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Solutions to Problems
in
Quantum Mechanics
P. Saltsidis, additions by B. Brinne
1995,1999
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Most of the problems presented here are taken from the book
Sakurai, J. J., Modern Quantum Mechanics, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,
1985.
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Contents
I Problems 3
1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Quantum Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Theory of Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5 Approximation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
II Solutions 23
1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 Quantum Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 Theory of Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5 Approximation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
1
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2 CONTENTS
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Part I
Problems
3
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1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 5
1 Fundamental Concepts
1.1 Consider a ket space spanned by the eigenkets fja0ig of a Her-
mitian operator A. There is no degeneracy.
(a) Prove that Y
(A ; a0)
a0
is a null operator.
(b) What is the signicance of
Y (A ; a00)
00 ?
a00 6=a0 a ; a
0
(c) Illustrate (a) and (b) using A set equal to Sz of a spin 21 system.
1.3 (a) The simplest way to derive the Schwarz inequality goes as
follows. First observe
(hj + h j) (ji + j i) 0
for any complex number ; then choose in such a way that the
preceding inequality reduces to the Schwarz inequility.
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(b) Show that the equility sign in the generalized uncertainty re-
lation holds if the state in question satises
Aji = B ji
with purely imaginary.
(c) Explicit calculations using the usual rules of wave mechanics
show that the wave function for a Gaussian wave packet given by
" 0 (x0 ; hxi)2 #
hx ji = (2d ) exp
0 2 ; 1 =4 ih p i x ;
h 4d2
satises the uncertainty relation
q q
h(x)2i h(p)2i = h2 :
Prove that the requirement
hx0jxji = (imaginary number)hx0jpji
is indeed satised for such a Gaussian wave packet, in agreement
with (b).
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 7
2 Quantum Dynamics
2.1 Consider the spin-procession problem discussed in section 2.1
in Jackson. It can also be solved in the Heisenberg picture. Using
the Hamiltonian eB
H = ; mc Sz = !Sz ;
write the Heisenberg equations of motion for the time-dependent
operators Sx(t), Sy (t), and Sz (t). Solve them to obtain Sx;y;z as func-
tions of time.
2.2 Let x(t) be the coordinate operator for a free particle in one
dimension in the Heisenberg picture. Evaluate
[x(t); x(0)] :
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2.4 (a) Write down the wave function (in coordinate space) for the
state
exp ;hipa j0i:
You may use
2 0 !23 0 !1=21
x h
hx0j0i = ;1=4x;0 1=2 exp 4; 21 x 5 ; @x0 m! A :
0
(b) Obtain a simple expression that the probability that the state
is found in the ground state at t = 0. Does this probability change
for t > 0?
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 9
10
(e) Show that the coherent state ji remains coherent under time-
evolution and calculate the time-evolved state j(t)i. (Hint: di-
rectly apply the time-evolution operator.)
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 11
12
(e) Let (t) = "pj for t = ta + j" and show that (2.1) implies that in
the limit " ! 0; (t) satises the equation
d2 = ;!2(t)
dt2
with initial conditions (t = ta) = 0; d(tdt=ta) = 1.
(f) Show that
s ( )
m! im!
hxbtbjxatai = 2ih sin(!T ) exp 2h sin(!T ) [(xb + xa) cos(!T ) ; 2xaxb]
2 2
where T = tb ; ta.
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 13
with ~j given by
! e
~j = h
=( ~
r 0 ) ; ~ j j2:
A
m mc
14
16
[Hint: This can be proved in many ways. You may, for instance,
examine the rotational properties of Jz2 using the spherical (irre-
ducible) tensor language.]
3.8 (a) Write xy, xz, and (x2 ; y2) as components of a spherical
(irreducible) tensor of rank 2.
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18
where a is the lattice constant, n labels the band, and the lattice
momentum k is restricted to the Brillouin zone [;=a; =a].
Prove that any Bloch function can be written as,
X
n;k (x) = n(x ; Ri)eikRi
Ri
where the sum is over all lattice vectors Ri. (In this simble one di-
mensional problem Ri = ia, but the construction generalizes easily
to three dimensions.).
The functions n are called Wannier functions, and are impor-
tant in the tight-binding description of solids. Show that the Wan-
nier functions are corresponding to dierent sites and/or dierent
bands are orthogonal, i:e: prove
Z
dx?m(x ; Ri)n(x ; Rj ) ij mn
Hint: Expand the n s in Bloch functions and use their orthonor-
mality properties.
5. APPROXIMATION METHODS 19
5 Approximation Methods
5.1 Consider an isotropic harmonic oscillator in two dimensions.
The Hamiltonian is given by
p 2
x p2y m!2 2 2
H0 = 2m + 2m + 2 (x + y )
(a) What are the energies of the three lowest-lying states? Is there
any degeneracy?
(b) We now apply a perturbation
V = m!2xy
where is a dimensionless real number much smaller than unity.
Find the zeroth-order energy eigenket and the corresponding en-
ergy to rst order [that is the unperturbed energy obtained in (a)
plus the rst-order energy shift] for each of the three lowest-lying
states.
(c) Solve the H0 + V problem exactly. Compare with the perturba-
tion results obtained in q(b). p p
[You may use hn0jxjni = h=2m! ( n + 1 0 + n 0 ):]
n ;n+1 n ;n;1
20
5. APPROXIMATION METHODS 21
n=1;l=0(~x) = p e;Zr=a0 :
a0
If you have a normalization problem, the nal wave function may
be taken to be 1
f (~x) = ei~p~x=h
L 3
2
with L very large, but you should be able to show that the observ-
able eects are independent of L.)
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22
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Part II
Solutions
23
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1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 25
1 Fundamental Concepts
1.1 Consider a ket space spanned by the eigenkets fja0ig of a Her-
mitian operator A. There is no degeneracy.
(a) Prove that Y
(A ; a0)
a0
is a null operator.
(b) What is the signicance of
Y (A ; a00)
00 ?
a00 6=a0 a ; a
0
(c) Illustrate (a) and (b) using A set equal to Sz of a spin 21 system.
(a) Assume that ji is an arbitrary state ket. Then
Y Y X X Y
(A ; a0)ji = (A ; a0) ja00i h|a00{zji} = ca00 (A ; a0)ja00i
a0 a0 a00 ca00 a00 a0
X Y 00 0 00 a002fa0g
= ca00 (a ; a )ja i = 0: (1.1)
a00 a0
26
1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 27
28
1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 29
So
h
hSx i = cos 2 h+j + sin 2 h;j 2 (j+ih;j + j;ih+j) cos 2 j+i + sin 2 j;i
= h cos
sin
+ h sin
cos
= h sin
)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(hSxi)2 = h2 sin2
and
4
h2
hSx2i = cos 2 h+j + sin 2 h;j 4 cos 2 j+i + sin 2 j;i
= h2 [cos2
+ sin2
] = h2 : (1.21)
4 2 2 4
So substituting in (1.19) we will have
2 2
h(Sx ; hSxi)2i = h4 (1 ; sin2
) = h4 cos2
: (1.22)
and nally
2
h(Sx)2i
=0;jSz ;+i = h4 ; (1.23)
h(Sx)2i
==2;jSx ;+i = 0; (1.24)
2
h(Sx)2i
=0;jSz ;;i = h4 : (1.25)
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30
1.3 (a) The simplest way to derive the Schwarz inequality goes as
follows. First observe
(hj + h j) (ji + j i) 0
for any complex number ; then choose in such a way that the
preceding inequality reduces to the Schwarz inequility.
(b) Show that the equility sign in the generalized uncertainty re-
lation holds if the state in question satises
Aji = B ji
with purely imaginary.
(c) Explicit calculations using the usual rules of wave mechanics
show that the wave function for a Gaussian wave packet given by
" 0 (x0 ; hxi)2 #
hx ji = (2d ) exp
0 2 ; 1 =4 ih p i x ;
h 4d2
satises the uncertainty relation
q q
h(x)2i h(p)2i = h2 :
Prove that the requirement
hx0jxji = (imaginary number)hx0jpji
is indeed satised for such a Gaussian wave packet, in agreement
with (b).
(a) We know that for an arbitrary state jci the following relation holds
hcjci 0: (1.26)
This means that if we choose jci = ji + j i where is a complex number,
we will have
(hj + h j) (ji + j i) 0 ) (1.27)
hji + hj i + h ji + jj h j i 0:
2 (1.28)
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1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 31
hjih j i jh jij2: (1.29)
Notice that the equality sign in the last relation holds when
jci = ji + j i = 0 ) ji = ;j i (1.30)
that is if ji and j i are colinear.
(b) The uncertainty relation is
h(A)2ih(B )2i 14 jh[A; B ]ij2 : (1.31)
To prove this relation we use the Schwarz inequality (1.29) for the vectors
ji = Ajai and j i = B jai which gives
h(A)2ih(B )2i jhAB ij2: (1.32)
The equality sign in this relation holds according to (1.30) when
Ajai = B jai: (1.33)
On the other hand the right-hand side of (1.32) is
jhAB ij2 = 41 jh[A; B ]ij2 + 14 jhfA; B gij2 (1.34)
which means that the equality sign in the uncertainty relation (1.31) holds if
1 jhfA; B gij2 = 0 ) hfA; B gi = 0
4
) hajAB + B Ajai = 0 (1):33) haj(B )2jai + haj(B )2jai = 0
) ( + )haj(B )2jai = 0: (1.35)
Thus the equality sign in the uncertainty relation holds when
Ajai = B jai (1.36)
with purely imaginary.
