Cao Su

Industrial Sector of Practice for Pollution Prevention (Cleaner Technology)
INDUSTRIAL SECTOR CODE OF PRACTICE

FOR POLLUTION PREVENTION
(CLEANER TECHNOLOGY)
Latex Industry
Block Rubber (STR 20) Industry
September 2001
Rubber Industry Department of Industrial Works

Industrial Sector Code of Practice for Pollution Prevention
Definition
The Industrial Code of Practice for Pollution Prevention comprises CT Criteria and CT
Options that were approved by the Industrial Sector Committee. It is a guideline for a
specific industrial sector, so that pollution reduction at source, reuse and recycling are
implemented, as well as substitution of raw materials or chemicals with those that are less
toxic.
This CT Code of Practice can be used as a guideline by government officials in their

monitoring and regulation of the industries, by way of preventive pollution management,
and as criteria for granting privileges to the factories.
The CT Code of Practice consists of two main features, i.e.:
1. CT Criteria, which are standards used to indicate whether CT is being practiced by a

factory, effecting its production efficiency and operations.
2. CT Options, which are measures to reduce waste and improve production efficiency in
an industrial sector, to raise production methods to a set standard.
Principles in selecting an industrial sector

• It is an industry that causes high impacts to the environment e.g., water pollution, air
emission and wastes.
• It is an industry, producing from processed domestic agricultural products, having high
economic values.
• It is an industry effected by the protocol of the World Trade Organization (WTO) i.e.,
Local Content
Factors considered in establishing the Code of Practice

• Whether it is a common problem related to loss and production in the sector
• It is a management of problems with high impact on production and the environment for
the sector
• It is a standard or measure that is practical and economically beneficial.

Table of Contents
1. Introduction
1.1 Rationale
1.2 Scope
1.3 Definition
2. Cleaner Technology (CT) Criteria for Rubber Industry
2.1 CT Criteria for Latex Industry

2.2 CT Criteria for Block Rubber (STR 20) Industry
3. CT Options for Rubber Industry
3.1 CT Options for Latex Industry

3.2 CT Options for Block Rubber (STR 20) Industry
Appendices
A. Overview of Raw Rubber Industry in Thailand

B. Production Process for Latex
C. Production Process for Block Rubber (STR 20)
D. Cost Calculation of Economic Benefits due to Reduced Loss of Rubber Content
E. Acknowledgment

1 Introduction
1.1 Rationale
In the current situation, competition among industries is not limited to the domestic market
only. Under present economic state, Thailand has been compelled to enter the free trade,
thereby exposing itself to international competitors. Therefore, preparing the Thai industry
for such a competitive arena is vital.
Pollution Prevention or Cleaner Technology is a possible mean for industries to adopt in

promoting sustainable development and enhancing competitiveness, as it helps reduce
production costs, by minimizing waste and optimizing consumption of existing resources.
In turn, environmental impacts are reduced.
1.2 Scope
In its scope, the CT Code of Practice for Rubber covers:
• Latex industries
• Block rubber (STR 20) industries
1.3 Definition
1.3.1 CT Code of Practice
“CT Code of Practice comprises measures to be implemented by a specific industrial sector,

so that pollution reduction at source, re-use and recycling are implemented, as well as
substitution of raw materials and chemicals with those that are less toxic. This CT Code of
Practice consists of CT Criteria and CT Options that have been approved by the Industrial
Sector Committee.”
• CT Criteria
“CT Criteria are standards to indicate whether CT is being practiced by a factory, effecting
its production efficiency and operations.”
• CT Options
“CT Options are measures to reduce waste and improve production efficiency in an
industrial sector, to raise production methods to a set standard.”
1.3.2 Industrial Sector Committee
“The Committee is responsible for reviewing the CT Code of Practice for an industrial
sector. The Committee comprises direct stakeholders, both from the public and private
sectors, and educational institutes related to that sector.”
Rubber Industry 1-1 Department of Industrial Works

2 CT Criteria for Rubber Industry

2.1 CT Criteria for Latex Industry
CT Criterion 1: Loss of Rubber Content
1. Background
From studies of variable costs of latex industries, it was found that cost of raw materials was
the highest, amounting to about 71 – 81.4 % of all the variable costs. So, the more raw
materials can be processed into products, the more loss can be reduced and the more savings
gained. Factories gauge their production efficiency by the percentage of (dry rubber content
(DRC) in concentrated latex) / (DRC in field latex) x 100%. For instance, if 100 kg. DRC
of field latex is processed and 88 kg. DRC concentrated latex is obtained, production
efficiency is thus 88%. Characteristically, efficient centrifugation takes time. But during
high seasons, with greater supply of field latex, factories will try to centrifuge more latex
thereby achieving higher productivity output, but sacrificing efficiency. After
centrifugation, concentrated latex and skim latex are obtained. The DRC in skim latex is
around 5-8 %
Areas of loss of rubber content
1. Field latex reception area: the supplier delivering field latex will clean the tanks on the
trucks by spraying water. This latex is quite contaminated, but has a high rubber
content. Most factories have a special area for this activity, so that rinse water is drained
into a rubber trap.
2. Field latex reception area at the field latex reception pond: chemicals are added to
promote sedimentation of magnesium. Also natural coagulation occurs along the walls
of the pond. So cleaning must take place everyday. Rinse water from cleaning the pond
has a high rubber content, although non-rubber content is high also.
3. Around the centrifuges: centrifuges are cleaned every two-three hours, as bowl heads
are clogged with rubber and sludge (remnants of magnesium phosphate). Cleaning the
machines causes great loss of rubber content and production time. Some factories will
separate sludge from the skim latex, because if not, skim rubber obtained will be of low
quality.
4. Skim rubber production: if coagulation is inefficient, serum discharged from the

coagulation pond will have a high rubber content left remaining.

2. CT Criterion 1
Details % or Remarks
kg. DRC/100 kg. DRC in
field latex
Input Field 100
latex
Output Concent 79.1 – 88.9 All factories have this data.

rated
latex
Skim 5.4 – 14 Factories selling skim rubber
rubber in the form of skim coagulum
do not weigh the dry rubber
before selling, preferring to
sell by truck loads.
Loss 3.0 – 8.9 Some loss can be recovered
and sold at a low price but
some cannot. Most factories
have no weighing systems for
these portions.
Table 2.1.1 Rubber content in raw material through final product. Data taken from model factories.
Note Lost rubber content that can be recovered is from the bowl head and the rubber trap,
for instance. This rubber can be sold but fetches a low price. Since rubber from the rubber
trap is not weighed and sold everyday as is the case with the field latex received, comparing
the weight of dry rubber from the rubber trap to that of field latex is difficult. In principle,
the actual loss of rubber content should be determined by that which is unrecoverable. It is
assumed that this rubber is discharged from the rubber trap, into the wastewater treatment
pond, some of which hardens and clings along the open pipes in the system and some
remains in the sludge trap. Such loss, in percentage, is considered very little, making it hard
to monitor.
The Industrial Sector Committee - Rubber - agreed to use “Total Loss” as the CT criterion.
The total loss is the DRC in field latex less DRC in conc. latex and less DRC in skim
rubber, equivalent to % of DRC in field latex, or as in the following formula:
% lost DRC =
(DRC in field latex (kg) - DRC in conc. latex (kg) - DRC in skim rubber (kg)) x 100
DRC in field latex (kg)
Study of 10 latex factories found that loss of rubber content in field latex (%) is as shown in
Table 2.1.2, and cost of loss (based on field latex costing 19.5 baht/kg. DRC) is included.

