
retrieval of the questionnaire. These modes effect the credibility and quality
of the data obtained.
49

Types of Questionnaires
o Questionnaires may be designed as:
o Structured or closed form
o Unstructured, open ended form
Structured questionnaires
They are those in which some control or guidance is given for the
answer. This may be described as closed form because the questions are
basically short, requiring the respondent to provide a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response,
or checking an item out of a list of given responses.
Unstructured questionnaire
This type which is also termed as open-ended or unrestricted type of
questionnaire calls for a free response in the respondent’s own words. The
respondent frames and supplies the answer to the question raised in the
questionnaire.
3. The Psychological test in which a person fills out a survey or
questionnaire with or without the help of an investigator. Self-report
inventories often ask direct questions about personal interests, values,
symptoms, behaviors, and traits or personality types.
VALIDATION AND RELIABILITY OF INSTRUMENT

As a process, validation involves collecting and analyzing data to
assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are numerous statistical tests
and measures to assess the validity of quantitative instruments, which
generally involves pilot testing. This is particularly important with
achievement tests.
50

Instruments fall into two broad categories, researcher-completed

and subject-completed, distinguished by those instruments that
researchers administer versus those that are completed by participants.
Researchers chose which type of instrument, or instruments, to use based
on the research question. Examples are listed below:
Researcher-completed Subject-completed Instruments
Instruments
Rating scales Questionnaires
Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists
Tally sheets Attitude scales
Flowcharts Personality inventories
Performance checklists Achievement/aptitude tests
Time-and-motion logs Projective devices
Observation forms Sociometric devices
Usability refers to the ease with which an instrument can be administered,

interpreted by the participant, and scored/interpreted by the researcher.
Example usability problems include:
1. Students are asked to rate a lesson immediately after class, but there
are only a few minutes before the next class begins (problem with
administration).
2. Students are asked to keep self-checklists of their after school activities,
but the directions are complicated and the item descriptions confusing
(problem with interpretation).
3. Teachers are asked about their attitudes regarding school policy, but
some questions are worded poorly which results in low completion rates
(problem with scoring/interpretation).
51

Validity and reliability concerns (discussed below) will help alleviate

usability issues. For now, we can identify five usability considerations:
1. How long will it take to administer?
2. Are the directions clear?
3. How easy is it to score?
4. Do equivalent forms exist?
5. Have any problems been reported by others who used it?
Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed

to measure and performs as it is designed to perform. It is rare, if nearly
impossible, that an instrument be 100% valid, so validity is generally
measured in degrees. As a process, validation involves collecting and
analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are
numerous statistical tests and measures to assess the validity of quantitative
instruments, which generally involves pilot testing. The remainder of this
discussion focuses on external validity and content validity.
External validity is the extent to which the results of a study can

be generalized from a sample to a population. Establishing eternal validity
for an instrument, then, follows directly from sampling. Recall that a sample
should be an accurate representation of a population, because the total
population may not be available. An instrument that is externally valid helps
obtain population generalizability, or the degree to which a sample
represents the population.
Content validity refers to the appropriateness of the content of an

instrument. In other words, do the measures (questions, observation logs,
etc.) accurately assess what you want to know? This is particularly important
with achievement tests. Consider that a test developer wants to maximize
52

the validity of a unit test for 7th grade mathematics. This would involve
taking representative questions from each of the sections of the unit and
evaluating them against the desired outcomes.
Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument

consistently measure what it is intended to measure? It is not possible to
calculate reliability; however, there are four general estimators that you
may encounter in reading research:
1. Inter-Rater/Observer Reliability: The degree to which different
raters/observers give consistent answers or estimates.
2. Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of a measure evaluated over
time.
3. Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests constructed the
same way, from the same content.
4. Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of results across items,
often measured with Cronbach’s Alpha.
Relating Reliability and Validity

Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure. There are several
important principles:
First, a test can be considered reliable, but not valid. Consider the
SAT, used as a predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test (high scores
relate to high GPA), though only a moderately valid indicator of success
(due to the lack of structured environment – class attendance, parent-
regulated study, and sleeping habits – each holistically related to success).
Second, validity is more important than reliability. Using the above
example, college admissions may consider the SAT a reliable test, but not
necessarily a valid measure of other quantities colleges seek, such as
leadership capability, altruism, and civic involvement. The combination of
53

these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a more valid measure of the applicant’s
potential for graduation, later social involvement, and generosity (alumni
giving) toward the alma mater.
Finally, the most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of
the SAT argue that it is both. It is a moderately reliable predictor of future
success and a moderately valid measure of a student’s knowledge in
Mathematics, Critical Reading, and Writin
DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE
Data Collection the process by which the researcher collects the

information needed to answer the research problem. The means by which
information regarding variables are gathered. Instrumentation is the activity
by which the variables are measured.
In collecting data researcher must resolve:

 Which data to collect
 How to collect the Data?
 Who will collect the data?
 When to collect data?
The selection of data collection should be based on the following:

 The identified hypothesis or research problem
 The research design
 The information gathered about the variables
The methods of data collection vary according to degree of

structure, degree of quantifiability, degree of obtrusiveness and degree of
objectivity
54

After the data collection has been determined, the instrument to be

used has to be constructed. These two activities in the research process go
together. These are categorized as research strategies. There are four main
types of data collection. These are observation, interviewing, document,
evaluation and examination and instrument administration.
In this part of the thesis proposal you have to discuss step by step all the
procedures you conducted in collecting your data.
After approval of concerned authorities from the two selected
educational institutions to administer the instruments, the researcher
identified from the rosters filed in their respective Human Resource
Management Departments the sample respondents in the study.
Those who fit into required categories for the respondents were included in
the list. The researcher administered the instruments and conducted
interviews, when necessary, individually or in groups depending on the
convenience on the part of the participants. Some of the questionnaires,
however, were distributed through the help of the deans or heads of the
departments where the faculty-respondents belong.
The questionnaires were coded to identify the respondents who
participated in the study. This aided in the speedy retrieval of the floated
questionnaires. All the names of the faculty listed in the roster were coded
and majority responded favorably to the request of the researcher for them
to participate in the study.
Because of clarity of description of what the researcher did during
the data gathering, one can do the same procedure if he or she wants to
conduct similar studies in different setting or situations.
After measuring the variables and collecting the data, you have to
organized these and present your findings in tables and chart. These
55

organization and presentation of data make it easier for you to analyze

and interpret them.
How to Construct Questionnaire
I - Questionnaire
defined as;
1. A set of questions for obtaining statistically useful or personal
information from individuals.
2. A written or printed questionnaire often with spaces for
answers.
3. A survey made by the use of a questionnaire.
- Commonly used to gather first-hand information from a large
audience, in the form of a survey or predefined series of questions used
to collect information from individuals. Questionnaires are highly
practical and can be carried out by any number of people, and the
results can be quickly quantified as well. Over the years, this form of
conducting research has also been proven to be more scientifically
accurate, as compared to other quantitative research tools.
II - Qualities of Good Questionnaire:

1. Length of questionnaire should be proper one.
2. Language should be easy and simple.
3. Terms used are explained properly.
4. Questions should be in logical.
56

5. Questions should be in analytical form.

6. Question should be arranged in a proper way.
7. Complex question should be broken into filter questions.
8. Question should be described precisely and correctly.
9. Questionnaire should be constructed for a specific period of time.
10. Questions should be moving around the theme of the
investigator.
11. Answers should be short and simple.
12. Answers should be accurate.
13. Answers should be direct one.
14. Answers should be relevant to the problem.
15. Answers should be understandable to every one of respondents.
III - Questionnaire administration modes;

1. Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer
presents the items orally.
2. Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are
presented on paper.
3. Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are
presented on the computer.
4. Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection
of items is presented on the computer, and based on the answers on those
items, the computer selects following items optimized for the testee's
estimated ability or trait.
IV - How to Develop a Questionnaire for Research
A questionnaire is a technique for collecting data in which a
respondent provides answers to a series of questions. To develop a
questionnaire that will collect the data you want takes effort and time.
However, by taking a step-by-step approach to questionnaire
57

development, you can come up with an effective means to collect data

that will answer your unique research question.
Part I Designing Your Questionnaire