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32
(c) We have
hx0jxji hx0j(x ; hxi)ji = x0hx0ji ; hxihx0ji
= (x0 ; hxi)hx0ji: (1.37)
On the other hand
hx0jpji hx0j(p ; hpi)ji
@ hx0ji ; hpihx0 ji
= ;ih @x (1.38)
0
But
" #
@ hx0ji = hx0ji @ ihpix0 ; (x0 ; hxi)2
@x0 @x
"
0 h 4d2 #
= hx0ji ihhpi ; 21d2 (x0 ; hxi) (1.39)
So substituting in (1.38) we have
hx0jpji = hpihx0 ji + 2idh2 (x0 ; hxi) hx0ji ; hpihx0 ji
= 2idh2 (x0 ; hxi) hx0ji = 2idh2 hx0jxji )
0 ; i2 d 2
hx jxji = h hx0jpji: (1.40)
1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 33
(a) We have
@x @F (px) ; @x @F (px)
[x; F (px)]classical @x @px @px @x
= @F (px) : (1.41)
@px
(b) When x and px are treated as quantum-mechanical operators we have
ipxa " X 1 (ia)n pn # X 1 1 (ia)n
x; exp h = x; x = [ x; p n]
n n x
n=0 h n! n=0 n! h
X1 1 (ia)n nX ;1
k [x; p ] pn;k;1
= n p x x x
n=0 n! h k=0
X1 1 (ia)n nX;1
k n ;k ; 1 X 1 n (ia)n;1
n;1 (;a)
= n ( i h
) p x p x = ; px
n=1 n! h n=1 n! h
n 1
k=0
X1 n;1 ipxa
= ;a (n ;1 1)! ia p
h x = ; a exp h : (1.42)
n=1
34
(a) We have
(i)
zZ }|1 { Z
hp0 jxji = hp0 jx dx0jx0ihx0j i = dx0hp0 jxjx0ihx0 ji
Z Z ip0 x0
= dx0x0hp0jx0ihx0ji (S;1=:7:32) dx0x0Ae; h hx0ji
Z ip0x0 Z
A dx0 @p@ 0 e; h (ih)hx0ji = ih @p@ 0 dx0Ae; h hx0ji
ip0 x0
=
Z
= @
ih @p0 dx hp jx ihx ji = ih @p@ 0 hp0 ji )
0 0 0 0
1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 35
ix
(b) The operator exp h gives translation in momentum space. This can
be justied by calculating the following operator
ix " X 1 1 ix n # X 1 1 i n
p; exp h = p; n! h = n! h [p; xn ]
n=0 n=0
X1 1 i n X n
= n ! h
xn;k [p; x]xk;1
n=1 k=1
X 1 i X
1 n n X1 1 i n
= n ! h
(;ih)x = n! h n(;ih)xn;1
n ;1
n=1 k=1 n=1
X1 1 i n ; 1 i 1 1 ix n
X
= x (;ih) h = n! h
n; 1
n=1 (n ; 1)! h n=0
ix
= exp h : (1.47)
So when this commutator acts on an eigenstate jp0i of the momentum oper-
ator we will have
ix ix ix
p; exp h jp i = p exp h jp0i ; exp h p0jp0i )
0
ix ix ix
exp h = p exp h jp0i ; p0 exp h jp0i )
p exp ixh jp0i = (p0 + ) exp ixh jp0i : (1.48)
Thus we have that
exp ixh jp0i Ajp0 + i; (1.49)
where A is a constant which due to normalization can be taken to be 1.
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36
2 Quantum Dynamics
2.1 Consider the spin-procession problem discussed in section 2.1
in Jackson. It can also be solved in the Heisenberg picture. Using
the Hamiltonian eB
H = ; mc Sz = !Sz ;
write the Heisenberg equations of motion for the time-dependent
operators Sx(t), Sy (t), and Sz (t). Solve them to obtain Sx;y;z as func-
tions of time.
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 37
So, nally
Sx(t) = Sx(0) cos !t ; Sy (0) sin !t (2.7)
Sy (t) = Sy (0) cos !t + Sx(0) sin !t (2.8)
Sz (t) = Sz (0): (2.9)
2.2 Let x(t) be the coordinate operator for a free particle in one
dimension in the Heisenberg picture. Evaluate
[x(t); x(0)] :
38
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 39
2.4 (a) Write down the wave function (in coordinate space) for the
state ;ipa
exp h j0i:
You may use
2 0 !23 0 !1=21
x h
hx0j0i = ;1=4x;0 1=2 exp 4; 12 x 5 ; @x0 m! A :
0
(b) Obtain a simple expression that the probability that the state
is found in the ground state at t = 0. Does this probability change
for t > 0?
(a) We have
;ipa
j; t = 0i = exp h j0i )
;ipa (Pr:1:4:c)
hx j; t = 0i = hx exp h j0i = hx0 ; aj0i
0 0
2 !23
x
= ;1=4x;0 1=2 exp 4; 12 x
0 ; a 5: (2.19)
0
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40
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 41
42
Since we are interested in the ground state the expectation values appearing
in the last relation will be
hx2(0)i = h0j 2m! h (a + ay)(a + ay)j0i = h h0jaayj0i = h (2.31)
s s 2m! 2m!
hp(0)x(0)i = i m2h! 2m! h h0j(ay ; a)(a + ay)j0i
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 43
) jc0j = p1 (2.37)
2
@ hxi = 0 ) ; sin( ; ) = 0 ) = + n; n 2 Z : (2.38)
1 0 1 0
@1
But for hxi maximum we want also
@ 2hxi
@12 1=1max < 0 ) n = 2k; k 2 Z : (2.39)
So we can write that
ji = ei0 p12 j0i + ei(0+2k) p12 j1i = ei0 p12 (j0i + j1i): (2.40)
We can always take 0 = 0. Thus
ji = p12 (j0i + j1i): (2.41)
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44
= p1 e;i!t=2j0i + e;i!3t=2j1i = p1 e;i!t=2 j0i + e;i!tj1i :(2.42)
2 2
(i) In the Schrodinger picture
hxiS = h"; t0; tjxS j; t0; tiS
1 i!t=2 # " 1 ;i!t=2 #
= p e h0j + e h1j x p e i! 3 t= 2 j0i + e ;i! 3t= 2 j1i
2 2
= 21 ei(!t=2;!3t=2)h0jxj1i + 12 ei(!3t=2;!t=2)h1jxj0i
s s s
h
= 21 e;i!t 2m! + 21 ei!t 2m! = 2m! h
h cos !t: (2.43)
(ii) In the Heisenberg picture we have from (2.29) that
xH (t) = x(0) cos !t + pm!(0) sin !t:
So
hxiH = h"jxH ji # !" #
1 1 p(0)
= p h0j + p h1j x(0) cos !t + m! sin !t p j0i + p j1i 1 1
2 2 2 2
= 21 cos !th0jxj1i + 12 cos !th1jxj0i + 12 m! 1 sin !th0jpj1i
+ 21 m! 1 sin !th1jpj0i
s s s
= 21 2m! cos !t + 12 2m! cos !t + 2m! sin !t(;i) m2h!
h
h
1
s
+ 2m! sin !ti m2h!
1
s
= 2m! h cos !t: (2.44)
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 45
+ x(0)m!
p(0) cos !t sin !t + p(0)x(0) cos !t sin !t
m!
h (a2 + ay2 + aay + aya) cos2 !t
= 2m!
; 2mmh2!!2 (a2 + ay2 ; aay ; aya) sin2 !t
s
+ m! h4mm!
i h! (a + ay)(ay ; a) sin 2!t
2
s
+ m!i hmh! (ay ; a)(a + ay) sin 2!t
4m! 2
h
2
= 2m! (a2 + ay + aay + aya) cos2 !t
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46
h (a2 + ay2 ; aay ; aya) sin2 !t + ih (ay2 ; a2) sin 2!t
; 2m! 2m!
h (aay + aya) + h a2 cos 2!t + h ay2 cos 2!t
= 2m! 2m! 2m!
ih
+ 2m! (ay2 ; a2) sin 2!t; (2.49)
which means that
hx2H iH = hjx2H"jiH #
h
1 1
= 2m! p h0j + p h1j
h 2 2 i
aay + aya + a2 cos 2!t + ay2 cos 2!t + i(ay2 ; a2) sin 2!t
" #
1 1
p2 j0i + p2 j1i
h hh0jaayj0i + h1jaayj1i + h1jayaj1ii
= 4m!
h [1 + 2 + 1] = h :
= 4m! (2.50)
m!
So
h ; h cos2 !t = h sin2 !t:
h(x)2iH (2=:44) 2m! (2.51)
2m! 2m!
