COURSE TITLE: MANUFACTURING PROCESSES-I

o Course Code : 202041

o Class: S.E. Mech.

o Lecture Schedule: 3Hrs/ Week.

o Examination Scheme:

Online Exam -50 Marks

End Sem. Exam Theory: 50 Marks

TW : 25 Marks

o Course Teacher: Prof. D. S. Chavan

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

 Manufacturing is defined as to make product into a suitable

use.
 Metals used in industry are obtained as ores.
 These ores are subjected to reducing or refining processes
which convert metal into molten form.
 This molten metal is poured into mold to give commercial
casting called ‘ingots’.
 These ingots are subjected to different processes to get
usable products of different sizes and shapes.

2
MANUFACTURING PROCESS

It involves transforming a raw material from it’s original state to a finished

state by changing it’s shape or the properties of the material in a series of
steps.

Manufacturing Process

Raw Machine Finished

Material Tool Product

3
 Manufacturing Processes.

Deforming Machining Joining Surface Mat.

Primary Processes Processes Processes Finishing Properties
Shaping
Processes Modification
Processes
processes
Forging Turning Welding

Casting Honing Hot Working

Rolling Facing Soldering

Powder Lapping Cold Working

Sheet Metal
Metallurgy Working Drilling Brazing
Buffing Heat
Treatment
Processing Extrusion Milling Screwing
of Plastics
Plating
Shaping Riveting
Coating
Reaming Adhesive
Bonding Grinding
UNIT I: CASTING PROCESSES

 Sand Casting, Pattern types, materials, pattern

making allowances, moulding sand types,
properties and testing.
 Hand and machine moulding processes and
equipments.
 Core - types and manufacturing. Gating Systems.
Cleaning and finishing. Defects in casting.
 Shell moulding, investment casting, die casting,
centrifugal casting. Continuous casting.

5
UNIT II: METAL FORMING PROCESSES
 Introduction to hot working and cold working.
Forming processes
 Rolling- Types of rolling mills, Roll forming, Roll
forging.
 Forging- Drop, press and upset and defects

 Extrusion- Direct and indirect.

 Drawing- Wire drawing, tube drawing Swaging,

shot peening.

6
UNIT III: PLASTIC PROCESSING

 Molding – Compression molding, Transfer

molding, Blow molding, Injection molding –
Process and equipment's.
 Extrusion of Plastic – Type of extruder, extrusion
of film, pipe, cable and sheet
 Thermoforming – Principle, pressure forming and
vacuum forming.
UNIT IV: JOINING PROCESSES

 Surface preparation and various joints. Arc

Welding- Theory, SMAW, GTAW, FSAW,
Submerged arc welding, Stud Welding.
 Resistance welding- Theory, Spot, Seam and
Projection weld process.
 Gas Welding. Soldering, brazing and braze
welding.
 Use of adhesives for joining - Classification of
adhesives, types of adhesives, applications.

8
UNIT V : SHEET METAL WORKING

 Types of sheet metal operations, Types of dies

and punches, material for dies and punches, Die
 design for blanking, piercing, bending and
drawing, clearance analysis, center of pressure,
blank size determination (Numerical), strip
layout, sheet utilization ratio (Numerical),
method of reducing forces
UNIT VI: CENTRE LATHE MACHINE

 Introduction to centre lathe, types of lathes.

(Capstan and turret)
 Construction and working of lathe, attachments
and accessories, lathe mechanisms.
 Thread cutting and taper turning methods.
Simple numerical on calculation of machining
time.

10
TEXT BOOKS
 1. Hajara Choudhari, Bose S. K. Elements of Workshop
Technology Vol I, II Asia Publishing House.
 2. P. N. Rao. Manufacturing Technology Vol I & II Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Volume I for Section I &
Volume II for Section II

11
REFERENCE BOOKS
 1. R. K. Jain Production Technology Khanna
Publishers
 2. P. C. Sharma Production Technology Khanna
Publishers
 3. Chapman W. A. J. Workshop Technology Vol I, II,
III ELBS Publishers
 4. HMT Production Technology, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.
 5. Degarmo, Black and Kosherth Materials and
Processes in manufacturing 8th Edition Prentice Hall
of India

12
UNIT_I : CASTING PROCESSES
Casting Process:

Casting is a process in which molten metal poured into

a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity which
confirms the shape of the desired component.
• The part produced is also called casting
• Foundry is a process of producing metal castings.
13
 Casting is an operation of shaping metal by pouring it
in the liquid state into a mold followed by solidification.

 In somecases casting is the only method of shaping a

metal or alloy: when the alloy is not malleable and
therefore it’s plastic deformation is not possible or when
a large detail of complex shape is to be produced.
 SAND CASTING

 Sand casting, the most widely used casting process,

utilizes expendable sand molds to form complex metal
parts that can be made of nearly any alloy.
 has a low production rate.

 The sand casting process involves the use of a furnace,

metal, pattern, and sand mold.
Steps in the Sand Casting Process

1. Pattern Making
2. Mould making
3. Core making
4. Melting and pouring metal
5. Cooling and solidification
6. Cleaning & Inspection

16
 METAL CASTING: SAND CASTING
 Steps in Sand Casting:
1. Pattern Making:
 Pattern is replica of the part to be casted.
 Initially pattern has to be made using different
manufacturing process other than casting.
 Draft/Taper is provided on pattern for its easy removal
from sand mould
 Commonly used materials for pattern making are- Wood,
Plastic and metal
 Steps in Sand Casting:
2. Mould Making:
 Mould is a container made from green sand and
which has cavity in which molten metal can poured.
 Mould box has two halves, the upper halve is called
cope and lower halve is called drag
 Arrangement for metal pouring has to be made inside
the mould
 Steps in Sand Casting:
3. Core Making:
 Core is a device used in sand casting to produce hollow
castings
 Generally core is made from same material as that of
the mould i.e. sand
 Supporting elements called chaplets are used to
support core
 Steps in Sand Casting:
4. Metal Melting and Pouring:
 The raw material is melted using furnace. Furnace
may be operated on electricity or fuel
 The molten metal is poured into mould using ladle
 Pouring basin, sprue, runner, gate are used to guide
molten metal into the cavity
 Steps in Sand Casting:
5. Solidification
 Metal is allowed to cool to room temperature
 During solidification the metal shrinks and the extra metal
required compensate this shrinkage is obtained from the riser
6. Finishing
 Undesired part which corresponds to gating system and riser has
to be cut from main casting
 The casted surface generally is rough and some finishing
operation like grinding, machining, polishing are required
7. Inspection
 Before dispatching the casted part has to be checked for desired
dimensions. The part which doesn’t meet expected dimensions has
to be scraped
 Castings are also checked for various undesirable defects
 Steps in Sand Casting
1

5 3
4

10

6 7 8 9
Steps in Sand Casting
Steps in Sand Casting
WHAT IS BASIC REQUIREMENT FOR SAND
CASTING PROCESS…?

 1. Pattern.

 2. Core

 3. Gating system

 4. Sand casting

 5. Mold
I. PATTERN
 I. PATTERN
It is the replica of the final object to be made.
Pattern is the solid form that is used to make mold cavity.

The quality of the castings produced depends on the design of the

pattern, its material and construction.
 One major requirement is that patterns (and therefore the mold
cavity) must be oversized
(i) to account for shrinkage in cooling and solidification, and
(ii) to provide enough metal for the subsequence machining
operation(s).
SOLIDIFICATION AND COOLING
FACTORS EFFECTING SELECTION OF PATTERN MATERIAL

1. Number of castings to be produced.

Metal pattern----- large in number.
2. Type of mold material used.
3. Kind of molding process.
4. Method of molding (hand or machine).
5. Degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish
required.
6. Minimum thickness required.
7. Shape, complexity and size of casting.
8. Cost of pattern and chances of repeat orders of the
pattern
Desired Properties for Pattern material:
 Easily worked, shaped and joined
 Light in weight
 Strong, hard, durable etc
 Resistance to wear and abrasion, chemical reaction.
 Dimensionally stable.
 Available at low cast.
COMMON PATTERN MATERIALS

 Wood : Wood-pine (softwood), or mahogany (hardwood),

 Metals and alloys
 Plaster of Paris
 Plastic and rubber
 Wax and resins
1. WOOD - SHISHAM, SAL, DEODAR, TEAK AND
MAHOGANY.