1. Identify the goal of your questionnaire.
What kind of information do you want to gather with your questionnaire?
What is your main objective? Is a questionnaire the best way to go about
collecting this information?
 Come up with a research question. It can be one question or several,
but this should be the focal point of your questionnaire.
 Develop one or several hypotheses that you want to test. The
questions that you include on your questionnaire should be aimed at
systematically testing these hypotheses.
2. Choose your question type or types.
Depending on the information you wish to gather, there are several
possible types of questions to include on your questionnaire, each with
unique pros and cons. Here are the types of commonly used questions on
a questionnaire:
 Dichotomous question: this is a question that will generally be a
“yes/no” question, but may also be an “agree/disagree” question. It
is the quickest and simplest question to analyze, but is not a highly
sensitive measure.
 Open-ended questions: these questions allow the respondent to
respond in their own words. They can be useful for gaining insight into
the feelings of the respondent, but can be a challenge when it
comes to analysis of data. It is recommended to use open-ended
questions to address the issue of “why.”
 Multiple choice questions: these questions consist of three or more
mutually-exclusive categories and ask for a single answer or several
58

answers. Multiple choice questions allow for easy analysis of results,

but may not give the respondent the answer they want.
 Rank-order (or ordinal) scale questions: this type of question asks your
respondent to rank items or choose items in a particular order from a
set. For example, it might ask your respondents to order five things
from least to most important. These types of questions forces
discrimination among alternatives, but does not address the issue of
why the respondent made these discriminations.
 Rating scale questions: these questions allow the respondent to
assess a particular issue based on a given dimension. You can
provide a scale that gives an equal number of positive and negative
choices, for example, ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly
disagree.” These questions are very flexible, but also do not answer
the question “why.”
3. Develop questions for your questionnaire.
The questions that you develop for your questionnaire should be clear,
concise, and direct. This will ensure that you get the best possible answers
from your respondents.
 Write questions that are succinct and simple. You should not be
writing complex statements or using technical jargon, as it will only
confuse your respondents and lead to incorrect responses.
 Ask only one question at a time. This will help avoid confusion
 Beware of asking for private or “sensitive” information.[12] This can be
something as simple as age or weight, or something as complex as
past sexual history.
 Asking questions such as these usually require you to anonymize or
encrypt the demographic data you collect.
 Determine if you will include an answer such as “I don’t know” or “Not
applicable to me.” While these can give your respondents a way of
59

not answering certain questions, providing these options can also

lead to missing data, which can be problematic during data analysis.
 Put the most important questions at the beginning of your
questionnaire. This can help you gather important data even if you
sense that your respondents may be becoming distracted by the
end of the questionnaire.
4. Restrict the length of your questionnaire.
Keep your questionnaire as short as possible. More people will be likely
to answer a shorter questionnaire, so make sure you keep it as concise as
possible while still collecting the necessary information. If you can make a
questionnaire that only requires 5 questions, do it.
 Only include questions that are directly useful to your research
question. A questionnaire is not an opportunity to collect all kinds of
information about your respondents.
 Avoid asking redundant questions. This will frustrate those who are
taking your questionnaire.
5. Identify your target demographic.
Is there a certain group of people who you want to target with your
questionnaire? If so, it is best to determine this before you begin to distribute
your questionnaire.
 Consider if you want your questionnaire to collect information from
both men and women. Some studies will only survey one sex.
 Determine whether you want your survey to collect information from
both children and adults. Many surveys only target certain age
ranges for which the questions are applicable.
 Consider including a range of ages in your target demographic. For
example, you can consider young adult to be 18-29 years old, adults
to be 30-54 years old, and mature adults to be 55+. Providing the an
60

age range will help you get more respondents than limiting yourself
to a specific age.
 Consider what else would make a person a target for your
questionnaire. Do they need to drive a car? Do they need to have
health insurance? Do they need to have a child under 3? Make sure
you are very clear about this before you distribute your questionnaire.
6. Ensure you can protect privacy.
Make your plan to protect respondents’ privacy before you begin
writing your survey. This is a very important part of many research projects.
 Consider an anonymous questionnaire. You may not want to ask
for names on your questionnaire. This is one step you can take to
prevent privacy, however it is often possible to figure out a
respondent’s identity using other demographic information (such
as age, physical features, or zipcode).
 Consider de-identifying the identity of your respondents. Give
each questionnaire (and thus, each respondent) a unique
number or word, and only refer to them using that new identifier.
Shred any personal information that can be used to determine
identity.
 Remember that you do not need to collect much demographic
information to be able to identify someone. People may be wary
to provide this information, so you may get more respondents by
asking less demographic questions (if it is possible for your
questionnaire).
 Make sure you destroy all identifying information after your study
is complete.
Part2 Writing your questionnaire