Criterion I Loss of Rubber Content

Factory % baht/ ton DRC in CT Criterion I
field latex Loss of Rubber Content
1 3.0 585.00 10.0
2 3.0 585.00
3 3.0 585.00 8.0 1600.00
median 5.0 %
(baht/ton field latex)

% DRC in field latex
7 3.4 663.00
Cost of Loss
6.0 1200.00
6 4.4 858.00
5 5.5 1072.50 4.0 800.00
4 5.5 1072.50
14 6.8 1326.00 2.0 400.00
10 8.1 1579.50
0.0 0.00
13 8.9 1735.50
1 2 3 7 6 5 4 14 10 13
Median 5.0 965.25 Factories
Min 3.0 585.00
Max 8.9 1735.50
Table 2.1.2 Data on Loss of Rubber Content Figure 2.1.1 Chart showing how CT Criterion 1- Loss
of Rubber Content - was established
The Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber - agreed to use the median as the CT criterion for
loss of rubber content, which is 5.0 % or DRC field latex.
Reasons for using the median value:
1. It is a value that promotes competitiveness within the sector, since half the factories
(from the survey) are already able to achieve this standard or better.
2. It is a representative value for the average factory. If in the future when data is collected
again and the median is found to be reduced, the value could be appropriately adjusted.
3. It is a value that reduces the margin of error.
Our study has shown that if Factory No.13 (see Table 2.1.2) can reduce loss of rubber
content down to the standard set or from 8.9% to 5.0 % of DRC in field latex, there will be
savings of 54.60 baht/100 kg. field latex. If the factory produces 10,000 ton of concentrated
latex per year, using approximately 6,000 ton DRC of field latex / year, there would be
Savings of 3,276,000 baht/year

Note: See Appendix D for cost calculation

CT Criterion 2 : Ammonia
1. Background
Ammonia solution of 15-20% concentration by weight is prepared for field-latex suppliers,

for use to preserve their field latex against natural coagulation. Some of this solution is
added to concentrated latex after centrifugation to preserve the product before delivery to
customers. If the product is High Ammonia Concentrated Latex, 0.3-0.7% ammonia by
weight is added. But for Low Ammonia, ammonia of less than 0.29% by weight is added
with other preservatives. Nowadays most latex factories buy ammonia in a liquid form in
pressurized tanks. Portions of ammonia gas are taken and mixed with clean water. This
causes the water temperature to rise, and ammonia easily evaporates from the solution,
creating high loss of ammonia.
2. CT Criterion 2
Since more ammonia is used to produce High Ammonia concentrated latex (HA) than Low
Ammonia concentrated latex (LA), the Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber – agreed to
have separate CT Criteria for the two product types i.e., ammonia consumption for HA and
LA products. Based on a study of 10 factories (9 for HA production and 6 for LA
production, with some producing both HA and LA) numbers for ammonia consumption
(kg/ton concentrated latex) are as shown in Tables 2.1.3 and 2.1.4; and cost calculation for
ammonia (based on ammonia cost of 18.00 baht/kg) is included.
Criterion II Ammonia
(for HA production) CT Criterion 2
Factory kg/Ton Conc. Latex Bt/Ton Conc.Latex
Ammonia consumption (HA production)
10 12.2 220 30 540
4 16.4 295 25 median 21.1 kg/ton latex
7 19.1 344
(Baht/ton Latex)
20 360
Ammonia Cost
Ammonia Use
(kg/ton Latex)
23 21.0 378
15
16 21.1 379
17 22.3 402 10 180
14 24.1 436 5
13 25.3 456 0 0
Median 21.1 379 10 4 7 23 16 17 22 14 13
Min 12.2 220 Factories
Max 25.3 456
Table 2.1.3 Ammonia Consumption Figure 2.1.2 Chart showing how Criterion II –
for HA production Ammonia (HA) – is established.

Criteria II Ammonia
(for LA production) CT Criterion 2
Factory kg/Ton Conc. Latex Bt/Ton Conc.Latex Ammonia Consumption (LA production)
10 7.9 143 20.0 360.0
Median 14.1 kg/ton latex
4 12.3 222
15.0
22 12.9 232
(baht/ton latex)
Ammonia cost
Ammonia use
(kg/ton latex)
16 15.3 275 10.0 180.0
13 16.0 288
5.0
23 18.8 338
Median 14.1 253.5 0.0 0.0
Min 7.9 143 10 4 22 16

Factories
13 23
Max 18.8 338
Table 2.1.4 Ammonia Consumption Figure 2.1.3 Chart showing how Criterion II –
for LA Production Ammonia (LA) - is established.
The Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber – agreed to use the medians as the CT Criteria.
The median of 21.1 kg/ton conc. latex is rounded off to 20 kg/ton conc. latex and set as the
CT Criterion for HA production; and the median of 14.1 kg/ton conc. latex is rounded off to
14 kg/ton conc. latex and set as the CT Criterion for LA production.
Study has shown that for HA production, if Factory No. 13 can reduce ammonia
consumption down to the standard set i.e., from 25.3 to 20 kg./ton conc. latex, they can
reduce ammonia cost by 95.40 baht/ton conc. latex. If the factory is processing 10,000 ton
conc. latex /year, there would be:
Savings of 954,000 baht/year
For LA production, if Factory No. 23 can reduce ammonia consumption down to the set
standard i.e., from 18.8 to 14 kg./ton conc. latex, ammonia cost can be reduced by up to
86.40 baht/ton conc. latex. If the factory is processing 10,000 ton conc. latex /year, there
would be:

CT Criterion 3 : Water consumption
1. Background
In factories visited, water used for producing concentrated latex is mostly taken from natural
sources e.g., nearby swamps or streams running through the factory grounds. So there is no
direct water cost, the only cost being for treating water so that it is appropriate for use e.g.,
filtering cost. Some places use groundwater, some from deep and some from shallow wells.
For groundwater from deep wells, the cost is 3.50 baht/m3, while for shallow wells the cost
is nothing. However, there is a cost for treating the water, which contains a high mineral
content. So, excessive water consumption will lead to greater expenses for water or water
treatment. Consequently, more wastewater is generated, requiring treatment, creating
further treatment costs.
2. CT Criterion 3
Study of 17 factories found that 14 had water meters for measuring water consumption for
production. Numbers for water consumption (cu.m./ton conc. latex) are as shown in Table
2.1.5, and water costs are also shown (based on water costing 3.50 baht/cu.m.).
Criterion III Water CT criterion 3

Factory cu.m./Ton Conc. Latex Bt/Ton Conc. Latex
14 1.8 6.36 Water consumption
12 1.9 6.65 18.0
60.00
17 2.0 6.98 16.0
13 2.3 7.88 14.0 50.00
3 2.3 7.98
Water consumption
12.0
(cu.m./ton latex)
40.00
(baht/ton latex)
1 3.5 12.22
Water Cost
10.0 median 5.2 cu.m./ton latex
16 4.3 15.09 30.00
8.0
10 6.2 21.61
6.0 20.00
2 7.8 27.23
11 9.5 33.25 4.0
10.00
9 10.1 35.35 2.0
6 11.0 38.64 0.0 0.00
4 11.4 40.01 14 12 17 13 3 1 16 10 2 11 9 6 4 5
5 15.8 55.30 Factories
Median 5.2 18.35
Min 1.8 6.36
Max 15.8 55.30
Table 2.1.5 Water Consumption Data Figure 2.1.4 Chart showing how Criterion III
– Water Consumption – is
established
The Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber – agreed to use the median as the CT Criterion
for water consumption, which is 5.2 rounded off to 5.0 cu.m./ton conc. latex.
Study shows that if Factory No.5 can reduce water consumption down to the standard set, or
from 15.8 to 5.0 cu.m./ton concentrated latex, the cost for water consumption will be
reduced by up to 37.80 baht/ton concentrated latex. If the factory is processing 10,000 ton
conc. latex /year, there would be:
Savings
CT Criterion 4 : Diammonium of 378,000
Hydrogen baht/year
Phosphate (DAP)