Advantages of wooden patterns

1 Wood can be easily worked.
2 It is light in weight.
3 It is easily available.
4 It is very cheap.
5 It is easy to join.
6 It is easy to obtain good surface finish.
7 Wooden laminated patterns are strong.
8 It can be easily repaired.

Disadvantages
1 It is susceptible to moisture.
2 It tends to warp.
3 It wears out quickly due to sand abrasion.
4 It is weaker than metallic patterns.
2. METAL- CAST IRON, BRASS AND BRONZES AND
ALUMINUM ALLOYS.

 i). Cast Iron

Advantages
 1. It is cheap
 2. It is easy to file and fit
 3. It is strong
 4. It has good resistance against sand abrasion
 5. Good surface finish
Disadvantages
 1 It is heavy
 2 It is brittle and hence it can be easily broken
 3 It may rust
ii). Brasses and Bronzes
Advantages
 1. Better surface finish than cast iron.
 2. Very thin sections can be easily casted.
Disadvantages
 1. It is costly
 2. It is heavier than cast iron.

iii). Aluminum Alloys

Advantages
 1. Aluminum alloys pattern does not rust.
 2. They are easy to cast.
 3. They are light in weight.
 4. They can be easily machined.
Disadvantages
 1. They can be damaged by sharp edges.
 2. Their storing and transportation needs proper care.
 Iv). White Metal (Alloy of Antimony, Copper
and Lead)
 Advantages
 1. It is best material for lining and stripping plates.
 2. It has low melting point around 260°C
 3. It can be cast into narrow cavities.
 Disadvantages
 1. Its storing and transportation needs proper care
 2. It wears away by sand or sharp edges.
3. Plastic
 Advantages
 lighter, stronger,
 moisture and wear resistant, non sticky to molding sand,
durable and
 They are not affected by the moisture of the molding sand.
 Moreover they impart very smooth surface finish on the
pattern surface.
Disadvantages
 These materials are somewhat fragile,
 less resistant to sudden loading and their section may need
metal reinforcement.

 The plastics used for this purpose are thermosetting

resins.
 Phenolic resin plastics are commonly used.
4. Plaster
 The main advantages of plaster are that it has high
compressive strength .

 It is preferred for production of small size intricate

castings and making core boxes.

 preferable for producing highly intricate casting.

5. Wax

 Used in the process of investment casting where

accuracy is linked with intricacy of the cast
object.
 The commonly used waxes are paraffin wax,
shellac wax, bees-wax, cerasin wax, and micro-
crystalline wax.
TYPES OF PATTERN
1. One piece or solid pattern

2. Two piece or split pattern

3. Cope and drag pattern

4. Three-piece or multi- piece pattern

5. Loose piece pattern

6. Match plate pattern

7. Follow board pattern

8. Gated pattern

9. Sweep pattern

10. Skeleton pattern

11. Segmental or part pattern

1.Solid Pattern /single piece pattern
 Solid pattern is made of single piece without joints,
partings lines or loose pieces.

 It is the simplest form of the pattern.

 It is easy to manufacture, but determining the

parting line between cope and drag is more difficult
for the foundry worker.
2. Self core patterns:
 Self core type solid patterns are patterns having a
hollow portion with straight draft which is used for
producing its own core during moulding process itself.
 This type of pattern eliminates the need for core box.
3. Split Pattern:
 The split pattern is comprised of two separate parts
that when put together will represent the geometry of
the casting.
 Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined
at the parting line by means of dowel pins.
 The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate
the withdrawal of the pattern.
4. Match Plate Pattern:
 High production.

 In the match plate pattern, however, each of the parts

are mounted on a plate.
 The pattern is mounted on the two sides of plate, half
at one side and half at another side.
 More proficient and makes alignment of the pattern in
the mold quick and accurate.
5. Cope and Drag Pattern:
 Each of the two halves are mounted on a separate
plate for easy alignment of the pattern and mold.
 The cope and drag pattern enables the cope section of
the mold, and the drag section of the mold to be
created separately and
 latter assembled before the pouring of the casting.
6. Shell patterns:
 used for piping work or for producing drainage fittings.

 This pattern consists of a thin cylindrical or curved

metal piece parted along the center line.
 The two halves of the pattern are held in alignment by
dowels.
6. Gated patterns:
 Gated patterns are number of loose patterns connected with
a gating system.
 They are molded like a single pattern and withdrawn from
the mould in one piece thus reducing moulding time.
 Gated patterns are useful when a number of small castings
are to be produced

Eg. Investment casting

7. Sweep pattern
 Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular moulds
of symmetric kind by revolving a sweep attached to a
spindle.
 Actually a sweep is a template of wood or metal and is
attached to the spindle at one edge and the other edge has
a contour depending upon the desired shape of the mould.
 The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal in the center
of the mould.
8. Skeleton pattern
 When only a less number of large and heavy castings are to
be made, it is not economical to make a solid pattern.
 In such cases, however, a skeleton pattern may be used.
 This is a ribbed construction of wood which forms an
outline of the pattern to be made.
 This frame work is filled with loam sand and rammed.
 The surplus sand is removed by stickle board.
 For round shapes, the pattern is made in two halves which
are joined with glue or by means of screws etc.
9. Three-piece or multi-piece pattern
 Some patterns are of complicated kind in shape
and hence can not be made in one or two pieces
because of difficulty in withdrawing the pattern.
 Therefore these patterns are made in either three
pieces or in multi-pieces.
 Multi molding flasks are needed to make mold
from these patterns.
10. Segmental pattern
 Patterns of this type are generally used for circular
castings, for example wheel rim, gear blank etc.
 Such patterns are sections of a pattern so arranged as
to form a complete mould by being moved to form each
section of the mould.
 The movement of segmental pattern is guided by the
use of a central pivot.
11. Follow board pattern
 When the use of solid or split patterns becomes
difficult, a contour corresponding to the exact
shape of one half of the pattern is made in a
wooden board, which is called a follow board and
it acts as a molding board for the first molding
operation
 PATTERN ALLOWANCES

 The size of a pattern is never kept the same as that of

the desired casting because of the fact that during
cooling the casting is subjected to various effects and
hence to compensate for these effects, corresponding
allowances are given in the pattern.
 These various allowances given to pattern can be
enumerated as,
 Shrinkage allowance,
 Machining allowance,
 Draft allowance,
 Rapping or shake allowance ,
 Distortion allowance.
1. SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE

 In practice it is found that all common cast metals shrink a

significant amount when they are cooled from the molten
state.
SHRINKAGE
The total contraction in volume
 1. Liquid contraction, i.e. the contraction during the period in
which the temperature of the liquid metal or alloy falls from the
pouring temperature to the liquidus temperature.
 2. Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the solidus
temperature, i.e. solidifying contraction.
 3. Contraction that results there after until the temperature
reaches the room temperature.
This is known as solid contraction.
 The first two of the above are taken care of by proper gating and
risering.
 Only the last one, i.e. the solid contraction is taken care by the
pattern makers by giving a positive shrinkage allowance.
 The contraction allowances for different metals and
alloys such as
 Gray Cast Iron has Negative shrinkage allowance.

• Brass 16 mm/m,
• Aluminum Alloys. 15 mm/m.,
• Steel 21 mm/m,
• Lead 24 mm/m.
• Copper 16mm/m.
2. Machining Allowance

 It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the

amount of material that is lost in machining or
finishing the casting.
 If this allowance is not given, the casting will become
undersize after machining.
 The amount of this allowance depends on the size of
casting, methods of machining and the degree of
finish.
 The value varies from 3 mm. to 18 mm.
3. Draft or Taper Allowance
 Taper allowance is also a positive allowance and is given on all
the vertical surfaces of pattern so that its withdrawal becomes
easier.

 The normal amount of taper on the external surfaces varies from

10 mm to 20 mm/m.

 These values are greatly affected by the size of the pattern and
the molding method. In machine molding its, value varies from 10
mm to 50 mm/m.
4. Rapping or Shake Allowance

 Actually by rapping, the external sections move outwards

increasing the size

 This movement may be insignificant in the case of small

and medium size castings, but it is significant in the case of
large castings.