1. Introduce yourself.
61

Your introduction should explain who you are, and what your credentials
are. You should clarify if you are working alone or as a part of a team.
Include the name of the academic institution or company for whom you
are collecting data. Here are some examples:
 My name is Jack Smith and I am one of the creators of this questionnaire.
I am part of the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan,
where I am focusing in developing cognition in infants.
 I’m Kelly Smith, a 3rd year undergraduate student at the University of
New Mexico. This questionnaire is part of my final exam in statistics.
 My name is Steve Johnson, and I’m a marketing analyst for The Best
Company. I’ve been working on questionnaire development to
determine attitudes surrounding drug use in Canada for several years.
2. Explain the purpose of the questionnaire.
Many people will not answer a questionnaire without understanding
what the goal of the questionnaire is. No long explanation is needed;
instead, a few concise sentences will do the trick. Here are some examples:
 I am collecting data regarding the attitudes surrounding gun control.
This information is being collected for my Anthropology 101 class at the
University of Maryland.
 This questionnaire will ask you 15 questions about your eating and
exercise habits. We are attempting to make a correlation between
healthy eating, frequency of exercise, and incidence of cancer in
mature adults.
 This questionnaire will ask you about your recent experiences with
international air travel. There will be three sections of questions that will
ask you to recount your recent trips and your feelings surrounding these
trips, as well as your travel plans for the future. We are looking to
understand how a person’s feelings surrounding air travel impact their
future plans.
62

3. Reveal what will happen with the data you collect.

Are you collecting these data for a class project, or for a publication?
Are these data to be used for market research? Depending on what you
intend to do with the data you collect from your questionnaire, there may
be different requirements that you need to pay attention to before
distributing your survey.
 Beware that if you are collecting information for a university or for
publication, you may need to check in with your institution’s Institutional
Review Board (IRB) for permission before beginning. Most research
universities have a dedicated IRB staff, and their information can usually
be found on the school’s website.
 Remember that transparency is best. It is important to be honest about
what will happen with the data you collect.
 Include an informed consent for if necessary. Note that you cannot
guarantee confidentiality, but you will make all reasonable attempts to
ensure that you protect their information.
4. Estimate how long the questionnaire will take.
Before someone sits down to take your questionnaire, it may be helpful
for them to know whether the questionnaire will take them 10 minutes or 2
hours. Providing this information at the onset of your questionnaire is more
likely to get you more complete questionnaires in the end.
 Time yourself taking the survey. Then consider that it will take some
people longer than you, and some people less time than you.
 Provide a time range instead of a specific time. For example, it’s better
to say that a survey will take between 15 and 30 minutes than to say it
will take 15 minutes and have some respondents quit halfway through.
 Use this as a reason to keep your survey concise! You will feel much
better asking people to take a 20 minute survey than you will asking
them to take a 3 hour one.
63

5. Describe any incentives that may be involved.

An incentive is anything that you can offer as a reward at the end of the
questionnaire. Incentives can be many types of things: they can be
monetary, desired prizes, gift certificates, candy, etc. There are both pros
and cons to offering incentives.
 Incentives can attract the wrong kind of respondent. You don’t want
to incorporate responses from people who rush through your
questionnaire just to get the reward at the end. This is a danger of
offering an incentive.
 Incentives can encourage people to respond to your survey who
might not have responded without a reward. This is a situation in
which incentives can help you reach your target number of
respondents.
 Consider the strategy used by SurveyMonkey. Instead of directly
paying respondents to take their surveys, they offer 50 cents to the
charity of their choice when a respondent fills out a survey. They feel
that this lessens the chances that a respondent will fill out a
questionnaire out of pure self-interest.
 Consider entering each respondent in to a drawing for a prize if they
complete the questionnaire. You can offer a 25$ gift card to a
restaurant, or a new iPod, or a ticket to a movie. This makes it less
tempting just to respond to your questionnaire for the incentive
alone, but still offers the chance of a pleasant reward.
6. Make sure your questionnaire looks professional.
Because you want people to have confidence in you as a data
collector, your questionnaire must have a professional look.
 Always proof read. Check for spelling, grammar, and punctuation
errors.
64