CT Criterion 4: Diammonium Hydrogen Phosphate (DAP)
1. Background
DAP (diammonium hydrogen phosphate) is used for magnesium in field latex to settle,
turning into remnants of magnesium phosphate by leaving it overnight. Magnesium content
in field latex before centrifugation should be less than 50 ppm on total solid. How much
DAP to use depends on the magnesium content in the field latex. If the field latex contains
high magnesium content, a high amount of DAP is used accordingly. The amount of
magnesium in field latex depends mainly on the soil where the rubber tree is grown. If
magnesium content in the soil is high, latex obtained will also contain high magnesium.
DAP consumption recommended by Rubber Research Sub-Center is Mg:DAP = 1:5.5 (this
is a theoretical number).
2. CT Criterion 4
Based on the study of 15 factories, DAP consumption (kg/ton conc. latex) is as shown in
Table 2.1.6, and cost of DAP (at 30 baht/kg) is included.
Criteria IV Diammonium Hydrogen Phosphate (DAP)

Factory kg / ton conc. latex Bt/ ton conc. latex CT criterion 4
16 0.78 23 Diammonium Hydrogen Phosphate (DAP)
5.00
12 0.83 25 140
4.50
9 1.48 44
7 1.54 46 4.00 120
13 1.88 56 3.50
100
8 1.98 59
DAP Consumption
3.00 median 2.26 kg/ton latex
(Baht/ton latex)
(kg/ton latex)
Cost of DAP
1 2.08 62 2.50
80
10 2.26 68
2.00 60
15 2.44 73
2 2.52 76 1.50
40
17 2.90 87 1.00
20
5 3.07 92 0.50
4 3.68 110 0.00 0
14 4.09 123 16 12 9 7 13 8 1 10 15 2 17 5 4 14 3
3 4.20 126
Median 2.26 68 Factories
Min 0.78 23
Max 4.20 126
Table 2.1.6 DAP Consumption Figure 2.1.5 Chart showing how Criterion IV
– DAP – is established
for DAP consumption, which is equal to 2.26 – rounded off to 2.20 kg/ton conc. latex.
Study shows that if Factory No. 3 can reduce DAP consumption down to the set standard, or
4.20 to 2.20 kg/ton conc. latex, DAP cost will be reduced by 60 baht/ton conc. latex. If the
factory is processing 10,000 ton conc. latex /year, there would be:

CT Criterion 5 : Electricity Consumption
1. Background
The main equipment in production using electrical energy is the centrifuge. From factory
surveys, it was found that there are two types of centrifuges used i.e.:
System 1, a system using clutch and gear

System 2, a system with variable pulleys, used to adjust the RPM of the centrifuge.
When starting a centrifuge, the velocity will continuously increase until 7,000 rpm is
reached as required. When starting up in the first system using clutch and gear, it is similar
to starting up a car, which causes high energy loss, due to friction on the clutch surface,
whereas there is no such loss in the second system.
2. CT Criterion 5
From study of 10 factories, electricity consumption (kwh/ton conc. latex) is as shown in

Table 2.1.7, and electricity cost (at 2.20 baht/kWh) is also included.
Criteria V Electricity Consumption

Factory KWh / Ton Conc. Bt / Ton Conc. Latex
8 74.2 163 CT Criterion 5
7 77.3 170 Electricity use
2 89.0 196
1 90.0 198
3 90.0 198 200.0 median 90.0 kWh/ton latex 400
14 109.6 241
150.0 350
16 116.4 256 300
10 148.2 326
(baht/ton latex)
Electricity cost
(kWh/ton latex)
Electricity use
250
100.0 200
13 150.0 330 150
17 241.9 532 50.0 100
Median 90.0 198

50
0.0 0
Min 74.2 163 8 7 2 1 3

Factories
14 16 10 13
Max 241.9 532
Table 2.1.7 Electricity Consumption Figure 2.1.6 Chart showing how Criterion V
- Electricity Consumption – is established
Note: Data from factory 17 is not included in the calculation to find the median.
The Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber – agreed to use the median as the CT criterion
for electricity consumption, which is 90.0 kWh/ton conc. latex.
Study shows that if Factory No.13 can reduce electricity consumption down to the standard
set, or from 150.0 to 90.0 kWh/ton conc. latex, electricity cost will be reduced by up to 132
baht/ton conc. latex. If the factory is processing 10,000 ton conc. latex per year, there would
be:
Note: Data on electricity consumption by Factory No. 17 could be inaccurate, as it is very
high compared to other factories, therefore it is not included in the calculation.

Criterion 6 : Sulfuric Acid
1. Background
Sulfuric acid is used in the concentrated latex industry for skim latex to coagulate.
Although sulfuric acid is low in cost, it has drawbacks: excessive use of sulfuric acid will
make rubber tender and easily deteriorated . This is one reason why the quality of skim
rubber is not as high as that of standard block rubber or smoked rubber sheets. Ammonia
content in skim latex entering the coagulation pond is also significant in relation to the
amount of sulfuric acid used. If ammonia content in skim latex is high, more sulfuric acid
will be needed, because part of the acid is used to neutralize ammonia in the skim latex.
Furthermore, wastewater from coagulation having high sulfuric acid content will create
sulfate problems for the treatment system.
The appropriate length of time for skim coagulation is about 24 hours. But if coagulation
time needs to be shortened, due to whatever reason - e.g., the skim pond has a low volume,
or the amount of field latex received is high, or production per day of concentrated latex is
high - more sulfuric acid would be needed. One of the factories visited, periodically had to
add sulfuric up to 400 – 550 kg. 98% concentrated acid/ton DRC in skim latex, because
only two hours were available for skim coagulation.
2. CT Criterion 6
Skim rubber is a by-product from the latex production process. Some factories produce this
in the form of skim block, skim crepe, or skim coagulum sold by truckloads. Thus the
Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber - decided that the unit of CT criterion for sulfuric
acid consumption should be “kg. 98% concentration /ton DRC in skim latex.”
From study of 11 factories, data on sulfuric consumption (kg/ton DRC in skim latex) is as
shown in Table 2.1.8, and cost of 98% conc. sulfuric acid (at 2.00 baht/kg) is included.
Criteria VI Sulfuric Acid Consumption

Factory kg / ton DRC Bt/ ton DRC
in skim latex in skim latex CT criterion 6
11 120 240 Sulphuric Acid
16 140 280
10 149 298
5 208 416 300 600
250 500
(baht/ton DRC in Skim latex)
12 211 422 median 211 kg/ton DRC in Skim Latex