 This allowance is kept negative and hence the pattern is

made slightly smaller in dimensions

 0.5 - 1.0 mm/m.

5. Distortion Allowance

 This allowance is applied to the castings which have the

tendency to distort during cooling due to thermal stresses
developed.
 For example a casting in the form of U shape will contract
at the closed end on cooling, while the open end will remain
fixed in position.
 Therefore, to avoid the distortion, the legs of U pattern
must converge slightly so that the sides will remain
parallel after cooling.
II. CORE
 II. CORE
 Cores serve to produce internal surfaces in castings, in
some cases, they have to be supported by chaplets for
more stable positioning.
 For producing hallow casting.

 The core is normally a disposable item that is

destroyed to get it out of the piece.
Eg. the use of cores is in
the casting of engine
blocks
Definition of core:-
Cores are compact mass of core sand that when placed
in mould cavity at required location with proper
alignment does not allow the molten metal to occupy
space for solidification in that portion and hence help
to produce hollowness in the casting.
TYPES OF CORE

Cores are classified according to shape and position

in the mold.

1. Horizontal core
2. Vertical core
3. Balanced core
4. Hanging and cover core –wire support
5. Wind up core- below or above parting line
6. Ram up core- before ramming
7. Kiss core - no core prints (seat)
1. Horizontal core
 Usually cylindrical, laid
horizontally at parting
plane
 Core rest in seats
provided by core print
on pattern
2. Vertical core

 Both in cope and

drag
 Top and bottom
provided with taper -
alignment
3.Balanced Core
 Opening on one side
of casting
 Only one core print
 Core print is made
large to balance the
weight and sufficient
support
 Long core supported
by chaplets
3. Cover Core
 hanging from cope
plus support at bottom
in drag
4. Hanging core
 Core hangs from cope
and no support at
bottom of drag
5. Wing core

 When hole is required in

casting above or below
the parting line
 Side of core is given
sufficient amount of
taper so core can be
placed easily.
 Also called as drop core,
tail core, chair or saddle
core
6. Ram – up core
 Setting the core
before mould is
rammed.
7. Kiss Core
 No core prints and
no seats available
 Core is held between
cope and drag simply
by pressure of cope
Horizontal Vertical

Cover
Balanced

Hanging Wing

Ram-up Kiss core

 Fig. Vertical core

Fig. Balancing core

 CORE MAKING

 Core making basically is carried out in four

stages namely
 1. core sand preparation,

 2. core making,

 3. core baking and

 4. core finishing.
 I. CORE SAND PROPERTIES

 It is special kind of molding sand.

 Those considerations involves

 (i) The cores are subjected to a very high temperature and

hence the core sand should be highly refractory in nature

 (ii) The permeability of the core sand must be sufficiently

high as compared to that of the molding sands so as to
allow the core gases to escape through the limited area of
the core recesses generated by core prints
(iii) The core sand should not possess such materials which may
produce gases while they come in contact with molten metal and
(iv) The core sand should be collapsible in nature, i.e. it should
disintegrate after the metal solidifies, because this property will
ease the cleaning of the casting.

Core Material
 The main constituents of the core sand are pure silica sand
and a binder.
 Silica sand is preferred because of its high refractoriness.
 For higher values of permeability sands with coarse grain
size distribution are used.
 The main purpose of the core binder is to hold the grains
together, impart strength and sufficient degree
collapsibility.
Commonly used binders in core making..

1. Cereal binder
 It develops green strength, baked strength and
collapsibility in core.
 The amount of these binders used varies from 0.2 to 2.2%
by weight in the core sand.
2. Protein binder
 It is generally used to increase collapsibility property of
core.
3. Thermosetting resin
 It is gaining popularity nowadays because it imparts high
strength, collapsibility to core sand and
 it also evolve minimum amount of mold and core gases
which may produce defects in the casting.
 The most common binders under this group are phenol
formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde.
4. Sulphite binder

 Sulphite binder is also sometimes used in core but

along with certain amount of clay.

5. Dextrin

 It is commonly added in core sand for increasing

collapsibility and baked strength of core
ii. Core Making Process
is basically mechanized using core blowing, core ramming and
core drawing machines

1. By Manually
 Small cores can be made manually in hand rammed core
boxes.
2.Core blowing machines
 The basic principle of core blowing machine comprises of
filling the core sand into the core box by using compressed
air.
 The velocity of the compressed air is kept high to obtain a
high velocity of core sand particles, thus ensuring their
deposit in the all corners the core box.
 On entering the core sand with high kinetic energy, the
shaping and ramming of core is carried out simultaneously
in the core box.
2. Core ramming machines
 Cores can also be prepared by ramming core sands in
the core boxes by machines based on the principles of
squeezing, jolting and slinging.
 Out of these three machines, jolting and slinging are
more common for core making.
iii. Core baking

 Once the cores are prepared, they will be baked in a

baking ovens or furnaces.
 The main purpose of baking is to drive away the
moisture and harden the binder, there by giving
strength to the core.
4. Finishing of cores :
 After the baking cores are given certain finishing
operation before use.

 Fin type and other projections are made during core

making are removed.

 It is also coated refractory or protective materials to

improve their refractoriness.

 Surface is coated with heat resistant paint.

 Coating materials are finely ground graphite, silica and

zircon flour.
Type of cores
1. GREEN SAND CORES
 Green sand cores are made by green sand containing
moist condition about 5% water and 15- 30 % clay.
 It imparts very good permeability to core and thus avoids
defects like shrinkage or voids in the casting.
 Green sand cores are not dried.
 They are poured in green condition and are generally
preferred for simple, small and medium castings.
 Such cores possess less strength in comparison to dry
sand cores and hence cannot be stored for longer period.
2. DRY SAND CORES
 Dry sand cores are produced by drying the green sand
cores to about 110°C.

 These cores possess high strength rigidity and also good

thermal stability.

 These cores can be stored for long period and are more
stable than green sand core.

 They are used for large castings.

 They also produce good surface finish in comparison to

green sand cores.
CORE BOX
 Any kind of hollowness in form of holes and recesses in
castings is obtained by the use of cores.
 Cores are made by means of core boxes comprising of
either single or in two parts.
 Core boxes are generally made of wood or metal and
are of several types.
 The main types of core box are
 Half core box,
 Dump core box,
 Split core box,
 Strickle core box,
 Right and left hand core box and
 loose piece core box.
1. Half core box
 This is the most common type of core box. The two
identical halves of a symmetrical core prepared in the
half core box.
 Two halves of cores are pasted or cemented together
after baking to form a complete core.
2. Dump core box
 Dump core box is similar in construction to half core box.
 The cores produced do not require pasting, rather they are
complete by themselves.
 If the core produced is in the shape of a slab, then it is
called as a slab box or a rectangular box.
 A dump core-box is used to prepare complete core in it.
 Generally cylindrical and rectangular cores are prepared in
these boxes.
3. Split core box
 Split core boxes are made in two parts.

 They form the complete core by only one ramming.

 The two parts of core boxes are held in position by

means of clamps and
 Their alignment is maintained by means of dowel pins
and thus core is produced.
4. Right and left hand core box
 Some times the cores are not symmetrical about the
center line.
 In such cases, right and left hand core boxes are used.

 The two halves of a core made in the same core box are
not identical and they cannot be pasted together.
5. Strickle core box
• This type of core box is used when a core with an irregular
shape is desired.
• The required shape is achieved by striking off the core sand
from the top of the core box with a wooden piece, called as
strickle board.
• The strickle board has the same contour as that of the
required core.
Color codification for patterns and core
boxes
 There is no set or accepted standard for representing of
various surfaces of pattern and core boxes by different
colors.
 The American practice is the most popular.

 In this practice, the color identification is as follows.

surfaces color
Unfinished Surfaces black
Machined surfaces red
Core prints yellow
Seats for loose pieces red stripes on yellow background
Stop-offs black stripes on yellow base
CORE PRINTS
 When a hole blind or through is needed in the casting, a core
is placed in the mould cavity to produce the same.
 The core has to be properly located or positioned in the
mould cavity on pre-formed recesses or impressions in the
sand.
 To form these recesses or impressions for generating seat for
placement of core, extra projections are added on the pattern
surface at proper places.
 These extra projections on the pattern (used for producing
recesses in the mould for placement of cores at that location)
are known as core prints.
 The core is placed in the metal casting after the
removal of the pattern.
 III. GATING SYSTEM

 In order for mold to be functional to manufacture a

casting, in addition to the impression of the part, the
mold cavity will also need to include a gating system.
 Sometimes the gating system will be cut by hand or in
more adept manufacturing procedures the gating
system will be incorporated into the pattern along with
the part.
 Basically a gating system functions during the metal
casting operation to facilitate the flow of the molten
material into the mold cavity.
Pouring Basin:
 It is funnel shaped cup at the top portion of sprue.