 Include a title. This is a good way for your respondents to understand

the focus of the survey as quickly as possible.
 Thank your respondents. Thank them for taking the time and effort to
complete your survey.
Part3 Distributing Your Questionnaire

1. Do a pilot study.
Ask some people you know to take your questionnaire (they will not be
included in any results stemming from this questionnaire), and be prepared
to revise it if necessary. Plan to include 5-10 people in the pilot testing of
your questionnaire. Get their feedback on your questionnaire by asking the
following questions:
 Was the questionnaire easy to understand? Were there any questions
that confused you?
 Was the questionnaire easy to access? (Especially important if your
questionnaire is online).
 Do you feel the questionnaire was worth your time?
 Were you comfortable answering the questions asked?
 Are there any improvements you would make to the questionnaire?
2. Disseminate your questionnaire.

You need to determine what is the best way to disseminate your
questionnaire. There are several common ways to distribute questionnaires:
 Use an online site, such as SurveyMonkey.com. This site allows you to
write your own questionnaire with their survey builder, and provides
additional options such as the option to buy a target audience and
use their analytics to analyze your data.
 Consider using the mail. If you mail your survey, always make sure you
include a self-addressed stamped envelope so that the respondent
65

can easily mail their responses back. Make sure that your
questionnaire will fit inside a standard business envelope.
 Conduct face-to-face interviews. This can be a good way to ensure
that you are reaching your target demographic and can reduce
missing information in your questionnaires, as it is more difficult for a
respondent to avoid answering a question when you ask it directly.
 Try using the telephone. While this can be a more time-effective way
to collect your data, it can be difficult to get people to respond to
telephone questionnaires.
3. Include a deadline.
Ask your respondents to have the questionnaire completed and
returned to you by a certain date to ensure that you have enough time to
analyze the results.
 Make your deadline reasonable. Giving respondents up to 2 weeks
to answer should be more than sufficient. Anything longer and you
risk your respondents forgetting about your questionnaire.
 Consider providing a reminder. A week before the deadline is a good
time to provide a gentle reminder about returning the questionnaire.
Include a replacement of the questionnaire in case it has been
misplaced by your respondent.
V - Questionnaire Formats depends upon the nature of the questions in

the questionnaire; there can be different types of questions in
questionnaire:
1. Questions in Open Ended Format
66

 Questions that allow the target audience to voice their

feelings and notions freely are called open-format
questions or open-ended questions.
 Open-ended questions placed at the end of a
questionnaire tend to draw accurate feedback and
suggestions from respondents as well. Survey respondents
are asked to answer each question in their own words.
 Type of format question that requires more than one word
answers. Answer could be in the form of list, a few sentences
or something longer such as a speech, paragraph or essay.
Example:
What do you think will happen if there is no reputed Law in
a Country or Place?
What are you planning to buy today at the supermarket?
What is your favorite memory from childhood?
2. Questions in Closed Ended Format

 Questions which have multiple options as answers and
allow respondents to select a single option from amongst
them are called closed-format or closed- ended questions.
 This type of questionnaire is especially useful when
conducting preliminary analysis.
 Closed-ended questions are usually preferred in survey
research because of the ease of counting the frequency of
each response.
TYPES OF CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS

1. Dichotomous
67

Do you believe a clothing store should be included in the plans for

the
Shopping mall? [1] Yes [2] No
2. Multiple Choice
In preparing copy for the printer, which method of attaching printed
pages to a backing sheet is preferred?
[1] Stapling [2] Taping [3] Gluing [4] Other:
_____________________
Please specify
3. Rating
How often do you purchase lunch in the company’s cafeteria?
[1] Very Frequently (almost daily)
[2] Frequently (Twice a week)
[3] Occasionally (Once a week)
[4] Seldom (Twice a month)
[5] Rarely (Once every six months)
[6] Never
4. Likert Scale
Indicate your agreement with the following statement by circling the
number on the scale which most closely represents your opinion.
The major reason for the current economic situation is the

inability of the legislative and executive branches of government to
develop a workable federal budget.
[1] Strongly disagree
[2] Disagree
68