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 47
(a) We have
h i
aji = e;jj2=2aeay j0i = e;jj2=2 a; eay j0i; (2.52)
since aj0i = 0. The commutator is
h ay i " X 1 1 # X 1 1 h i
a; e = a; n! (a ) = n! n a; (ay)n
y n
n=0 n=0
X1 1 X h i
n (ay)k;1 a; ay (ay)n;k = X 1 n X (ay)n;1
n 1 n
=
n=1 n! k=1 n=1 n! k=1
X1 1 n (ay)n;1 = X 1 1
y)n = eay :
= ( a (2.53)
n=1 (n ; 1)! n=0 n!
So from (2.52)
aji = e;jj2=2eay j0i = ji; (2.54)
which means that ji is a coherent state. If it is normalized, it should satisfy
also hji = 1. Indeed
hji = h0jeae;jj eay j0i = e;jj h0jeaeay j0i
2 2
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48
= e;jj2
X 1 n m n ym
( ) h0 j a j(a ) j0 i [( a y)m j0i = pm!jmi]
n;m n!m!
p p
;j j 2 X n! m! ()n mhnjmi = e;jj2 X 1 (jj2)n
= e
n;m n! m! n n!
= e;jj ejj = 1:
2 2
(2.55)
(b) According to problem (1.3) the state should satisfy the following relation
xji = cpji; (2.56)
where x x ; hjxji, p p ; hjpji and c is a purely imaginary
number.
Since ji is a coherent state we have
aji = ji ) hjay = hj : (2.57)
Using this relation we can write
s s
h
h ( + ay)ji
xji = 2m! (a + ay)ji = 2m! (2.58)
and
s s
h
hxi = hjxji = 2m! hj(a + ay)ji = 2m! h (hjaji + hjayji)
s
= 2m! h ( + ) (2.59)
and so
s
xji = (x ; hxi)ji = 2m!h (ay ; )ji: (2.60)
q
Similarly for the momentum p = i m2h! (ay ; a) we have
p s mh! y s
pji = i 2 (a ; a)ji = i m2h! (ay ; )ji (2.61)
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2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 49
and
s s
hpi = hjpji = i 2 hj(ay ; a)ji = i m2h! (hjayji ; hjaji)
m h
!
s
= i m2h! ( ; ) (2.62)
and so
s
pji = (p ; hpi)ji = i m2h! (ay ; )ji )
s
(ay ; )ji = ;i m2h! pji: (2.63)
So using the last relation in (2.60)
s s
h
xji = 2m! (;i) m2h! pji =
i
; m! pji (2.64)
| {z }
purely imaginary
and thus the minimum uncertainty condition is satised.
(c) The coherent state can be expressed as a superposition of energy eigen-
states
X1 X
1
ji = jnihnji = f (n)jni: (2.65)
n=0 n=0
for the expansion coecients f (n) we have
f (n) = hnji = hnje;jj2=2eay j0i = e;jj2=2hnjeay j0i
X1 1 2 =2 X 1
1
= e;j j 2 =2
hnj m! (a ) j0i = e
y m ;j j m hnj(ay)m j0i
m=0 m=0 m!
X
1 p
= e;jj2=2 m1 ! m m!hnjmi = e;jj2=2 p1 n ) (2.66)
m=0 n!
jf (n)j2 = (jnj! ) exp(;jj2)
2 n
(2.67)
which means that the distribution of jf (n)j2 with respect to n is of the Poisson
type about some mean value n = jj2.
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2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 51
X
1 :3:9) X1 ;it
e;iEnt=he;jj2=2 p1 njni (2= e h h!(n+ 2 )e;jj2=2 p1 n jni
1
=
n=0 n! n=0 n!
X1
e;i!t e;i!t=2e;jj2=2 p1 n jni
n
=
n=0 n!
X ;je;i!tj2=2 (e )n (2:66) ;i!t=2 ;i!t
1 ;i!t
= e ; i!t= 2 e p jni = e je i (2.73)
n=0 n!
Thus
aj(t)i = e;i!t=2aje;i!ti = e;i!t e;i!t=2je;i!ti
= e;i!t j(t)i: (2.74)
We have
Z1 Z1
K (x; y; E ) dteiEt=hK (x; y; t; 0) dteiEt=hhx; tjy; 0i
Z01 0
= dteiEt=hhxje;iHt=hjyi
Z01 X
= dteiEt=h hxje;iHt=hjnihnjyi
Z01 n
X ;iEnt=h
=
0
dteiEt= h
e hxjnihnjyi
nZ
X 1
= n(x)n(y) ei(E;En)t=hdt
n 0
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52
X " #1
= n(x)n(y) lim ;ih ei(E;En+i")t=h
n "!0 E ; En + i" 0
X
= n(x)n(y) E ;ihE : (2.75)
n n
So
X X
n(x)n(y) E ;ihE = A sin(nrx)hsin( nry) )
n n n E ; 2m n2
2 r2
s 2 2
n (x) = iAh sin(nrx); En = h2mr n2: (2.76)
For a one dimensional innite square well potential with size L the energy
eigenvalue En and eigenfunctions n(x) are given by
s nx 2 2
2
n (x) = L sin L ; En = 2m L n2: h
(2.77)
Comparing with (2.76) we get L = r ) L = r and
(
V= 1 0 for 0 < x < r (2.78)
otherwise
while
A = 2r ) A = i 2hr : (2.79)
ih
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 53
Z
1 ; +1 df (x) dx
= (x)f (x) +;1
0 dx
+1
= x!lim
+1
f (x) ; f (x) = f (0)
Z +1 0
= (x)f (x)dx )
;1
d(x) = (x): (2.80)
dx
54
So
x(t) = x0 cos !t + xT ;sinx0!T cos !T sin !t
T sin !t ; x0 cos !T sin !t
= x0 cos !t sin !T + xsin !T
= xT sin !t +sinx0!T sin !(T ; t) ) (2.86)
x_ (t) = xT ! cos !t ;sinx0!T ! cos !(T ; t) : (2.87)
With these at hand we have
ZT ZT
S = dtL(x; x_ ) = dt 21 mx_ 2 ; 12 m!2x2
Z0 T " d 0 #
= dt 2 m dt (xx_ ) ; 2 mxx ; 2 m! x
1 1 1 2 2
0
ZT m T
= ; 2 m dtx[x + ! x] + 2 xx_
1 2
0 0
(2:82) m
= 2 [x(T )_x(T ) ; x(0)x_ (0)]
m xT ! x 0!
2 sin !Th (xT cos !T ; x0) ; sin !T (xT ; x0 cos !T )
=
m! x2 cos !T ; x x ; x x + x2 cos !T i
= 0 T 0 T
2 sin !T h T i
0
m!
= 2 sin !T (x2T + x20) cos !T ; 2x0xT : (2.88)
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 55
Z m (N2+1) 8 <i X N m 1 9
=
lim dy1 : : : dyN 2ih" exp : h ( yj +1 ; y j ) 2 ; "m! 2y 2
j ;
N !1 j =0 2" 2
where " = (tNb;+1)
ta .
[Hint: Let y(t) = x(t) ; xcl(t) be the new integration variable,
xcl(t) being the solution of the Euler-Lagrange equation.]
(b) Show that G can be written as
m (N2+1) Z
G = Nlim !1 2ih"
dy1 : : : dyN exp(;nT n)
2 3
66 y..1 77
where n = 4 . 5 and nT is its transpose. Write the symmetric
yN
matrix .
(c) Show that
Z Z
dy1 : : : dyN exp(;nT n) dN ne;nT n = p
N=2
det
[Hint: Diagonalize by an orthogonal matrix.]
(d) Let 2mih" N det detN0 pN . Dene j j matrices j0 that con-
sist of the rst j rows and j columns of N0 and whose determinants
are pj . By expanding j0 +1 in minors show the following recursion
formula for the pj :
pj+1 = (2 ; "2!2)pj ; pj;1 j = 1; : : : ; N (2.89)
(e) Let (t) = "pj for t = ta + j" and show that (2.89) implies that in
the limit " ! 0; (t) satises the equation
d2 = ;!2(t)
dt2
with initial conditions (t = ta) = 0; d(dtt=ta) = 1.
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56
where T = tb ; ta.