 It is easy to operator to directly to direct flow of metal

from crucible to sprue.

Down Sprue:
 From the pouring basin the molten metal for the
casting travels through the down sprue.
 This should be tapered so its cross-section is reduced
as it goes downward.
 To avoid aspiration of air.

Sprue Base:
 The down sprue ends at the sprue base.

 It is here that the casting's inner cavity begins.

Gate
 It is a small passage or channel being cut by gate
cutter which connect runner with the mould cavity and
through which molten metal flows to fill the mould
cavity.
 It feeds the liquid metal to the casting at the rate
consistent with the rate of solidification.
Chaplets
 Chaplets are metal pieces inserted in a mould either to
prevent shifting of mould or locate core surfaces.
 The distances pieces in form of chaplets are made of parent
metal of which the casting is. These are placed in mould
cavity suitably which positions core and to give extra support
to core and mould surfaces.
 Its main objective is to impart good alignment of mould and
core surfaces and to achieve directional solidification.
 When the molten metal is poured in the mould cavity, the
chaplet melts and fuses itself along with molten metal during
solidification and thus forms a part of the cast material.
Chills
 Used at particular position, the special mould surface for
fast extraction of heat is to be made.

 The fast heat extracting metallic materials known as chills

will be incorporated separately along with sand mould
surface during molding.

 Thus, the main function of chill is to provide a hard surface

at a localized place in the casting by way of special and fast
solidification.
Runners:
 Runners are passages that distribute the liquid metal to the
different areas inside the mold.
 Depending on shape of the casting it is located into cope or
drag region.
Main Cavity:
 The impression of the actual part to be cast is often referred
to as the main cavity.
Vents
 Vents help to assist in the escape of gases that are expelled
from the molten metal during the solidification phase of the
metal casting process.
Risers:
 Risers are reservoirs of molten material.

 They feed this material to sections of the mold to compensate for

shrinkage as the casting solidifies.

 There are different classifications for risers.

Top Risers: Risers that feed the metal casting from the top.
Side Risers: Risers that feed the metal casting from the side.
Blind Risers: Risers that are completely contained within the mold.
Open Risers: Risers that are open at the top to the outside
environment.

Figure . Illustrates the

difference between top
risers and side risers.
 WHY RISER?
 The shrinkage occurs in three stages,
1. When temperature of liquid metal drops from pouring to
freezing temperature
2. When the metal changes from liquid to solid state, and
3. When the temperature of solid phase drops from freezing to
room temperature
 The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by providing
shrinkage allowance on pattern, while the shrinkage during
stages 1 and 2 are compensated by providing risers.
 The riser should solidify in the last otherwise liquid metal will
start flowing from casting to riser.
 It should promote directional solidification.

 The shape, size and location of the risers are important

considerations in casting design
 IV. MOLDING SAND

 The general sources of receiving molding sands are the

beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granular elements of rocks,
and deserts.
 The common sources of molding sands available in
India are as follows:
 1 Batala sand ( Punjab)
 2 Gangas sand (Uttar Pradesh)
 3 Oyaria sand (Bihar)
 4 Damodar and Barakar sands (Bengal- Bihar Border)
 5 Londha sand (Mumbai)
 6 Gigatamannu sand (Andhra Pradesh) and
 7 Avadi and Veeriyambakam sand (Madras)
 Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or
synthetic.

 Natural molding sands contain sufficient binder.

 Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared

artificially using basic sand molding constituents
(silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or
moisture content 3-6%) and other additives in proper
proportion by weight with perfect mixing and mulling
in suitable equipments.
CONSTITUENTS OF MOLDING SAND
 The main constituents of molding sand involve silica sand,
binder, moisture content and additives.
1. Silica sand
 Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main
constituent of molding sand having enough refractoriness
which can impart strength, stability and permeability to
molding and core sand.
 But along with silica small amounts of iron oxide, alumina,
lime stone, magnesia, soda and potash are present as
impurities.
 The silica sand can be specified according to the size (small,
medium and large silica sand grain) and the shape
(angular, sub-angular and rounded).
2. Binder
 The inorganic group includes clay sodium silicate and port
land cement etc.
 In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be
bentonite clay, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth
and Bentonite.
 Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is
most common.
3. Moisture
 The amount of moisture content in the molding sand varies
generally between 2 to 8 percent.
 This amount is added to the mixture of clay and silica sand
for developing bonds.
 This is the amount of water required to fill the pores
between the particles of clay without separating them.
4 Additives
 Additives are the materials generally added to the molding
and core sand mixture to develop some special property in
the sand.
4.1 Coal dust
 Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing
atmosphere during casting.
 This reducing atmosphere results in any oxygen in the poles
becoming chemically bound so that it cannot oxidize the
metal.
4.2 Corn flour
 It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates and is
used to increase the collapsibility of the molding and
core sand.
4.3 Dextrin
 Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates that
behaves also in a manner similar to that of the corn
flour.
 It increases dry strength of the molds.
4.4 Sea coal
 Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which
positions its place among the pores of the silica sand
grains in molding sand and core sand.
 Because to this, the sand grains become restricted and
cannot move into a dense packing pattern.
 Thus, sea coal reduces the mould wall movement and
the permeability in mold and core sand and hence
makes the mold and core surface clean and smooth.
4.5 Pitch
 It is distilled form of soft coal.
 It can be added from 0.02 % to 2% in mold and core sand.
 It enhances strengths, surface finish on mold surfaces and
behaves exactly in a manner similar to that of sea coal.
4.6 Wood flour
 This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material
like sand; its relatively long thin fibers prevent the sand
grains from making contact with one another.
 It can be added from 0.05 % to 2% in mold and core sand.
 It also increases collapsibility of both of mold and core.
4.7 Silica flour
 It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up
to 3% which increases the hot strength and finish on the
surfaces of the molds and cores.
 It also reduces metal penetration in the walls of the molds
and cores.
MOULDING SAND/ FOUNDRY SAND
Moulding Sands:
 Most sand casting operations use Silica sand (SiO2).
Usually sand used to manufacture a mould for the casting
process is held together by a mixture of water and clay.
TYPES OF MOULDING SANDS
1. Green sand:
 It is sand used in the wet condition for making the mould.
 Green sand moulds are not dried and metal is poured in
them in the wet condition
 Being damp the sand can be easily worked with hand to
give it any desired shape

o This sand is used for

producing small to medium
sized molds which are not very
complex
2. Dry sand:
 Dry sand is the green sand that has been dried or
baked after preparing the mould.
 Drying sand gives strength to the mould so that it can
be used for larger castings.
3. Loam sand:
 Loam sand is sand containing up to 50 % clay which
has been worked to the consistency of builder mortar.
 This sand is used for loam sand moulds for making
very heavy castings usually with the help of sweeps
and skeleton patterns.
 4. Parting sand:
 This sand is used during making of the mould to ensure that
green sand does not stick to the pattern and
 the cope and drug parts can be easily separated for removing
the pattern without causing any damage to the mould.
 Parting sand consists of fine grained clay free dried silica
sand, sea sand or burnt sand with some parting compounds.
 The parting compounds used include charcoal, ground bone
and limestone, groundnut shells, talc and calcium phosphate.
5. Facing sand:
 Facing sand is the sand which covers the pattern all around it.
The remaining box is filled with ordinary sand.
 Facing sand forms the face of the mould and comes in direct
contact with the molten metal when it is poured.
 High strength and refractoriness are required for this sand.
 It is made of silica sand and clay without the addition of any
used sand.
 Graphite, mollases, plumbago etc. may be added to the facing
sand. Thickness of the sand layer varies from 20 to 30 mm.
 6. Backing sand:
 Backing sand is the bulk of the sand used to back up the
facing sand and to fill up the volume of the flask.
 It consists mainly of old, repeatedly used moulding sand
which is generally black in colour due to addition of coal
dust and burning on contact with hot metal.
 Because of the colour backing sand is also sometimes
called black sand.
 The main purpose for the use of backing sand is to reduce
the cost of moulding.
 7. System sand:
 This is the sand used in mechanized foundries for filling the
entire flask.
 No separate facing sand in used in a mechanized foundry.
 Sand, cleaned and reactivated by the addition of water and
binders is used to fill the flask.
 Because of the absence of any fresh sand, system sand must
have more strength, permeability and refractoriness
compared to backing sand.
8. Core sand:

 Core sand is the sand used for making cores. This is silica
sand mixed with core oil. That is why it is also called oil sand.
 The core oil consists of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil with
some binders.
 For larger cores, sometimes pitch or flour and water may also
be used to save on cost.
PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SANDS:
 1. Strength
 2. Permeability
 3. Grain Size and Shape
 4. Thermal stability
 5. Refractoriness
 6. Flow ability
 7. Sand Texture
 8. Collapsibility
 9. Adhesiveness
 10. Reusability
 11. Easy of preparation and control
 12. Conductivity
STRENGTH:
 The sand should have adequate strength in its green, dry
and hot states
 Green strength is the strength of sand in the wet state and
is required for making possible to prepare and handle the
mould.
 If the metal is poured into a green mould the sand adjacent
to the metal dries and in the dry state it should have
strength to resist erosion and the pressure of metal.
 The strength of the sand that has been dried or baked is
called dry strength.
 At the time of pouring the molten metal the mould must be
able to withstand flow and pressure of the metal at high
temperature otherwise the mould may enlarge, crack, get
washed or break
STRENGTH OF THE MOULDING SAND DEPENDS ON:

 1. Grain size and shape

 2. Moisture content

 3. Density of sand after ramming

 The strength of the mould increases with a decrease

of grain size and an increase of clay content and
density after ramming.

 The strength also goes down if moisture content is

higher than an optimum value.
2. Permeability:
 The moulding sand must be sufficiently porous to expel
the flue gases, which are evolved when the metal freezes or
moisture present or generated within the moulds to be
removed freely when the moulds are poured.

 This property of sand is called porosity or permeability.

3. Grain size and shape:
 ·The size and shape of the grains in the sand
determine the application in various types of foundry.
These are three different sizes of sand grains.
1. Fine
2. Medium
3. Coarse
 Fine sand is used for small and intricate castings.

 Medium sand is used for benchmark and light floor

works.
 If the size of casting is larger coarse sand is used

 Sand having fine, rounded grains can be closely

packed and forms a smooth surface. Although fine-
grained sand enhances mould strength.
4. Thermal stability:
 The sand adjacent to the metal is suddenly heated
and undergoes expansion.
 If the mould wall is not dimensionally stable under
rapid heating, cracks, buckling and flaking off sand
may occur.
5. Refractoriness:
 Refractoriness is the property of withstanding
the high temperature condition moulding sand
with low refractoriness may burn on to the
casting.
 It is the ability of the moulding material to resist
the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured
so that it does not get fused with the metal.
 The refractoriness of the Silica sand is highest.
6. Flowability:
 Flowability or plasticity is the property of the sand to
respond to the moulding process so that when rammed it
will flow all around the pattern and take the desired
mould shape.
 High flowability of sand is desirable for the sand to get
compacted to a uniform density and to get good impression
of the pattern in the mould.
 Flowability is also very important in machine moulding
 Flowability of sand increases as clay and water content
are increased.
7. Collapsibility:
 The moulding sand should collapse during the
contraction of the solidified casting.
 It does not collapse which may result in cracks in the
castings.
 Besides these specific properties the moulding
material should be cheap, reusable and should have
good thermal conductivity
8. Adhesiveness:
 The sand particles must be capable of adhering to another
body, then only the sand should be easily attach itself with
the sides of the moulding box and give easy of lifting and
turning the box when filled with the stand.

Cohesiveness
9. Reusability:
 Since large quantities of sand are used in a foundry it is
very important that the sand be reusable otherwise apart
from cost it will create disposal problems

10. Easy of preparation and control:

 Sand should such that it easy prepare and control by
mechanical equipment

11. Thermal Conductivity:

 Sand should have enough thermal conductivity to permit
removal of heat from the castings.
SAND TESTING METHODS AND SAND TESTING EQUIPMENT

 1. Moisture content test

 2. Clay content test
 3. Grain fineness test
 4. Permeability test
 5. Strength test
 6. Refractoriness test
 7. Mould hardness test
1. MOISTURE CONTENT TEST:

 Moisture is the property of the moulding sand it

is defined as the amount of water present in the
moulding sand.
 Low moisture content in the moulding sand does
not develop strength properties.
 High moisture content decreases permeability.
Procedures are:
 1. 20 to 50 gms of prepared sand is placed in the pan
and is heated by an infrared heater bulb for 2 to 3
minutes.
 2. The moisture in the moulding sand is thus
evaporated.
 3. Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and
reweighed.
 4. The percentage of moisture can be calculated from
the difference in the weights, of the original moist and
the consequently dried sand samples.
 ( 𝑾𝟏 −𝑾𝟐)
Percentage of moisture content = x 100
𝑾𝟏
Where, W1-Weight of the sand before drying,
W2-Weight of the sand after drying.
2. CLAY CONTENT TEST

 Clay influences strength, permeability and other

moulding properties.
 It is responsible for bonding sand particles
together.
PROCEDURES :
 1. Small quantity of prepared moulding sand was dried
 2. Separate 50 gms of dry moulding sand and transfer in to wash bottle.
 3. Add 475cc of distilled water + 2.5 to 3% NaOH.
 4. Agitate this mixture about 10 minutes with the help of sand stirrer.
 5. Fill the wash bottle with water up to the marker. (Normally 6 inch)
 6. After the sand etc., has settled for about 10 minutes, Siphon out the
water from the wash bottle.
 7. Dry the settled down sand. Repeat this process until all clay will remove
completely.
 8. The clay content can be determined from the difference in weights of the
initial and final sand samples.

( 𝑾𝟏 −𝑾𝟐)
Percentage of clay content = x 100
𝑾𝟏
Where,
 W1-Weight of the sand before drying,
 W2-Weight of the sand after drying.
 3. GRAIN FINENESS TEST:

 The grain size, distribution, grain fineness are determined

with the help of the fineness testing of moulding sands.
 The apparatus consists of a number of standard sieves
mounted one above the other, on a power driven shaker.
 The shaker vibrates the sieves and the sand placed on the
top sieve gets screened and collects on different sieves
depending upon the various sizes of grains present in the
moulding sand.
 The top sieve is coarsest and the bottom-most sieve is the
finest of all the sieves. In between sieve are placed in order
of fineness from top to bottom.
 Procedures are:
 1. Sample of dry sand (clay removed sand) placed in
the upper sieve
 2. Sand is vibrated for definite period

 3. The amount of sand retained on each sieve is

weighted.
 4. Percentage distribution of grain is computed.
3. PERMEABILITY TEST:

 The quantity of air that will pass through a standard

specimen of the sand at a particular pressure condition
is called the permeability of the sand.

 Following are the major parts of the permeability test

equipment:

 1. An inverted bell jar, which floats in a water.

 2. Specimen tube, for the purpose of hold the equipment

 3. A manometer (measure the air pressure)

Steps involved are:
 1. The air (2000cc volume) held in the bell jar is forced to pass
through the sand specimen.
 2. At this time air entering the specimen equal to the air
escaped through the specimen
 3. Take the pressure reading in the manometer.
 4. Note the time required for 2000cc of air to pass the sand
 5. Calculate the permeability number
𝑽𝑿𝑯
 6. Permeability number (N) =
𝑨𝑿𝑷𝑿𝑻
 Where,
 V-Volume of air (cc)
 H-Height of the specimen (mm)
 A-Area of the specimen (mm2)
 P-Air pressure (gm / cm2)
 T-Time taken by the air to pass through the sand (seconds)
STRENGTH TEST:
 Measurements of strength of moulding sands can be carried
out on the universal sand strength testing machine.
 The strength can be measured in compression, shear and
tension.
 The sands that could be tested are green sand, dry sand or
core sand.
 The compression test involve the standard cylindrical
specimen that was used for the permeability test.