[3] No opinion
[4] Agree
[5] Strongly agree
The other Likert Scale type is with the response options angled up.
Not easy to set up. I usually use a table to help with the layout. The
words are inserts from Word Art. I expand my margins to help things
fit.
5. Semantic Differential Scale

Indicate your attitude regarding the introduction of a state-run
lottery:
Bad: [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] :Good

Unimportant: [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] :Important
Unacceptable: [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] :Acceptable
6. Ranking
If your company required you to transfer to one of the following cities,
what would be your order of preference. (“1” is first choice, “2” is
second choice, etc.)
[ ] Denver [ ] Miami [ ] Chicago [ ] Boston [ ]

Richmond
7. Checklist
Which of the following would you like to see in a cafeteria?
(Check all that apply)
69

[1] Cold Sandwiches

[2] Hot Sandwiches
[3] Soup
[4] Salad Bar
[5] Fruit Bar
[6] Full Course Meals
8. Fill-in-the-Blank
How many children do you have? _____________
VI - Questions to Avoid in a Questionnaire

It is advisable to avoid certain types of questions while preparing
a questionnaire, such as:
 Hypothetical Questions: Questions with misleading speculation and
fantasy should be avoided
 Embarrassing Questions: Making respondents feel uncomfortable by
asking details about personal or private issues which in turn can lead
to losing trust.
 Extreme Positive / Negative Questions: Care must be taken in
designing a question to avoid hard positive or negative overtones
VII - Considerations for Designing a Questionnaire
 It is important to consider the order in which questions are presented.
 Double-barreled questions, which ask two questions in one.
Example:
"Please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the
following statement: 'I feel good about my work on the job, and I get
along well with others at work.'"
70

(This question is problematic because survey respondents are asked

to give one response for two questions.)
 Researchers should avoid using emotionally loaded or biased words
and phrases
71

The Problem and It's Background: Methods of Criminal Research

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

The Problem and It's Background: Methods of Criminal Research

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

METHODS OF CRIMINAL RESEARCH

Chapter 1 The Problem and It’s Background

1.1 The Introduction and the Background:

Preparation of introductory remarks entails:

Ways of making Introduction:

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

ANTECEDENT- reasons why the topic is being proposed relative to previous

The school today has the dual function of developing in students

Education is concerned with the broad construct of investigating

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

1.2. The Theoretical Framework:

Inductive Reasoning- Uniformities are observed in nature but certain

 Using deductive reasoning, the scientist formulates

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

Reminders in making Theoretical Framework:

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

A person’s self-regard is a focal component of personality that is an important

Well adjusted people have reasonably satisfactory self-concept and accept

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

Thus the main purpose of this study is to determine whether the

GUIDELINES CONCERNING THE THEORITICAL AND CONCEPTUAL

2. The goal of scientific investigation is to advance theories to explain

3. Research is useful in evaluating and testing theories while theory is

WHY USE THEORY IN RESEARCH?

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

2. Any problems may be studied in a number of different ways;

3. Theory summarizes what is known about an object of study and

5. A theory can be a useful device in interpreting, criticizing and

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

Research Paradigm (Conceptual Framework) - is a model that shows the

II. What inputs go into developing a conceptual framework?

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

a. Experiential knowledge of student and supervisor:

IV. General Forms of Conceptual Frameworks:

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

V. Specific Forms of Conceptual Framework:

b. Tree diagrams- Graphic tool which systematically breaks

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

Figure 2. A Tree Diagram of a changing costumer behavior

c. Shape based diagrams – triangles, concentric circles,

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

d. Mind maps- powerful graphic technique which provides a

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

e. Soft systems- an approach to organizational process modeling

Figure 5. Example of a Soft System Model

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

VI. Types of Conceptual Frameworks:

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

Figure 6. Example of a Causal Diagram

b. For Applied Research: Means-and-Ends Relationship

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

Figure 7. Example of a Means-End Relationship Model

c. For Evaluation Studies: The System Model or the Input-Process-Output

Figure 8. Example of a Universal Systems Model

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

“The Security Policy and Procedures in the Computer Network Facility of

VII. Why are conceptual frameworks useful?

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

Conceptual frameworks provide researchers with:

LESSON 4. Statement of the Problem

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SECTION A CLASS 2017

The statement of the problem I an important introduction materials