(a) Because at any given point the position kets in the Heisenberg picture
form a complete set, it is legitimate to insert the identity operator written
as
Z
dxjxtihxtj = 1 (2.90)
So
Z
hxbtbjxatai = Nlim
!1
dx1dx2 : : : dxN hxb tbjxN tN ihxN tN jxN ;1tN ;1i : : :
hxi+1ti+1jxitii : : : hx1t1jxatai: (2.91)
It is
hxi+1ti+1jxitii = hxi+1 je;iH (ti ;ti )=hjxii = hxi+1je;iH"=hjxii
+1
" 1 1
= hxi+1 je;i h ( 2 mp + 2 m! x )jxii (since " is very small)
2 2 2
p "1
= hxi+1 je;i h" m e;i h 2 m! x jxii
2 2 2
2
"1 "p 2
= e;i h 2 m! xi hxi+1 je;i h m jxii: (2.92)
2 2
2
Z h i
1
= 2h dpi e ;i 2m" h p2i ;2pi m" (xi+1 ;xi )+ m"22 (xi+1 ;xi )2 ; m"22 (xi+1 ;xi )2
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 57
s
1 i" m2 (xi+1 ;xi )2 2 hm
= 2h e 2mh "2 i"
r m im
= 2hi" e 2h" (xi+1;xi)2 : (2.93)
Substituting this in (2.92) we get
m 12 i m
hxi+1ti+1jxitii = 2ih" e h [ 2" (xi+1;xi )2; 12 "m!2 xi] (2.94)
and this into (2.91):
Z i
hxbtbjxatai Dx exp h S [x] =
Z m (N2+1) 8 <i X N m 1 9
=
lim
N !1
dx1 : : :dxN
2ih"
exp : h 2" ( xj +1 ; xj ) 2 ; "m! 2 x2 :
2 j ;
j =0
Let y(t) = x(t) ; xcl(t) ) x(t) = y(t) + xcl(t) ) x_ (t) = y_ (t) + x_ cl(t) with
boundary conditions y(ta) = y(tb) = 0: For this new integration variable we
have Dx = Dy and
Z tb
S [x] = S [y + xcl] = L(y + xcl; y_ + x_ cl)dt
ta
Z tb 2 @ L
@ L
@ 2L
@ 2L
3
= 4L(xcl ; x_ cl) + y + y_ + 2 2 y + 2 2 y_ 5
1 2 1 2
ta @x @ x_ xcl @ x xcl @ x_ xcl
tb Z tb " xcl !#
= Scl + @@Lx_ y + @ L ; d @ L y + Z tb h 1 my_ 2 ; 1 m!2y2i dt:
ta ta @x dt @ x_ xcl ta 2 2
So
Z i i Z tb h i
hxb tbjxatai = Dy exp h Scl + h t 2 my_ ; 2 m! y dt
1 2 1 2 2
iScl a
= exp h G(0; tb; 0; ta) (2.95)
with
G(0; tb; 0; ta) =
Z m (N2+1) 8 <i X N m 1 9
=
lim
N !1
dy1 : : : dy N
2ih" exp : h ( y ;
2" j+1 jy ) 2 ; "m! 2y 2 :
2 j ;
j =0
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58
(b) For the argument of the exponential in the last relation we have
iX N m 1 (y0 =0)
h j=0 2" (yj+1 ; yj ) ; 2 "m! yj =
2 2 2
iX N m
; i XN 1
2y y (yN +1 =0)
j +1 yj ; yj yj +1 ) ;
( y 2 + y 2 y "m! =
j +1 j i ij j
h j=0 2" h i;j=1 2
XN 2 XN
; 2"imh (2yiij yj ; yii;j+1yj ; yii+1;j yj ) ; i"m! 2h i;j=1 yiij yj :(2.96)
i;j =1
where the last step is written in such a form so that the matrix will be
symmetric. Thus we have
m (N2+1) Z
G = Nlim !1 2ih"
dy1 : : : dyN exp(;nT n) (2.97)
with 2 3 2 3
2 ;1 0 : : : 0 0 1 0 0 ::: 0 0
66 ;1 2 ;1 : : : 0 0 77 66 0 1 0 : : : 0 0 77
66 0 ;1 2 : : : 0 0 77 26 66 0 0 1 : : : 0 0 777
m 6
= 2"ih 66 .. .. .. 7 i"m!
... ... 77 + 2h 66 ... ... ... ... ... 77(2.98)
:
66 . . . 77 66 77
4 0 0 0 : : : 2 ;1 5 4 0 0 0 ::: 1 0 5
0 0 0 : : : ;1 2 0 0 0 ::: 0 1
(c) We can diagonalize by a unitary matrix U . Since is symmetric the
following will hold
= U yDU ) T = U T D(U y)T = U T D U = ) U = U : (2.99)
So we can diagonalize by an orthogonal matrix R. So
= RT D R and det R = 1 (2.100)
whichZmeans that Z Z
T n T RT Rn Rn=
N
d ne ;n = d ne N ; n = dN e;T
Z Z Z
= d1e ; 2a
1 1
d2 e; 2a
2 2
: : : dN e; 2a
N N
s s s
= a a : : : a = QN = q N=2
p N=2
1 2 N i=1 ai det D
= p
N=2
(2.101)
det
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2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 59
60
So
(t + ") ; (t) = (t) ; (t ; ") ; "2!2(t) )
(t+");(t); (t);"(t;") = ;!2(t) )
"
"
0(t) ; 0(t ; ")
2 (t) ) d = ;! 2 (t):
2
lim
"!0 " = ; ! dt2 (2.105)
From (c) we have also that
(ta) = "p0 ! 0 (2.106)
and
d (t ) = (ta + ") ; (ta) = "(p1 ; p0) = p ; p
dt a " " 1 0
= 2 ; "2!2 ; 1 ! 1: (2.107)
The general solution to (2.105) is
(t) = A sin(!t + ) (2.108)
and from the boundary conditions (2.106) and (2.107) we have
(ta) = 0 ) A sin(!ta + ) = 0 ) = ;!ta + n n 2 Z (2.109)
which gives that (t) = A sin !(t ; ta), while
d = A! cos(t ; t ) ) 0(t ) = A! (2)
:107)
a a
dt
A! = 1 ) A = !1 (2.110)
Thus
(t) = sin !(!t ; ta) : (2.111)
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 61
m 1=2 2 2 i h
"
!N 3;1=2
4 lim " 5
= 2ih N !1 m det
(d)
m 1=2 ;1=2 (e) m 1=2
= 2 i h
lim "p
N !1 N
= 2ih [(tb)];1=2
s m!
(2:111)
= 2ih sin(!T ) : (2.112)
So from (a)
iScl
hxbtbjxatai = exp h G(0; tb ; 0; ta)
s m! im! h i
(2:88) 2 + x2 ) cos !T ; 2x x :
= 2ih sin(!T ) exp (x
2h sin !T b a b a
We have
Z
dx1Kf (x2; t2; x1; t1)Kf (x1; t1; x0; t0)
Z s " #
m im( x 2 ; x1)2
= dx1 2ih(t ; t ) exp 2h(t ; t )
2 1 2
s " # 1
m exp im(x1 ; x0) 2
2ih(t1 ; t0) 2h(t1 ; t0)
s
m
= 2i 1 exp imx22 exp imx20
h (t2 "; t1)(t1 ; t0) 2h(t2 ; t1) 2h(t2 ; t1) #
Z im im im im
dx1 exp 2h(t ; t ) x1 + 2h(t ; t ) x1 ; 2h(t ; t ) 2x1x2 ; 2h(t ; t ) 2x1x0
2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
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62
s ( " 2 2 #)
m 1 im x x
2h (t2# ; t1) (t1 "; t0)
= exp 2 + 0
2ih (t2 (; t1)("t1 ; t0) #)
Z im 1 1 im x2 x0
dx1 exp 2h (t ; t ) + (t ; t ) x1 ; h x1 (t ; t ) + (t ; t )
2
2 1
s ( 1 "0 2 2
#)1 1 0
= m 1 exp im x2 + x0
2
2ih (t2 (; t1)("t1 ; t0) 2h #(t2 ; t1) (t1 ; t0)
Z
dx1 exp ;2imh (t ;tt2 ; t0
2 1)(t1 ; t0)
" " ##)
2h t 2 ; t0 im x2 (t1 ; t0) + x0 (t2 ; t1)
x1 ; im (t ; t )(t ; t ) h x1
2
s 2 1 1 0 ( " 2 (t2 ; t1)(t1 ;2 t0) #)
= m 1 exp im x2(t1 ; t0) + x0(t2 ; t1)
22Zih (t2 ;8t1)(t1"; t0) 2h
# "
(t2 ; t1)(t1 ; t0)
#29 3
< ;m t2 ; t0 x2(t1 ; t0) + x0(t2 ; t1) 5 =
4 dx1 exp : x 1; ;
2ih (t2 ; t1)(t1 ; t0) (t2 ; t0)
( 2)
im 1 [ x 2(t1 ; t0) + x0(t2 ; t1)]
exp ; 2h (t ; t )(t ; t ) (t2 ; t0)
2 1 1 0
s v
u (
m 1 u
t 2 i h
( t 2 ; t 1 )( t 1 ; t 0 ) im 1
= 2ih (t2 ; t1)(t1 ; t0) m(t2 ; t0) exp 2h (t2 ; t1)(t1 ; t0)
" 2
x2(t1 ; t0)(t2 ; t0) + x20(t2 ; t1)(t2 ; t0) ;
(t2 ; t0) #)
x2(t1 ; t0) ; x0(t2 ; t1)2 ; 2x2x02(t1 ; t0)(t2 ; t1)
2 2 2
(t2 ; t0)
s m
= 2ih(t2 ; t1)
( " 2
exp im x2(t1 ; t0)(t2 ; t0 ; t1 + t0) + x20(t2 ; t1)(t2 ; t0 ; t2 + t1) ;
2h #)(t2 ; t0)(t2 ; t1)(t1 ; t0)
2x2x02(t1 ; t0)(t2 ; t1)
(t ; t )(t ; t )(t ; t )
s 2 0m 2 1 1" im0(x ; x )2 #
2 0
= 2ih(t ; t ) exp 2h(t ; t )
2 0 2 0
= Kf (x2; t2; x0; t0): (2.113)
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2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 63
(a) We have
eAi
[i; j ] = pi ; c ; pj ; c = ; ec [pi ; Aj ] ; ec [Ai; pj ]
eA j
!