Steps involved are:

1. Specimen is held between the grips
2. Apply the hydraulic pressure by
rotating the hand wheel
3. Taking the deformation use of the
indicators.
 REFRACTORINESS TEST
 The refractoriness is used to measure the ability of
the sand to withstand the higher temperature.

Steps involved are:

1. Prepare a cylindrical specimen of
sand.
2. Heating the specimen at 1500 0 C
for 2 hours.
3. Observe the changes in dimension
and appearance.
4. If the sand is good, it retains
specimen share and shows very little
expansion.
If the sand is poor, specimen will shrink
and distort.
MOULD HARDNESS TEST
 Hardness of the mould surface can be tested with the help
of an “indentation hardness tester”. It consists of indicator,
spring loaded spherical indenter.

 The spherical indenter is penetrates into

the mould surface at the time of testing.
The depth of penetration w.r.t. the flat
reference surface of the tester.
𝑷
Mould hardness number = 𝟐 𝟐
(𝑫 −(𝑫 − 𝒅 ))
Where,
P- Applied Force (N)
D- Diameter of the indenter (mm)
d- Diameter of the indentation (mm)
 Advantages and disadvantages of sand casting

Advantages: Can produce very large parts

Can form complex shapes
Many material options
Low tooling and equipment cost
Scrap can be recycled
Short lead time possible
Disadvantages: Poor material strength
High porosity possible
Poor surface finish and tolerance
Secondary machining often required
Low production rate
High labor cost

Applications: Engine blocks and manifolds, machine bases,

gears, pulleys and propellers, cylinder heads,
and transmission cases
 V. The Mold
•The pattern is placed in the
mold and the mold material
is packed around it.
• The mold contains two
parts, the drag (bottom), and
the cope (top).
•The parting line between
the cope and drag allows for
the mold to be opened and
the pattern to be removed
once the impression has been
made.
•For some moulds additional
intermediate boxes called
“Cheeks” may be required.

A typical mold is shown in figure

MOLD (USED IN US ) / MOULD ( USED IN BRITAIN ET AL.)

 A mold is formed into the geometric shape of a desired

part.
 Molten metal is then poured into the mold, the mold
holds this material in shape as it solidifies. A metal
casting is created.
 Molds can be classified as either open or closed.

 A open mold is a container, like a cup, that has only the

shape of the desired part.
 The molten material is poured directly into the mold
cavity which is exposed to the open environment.
OPEN AND CLOSED MOULD
 Two main branches of methods can be distinguished
by the basic nature of the mold they employ.
 There is expendable mold casting and permanent
mold casting.

•Expendable Mold Can •Permanent Mold Can

produce one metal casting only
•Made of sand, plaster, or other
similar material. Binders used
to help material hold its form.
•Mold that metal solidifies
must be destroyed to remove
casting
•More intricate geometries are
possible for casting
manufacture many metal
castings
•Usually made of metal or
sometimes a refractory ceramic
•Mold has sections that can
open or close permitting
removal of the casting
•Need to open mold limits part
shapes
MOULD MAKING

 Making a mould properly means a half casting done.

 A sand mould is formed by packing sand into each half
of the mould.
 The sand is packed around the pattern, which is a
replica of the external shape of the casting.
 When the pattern is removed, the cavity that will form
the casting remains.
 Any internal features of the casting that cannot be
formed by the pattern are formed by separate cores
which are made of sand prior to the formation of the
mould.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MOLD
 1. The mould should be strong enough to resist erosion by
the flow of the metal and to take the weight of the metal.
 2. The mould material should not produce too much of gases
as the gases may enter the mould cavity and get entrapped
with metal or violently boil out the metal.
 3. The mould should be made in such a way that gases
generated are vented out of the mould.
 4. The mould should be refractory enough to withstand the
high temperature of liquid metal.
 5. The cores should be collapsible enough to permit
contraction of the metal after solidification.
 6. Flow should be laminar i.e. smooth flow
 7. There should be a proper riser system in the mould to
provide sufficient extra metal to account for the liquid and
solidification shrinkage.
 8. The mould material and moulding process should be such
that cleaning of castings is facilitated.
MOLDING TOOLS
1.Mallet:
 It is a mallet to loosen the pattern in the mould by
striking slightly, so that it can be withdrawn without
damaging the mould
 2. Gate cutter:
 It is a metal piece used to create the gate opening that
connects tee sprue with the mould cavity. (sleek)
 3. Rapping plate (or) Lifting plate:
 It is used to facilitate shaking and lifting large pattern
from the mold.
 4. Spirit level:
 It is used to check that the sand bed, moulding box or
table of moulding machine is horizontal.
 5. Clamps:
 Clamps are used to hold the cope and drag of the
complete mould together so that the cope may not float
or rise when the molten metal is poured into the mould.
 6. Moulding box:
 Sand moulds are prepared specially constructed boxes
called the moulding boxes or flasks. The function and
construction of a molding box have already been
described.

Moulding flasks
 7.Shovel:
 It is just like rectangular pan fitted with a handle.

 It is used for mixing the moulding sand and for

moving it from one place to the other.
 8. Riddle:
 It is used for removing foreign materials like
nails, hot metal splinters of wood etc from the
moulding sand.
 9. Rammer:
 It is a wooden tool used for ramming or packing
the sand in the mould.
 Rammers are made in different shapes.
 10. Strike-off bar:
 It is a cast iron or wrought iron bar with a true
straight edge. It is used to remove the surplus sand
from the mould after the ramming has been completed.
 11. Vent wire:
 It is a mild steel wire used for making vents or
openings in the mould.
 12. Lifter:
 It is a metal piece used for patching deep section of the
mould and removing loose sand from pockets of the
mould.
 13. Slick:
 Different types of slicks are used for repairing and
finishing moulds.
14. Trowel:
It contains of a flat and thick metal sheet with
upwards projected handle at one end. It is
used for making joints and finishing flat
surface of a mould.
15. Swab:
It is made of flax or hemp.
It is used for applying water to the mould
around the edge of the pattern.
 MOULDING MACHINES

 Moulding processes may be classified as hand

moulding or machine moulding according to whether
the mould is prepared by hand tools or with the aid of
some moulding machine.
 Hand moulding is generally found to be economical
when the castings are required in a small number.
 The major functions of molding machines involves
ramming of molding sand, rolling over or inverting the
mould, rapping the pattern and withdrawing the
pattern from the mould.
 Most of the molding machines perform a combination
of two or more of functions.
Types of Moulding machine:

1. Hand Operated molding machine

a. Pattern draw type

b. Pattern draw and Squeeze type
c. Pin Lift type machine
d. Roll Over type machine

2. Power operated Molding Machine

a. Squeeze machine
b. Jolt machine
c. Jolt squeeze machine
d. Jolt squeeze roll over pattern draw
machine
e. Sand Slinger
SQUEEZER

1.Table
2. pattern
3. flask.
4.Sand frame
5. platen
6. squeezer head.
7. frame
SQUEEZE MOLDING MACHINE
 Molding sand squeezed between machine table
and overhead squeeze board
 Pneumatic or hydraulic.

 Top squeezing

 Bottom squeezing

 Limitation- sand is packed more densely on top of

mould
 Density deceases uniformly with depth.

 At parting plane density is lowest

 Restricted to molds up to 150 mm depth

JOLT MACHINE

1.table.
3.patern and flask.
8.plunger.
9 hose.
10. channel.
11. opening
12. guide cylinder
13. springs
 Flask is filled with moulding sand
 Table supporting flask is raised and dropped in
succession
 Due to sudden change in inertia – sand gets packed
and rammed.
 Action of raising and sudden dropping – jolt

 Drawback – sand is rammed hardest at parting

plane sand remains less dense at tops
 Preferred for horizontal surfaces
JOLT SQUEEZE MACHINE
 Jolting action used to ram sand around the
pattern
 Squeezing – used to ram sand on upper side.

 Mold with maximum hardness, uniform ramming

 SAND SLINGER
Slinging - ramming due to impact of sand which falls at
very high velocity

Rate – 500 to 2000kg per min.