(kg/ton DRC in Skim latex)
Cost of Sulphuric acid
1 225 450 200 400

Use of Sulphuric
4 227 454 150 300

17 231 462 100 200
2 240 480 50 100
7 326 652 0 0
13 367 734
11 16 10 5 12 1 4 17 2
Median 211 422
Min 120 240 Factories
Max 367 734
Table 2.1.8 Sulfuric Acid Consumption
Figure 2.1.7 Criterion VI - Sulfuric Acid

The Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber – agreed to use the median as the CT criterion
for sulfuric acid (98% concentration) consumption, which is equal to 211 or rounded off to
200 kg/ton DRC in skim latex.
Study shows that if Factory No.13 can reduce sulfuric acid consumption down to the
criterion set or from 367 to 200 kg/ton DRC in skim latex , the cost of sulfuric acid
consumption will be reduced by up to 334 baht/ton DRC in skim latex. If the factory is
processing 10,000 ton conc. latex per year, there would be approximately 450 ton DRC in
skim latex , so there would be:

The Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber – has agreed that CT Criteria should be as
follows:
1. Loss of rubber content 5 % DRC in field latex

2. Ammonia HA * 20 Kg./ton latex
consumption LA * 14 Kg./ton latex
3. Water consumption 5.0 m.3/ton latex
4. Consumption of Diammonium Hydrogen 2.2 Kg./ton latex
Phosphate (DAP)
5. Electricity consumption 90.0 KWh/ton latex
6. Consumption of sulfuric acid 200 Kgl./ton DRC in
skim latex
Table 2.1.9 Summary of CT Criteria for Latex Industry
Note: *HA is High Ammonia latex production

*LA is Low Ammonia latex production

2.2 CT Criteria for Block Rubber (STR 20) Industry
CT Criterion 1: Water consumption
1. Background
In Block Rubber Industry, where the main processes are cleaning and drying the rubber,
water is a key element in the cleaning process. It is used to clean raw materials such as
rubber scraps, cup lumps or rubber sheets, before they are processed into block rubber.
Water use is high, as it is vital to ensure that materials are clean in order to produce block
rubber with acceptable quality standard or higher.
Pre-assessment of block rubber factories has shown that water is generally taken from
sources close to the factory e.g., canals, rivers, lakes, etc. Thus, factories with good
construction planning can save cost for water consumption. The costs involved then would
only be the treatment cost and construction cost for piping systems directing water into the
factory. For factories without the advantage of available water source close by, they need to
provide for a good recycling system, treating used water to achieve an acceptable quality
standard for use in the process. Factories that must obtain raw water from the Provincial
Waterworks Authority or groundwater wells would have higher water costs, so they would
be competitively disadvantaged compared to factories with lower water cost. Treating used
water and recycling it then becomes necessary. There are both deep and shallow
groundwater wells. Water from deep wells costs 3.5 baht/cu.m., while that from shallow
wells costs nothing. However, the latter is not popular, as it cannot provide enough volume
for daily consumption in production. Mostly, it is used for household only. Also,
groundwater from shallow wells incurs treatment costs, as there is a high mineral content.
2. CT Criterion 1
Study has found that out of 14 factories surveyed, only 11 had water meters installed for
gauging water consumption in the production of block rubber. Data on water use, in cu.
m./ton STR 20, is shown in Figure 2.2.1.
Water used in block rubber factories mostly comes from natural sources, costing nothing.
Reduced water consumption would help reduce the amount of wastewater at the treatment
system, which would increase the concentration of the wastewater discharged to the
treatment system. If water consumption can be reduced, it will help reduce operational
costs of the wastewater treatment system, since the amount of wastewater would be reduced.

CT Criterion 1 Water Consumption

Factory No. Cu.m./ton STR 20 Criteria I Water
7 6
6 16
12 16 60
9 16 50 median 23 cu.m./ton STR20

1 20
cu.m./ton STR 20
40
13 26 30
3 29 20
10 40 10
5 40 0
11 56
7 6 12 9 1 13 3 10 5 11
8 125
Median 23 Factory
Max 125
Min 6
Figure 2.2.1 CT Criterion 1: Water Consumption
Note: Data from Factory No. 8 is not included
for water consumption, which is equivalent to 23 cu.m./ton STR 20.
Reasons for using the median
1. It is a value that promotes competitiveness for the sector, since half of all the factories
are already achieving this standard.
2. It is a representative value for the average factory. If in the future when data is collected
again and the median is found to be reduced, the value could be appropriately adjusted.
3. It is a value that reduces the margin of error.
Normally, Factory No. 11 may not have to pay for water used, however, if in the future they
have to spend 3.50 baht/cu.m. and cannot reduce their consumption from 56 cu.m./ ton STR
20 to the standard of 23 cu.m./ton STR 20, they would have to pay more for water than the
average cost of 115.50 baht/ton STR 20. If the factory is producing 25,000 ton of STR 20
per year, they would have to pay 2,887,500 baht more per year that the average cost.
Note: Data from Factory No. 8 is not used in the calculation, as their water consumption (at
125 cu.m./ton STR 20) was much higher than the rest, which could be an inaccurate figure.

CT Criterion 2: Electricity Consumption
1. Background
In Block Rubber Industry, the main processes are cleaning and drying the rubber. Machines
are used to grind, shred and cut the rubber so that the rubber content can better come in
contact with water, so dirt and unwanted materials can be washed away. The machines
require a great deal of energy in the cleaning process, of which the most usual form for the
industry is electrical energy, supplied by the Provincial Electricity Authority. Research has
found that electricity consumption incurs one of the most variable costs for Block Rubber
Industry, as electricity is used to run all machines involved in the cleaning process. It is
crucial to ensure that materials such as rubber scraps, cup lumps or rubber sheets are clean,
in order to produce block rubber with acceptable quality standard or higher.
Survey has shown that electricity consumption is as yet not efficient e.g., utilization of high
efficiency motors, synchronizing running of machines so as to avoid peak hours and peak
loads – these measures are not yet implemented.
2. CT Criterion 2
In surveying block rubber industries, data could only be obtained from 12 out of 14 factories
visited, as some produced several types of rubber without having a separate meter to gauge
electricity consumption for STR 20 production. Data on electricity consumption, in
kWh/ton STR 20, is shown in Figure 2.2.2.
The numbers of electricity consumption are directly related to the number of horsepower of
the motors in the pre-cleaning line in the production line, maintenance and care of the
machines, and the type of raw materials. Savings in electricity consumption by STR 20
factories depend on regular maintenance of machines, and proper design and management
of the pre-cleaning line.
CT Criterion 2 Electricity Consumption
Factory No. KWh/ton STR Baht/ton
5 164 361 Criteria II Electricity
12 164 361
13 175 385 400
800
11 186 409
1 190 418 300
kwh / ton STR 20
Baht/ ton STR 20
600
3 195 429
7 200 440 200 400
8 209 460
9 214 471 100 200
6 278 612
10 297 653 0 0
4 343 755 5 12 13 11 1 3 7 8 9 6 10 4 2
2 374 823
Median 200 440 Factory
Max 374 823
Min 164 360.8
Figure 2.2.2 Charts showing how CT Criterion 2 – Electricity Consumption – is established
The Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber – has agreed to use the median as the CT
Criterion for electricity consumption, which is equivalent to 200 kWh/ton STR 20.