i h
e @A j ihe @Ai ihe @Aj @Ai
= c @x ; c @x = c @x ; @x
!i j i j
= ihce "ijk Bk : (2.114)
We have also that
2 3 2 3
dxi = 1 [x ; H ] = 1 4x ; ~ 2 + e5 = 1 4x ; ~ 2 5
dt ih i ih i 2m ih i 2m
= ih12m f[xi; j ] j + j [xi; j ]g = ih21m f[xi; pj ]j + j [xi; pj ]g
= 22ihihm j ij = mi )
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64
" # 2 3
d2xi = 1 dxi ; H = 1 4 ; ~ 2 + e5
dt2 ih dt ihm i 2m
= 1 f[ ; ] + [ ; ]g + e [ ; ]
ih2m2 " i j j j i j #ihm i
(2:114)
= 1 ihe " B + ihe " B + e p ; eAi ;
2m2ih c ijk k j c ijk j k ihm i c
= e (;" B + " B ) + e [p ; ]
2m2c ikj k j ijk j k ihm i
= e m " xj B ; " B xj ; e @ )
2m2c "ijk dt k ! ikj k dt !m# @xi
m ddtx2i eEi + 2ec dt ~x B~ ; B~ ~x )
2
=
" i !#dt i
m ddt~x2 ~x B~ ; B~ ~x :
e E~ + 21c dt
2
= dt (2.115)
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 65
" #
1 ;h2 r02 + e ih r 0
2 e
~ A~ j j + 2ih A~ r
e 2
~ + 2 A j j + ej j2:
0 2 2
2m c c c
The complex conjugate of this eqution is
;ih @t @ =
" #
1 ;h2 r02 ; e ih r e
~ 0 A~ j j2 ; 2ih A~ r e 2
~ 0 + 2 A2j j2 + ej j2:
2m c c c
Thus subtracting the last two equations we get
2 h i
; 2hm r02 ; r02
e 2 e
+ mc ih r A j j + mc ihA~ ( r
~ 0 ~ ~0 + r ~ 0 )
!
= ih @t + @t )
@ @
2 h i e ~ 0 ~ 2 e ~ ~ 0 2
; 2hm r~ 0 r~ 0 ; r~ 0 + mc ih r A j j + mc ihA (r j j )
= ih @ j j2 )
@t
@ j j2 = ; h r h
~ 0 =( r
i ~ 0 h ~ 2i
~0 ) + e r
@t m" mc Aj j )
#
@ j j2 + r ~ 0 h =( r ~ 0 ) ; e A~ j j2 = 0 )
@t m mc
@ + r ~ 0 ~j = 0 (2.117)
@t
~ 0 ) ; mce A~ j j2: and = j j2
with ~j = mh =( r
66
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 67
68
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 69
d 2 R 1 dR " m 2#
) d2 + d + (k ; l ) ; 2 R() = 0
2 2
" #
d 2R 1 dR m 2
) d(pk2 ; l2)2 + pk2 ; l2 d(pk2 ; l2) + 1 ; (k2 ; l2)2 R() = 0
p p
) R() = A3Jm( k2 ; l2) + B3Nm( k2 ; l2) (2.133)
In the case at hand in which a ! 0 we should take B3 = 0 since Nm ! 1
when ! 0. From the other boundary condition we get
p p
R(R) = 0 ) A3Jm(R k2 ; l2) = 0 ) R k2 ; l2 = m (2.134)
where m is the -th zero of the m-th order Bessel function Jm. This means
that the energy eigenstates are given by the equation
p 2 2
m = R k2 ; l2 ) k2 ; l2 = Rm2 ) 2mE
2
h
2 ; n a = Rm2
h
2 " 2 2#
) E = 2m R2 + n am (2.135)
while the corresponding eigenfunctions are given by
( x
~ ) = A J ( m )eim sin n z (2.136)
nm c m
R a
with n = 1; 2; : : : and m 2 Z .
Now suppose that B~ = B z^. We can then write
B 2!
!
A~ = 2 ^ = 2 ^:
a (2.137)
70
Following the same procedure we used before (i.e. (; ; z) = R()()Z (z))
we will get the same equations with the exception of
" 2 #
@ ; 2iA @ ; A2 = ;m2 ) d2 ; 2iA d + (m2 ; A2) = 0:
@2 @ d2 d
The solution to this equation is of the form el. So
l2el ; 2iAle
q
l + (m2 ; A2)el = 0 ) l2 ; 2iAl + (m2 ; A2)
2iA ;4A2 ; 4(m2 ; A2) 2iA 2im
) l= 2 = 2 = i(A m)
which means that
() = C2ei(Am): (2.141)
But
( + 2) = () ) A m = m0 m0 2 Z
) m = (m0 ; A) m0 2 Z : (2.142)
This means that the energy eigenfunctions will be
m im0
z
nm (~x) = Ac Jm (
R )e sin n a (2.143)
but now m is not an integer. As a result the energy of the ground state will
be
h
2 " 2 2#
m
E = 2m R2 + n a (2.144)
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2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 71
(a) In the case under construction there is only a continuous spectrum and
the eigenfunctions are non degenerate.
From the discussion on WKB approximation we had that for E > V (x)
A i Z q
I ( x ) = [E ; V (x)]1=4 exp h 2 m [E ; V ( x )] dx
Zq
+ [E ; V (x)]1=4 exp ; hi
B 2m[E ; V (x)]dx
Z x0 q !
c
= [E ; V (x)]1=4 sin h 1 2m[E ; V (x)]dx ; 4
x
p Z x0=E= 1=2 !
c
= [E ; V (x)]1=4 sin h 2m E ; x dx ; 4
2 x 3
3= 2
s
= [E ; Vc(x)]1=4 sin 4; 32 E ; x 2m ; 5
h 4
= [qc]11=4 sin 32 q3=2 + 4 (2.146)
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72
h i 1=3
where q = E ; x and = 2hm2 .
On the other hand when E < V (x)
Zx q !
c2 1
II (x) =
[x ; E ]1=4 exp " ; h x0=E= 2m(x ; E )dx #
c 1 Zx q
= [x ; E ]1=4 exp ; h2m 0
2
2m(x ; E )d(2mx)
x =E=
= c31=4 exp ; 2 (;q)2=3 : (2.147)
[;q] 3
We can nd an exact solution for this problem so we can compare with
the approximate solutions we got with the WKB method. We have
H ji = E ji ) hpjH ji = hpjE ji
) hpj 2pm + xji = E hpji
2
d ; i p 2!
) dp (p) = h E ; 2m (p)
d ( p ) ;i p2!
) (p) = h E ; 2m dp
; i p 3!
) ln (p) = h Ep ; 6m + c1
" !#
i
) E (p) = c exp h 6m ; Ep : p3
(2.148)
We also have Z Z
(E ; E 0 ) = hE jE 0i = dphE jpihpjE 0 i = E (p)E0 (p)dp
Z
jcj2 dp exp hi (E ; E 0)p jcj22h(E ; E 0) )
(2:148)
=
c = p1 : (2.149)
2h
So
" !#
E (p) = p 1 i p 3
exp h 6m ; Ep : (2.150)
2h
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2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 73
These are the Hamiltonian eigenstates in momentum space. For the eigen-
functions in coordinate space we have
Z (2:150) 1 Z ipx i p3 ;Ep
(x) = dphxjpihpjE i = p dpe h e h 6m
Z " 3 2 h
#
= 1 p
p dp exp i h6m ; h ; x p : i E (2.151)
2h
Using now the substitution
u = (h2m p ) p3 = u3 (2.152)
)1=3 h6m 3
we have
1=3 Z +1 " 3 E #
(x) = h
( 2 m
p ) iu i
du exp 3 ; h ; x u(h2m)1=3
2h ;1 " #
Z +1 iu 3
= p du exp 3 ; iuq ; (2.153)
2 ;1
1=3 h i
where = 2hm2 and q = E ; x . So
Z +1 ! Z +1 !
(x) = p u 3
du cos 3 ; uq = p u 3
3 ; uq du
cos
2 ;1 0
R +1 sin u3 ; uq du = 0. In terms of the Airy functions
since ;1 3
Z +1 !
Ai(q) = p 1 u 3
cos 3 ; uq du (2.154)
0
we will have
(x) = p Ai(;q): (2.155)
For large jqj, leading terms in the asymptotic series are as follows
1 2
p
Ai(q) 2 q1=4 exp ; 3 q3=2 ; q > 0 (2.156)
Ai(q) p(;1 q)1=4 sin 32 (;q)3=2 + 4 ; q < 0 (2.157)
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74
Since these two operators must have the same eect, each matrix element
should be the same. That is
! !
e ; i ( +
)= 2
cos 2 = cos 2 ; inz sin 2
!