Mold of adequate strength , hardness

Overhead impeller head

1. housing.
2. blade
3. opening
4. outlet
 Conveyor buckets
Jolt-Squeeze machine

Sand slinger
FOUNDRY SAFETY

Hand Pouring Equipment

LADLES
 Moving molten metal from melting furnace to
mold is sometimes done using crucibles
 More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane

ladle, and (b) Two-man ladle.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Casting processes ( Special Casting processes)

1 - Expendable mould casting

• sand, plastic, shell, and investment (lost-wax technique)
mouldings.

2 - Nonexpendable mould casting

• permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting).

Classification of die casting:

(a)Gravity Die Casting (also called permanent mould process)

(b)Pressure Die Casting

 INVESTMENT CASTING (LOST WAX CASTING)
 Investment (lost wax) casting is a method of precision
casting complex near-net-shape details using replication of
wax patterns.
 Precision or investment casting employed techniques that
enable very smooth highly accurate castings to be made from
both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys
 The process is useful in casting unmachinable alloys and
radioactive metals.
 In investment casting, the pattern is made of wax, which
melts after making the mold to produce the mold cavity.
Ceramic
particles,
wet plaster Investment,
up to 3-5
mm
Ceramic slurry
materials

Mullite: Al2O3 44-48%,

SiO2 47-51%, Fe2O3 max.
1%, TiO2 max. 1%.
Zircon flour.

Binders: Colloidal Silica

SiO2 25-45%, Na2O
max.1% in distilled water;
sodium silicate
NaO*nSiO2*mH2O;
ethyl silicate Si(OC2H5)4.
INVESTMENT CASTING PROCESS
 The investment casting process uses expendable
patterns made of investment casting wax.
 The wax patterns are commonly prepared by injection
molding technology which involves injection of wax into
a prefabricated die having the same geometry of the
cavity as the desired cast part.
 The wax patterns are then attached to a gating
system (a set of channels through which a molten
metal flows to the mold cavity).
 The next stage is the shell building - the wax
assembly is immersed into refractory ceramic slurry of
hardening mixtures followed by drying. This operation
is repeatedly carried out resulting in formation of a
solid ceramic shell of 1/4” -3/8” (6mm – 9mm) thick.
 The next stage is dewax. At this stage the assembly
is heated in an autoclave where the most of the wax is
melted out. This operation is followed by burning out
the residual wax in a furnace.
 The mold is then preheated to 1830°F (1000°C). Now
the mold is ready for filling with a molten metal.
 Casting stage is conventional operation involving
pouring a molten metal into the shell through the
gating system.
 After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired
temperature, the shell is broken and the castings are
cut away from the gates and sprue.
 The last stage is finishing carried out by
sandblasting or machining.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INVESTMENT CASTING

Advantages:

 Excellent surface finish.

 Tight dimensional tolerances.
 Complex and intricate shapes may be produced.
 Capability to cast thin walls.
 Wide variety of metals and alloys (ferrous and non-ferrous)
may be cast.
 Draft is not required in the molds design.
 Low material waste.
Disadvantages:

 Individual pattern is required for each casting.

 Limited casting dimensions.
 Relatively high cost (Tooling cost, labor cost).
 Turbine blades

Turbine blades, pipe fittings, lock

parts, hand tools, art pieces,
Applications: jewelry, dental fixtures,
automotive, aircraft, and military
industries.
DIE CASTING

A permanent mold casting process in which molten

metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure up to 30,000 psi (200 MPa).
 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes
DIE CASTING MACHINES
 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves
and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into
cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

1. Hot-chamber Die Casting:

 Materials to be cast is molten inside the machine.

 Used for materials having low melting temperature

 Tm< 550°C, i.e. zinc, tin and lead.

HOT-CHAMBER DIE CASTING

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid

metal under high pressure into the die

 High production rates - 500 parts per hour

 Applications limited to low melting - point metals that

do not chemically attack plunger and other mechanical
components

 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, etc.

 Figure. Cycle in hot-chamber casting:

(1) With die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows
into the chamber
(2) Plunger forces metal from chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.
COLD-CHAMBER DIE CASTING MACHINE
 Material to be cast is molten outside the machine.
 Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from
external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity.
 Used for materials having high melting temperature
 Tm > 550°C, i.e. brass, aluminum, and magnesium.
 High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber
machines because of pouring step.
 Casting metals: Aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
 Advantages of cold-chamber process favor its use on low
melting - point alloys (zinc, tin, lead).
COLD-CHAMBER DIE CASTING

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting:

(1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into
the chamber
MOLDS FOR DIE CASTING
 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel etc.
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used
to die cast steel and cast iron.
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens.
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking.

Common metals for die casting.

Alloys of aluminum,
Magnesium,
Copper,
Lead,
Zinc,
Tin.
 DIE CASTING
Can produce large parts
Can form complex shapes
High strength parts
Advantages: Very good surface finish and accuracy
High production rate
Low labor cost
Scrap can be recycled
Trimming is required
High tooling and equipment cost
Disadvantages:
Limited die life
Long lead time
Engine components, pump components,
automobile components, household appliances,
Applications:
railway and aircraft fittings, bath room hardware,
business machines, locks, pullers
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

 Centrifugal casting is a method of casting parts having axial

symmetry.

 The method involves pouring molten metal into a cylindrical

mold spinning about its axis of symmetry.

 The mold is kept rotating till the metal has solidified.

 The mold material steels, Cast irons, Graphite may be used.

 The rotational speed of centrifugal mold is commonly about

1000 RPM (May vary from 250 RPM to 3600 RPM).
 The mold wall is coated by a refractory ceramic coating
(applying ceramic slurry, spinning, drying and baking).
 Starting rotation of the mold at a predetermined speed.

 Pouring a molten metal directly into the mold (no gating

system is employed).
 The mold is stopped after the casting has solidified.

 Extraction of the casting from the mold.

The centrifugal group includes:

A. True centrifugal casting
B. Semi-centrifugal casting
C. Centrifuge casting
A. TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Fig. Setup for true centrifugal casting.
 Non-metallic , slag inclusions
and gas bubbles being less
dense than the melt are

28.07.2016
forced to the inner surface of
the casting by the centrifugal
forces.
 This impure zone is then
removed by machining.

 used for manufacturing of

iron pipes, bushings, wheels,
pulleys, bi-metal steel-bronze
bearings and other parts
possessing axial symmetry.
208
B. SEMI-CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather

than tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed
metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
 The process is suitable for large axis-symmetrical
castings like gear blanks, fly wheels and track wheels.
SEMI-CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
C. CENTRIFUGE CASTING
Mold is designed with part cavities located away
from axis of rotation, so that molten metal
poured into mold is distributed to these cavities
by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts

 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in

other centrifugal casting methods
The process is used on
parts in which the
center of the casting is
machined away, such as
wheels and pulleys.

Centrifuge Casting
 CONTINUOUS CASTING
 Continuous casting is a casting method, in which the steps
of pouring, solidification and withdrawal (extraction) of the
casting from an open end mold are carried out continuously.
 Cross-sectional dimensions of a continuous casting are
constant along the casting length and they are determined
only by the dimensions of the mold cavity.
 The length of a continuous casting is limited by the life time of
the mold.
 Continuous casting technology is used for both ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys.
 Depending on the mold position (vertical or horizontal)
continuous casting machines may be vertical or horizontal:
 Vertical continuous casting
 Horizontal continuous casting
VERTICAL CONTINUOUS CASTING
 Molten metal is continuously supplied from the ladle to the
intermediate ladle (tundish) from which it is continuously
poured into the mold at a controllable rate keeping the
melt level at a constant position.
 The water-cooled copper mold (primary cooling zone)
extracts the heat of the metal causing its solidification.
 The mold oscillates in order to prevent sticking with the
casting.
 When the casting goes out from the mold it is cooled in the
secondary cooling zone by water (or water with air)
sprayed on the casting surface.
 The casting is continuously extracted from the mold by the
withdrawal unit followed by a cut-off unit.
 Then a molten metal is poured into the mold where it
solidifies and grips the end of the dummy bar.
HORIZONTAL CONTINUOUS CASTING
 Horizontal continuous casting machine is
generally used for casting non-ferrous alloys.
 Horizontal continuous casting in stationary mold with
graphite water-cooled molds,
 Due to the water cooling (primary and secondary)
solidification rate provided by continuous casting is
higher than in other casting methods
 therefore continuous castings have more uniform and
finer grain structure and enhanced mechanical
properties.
 28.07.2016
219
CH
APT
ER
3
SPE
CIA
L
CAS
TIN
G
PR
COMPARISON OF CASTING PROCESSES
ADDITIONAL STEPS AFTER
SOLIDIFICATION
 Trimming
 Removing the core