If Factory No. 4 can reduce electricity consumption from 343 units/ton STR 20 down to the
median value or 200 units/ton STR 20, they can reduce consumption by 143 units/ton STR
20, based on electricity cost of 2.20 baht/unit, amounting to a saving of 314.60 baht/ton STR
20. If the factory is producing 25,000 ton of STR 20 rubber per year, there would be:
Note: Factory No. 2 has production methods unlike others in that they do not use bunker oil
to dry the rubber, but spend more on electricity consumption. So, their consumption is not
included in the cost calculation for savings in electricity consumption.

CT Criterion 3: Fuel Consumption
1. Background
In Block Rubber Industry, the main processes are cleaning and drying the rubber. In the
drying process before distribution, heat is generated and transferred throughout the dryer by
air blown by fans. The fuel normally used for ignition to generate heat is diesel oil. Study
has shown that fuel oil incurs one of the variable costs for Rubber Industry, as it is used to
run the drying system, which is a major part in the production process. It removes humidity
from the rubber content after the rubber has been cleaned. It also heats rubber for the
purposes of storage and prevention of biological deterioration, and to achieve the desired
quality standard for STR 20 or higher.
Survey has shown that there is no monitoring of combustion efficiency in dryers used in
block rubber production, in order to achieve an ideal coefficient for ignition and
combustion, thereby reducing impacts from gas and soot caused by inefficient combustion.
2. CT Criterion 3
Survey of 14 factories, only 12 were found to have data on fuel energy. Data on fuel
consumption, in liter diesel oil/ton STR 20, is shown in Figure 2.2.3.
Reduced or optimal fuel consumption is directly related to the operational management and
time management of STR 20 production. This is because production capacity of most
dryers is less than the total capacity of the cleaning process. So most factories must rush the
production of block rubber before the day’s end, making it hard for dryers to operate at full
efficiency.
CT Criterion 3 Fuel consumption
Factory Liter/ton STR 20 Baht/ton STR 20
1 19 266
CriterionIIIFuel
8 22 308
12 27 378
11 28 392 50 700
3 29 406 40 500
litres/ton STR 20
Baht/ton STR 20
5 29 406 30
13 29 406 300
20
7 30 420 100
9 34 476 10
6 37 518 0 -100
10 40 560
1 8 12 11 3 5 13 7 9 6 10
4 58 812
Median 29 406
Factory
Max 58 812
Min 19 266
Figure 2.2.3 Chart showing how Criterion 3 – Fuel Oil Consumption – is established
Note: Data from Factory No. 4 is not included in the calculation
The Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber – agreed to use the median as the CT Criterion,
which is equivalent to 29 liter/ton STR 20.

If Factory No. 10 can reduce consumption of fuel energy from 40 liter diesel/ton STR 20
down to the median of 29 liter of diesel/ton STR 20, the factory can reduce fuel
consumption by 11 liter diesel/ton STR 20. Based on diesel fuel cost of 14 baht/liter, the
savings would be 154 baht/ton STR 20. If a factory is producing 25,000 ton of STR 20 per
year, they can have:
Savings of 3,850,000 baht/year on fuel
Remark: Data from Factory 4 is not included in the calculation, as their fuel consumption at
58 liter/ton STR 20 was much higher than the rest, which could be an inaccurate figure.

The Industrial Sector Committee – Rubber – has agreed to set CT Criteria as follows:
1. Water consumption 23 m.3/ton STR 20

2. Electricity consumption 200 KWh/ton STR 20
3. Fuel consumption 29 Liter diesel/ton STR 20
Table 2.2.1 Summary of CT Criteria for Block Rubber (STR 20) Industry

3 CT Options in Rubber Industry
3.1 CT Options for Latex Industry
Related Criterion: Loss of Rubber Content
Factories with lower rubber loss differ from those with higher loss, in that:
1. When cleaning the field latex-receiving pond, they collect the field latex left on the pond
bed and the first stage of rinse water, remove sludge before combining it with skim latex
for further coagulation.
2. Rinse water from the first stages of cleaning the centrifuges containing high rubber
content is centrifuged separately to extract rubber content. It is not mixed with skim
latex in the skim coagulation pond because skim latex is much more diluted.
3. There are two separate ponds for rubber traps using the Equalization Tank concept as
follows:
3.1 Effluent receiving pond from concentrated

latex production, where most of the effluent is from
cleaning the centrifuges and is high in rubber content.
Effluent is produced and discharged almost all the
time.
3.2 Effluent receiving pond from skim rubber

production, where most of the effluent is from the
serum from coagulation, which is high in acidity.
Effluent is discharged only periodically, depending on
the production rate of each factory.
Figure 3.1.1 Equalization Tank
Then effluent from these two sections is combined, so
rubber extraction is carried out more efficiently and the use of chemicals to adjust pH in
the wastewater treatment is reduced, leading to cost savings. Rubber is removed from
the rubber traps once a day, to avoid a pile up and bad odor, leading to a better selling
price.
4. When cleaning the concentrated latex tank, remnants in the tank are collected and mixed
with latex obtained from the centrifuge, and then put into the concentrated latex tank
again. (If the tank is cleaned by blowing dry the concentrated latex left on the tank bed
and peeling off the dry rubber and then selling it to produce block rubber, the product
will not be of good quality. This is due to the TMTD/ZnO content present in the
concentrated latex, which exists in the vulcanizing agent system. Furthermore, ammonia
causes poor properties in block rubber produced by this type of dry rubber.)

Related Criterion: Ammonia consumption
Factories with low ammonia use differ from those with high consumption, in that:
1. Ammonia added to field latex does not exceed 0.4% (together with TMTD/ZnO
0.025%). Adding too much ammonia to field latex, besides being a waste, would cause a
great deal of ammonia to be dissolved and discharged into the skim latex after
centrifugation, requiring more sulfuric acid to remove it before coagulating into skim
rubber.
2. Preparation and storage of ammonia are done under proper control. Ammonia bought by
factories is usually in a gas form. Mixing it with water causes water temperature to
rise, and with high temperature, ammonia evaporates more easily. So, preparation is
done at low temperature, to prevent unnecessary loss.
Liquid ammonia
under pressure
2. Add ammonia gas

1. Add water until until desired level.
desired level.
2.
1.
Ammonia Tank
Chiller
Figure 3.1.2 Ammonia preparation, controlled by chiller

Related Criterion: Water Consumption
Factories with lower water consumption differ from those with higher consumption, in that:
1. There are meters installed for gauging water consumption in different areas.
2. They supervise and ensure that workers turn off taps after use; incentives could be used
to achieve set targets.
3. Leaky pipes, joints, valves and taps are repaired or replaced.
4. Pressurized water guns or nozzles are used for cleaning machines, equipment and floors.
5. Automatic closing devices are used on taps and hoses.
6. The rubber-content cleaning pond is built with depth only 2 – 3 times greater than the
thickness of the skim coagulum, because only water at the surface of the pond is used, as
rubber floats to the surface. To build ponds too deep would only be wasting water and
construction costs.
Related Criterion: Diammonium Hydrogen Phosphate (DAP) Consumption
Factories with lower DAP consumption differ from those with higher consumption, in that:
1. They allow for longer duration of sedimentation, about 24 hours. But if left too long,
problems with VFA No. will arise. Some factories leave it for eight hours, which is too
short. Short duration, whether due to rushed production or not, requires more DAP to
hasten sedimentation. Furthermore, it causes remnants of magnesium phosphate to
collect and clog up the spaces between the plates in centrifuges, which means the
centrifuges have to be dismantled for cleaning more often.
2. They stir and mix DAP into field latex as best as possible.
Related Criterion: Electricity Consumption
Factories with lower electricity consumption differ from those with higher consumption, in
that:
1. Motor start-ups are synchronized, to avoid peak loads (demand charge).
2. Inverters are installed on centrifuges of the clutch and gear type. As mentioned, starting
up centrifuges of this type causes high energy loss, due to friction on the clutch surface.
To solve this an inverter is introduced to the system and the clutch is removed. This
inverter gradually distributes electrical currents to the machine, gradually turning the
machine until desired rotation is reached, without losing energy due to friction. This
method helps save electricity.