) cos 2 = cos ( +2
) cos 2
76
Thus the probability for the rotated state to be found in the original state
will be
2 !2
jhj; j jj; j iRj = 1 ; 4 j = 1 ; "2 j + O("4):
" 2
2 (3.10)
(a) We have
(~x) h~xj i = (x + y + 3z)f (r): (3.11)
So
" !#
~ (S ;3:6:15) 1 @ 2 1 @
h~xjL j i = ;h sin2 @2 + sin @ sin @ (~x): (3.12)
2 2 @
78
and
!
1 @ sin @ (~x) = rf (r) @ h;3 sin2 + (cos + sin ) sin cos i =
sin @ @ sin @
rf (r) h;6 sin cos + (cos + sin )(cos2 ; sin2 )(3.15)
i
:
sin
Substitution of (3.14) and (3.15) in (3.11) gives
1
~
h~xjL j i = ;h rf (r) ; sin (cos + sin )(1 ; cos + sin ) ; 6 cos
2 2 2 2
= h2rf (r) sin1 2 sin2 (cos + sin ) + 6 cos
= 2h2rf (r) [sin cos + sin sin + 3 cos ] = 2h2 (~x) )
L2 (~x) = 2h2 (~x) = 1(1 + 1)h2 (~x) = l(l + l)h2 (~x) (3.16)
which means that (~x) is en eigenfunction of L~ 2 with eigenvalue l = 1.
(b) Since we already know that l = 1 we can try to write (~x) in terms of
the spherical harmonics Y1m (; ). We know that
s s s
Y10 = 4 cos = 4 r ) z = r 43 Y10
3 3 z
q 9 8 q
Y1+1 = ;q 83 (x+riy) = < x = r q23 Y1;1 ; Y1+1
)
Y1;1 = 83 (x;riy) ; : y = ir 23 Y1;1 + Y1+1
So we can write
s hp i
(~x) = r 23 f (r) 3 2Y10 + Y1;1 ; Y1+1 + iY1+1 + iY1;1
s hp i
= 23 rf (r) 3 2Y10 + (1 + i)Y1;1 + (i ; 1)Y1+1 : (3.17)
But this means that the part of the state that depends on the values of m
can be written in the following way
hp i
j im = N 3 2jl = 1; m = 0i + (1 + i)jl = 1; m = ;1i + (1 ; i)jl = 1; m = 1i
and if we want it normalized we will have
jN j2(18 + 2 + 2) = 1 ) N = p122 : (3.18)
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So
P (m = 0) = jhl = 1; m = 0j ij2 = 922 2 = 11
9; (3.19)
P (m = +1) = jhl = 1; m = +1j ij2 = 222 = 11 1; (3.20)
P (m = ;1) = jhl = 1; m == 1j ij2 = 222 = 11 1: (3.21)
2
V (r) = E + rf1(r) 2hm [f 0(r) + f 0(r) + rf 00(r) + 2f 0(r)]] )
h
2 rf 00 (r) + 4f 0 (r)
V (r) = E + 2m rf (r) : (3.22)
80
(a) We have
3 Z
X 3 Z
X
j%i = j~x; iih~x; ij%i = j~x; ii%i(~x)d3x: (3.24)
i=1 i=1
Under a rotation R we will have
X3 Z
j%0i = U (R)j%i = U (R) [j~xi
jii] %i(~x)d3x
i=1
X3 Z X3 Z
= jR~xi
jiiDil(1)(R)%l (~x)d3x det=R=1 j~x; iiDil(1)(R)%l (R;1~x)d3x
i=1 i=1
X3 Z
= j~x; ii%i0~x)d3x )
i=1
%i0(~x) = Dil(1)(R)%l(R;1~x) ) %~0(~x) = R~%(R;1~x): (3.25)
Under an innitesimal rotation we will have
R(; n^ )~r = ~r + ~r = ~r + (^n ~r) = ~r + ~" ~r: (3.26)
So
%~0(~x) = R()%~(R;1~x) = R()%~(~x ; ~" ~x)
= ~%(~x ; ~" ~x) + ~" %~(~x ; ~" ~x): (3.27)
On the other hand
~%(~x ; ~" ~x) = ~%(~x) ; (~" ~x) r ~ %~(~x) = ~%(~x) ; ~" (~x r
~ )%~(~x)
= ~%(~x) ; hi ~" L~ %~(~x) (3.28)
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~ %~(~x) hr
where r ~ %i (~x)i jii. Using this in (3.27) we get
i i
~ ~
%~ (~x) = ~%(~x) ; h ~" L%~(~x) + ~" %~(~x) ; h ~" L%~(~x)
0
(b) From their denition it is obvious that L~ and S~ commute since L~ acts
only on the j~xi basis and S~ only on jii.
(c) S~ is a vector operator since
X
[Si; Sj ]km = [SiSj ; Sj Si]km = [(;ih)ikl(;ih)jlm ; (;ih)jkl(;ih)ilm]
Xh 2 i
= h ikljml ; h2jkliml
X
= h2 (ij km ; imjk ; ij km + jmki)
X
= h2 (jmki ; imjk )
X X X
= h2 ijlkml = ihijl(;ihkml) = ihijl(Sl)km : (3.32)
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82
(d) It is
r~ %~(~x) = hi ~p %~(~x) = hi ilp %l(~x)jii = h12 (S)lm p%m jii
= 12 (S~ ~p)%~: (3.33)
h
s
J;jj = 2; m = 0i = 2 (J + J )j00i
3 1; 2;
+ p1 (J1; + J2;)j + ;i + p1 (J1; + J2;)j ; +i )
s 6h 6
p p p i p p
6jj = 2; m = ;1i = 23 2j ; 0i + 2j0;i + p1 2j0;i + p1 2j ; 0i )
6 6
2 p 2 p 1 p 1 p
jj = 2; m = ;1i = 6 2j0;i + 6 2j ; 0i + 6 2j0;i + 6 2j ; 0i )
jj = 2; m = ;1i = p12 j0;i + p12 j ; 0i (3.39)
84
86
(a) Since U~ and V~ are vector operators they will satisfy the following com-
mutation relations
[Ui; Jj ] = ih"ijk Uk [Vi; Jj ] = ih"ijk Vk : (3.53)
From the components of a vector operator we can construct a spherical tensor
of rank 1 in the following way. The dening properties of a spherical tensor
of rank 1 are the following
q
[Jz ; Uq(1)] = h qUq(1); [J; Uq(1)] = h (1 q)(2 q)Uq(1)1 : (3.54)
It is
[Jz ; Uz ] (3=:53) 0hUz (3)
:54)
Uz = U0 (3.55)
p
[J+; U0] (3=:54) 2hU+1 = [J+; Uz ] = [Jx + iJy ; Uz ]
(3:53)
= ;ihUy + i(ih)Ux = ;h(Ux + iUy ) )
U+1 = ; p1 (Ux + iUy ) (3.56)
2
(3:54) p
[J;; U0] = 2hU;1 = [J;; Uz ] = [Jx ; iJy ; Uz ]
(3:53)
= ;ihUy ; i(ih)Ux = h(Ux ; iUy ) )
U;1 = p1 (Ux ; iUy ) (3.57)
2
So from the vector operators U~ and V~ we can construct spherical tensors
with components
U0 = Uz V0 = Vz
U+1 = ; p12 (Ux + iUy ) V+1 = ; p12 (Vx + IVy ) (3.58)
U;1 = p12 (Ux ; iUy ) V;1 = p12 (Vx ; iVy )
It is known (S-3.10.27) that if Xq(1k1 ) and Zq(2k2) are irreducible spherical tensors
of rank k1 and k2 respectively then we can construct a spherical tensor of
rank k
X
Tq(k) = hk1 k2; q1q2jk1k2 ; kqiXq(1k1)Zq(2k2) (3.59)
q1 q 2
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88
s s s
(3:52)
= 2U V + 1U V + 1U V
0 0 ;1 +1 +1 ;1
s 3 s 6 6 s
= 2 U V ; 1 1 (U ; iU )(V + iV ) ; 1 p1 1 (U + iU )(V ; iV )
z z
s3 62 x y x y
6 22 x y x y
= 1 2U V ; 1 U V ; i U V + i U V
6 z z 2 x x 2 x y 2 y x
1 1 i i
; 2 Uy Vy ; 2 UxVx + 2 UxVy ; 2 Uy Vx ; 2 Uy Vy
1
s
= 1 (2U V ; U V ; U V ) (3.65)
6 z z x x y y
T;(2)1 = h11; 0 ; 1j11; 2 ; 1iU0 V;1 + h11; ;10j11; 2 + 1iU;1 V0
(3:52)
= p1 U0V;1 + p1 U;1 V0
2 2
= 1 (U V + U V ; iU V ; iU V ) (3.66)
2 z x x z z y y z
T;(2)2 = h11; ;1 ; 1j11; 2 ; 2iU;1 V;1 (3=:52) U;1V;1 = 21 (Ux ; iUy )(Vx ; iVy )
= 12 (UxVx ; Uy Vy ; iUxVy ; iUy Vx): (3.67)
[Hint: This can be proved in many ways. You may, for instance,
examine the rotational properties of Jz2 using the spherical (irre-
ducible) tensor language.]