 Surface cleaning

 Inspection

 Repair, if required

 Heat treatment
TRIMMING
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line
flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal
from the cast part
 For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections
are relatively small, appendages can be broken
off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing,
band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used
REMOVING THE CORE
If cores have been used, they must be removed
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking
casting, either manually or mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
 CLEANING AND FINISHING
1. Casting is taken out of the mould by shaking and the
Moulding sand is recycled often with suitable additions.
2. The remaining sand, some of which may be embedded in
the casting, is removed by means of Shot blasting.
3. The excess material in the form of sprue, runners, gates
etc., along with the flashes formed due to flow of molten
metal into the gaps is broken manually in case of brittle
casting or removed by sawing and grinding in case of
ductile grinding.
4. The entire casting is then cleaned by either shot blasting
or chemical pickling.
5. Sometimes castings are heat treated to achieve better
mechanical properties.
HEAT TREATMENT
 Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
 Reasons for heat treating a casting:

 For subsequent processing operations such as

machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service
 Casting defects
Surface Internal Visible
Defect Defect defects
Blow Blow holes Wash
Scar Porosity Rat tail
Blister Pin holes Swell
Drop Inclusions Misrun
Scab Dross Cold shut
Penetration Hot tear
Buckle Shrinkage/Shift
Casting Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity
Casting Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due
to premature freezing
Casting Defects: Cold Shot

 Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and

become entrapped in casting

Casting Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

 Depression in surface or internal void caused by

solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of molten
metal available in last region to freeze
Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow/ blow holes
Balloon- shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases during
pouring
Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes and porosity
 Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles,
 while porosity indicates a large number of uniformly distributed
tiny holes.
 Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just below the casting
surface.
Sand Casting Defects: Hot tears
 Hot tears are ragged irregular internal or external cracks
occurring immediately after the metal have solidified.
 Hot tears occur on poorly designed castings having abrupt
section changes or having no proper fillets or corner radii.
Wrongly placed chills.
Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
 When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand
mold or core, causing casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand
grains and metal
Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift/ Mismatch
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise relative
displacement of cope and drag
Sand Casting Defects: Sand Inclusions

• Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal

matrix, Lighter impurities appearing the casting
surface are dross.
Sand Casting Defects: Scabs

 Scabs are rough, irregular projections on surface of

castings containing embedded sand.
 Scabs occur when a portion on the face of mould or core
lifts and metal flows underneath in a thin layer.
Sand Casting Defects: Scar and Blister

 Scar is shallow blow generally occurring on a flat surface.

 A scar covered with a thin layer of metal is called blister.

Sand Casting Defects: Wash and swell

 Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by erosion of sand by

the flowing metal.

 Swell is the deformation of vertical mould surface due to hydrostatic

pressure caused by moisture in the sand.
 SURFACE DEFECTS

 These are due to poor design and quality of sand molds and
general cause is poor ramming
 Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace
molten metal from convex surface.
 Scar is shallow blow generally occurring on a flat surface.
 A scar covered with a thin layer of metal is called blister.
 These are due to improper permeability or venting. Sometimes
excessive gas forming constituents in moulding sand
 Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the cope surface caused by
dropping of sand.

 A scab when an up heaved sand gets separated from the mould surface
and the molten metal flows between the displaced sand and the mold.

 Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows between the sand
particles in the mould.

 These defects are due to inadequate strength of the mold and high
temperature of the molten metal adds on it.

 Buckle is a vee-shaped depression on the surface of a flat casting caused

by expansion of a thin layer of sand at the mould face.

 A proper amount of volatile additives in moulding material could

eliminate this defect by providing room for expansion.
INTERNAL DEFECTS

 The internal defects found in the castings are mainly due to trapped
gases and dirty metal. Gases get trapped due to hard ramming or
improper venting. These defects also occur when excessive moisture
or excessive gas forming materials are used for mould making.
 Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles, while porosity
indicates a large number of uniformly distributed tiny holes.
 Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just below the casting
surface.
 Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal matrix, Lighter
impurities appearing the casting surface are dross.
VISIBLE DEFECTS
 Insufficient mould strength, insufficient metal, low pouring temperature, and
bad design of casting are some of the common causes.
 Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by erosion of sand by the
flowing metal. Rat tail is a long, shallow, angular depression caused by
expansion of the sand. Swell is the deformation of vertical mould surface due
to hydrostatic pressure caused by moisture in the sand.
 Misrun and cold shut are caused by insufficient superheat provided to the
liquid metal.
 Hot tear is the crack in the casting caused by high residual stresses.
 Shrinkage is essentially solidification contraction and occurs due to improper
use of Riser.
 Shift is due to misalignment of two parts of the mould or incorrect core
location.
 INSPECTION OF CASTINGS

 Inspections may be in process inspections or finished product

inspections.
 In process inspections are carried out before a lot of castings have
been completed to detect any flaws that may have occurred in the
process so that corrective measures can be taken to remove the defect
in the remaining units.
 Finished product inspections are carried out after the castings have
all been completed to make sure that the product meets the
requirements specified by the customer.
 Two types of methods- destructive or non-destructive
 Destructive methods generally relate to sawing or breaking off of
parts of the castings at places where voids or internal defects are
suspected. Castings may also be damaged during strength tests.
 The prominent non destructive methods

VISUAL INSPECTION:

 It consists of inspecting the surface

of the casting with naked eye or
sometimes with a magnifying glass
or microscope.

 It can only indicate surface defects

such as blow holes, fusion, swells,
external cracks, and mismatch.

 Almost all castings are subjected to

certain degree of visual inspection.
DIMENSIONAL INSPECTION

 Dimensional inspection is
carried out to make sure
that the castings produced
have the required overall
dimensions including
allowances for machining.

 It may sometimes be
necessary to break a part
of the casting to take
measurements of inside
dimensions.
SOUND TEST
 This is a rough test to indicate a flaw or discontinuity in a
casting.

 The casting is suspended from a suitable support free of

all obstructions and tapped at various places on its surface
with a small hammer.

 Any change in the tone produced indicates the existence of

a flaw.

 The method cannot indicate the exact location and extent

of the discontinuity.
IMPACT TEST

 In this test the casting is

subjected to a blow from a
hammer of known weight
striking or falling on the
casting.

 Defective castings fail under

the impact of the blow but
the method is very crude and
unreliable.
PRESSURE TEST
 This test is carried out on castings
required to be leak proof. All
openings of the castings are closed
and a gas or fluid under pressure
is introduced in it.
 Castings having porosity leak
under this pressure.
 The leakage may be detected by
submerging the casting in a water
tank or using a soap film if the
pressure is applied by compressed
air.
 If a liquid is used for applying
pressure the leakage can be found
by visual inspection.
RADIOGRAPHY:
 Radiography uses X-rays or gamma
rays penetrating through the
castings and giving a shadow
picture on a photographic film
placed behind the work piece.

 Any defects in the casting can easily

be identified from this picture.

 Because of their shorter wave

length gamma rays have a better
penetration through the metal and
are more commonly used.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING:
 This test is used for detecting
cracks in metals like cast iron and
steel which can be magnetized.
 For carrying out the test the
casting is magnetized and then fine
particles of iron or steel are spread
on its surface.
 Presence of a crack or void in the
casting results in interruption of
the magnetic field and leakage of
magnetic flux at the place of the
crack.
 Very small cracks or voids at or
near the surface which may not
even be detected by radiography
are easily revealed by this method.
PENETRANT TESTING:
 This method also is used for detecting
very small surface cracks and has the
advantage over the magnetic particle
method that it can be used for any
material.
 The parts to be tested are either dipped
into or covered with a penetrant testing
liquid which has very good wetting and
penetrating ability.
 The liquid is drawn into the cracks or
voids by capillary action.
 After the penetrant has been applied to
the surface to be tested extra penetrant
is wiped off the surface is dried and a
developer applied to it.