Related Criteria: Sulfuric Acid Consumption
Factories with lower consumption of sulfuric acid differ from those with higher
consumption, in that:
1. They add enough acid to achieve coagulation at 4.5 pH, which is the optimal condition
for coagulation. It is the right amount of acid to use for the rubber content present in the
skim latex, and yields the highest amount of rubber content.
2. Sulfuric acid and skim latex in the coagulation pond are stirred and mixed thoroughly.
3. Ammonia is removed from skim latex before the latex enters the coagulation pond, by
the following methods:
3.1 Long troughs are constructed so ammonia can evaporate before the latex enters the
skim coagulation pond. A 1,000-meter long trough can reduce ammonia by about
50%.
3.2 De-ammonization tower is installed.
Figure 3.1.3 De-ammonization tower
Note: How the de-ammonization tower works is: skim latex, which is high in ammonia
content, is sent from a centrifuge and let fall into the tower by power of gravity. Within the
tower screens are placed for the skim latex to pass through, increasing the chance for it to be
exposed to air and so ammmonia can evaporate. Skim latex is then pumped up and sent for
coagulation further on.

3.2 CT Options for Block Rubber (STR 20) Industry
Related Criterion: Water Consumption
Factories with low water consumption differ from those with high consumption in that:
1. There are meters installed for gauging water consumption in different areas.
2. They supervise and ensure that workers turn off taps after use; incentives could be used
to achieve set targets.
3. There is proper maintenance (regular checks, repairs and replacements) of water pipe
systems e.g., joints, valves and water pipes.
4. Pressurized water guns or nozzles are used for cleaning machines, equipment and floors.
5. Automatic closing devices are used on taps and hoses.
6. Water level and flow rates of siphons are properly monitored to prevent excess use of
water.
7. Used high quality water from the production process is reused where high quality is not
critical e.g., last rinse water in the pre-cleaning line, which is not very dirty, is recovered
and reused in the first part of the process.
8. Treated or untreated water that would be reused first goes through a preliminary
sedimentation process so that its quality is improved and better efficiency achieved.
9. Treated water from the wastewater treatment system is reused and not discharged into
natural water sources, thereby causing environmental loads.
Related Criterion: Electricity Consumption
Factories with low electricity consumption differ from those with high consumption in that:
1. Motor start-ups are synchronized, to avoid peak loads (demand charge).

2. Motor sizes are reduced to suit the amount of raw materials.
3. Motors are replaced with high efficiency types, consuming less electricity.
4. Production ceases during electrical peak hours, which are normally in the evening,
depending on the location of the factory and the distribution system of electrical power
in the area.
Related Criterion: Fuel Consumption
Factories with low fuel (diesel) consumption differ from those with high consumption in
that:
1. There is careful planning for production so as to avoid fuel ignition when there is no
rubber in the drying tunnel.
2. Capacity of the dryer for block rubber is appropriately designed to accommodate the
cleaning processes (production line or wet line), to avoid excessive loads on the dryer or
running it overtime.
3. Retention time of rubber in the drying tunnel is increased, so as to reduce the need to
adjust the temperature so often.
4. There is regular monitoring of fuel combustion in the chamber, to ensure optimal
combustion efficiency.

5. Humidity in rubber going in and out of the dryer is regularly checked, to monitor the
drying system and run it with efficient energy consumption.
6. Rubber of different species, varying age and percentage of rubber content is properly
separated and dried at different times, as each requires different amount of drying time.
To dry rubber with great differences in age and rubber content would require a great
deal of time and energy for it to dry completely and thoroughly.
7. A portion of hot air from the end of the drying tunnel, having first gone through a wet
scrubber (an odor-trapping device), is reused at the front end, to help adjust humidity in
the rubber content entering the drying tunnel.

Appendices
A. Overview of Raw Rubber Industry in Thailand
Rubber is the raw material in many products today. It can be divided into two main types,
i.e.: natural and synthetic rubber. Here we are looking only at natural rubber. Natural
rubber industry involves processing fresh latex or scraps obtained by cutting the rubber tree,
into a raw material ready for use in making rubber products further on.
Raw materials in the natural rubber industry consist of fresh (field) latex, obtained by
cutting rubber trees, and scraps, which include cup lump, tree lace, bark scraps, earth scraps
and smoked sheet cuttings, etc.
Para rubber tree
Fresh latex Scraps e.g., cup lump, tree lace, earth scrap, etc.
Conc. latex Skim rubber e.g., skim STR 10, 20

crepe, skim block
PV Dark crepe
USS Others
ADS
RSS
White/pale crepe
PV = Pre-vulcanized Latex
USS = Unsmoked Sheet
STR: XL, 5L, 5,
ADS = Air Dried Sheet
5CV, 10CV, 20CV RSS = Ribbed Smoked Sheet
STR = Standard Thai Rubber
Figure A1 Natural Rubber Products obtained from Para Rubber Tree
Field latex can be processed by two main methods, i.e.:
Rubber Industry A-1 Department of Industrial Works

1) Turning it into a liquid material, by making it become more concentrated, thus

concentrated latex is obtained. If chemicals are added (vulcanizing system),
prevulcanized latex is obtained. Production process for conc. latex generates by-
products in the form of skim rubber, such as skim crepe or skim block.
2) Turning it into dry rubber by coagulation using acid. Products obtained are: Smoked
Rubber Sheets or Air Dried Sheets, White Crepe, Block Rubber (STR – Standard Thai
Rubber) in various grades i.e., STR XL, STR 5L, STR 5, STR 5CV, STR 10CV, etc.
Scraps are a key raw material for producing STR 10 and STR 20, or crepes such as dark
crepe, however, dark crepe is not produced much as it is not in demand by customers.
Rubber is generally sold by the planters in the form of fresh latex, raw rubber sheets and/or
scraps, to raw rubber manufacturers, which are divided into three types, i.e.:
1) Conc. latex manufacturers will buy fresh latex.
2) Block rubber industries of different types. Producers of high-grade block rubber i.e.,
STR XL, STR 5L, STR 5, STR 5CV, STR10CV will buy fresh latex. Those producing
STR 10 will buy wet crepe. Finally, those producing STR 20 will buy scraps, unsmoked
sheets and coagula.
3) Manufacturers of Air Dried Sheets/Smoked Rubber Sheets will buy un-smoked

sheets, which would be dried in hot dryers or smoke-dried.
In 1999, a total of 2,154,560 ton of natural rubber was produced, made into conc. latex,
block rubber and smoked rubber sheets at 13.93%, 28.93% and 53.54%, respectively. These
are exported, accounting for 10.06%, 25.10% and 49.72%, respectively (taken from Thai
Rubber Statistics, 29th Year (2000), Volume 1-2, Rubber Research Center, Department of
Agriculture).
After the natural rubber is made into conc. latex or block rubber or smoked rubber sheets, it
is sold to various industries, to be used as raw materials, as follows:

Table A1 Applications of natural rubber

Type of natural Characteristics Applications
rubber
Conc. latex It is a liquid; chemicals may be Dip-mold type products e.g.
added to achieve increased gloves, balloons, condoms, infant
viscosity and strength, without pacifiers.
having to add reinforcing filter. Sponge products e.g., mattresses,
cushions, sponge dolls, etc.
Mold type products e.g., rubber
dolls, educational models, etc.
Latex thread, rubber tubes, latex
glue, etc.
PV latex (pre- It is a liquid, with vulcanizing Various dip-mold type products
vulcanized) agent its main component. It can e.g., gloves, balloons, etc.
be cast instantly; it helps Various mold type products e.g.,
strengthen products, by adding molder for plaster.
preservatives during the casting Fiber additive products, etc.
process.
STR XL, STR 5L, It is a clean rubber, pale in color, Medical and pharmaceutical
ADS, RSS 1, pale especially the STR XL and STR products, food contact, painted
crepe 5L. products, cut threads, latex glue,
RSS is quite hard with high shoe lining and parts, etc.
Mooney Viscosity, and not
suitable for making painted
products.
STR 20, RSS 2, It is a dark rubber, generally used Auto tires, external tubes, spare
3, 4, 5 in products mixed with additives tires, rubber used in engineering and
e.g., black soot, especially ribbed factories in general, etc.
smoked sheets RSS 4 and 5. They
are of lower quality, used in low
quality products.
Skim rubber It is skim rubber in block form or It is used to mix with high quality
crepe; comes in different colors rubber, to reduce cost. As it is pale
depending on the production in color (good quality skim rubber)
process. If produced from fresh it is used to produce pale colored
skim latex, pale crepe will be products or rubber that will be
achieved; if produced from older painted. Generally used to make
skim latex, the product obtained low quality products e.g., floor-
will be dark-colored. Since there covering rubber, trolleys’ tires,
is a high non-rubber content, it can shock absorber, etc.
be cast quickly.
STR 5CV, 10CV, It is a rubber with constant Applications are like those of block
20CV viscosity (CV), which may vary rubber and ribbed smoked sheets,
according to specifications of the but better because it is easier to
CV rubber standards. So, it is control the mixing with chemicals
better than others in general where and saves energy and time.
viscosity will change according to
storage time.

PV = Pre-vulcanized latex
ADS = Air dried sheets
RSS = Ribbed smoked sheets
STR = Standard Thai Rubber

B. Concentrated Latex Production Process
Concentrated latex consists of at least 60% dry rubber content (DRC), whereas field latex
contains about 25-45% DRC, the rest being water mostly. So, the latter is not so convenient
to transport for further processing into other products. Furthermore, if field latex is used to
mold into products, they will not be of good quality. Generally, rubber manufacturers
require latex with no less than 60% rubber content. Concentrated latex production process
is shown in Chart B1.
Raw material used to make concentrated latex is field (fresh) latex. Rubber cutters will work
since dawn. After obtaining field latex, the planters will preserve it to prevent it from
coagulation, by using ammonia and TMTD/ZnO (tetramethyl thiuram disulphide/zinc
oxide), after which it is transferred into tanks or tankers, transported and sold to the
concentrated latex factory.
At the concentrated latex factory, the planters will pour the field latex from the tanks or
tankers, passing through filters into a receiving tank. The factory will take a sample of this
field latex to find the dry rubber content (DRC) and ammonia content, to calculate money
due the planters. Then, so that it is suitable for centrifugation, ammonia is added so that
latex in the receiving pond will have ammonia content of over 0.4% by weight. If the test
finds that the latex has high magnesium content, which will effect the mechanical stability
time (MST), diammonium hydrogen phosphate (DAP) will be added. This will cause
magnesium to settle into powder deposits (sludge) by leaving it overnight. Field latex sent
to be centrifuged should have magnesium less than 50 ppm on total solid, and no more than
20 ppm on total solid after centrifugation. Then the sample of field latex is tested for
volatile fatty acid (VFA). If it is less than 0.05, it can be centrifuged, but not if it is over
0.05. The field latex receiving pond is cleaned everyday.
There are four ways of producing concentrated latex i.e., centrifugation, evaporation,
creaming and electrodecantation. However, centrifugation is the most popular method.
Rubber Industry B-1 Department of Industrial Works

1.Preserved field latex from rubber plants
2.W ater added to adjust concentration
3.N H 3, TM TD /ZnO added to preserve condition
4. D A P added for M g to settle at bottom
C lean w ater for W astewater from tank
cleaning tank Field Latex Tank rinsing

Sludge
Field latex
C lean w ater for W astewater from
cleaning centrifuges
cleaning C entrifuges
Sludge
centrifuges B owl rubber
C oncentrated
Skim latex
latex
C oagulation
A cid Serum
pond
Skim coagulum
Skim rubber
production w ith
various
alternatives, W aste
W ater
depending on w ater
factories
(shown on next
page)
Skim block or skim

crepe or coagulum ,
depending on
1) N H 3, T M T D /ZnO
m anufaturer
2) A m m onium Laurate
3) C lean water added to
adjust concentration Skim rubber W aste-
storage area water
C onc. latex tank R ubber trap
W astewater
R ubber scrap
W astew ater treatm ent

R ubber scrap pond
plant
Figure B1 Latex production process

The way centrifugation works is: since natural

latex is a solution grouped in the colloidal system,
consisting of rubber particles, suspended and
dispersed in the serum (these rubber particles move
about in a “brownian” manner) and since they are
lighter than the serum, the rubber particles will
tend to float to the latex surface. Rate of
movement of rubber particles depends on the
earth’s gravity. If the gravitational force can be
increased, the speed of the rubber particles’
movement will increase also. Therefore,
centrifugation, which can increase gravitational
Figure B2 A centrifuge force to 2,000 – 3,000 times the earth’s gravity,
will help speed up the movement of the rubber
particles. With this principle, a centrifuge was designed and created for producing
concentrated latex, or in essence, for separating the rubber content from the serum.
Normally, concentrated latex obtained from a centrifuge has about 60% DRC concentration.
Centrifuges surveyed could extract about 300-500 liter/hour of field latex. A centrifuge is
shown in figure B4. Generally, a centrifuge can run continuously for no more than three
hours at a time, as breaks are needed for cleaning off powder deposits and bowl rubber stuck
in the equipment.
Centrifuging field latex will produce concentrated

latex and skim latex. Concentrated latex produced
will be preserved according to customer’s demand.
For instance, to produce high ammonia
concentrated latex (HA), preservatives will be
added to achieve 0.7% ammonia content by weight
in the latex. To produce low ammonia
concentrated latex (LA), preservatives will be
added to achieve 0.2% ammonia content by weight
in the latex, and TMTD/ZnO is added as a
supplementary preservative. In some cases,
concentrated latex obtained is too concentrated, so
water is added to dilute it for storage. Storage
Figure B3 Conc. latex and skim latex tanks must be cleaned constantly, because if left in
after centrifugation the tank for a long period the concentrated latex
will coagulate. The factories surveyed cleaned the tanks by blowing dry any latex left in the
tank, and then pealing it off. However, other factories may have wastewater from cleaning
the tanks.
As for skim latex, there is still some rubber content left remaining, which would be a shame
to discard. Rubber content in the skim latex is no more than 8%, depending on the
efficiency and setting of the centrifuge. This skim latex will be processed into skim block
or skim crepe further on.