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(a) We have
X
j
jd(mm
j ) ( )j2m
0
m=;j
X
j
= mjhjmje;iJy =hjjm0ij2
m=;j
X
j
= mhjmje;iJy =hjjm0i hjmje;iJy =hjjm0i
m=;j
X
j
= mhjmje;iJy =hjjm0ihjm0jeiJy=hjjmi
m=;j
X
j
= hjm0jeiJy=hmjjmihjmje;iJy=hjjm0i
m=;j
2 j 3
1 X
= h hjm je y Jz 4
0 iJ = h
jjmihjmj5 e;iJy =hjjm0i
m=;j
1
= h hjm0jeiJy=hJz e;iJy =hjjm0i
= h1 hjm0jD( ; e^y )Jz D( ; e^y )jjm0i: (3.68)
But the momentum J~ is a vector operator so from (S-3.10.3) we will have
that
X
D ( ; e^y)Jz D( ; e^y ) = Rzj ( ; e^y )Jj : (3.69)
j
On the other hand we know (S-3.1.5b) that
0 1
cos 0 sin
R( ; e^y ) = B@ 0 1 0 CA : (3.70)
; sin 0 cos
So
Xj
j ) ( )j2m = 1 [; sin hjm0jJ jjm0 i + cos hjm0jJ jjm0i]
jd(mm 0
h x z
m=;j
1 J + + J;
= h ; sin hjm j 2 jjm i + hm cos
0 0 0
= m0 cos : (3.71)
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90
X
j
j)
m2jd(mm 0 ( )j
2
m=;j
s
= 2 h j (j + 1) + 2 23 D00(2)( ; e^y)hjm0jT0(2)jjm0i
1 2 1
3h h
= 3 j (j + 1) + 2 d00 ( )hjm0jJz2 ; 13 J 2jjm0i
1 1 (2)
1 1 2 1
= 3 j (j + 1) + 2 d00 ( ) m ; 3 j (j + 1)
(2) 0
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92
1 1 2 1
= 3 j (j + 1) + 2 (3 cos ; 1) m ; 3 j (j + 1)
2 0
1 1 1 m 02
= ; j (j + 1) cos + j (j + 1) + j (j + 1) + (3 cos2 ; 1)
2
2 6 3 2
= 2 j (j + 1) sin + m 2 (3 cos ; 1)
1 2 0 2 1 2 (3.81)
00 ( ) = P2 (cos ) = 2 (3 cos ; 1).
where we have used d(2) 1 2
3.8 (a) Write xy, xz, and (x2 ; y2) as components of a spherical
(irreducible) tensor of rank 2.
(b) The expectation value
Q eh; j; m = j j(3z2 ; r2)j; j; m = j i
is known as the quadrupole moment. Evaluate
eh; j; m0j(x2 ; y2)j; j; m = j i;
(where m0 = j; j ; 1; j ; 2; : : : )in terms of Q and appropriate Clebsch-
Gordan coecients.
(a) Using the relations (3.63-3.67) we can nd that in the case where U~ =
V~ = ~x the components of a spherical tensor of rank 2 will be
(2)
T+2 = 12 (x2 ; y2) + ixy T;(2)2 = 21 (x2 ; y2) ; ixy
(2) = ;(xz + izy )
T+1 T;(2)1 = xz ; izy
q q (3.82)
T0 = 6 (2z ; x ; y ) = 6 (3z ; r )
(2) 1 2 2 2 1 2 2
(b) We have
Q = eh; j; m = j j(3z2 ; r2)j; j; m = j i
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(3:84) Q hj 2; j; ;2jj 2; j; j ; 2i
= p hj 2; j; 0jj 2; j; j i m0;j;2: (3.85)
6
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94
96
where the sum is over all lattice vectors Ri. (In this simble one di-
mensional problem Ri = ia, but the construction generalizes easily
to three dimensions.).
The functions n are called Wannier functions, and are impor-
tant in the tight-binding description of solids. Show that the Wan-
nier functions are corresponding to dierent sites and/or dierent
bands are orthogonal, i:e: prove
Z
dx?m(x ; Ri)n(x ; Rj ) ij mn
Hint: Expand the n s in Bloch functions and use their orthonor-
mality properties.
The last relation gives the Bloch functions in terms of Wannier functions.
To nd the expansion of a Wannier function in terms of Bloch functions we
multiply this relation by e;ikRj and integrate over k.
X
n;k (x) = n(x ; Ri)eikRi
Ri
Z =a X Z =a
) ;=a
dke;ikRj n;k (x) = n (x ; Ri) eik(Ri;Rj )dk (4.10)
;=a
Ri
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But
Z =a ik(Ri;Rj ) =a (Ri ; Rj )]
eik(Ri;Rj )dk = i(R ; R ) = 2 sin [=a
e
Ri ; Rj
;=a i j ;=a
= ij 2a (4.11)
where in the last step we used that Ri ; Rj = na, with n 2 Z . So
Z =a X
dke;ikRj n;k (x) = n(x ; Ri)ij 2a
;=a R
a Z =a i
) n(x ; Ri) = 2 ;=a e;ikRi n;k (x)dk (4.12)
So using the orthonormality properties of the Bloch functions
Z
dxm(x ; Ri )n(x ; Rj )
Z Z Z a2
e ikRi (x)e;ik0 Rj 0
= m;k n;k0 (x)dkdk dx
(2) 2
Z Z a2 0 Rj
Z
ikR ;ik 0
= (2)2 e m;k (x) n;k0 (x)dxdkdk
i
Z Z a2
= e ikRi ;ik0 Rj (k ; k 0 )dkdk 0
mn
(2)2
Z =a
= a 2 mn ik(Ri ;Rj ) dk = a :
2
(2) e 2 mn ij (4.13)
;=a
98
m ; m
X ml m X ml
) Flm(r)(;1) m0;;m l0l = ei Flm(r)m0;m l0l
ml ml
) Fl0;;m0 (r)(;1);m0 = e Fl m (r) ) Fl0;;m0 (r) = (;1)m0 Fl0m0 (r)ei :
i 0 0 (4.19)
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100
So
0 1 0 1
0 0
B b C norm: B 1 C
jn0i = @ A = @ A )
0 0
jn0i = j10i: (4.27)
In the same way for = h 2(A + B )
0 10 1 0 1 8
A 0 B a
B@ 0 0 0 CA B@ b C aC >< aA + cB = a(A + B )
A = (A + B ) B@ b A)> 0 = b(A + B )
: aB + cA = c(A + B )
B 0 A c c
(
) ab == 0c (4.28)
So
0 1 0 1
c 1 1
B C norm: p B 0 C
jnA+B i = @ A = 2 @ A )
0
c 1
jnA+B i = p12 j1; +1i + p12 j1; ;1i: (4.29)
So
0 1 0 1
c norm: p1 B
1
B
jnA+B i = @ 0 A = C @ 0 CA )
;c 2 ;1
jnA;B i = p12 j1; +1i ; p12 j1; ;1i: (4.31)
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102
Now we are going to check if the Hamiltonian is invariant under time reversal
H ;1 = ASz2;1 + B (Sx2;1 ; Sy2;1)
= ASz ;1Sz ;1 + B (Sx;1Sx;1 ; Sy ;1Sy ;1)
= ASz2 + B (Sx2 ; Sy2) = H: (4.32)
To nd the transformation of the eigenstates under time reversal we use the
relation (S-4.4.58)
jl; mi = (;1)mjl; ;mi: (4.33)
So
jn0i = j10i (4=:33) j10i
= jn0i (4.34)
(4.35)
jnA+B i = p1 j1; +1i + p1 j1; ;1i
2 2
= ; p1 j1; ;1i ; p1 j1; +1i
(4:33)
2 2
= ;jnA+B i (4.36)
(4.37)
jnA;B i = p1 j1; +1i ; p1 j1; ;1i
2 2
= ; p1 j1; ;1i + p1 j1; +1i
(4:33)
2 2
= jnA;B i: (4.38)
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5 Approximation Methods
5.1 Consider an isotropic harmonic oscillator in two dimensions.
The Hamiltonian is given by
p 2
x p2y m!2 2 2
H0 = 2m + 2m + 2 (x + y )
(a) What are the energies of the three lowest-lying states? Is there
any degeneracy?
(b) We now apply a perturbation
V = m!2xy
where is a dimensionless real number much smaller than unity.
Find the zeroth-order energy eigenket and the corresponding en-
ergy to rst order [that is the unperturbed energy obtained in (a)
plus the rst-order energy shift] for each of the three lowest-lying
states.
