a VLSI Technology Introduction In this chapter we review some basic concepts in integrated circuit technology. Since FPGAs are standard parts we have no control over the detailed design of the chips. However, many aspects of VLSI design do determine the characters- tics of the FPGA and how we must use it to implement our logic. In many cases, a qualitative knowledge of VLSI principles is sufficient to understand why cer- tain problems occur and what we can do about them. ‘You can make use of most of the material on FPGAs without reading this chapter. However, a basic knowledge of VLSI technology will help you appreciate some of the finer points of FPGA design, FPGAs also make a good vehicle for illustrat- ing some aspects of VLSI design. ‘We will start with a brief introduction to semiconductor fabrication methods. We ‘will next look atthe basic characteristics of transistors. Based on that understand- ing, we will look at how to design and analyze logic gates. We will then study wires, which are a major source of delay in modern CMOS integrated systems. Based on our understanding of these fundamental components, we will go on to study the design of registers and memories. We will close with a discussion of, WO cireuitry and the packages used to house integrated circuits42 waters and chips electrons and holes chip cross-section 2.2 ‘Chapter 2 VLSI Technology Manufacturing Processes Integrated circuits are built ona silicon substrate provided by the wafer. Wafer sizes have steadily increased over the years. Larger wafers mean more chips per water and higher productivity. The key figure of merit for a fabrication process isthe sizeof the smallest transistor it can man- ufacture, Transistor size helps determine both circuit speed and the amount of logic that can be put on a single chip. Fabrication technolo- gies are usually identified by their minimum transistor length, so & pro- 255 which can produce a transistor with a 0.13 ym minimum channel length is called @ 0.13 um process. (Below 0.10 um we «witch to nanometer units, such as @ 90 nm process.) ‘A pure silicon substrate contains equal numbers of two types of electri cal carriers: electrons and holes. While we will not go into the details of device physics here, itis important to realize that the interplay between electrons and holes is what makes transistors work. The goal of doping is to create two types of regions in the substrate: an n-type region which contains primarily electrons and a p-type region which is dominated by holes. (Heavily doped regions are referred to as n+ and p+.) Transistor action occurs at properly formed boundaries between n-type and p-type regions. A cross-section of an integrated circuit is shown in Figure 2-1, Compo- nents are formed by a combination of pracesses: + doping the substrate with impurities to create areas such as the intand p+ regions; + adding or cutting away insulating glass SiO;) on top of the substrate; icon dioxide, or + adding wires made of polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon, also known as poly) or metal, insulated from the substrate by SiO,, ‘The n-type and p-type regions and the polysilicon can be used to make wires as well as transistors, but metal (either copper or aluminum) is the primary material for wiring together transistors because of is superior electrical properties. There may be several levels of metal wiring to ensure that enough wires can be made to create all the necessary con- nections. Glass insulation lets the wires be fabricated on top of the sub- strate using processes like those used to form transistors, The integration of wires with components, which eliminates the need to manually together components on the substrate, was one of the key inventions that made the integrated circuit feasible.Manufacturing Processes 43 Figure 2-1 Cross- section of an integrated circuit, transistor via ‘manufacturing processes Features are patterned on the wafer by a photolithographie process; the ‘wafer is covered with light-sensitive material called photoresist, which is then exposed to light with the proper pattern. The patterns let by the photoresist after development can be used to control where SiO is ‘grown or where materials are placed on the surface of the wafer. ‘A layout contains summary information about the patterns to be made ‘on the wafer. Photolithographic processing steps are performed using ‘masks which are created from the layout information supplied by the designer. In simple processes there is roughly one mask per layer in a layout, though in more complex processes some masks may be built from several layers while one layer in the layout may contribute to sev eral masks. Transistors may be fabricated on the substrate by doping the substrate; transistors may also be fabricated within regions called tubs or wells. [An n-type transistor is built ina p-doped, and a p-type transistor is built in an n-doped region, The wells prevent undesited conduction from the drain to the substrate. (Remember that the transistor type refers to the minority carrier which forms the inversion layer, so an n-type transistor pulls electrons out of a p-tub,) The twinctub process, which starts from an undoped wafer and creates both types of tubs, has become the most commonly used CMOS process because it produces tubs with better electrical characterstis.