(c) Solve the H0 + V problem exactly. Compare with the perturba-
tion results obtained in q(b). p p
[You may use hn0jxjni = h=2m! ( n + 1 0 + n 0 ):]
n ;n+1 n ;n;1
Dene step operators:
r m! ipx );
ax 2h (x + m!
r m! ipx );
ax 2h (x ; m!
y
r m! ipy );
ay 2h (y + m!
r
ayy m! 2h
(y ; ipy ):
m! (5.1)
From the fundamental commutation relations we can see that
[ax; ayx] = [ay ; ayy ] = 1:
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104
To 1'st order:
(E 0 ; H0) j l1 i = (V ; 1) j l0 i: (5.5)
Multiply with h l0 j to nd
h l0 j E 0 ; H0 j l1 i = 0 = h l0 j V ; 1 j l0 i )
1h l0 j l0 i = 1 = h l0 j V j l0 i (5.6)
In the degenerate case this does not work since we're not using the right basis
kets. Wind back to (5.5) and multiply it with another degenerate basis ket
h m0 j E 0 ; H0 j l1 i = 0 = h m0 j V ; 1 j l0 i )
1h m0 j l0 i = h m0 j V j l0 i: (5.7)
Now, h m0 j l0 i is not necessarily kl since only states corresponding to dier-
ent eigenvalues have to be orthogonal!
Insert a 1: X 0
h m j V j k0 ih k0 j l0 i = 1h m0 j l0 i:
k 2D
This is the eigenvalue equation which gives the correct zeroth order eigen-
vectors!
Let us use all this:
1. The ground state is non-degenerate )
100 = h 0; 0 j V j 0; 0 i = m!2h 0; 0 j xy j 0; 0 i h 0; 0 j (ax +ayx)(ay +ayy ) j 0; 0 i = 0
106
which means that the eigenvalues are f0; h!g. By the same method
as above we get the eigenvectors
p
j i+ = 21 ( j 2; 0 i + 2 j 1; 1 i + j 0; 2 i); E+ = h !(3 + );
j i0 = p12 (; j 2; 0 i + j 0; 2 i); E0 = 3h!;
p
j i; = 21 ( j 2; 0 i ; 2 j 1; 1 i + j 0; 2 i); E; = h !(3 ; ):
(c) To solve the problem exactly we will make a variable change. The poten-
tial is
h i
m!2 21 (x2 + y2) + xy =
" #
1 2 2
= m! 4 ((x + y) + (x ; y) ) + 4 (x + y) ; (x ; y) ) : (5.11)
2 2 2
p p
So we get one oscillator with !x0 = ! 1 + and another with !y0 = ! 1 ; .
The energy levels are:
E0;0 = h!; p
E1;0 = h ! + h!x0 = h !(1 + 1 + ) =
= h!(1 + 1 + 12 + : : :) = h !(2 + 21 ) + O(2);
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108
(b) Non degenerate perturbation theory to 2'nd order. The basis we use is
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0
j 1 i = B@ 0 CA ; j 2 i = B@ 1 CA ; j 3 i = B@ 0 CA :
0 0 1
0 1
0 0 a
The matrix elements of the perturbation V = B @ 0 0 b CA are
a b 0
h 1 j V j 3 i = a; h 2 j V j 3 i = b; h 1 j V j 2 i = h k j V j k i = 0:
k = h k j V j k i = 0 1'st order gives nothing. But the 2'nd order
Since (1)
shifts are
X jVk1 j2 jh 3 j V j 1 ij2 = jaj2 ;
(2)
1 = =
k6=1 E1 ; Ek E1 ; E2 E1 ; E2
0 0
X jVk2 j 2 jh 3 j V j 2 ij2 jb j2
(2) = 0 = E1 ; E2 = E1 ; E2 ;
k6=2 E2 ; Ek
2 0
X jVk3 j2 jaj2 + jbj2 = ; jaj2 + jbj2 :
(2) = =
k6=3 E3 ; Ek E2 ; E1 E2 ; E1 E1 ; E2
3 0 0
(5.17)
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110
112
From before we knew the non-degenerate energy shift, and now we see that
degenerate perturbation theory leads to the correct shifts for the other two
levels. Everything is as we would have expected.
s 0
As t ! 1 s
F h 1
1 ! ih 2m! i! ; 1 = const:
0
c(1)
This is of course reasonable since applying a static force means that the
system asymptotically nds a new equilibrium.
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114
(b) As remarked earlier there are no other non-vanishing cn's at rst order,
so no higher excited states can be found. However, going to higher order in
perturbation theory such states will be excited.
(a) The basis we are using is of course j S1z ; S2z i. Expand the interaction
potential in this basis:
S~1 S~2 = S1x"S2x + S1y S2y + S1z S2z = fin this basisg
2
= h4 ( j + ih ; j + j ; ih + j )1 ( j + ih ; j + j ; ih + j )2 +
+ i2(; j + ih ; j + j ; ih + j )1 (; j + ih ; j + j ; ih + # j )2 +
+ ( j + ih + j ; j ; ih ; j )1 ( j + ih + j ; j ; ih ; j )2 =
h
2"
= 4 j + + ih ; ; j + j + ; ih ; + j +
+ j ; + ih + ; j + j ; ; ih + + j +
+ i ( j + + ih ; ; j ; j + ; ih ; + j +
2
; j ; + ih + ; j + j ; ; ih + + j ) +
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+ j + + ih + + j ; j + ; ih + ; j + #
; j ; + ih ; + j + j ; ; ih ; ; j =
In matrix form this is (using j 1 i = j + + i j 2 i = j + ; i
j 3 i = j ; + i j 4 i = j ; ; i)
01 0 0 01
B 0 ;1 2 0 CC
H = B B@ 0 2 ;1 0 CA : (5.23)
0 0 0 1
This basis is nice to use, since even though the problem is 4-dimensional we
get a 2-dimensional matrix to diagonalize. Lucky us! (Of course this luck is
due to the rotational invariance of the problem.)
Now diagonalize the 2 2 matrix to nd the eigenvalues and eigenkets
!
; 1 ; 2
0 = det ;1 ; = (;1 ; ) ; 4 = + 2 ; 3
2 2
2
) = 1; ;3
=1:
! ! !
;1 2 x = x
2 ;1 y y
) ;x + 2y = x ) x = y = p12
= ;3 :
! ! !
;1 2 x = ;3 x
2 ;1 y y
) ;x + 2y = ;3x ) x = ;y = p12
So, the complete spectrum is:
8
>
< j + + i; j ; ; i; p2 ( j + ; i + j ; + i with energy
1
>
: p1 ( j + ; i ; j ; + i with energy ; 3
2
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116
Also, we know that two spin 21 systems add up to one triplet (spin 1) and one
singlet (spin 0), i.e.
S = 1 (3 states) ) S~1 S~2 = 21 (h21(1 + 1) ; 3h22 ) = 14 h2
: (5.24)
~ ~
S = 0 (1 state) ) S1 S2 = 2 (; 2 ) = ; 4 h
1 h
3 2 3 2
Since H = 4 ~ ~
h2 S1 S2 we get
2
E(spin=1) = 42 14h = ;
h
E(spin=0) = 2 ;3
4 h2 = ;3:
h 4
(5.25)
n
From Clebsch-Gordan odecomposition we know that j + + i; j ; ; i;
p1 ( j + ; i + j ; + i) are spin 1, and p1 ( j + ; i ; j ; + i) is spin 0!
2 2
Let's get back on track and nd the dynamics. In the new basis H is diagonal
and time-independent, so we can use the simple form of tthe time-evolution
operator: i
U (t; t0) = exp ; h H (t ; t0) :
The initial state was j + ; i. In the new basis
n
j 1 i = j + + i; j 2 i = j ; ; i; j 3 i = p12 ( j + ; i + j ; + i);
o
j 4 i = p12 ( j + ; i ; j ; + i)
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where
! h : (5.26)
The probability to nd the system in the state j i is as usual jh j ; t ij2
8
>
> h + + j ; t i = h ; ; j ; t i = 0
>
<
> jh + ; j ; t ij2 = 14 (2 + e4i!t + e;4i!t) = 21 (1 + cos4!t) ' 1 ; 4(!t)2 : : :
>
>
: jh ; + j ; t ij2 = 1 (2 ; e4i!t ; e;4i!t) = 1 (1 ; cos4!t) ' 4(!t)2 : : :
4 2
118
j f i = j ; + i;
!ni = En ;h
Ei = fE = 0g = 0;
n
Vfi = 2;
Vni = 0; n 6= f:
Inserting this into (5.27) yields
c(0) (0)
i = c j +; i = 1;
i Zt
cf = c j ;+ i = ; h dt2 = ;2i!t:
(1) (1)
(5.28)
0
as the only non-vanishing coecients up to rst order. The probability of
nding the system in j ; ; i or j + + i is thus obviously zero, whereas for
the other two states
P ( j + ; i) = 1
P ( j ; + i) = jc(1)
f (t) + cf (t) + : : : j = j2i!tj = 4(!t)
(2) 2 2 2
120
So eikz ni is the 3D Fourier transform of the initial wave-function (and some
constant) with ~q = ~kf ; k~ez . That can be extracted from (Sakurai problem
5.39)
ikz 642 1
e ni = L3a5 h 1 i4
0 a2 + (~kf ; k~ez )2
0
Note that the L's cancel. The angular dependence is in the denominator:
~ 2
kf ; k~ez = [(jkf jcos ; k) ~ez + jkf jsin (cos'~ex + sin'~ey )]2 =
= jkf j2cos2 + k2 ; 2kjkf jcos + jkf j2sin2 =
= kf2 + k2 ; 2kjkf jcos: (5.31)