2
.….
………………………
………………………
……………………..
….
…..
…..
…… .
………
……….
5 ……….
……….
.……….
4 ………..
… ………..
…… …………
………. …………
.……… …. ....
………. …
………. …. …..
……… …… …….
………. ……… ……………….
7
6
……… ………... ………………….
…….. …… 3 ….. ………..
Figure B4 Cross section, lengthwise, of a centrifuge for concentrated latex
1. Feed
2. Feed cup with float
3. Distribution tubes
4. Outlet for skim latex
5. Outlet for concentrated latex
6. Mechanical brake
7. Magnetic brake

Ref.58.40T
DATE. 3Nov.2000
S kim latex Init.Sun
A cid C oagulation S erum

pond
S kim coagulum
C rusher
(to cut coagulum )
C rusher C ollect skim

(to cut coagulum ) co agulum fro m
C lean w ater p ond o r trough, W aste- po nd, for
W ater for ho lding rub ber and w ater w eighing and
cleaning o ff acid sales
C lean w ater p ond o r W aste-
W ater
tro ugh, fo r ho ld ing rubber w ater
and cleaning o ff acid
M acerator W aste-
W ater
T o p ress into textured sheet w ater
W aste-
W ater M acerator
w ater
T o p ress into textured sheet
C reper W aste-
W ater O nce, to press into thinner, w ater
textured sheet
C reper W aste-
W ater O nce, to press into thinner, w ater
textured sheet
C reper-H am m erm ill, or
G ranulator, or
H am m er m ill, or W aste-
D ryer W ater P elletizer, or w ater
S hredder,
to b reak rub ber into sm all pellets
P akaging
D ryer
B aling press
P ackaging
C oagulum
S kim crepe S kim block storage
area
S kim crep e storage area S kim b lock sto rage area W astew ater
T o rubb er trap T o rubb er trap T o rubb er trap
Chart B5 Skim latex production process

Production of skim rubber from skim latex is shown in Chart B5. To produce skim rubber,
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is added to the skim latex coming out of the centrifuge, for it to
coagulate. In factories with good management, the skim latex is de-ammonized so that not
so much sulfuric acid would be required. De-ammonization can be done by letting the skim
latex flow through a trough under good ventilation. After de-ammonizaiton, skim latex
should only have 0.2% ammonia per latex weight left remaining. Then this skim latex flows
into the coagulation tank and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is added. If rubber content in the skim
latex is very low, problems could arise in coagulation. This could be remedied by mixing in
field latex (possibly, field latex taken from the bottom of the holding tank or field latex with
quality too low for centrifugation). After skim coagulum is obtained, further processes
would depend on the factory. Following are three samples:
1. Producing skim crepe: Coagulum is sent through a cutting machine, which cuts the
rubber into blocks. Then most factories will rinse off acid from these blocks by passing
them through ponds or water troughs. Rubber blocks are pressed into sheets, dried in a
dryer and packaged. And so skim crepe is obtained.
2. Producing skim blocks: Coagulum is sent through a cutting machine to get rubber
blocks. Then most factories will rinse off acid from these blocks by passing them
through ponds or water troughs. Rubber blocks are pressed into sheets, passed through
a granulator, into a dryer. After the dryer, the rubber is pressed into blocks and
packaged; and skim block is obtained.
3. Some concentrated latex producers do not produce skim block or skim crepe by
themselves, but simply sell the coagulum. They will collect the coagulum from the
pond and pile them on the ground, to be weighed and sold later on.
Environmental problems arising from concentrated latex industry
1) Air and odor Concentrated latex manufacturers will usually have problems with odor
from ammonia, as it evaporates easily. Factories try to remedy by providing for good
ventilation in the factory building, so odor can be blown out from the building area.
Besides odor, concentrated latex factories producing skim block or skim crepe have
dryers which use diesel as fuel, emitting flue gas. This can affect communities;
however, most factories are located far away from communities, so there are no
problems.
2) Wastewater Wastewater from a concentrated latex factory originates from many

production processes e.g., cleaning of fresh latex receiving ponds, of centrifuges, etc.
Wastewater from the factory is trapped in a rubber trap, to let rubber float to the top.
This is collected to be sold, but only fetches a very low price. Then, wastewater is sent
to the treatment plant. Inefficiently run treatment plants will have putrid odor, causing
constant nuisance to the local communities.

C. Block Rubber (STR 20) Production Process
Block rubber is produced mainly from dry rubber or field latex. Producing STR 10 or 20
from dry rubber depends on the quality of the dry rubber and the proportions of dry rubber
and raw rubber sheets fed into the production process. Samples of dry rubber used are:
various scraps such as cup lump, tree lace, bark scrap, earth scrap, rubber cuttings (pieces of
rubber trimmed off smoked rubber sheets) and ribbed smoked sheets that have been kept a
long time. Sometimes raw rubber sheets are also mixed in to produce block rubber, to
achieve rubber with quality according to Standard Thai Rubber specifications.
Normally, factories will try to maintain a production rate spread out evenly throughout the
year, in order to maintain a constant production cost. Dry rubber in various forms from high
seasons will be stored for use during the low seasons. The storage buildings/areas and
storage methods, as well as how to retrieve it for production, are issues for Cleaner
Technology, as they are causes of odor and quality degeneration of the raw materials.
Quality of the raw material is a very

important factor for the Block Rubber
Industry. Unwanted materials in the
production line - e.g., vulcanized rubber,
pebbles, metals scraps such as nails or
knots, and plastic scraps - can have an
effect on the end-product. Therefore, to
ensure the quality of the raw materials
before entering the production process,
they must be checked and dirt must be
removed by hand or a separator, in the
separation area or the production
conveyor belt, before being sent on
through the pre-cleaning line. (See
Figure C1 Raw materials are laid out on grounds Figure C1.)
to separate dirt and contamination
Key production processes for producing Block Rubber generally are divided into three main
parts i.e., the pre-cleaning line, the process of mixing rubber scraps with rubber of better
quality and shredding (the STR line), and the drying process.
Pre-cleaning rubber scraps
Before entering the production line, cup lump and rubber scraps are laid out on an open area
and dirt and contamination are removed. This is done manually, so that a problem can be
detected and dealt with appropriately. After this preliminary cleaning step, rubber will be
stored. During this stage, water is sprinkled to soften the rubber, so that it is easy to cut into
pieces for cleaning.
In the pre-cleaning line, dry rubber is fed into the Hopper, then transported on a conveyor so
dirt can be removed for a second time, before it is cut up by the Pre-Breaker. Rubber that
has been cut up is cleaned by first soaking in the circulating tank, before it is pressed and
cleaned and sent to be cut up by the pre-breaker a second time. After this, the rubber goes
Rubber Industry C-1 Department of Industrial Works

through a vibrating screen to separate water from the rubber content and passes through the
circulating tank again. Dry rubber that has gone through the circulating tank a second time
is sent through a crepping machine. Then it is piled together waiting to enter the next stage,
to be mixed with rubber of better quality and shredded later on.
Process of mixing rubber scraps with rubber of better quality and shredding
Having passed through the pre-cleaning line, the rubber obtained is usually in crepe sheets.
These then enter the STR line, where rubber sheets and crepe are mixed in different
proportions depending on the quality standard desired. The mixed rubber goes through a
creper and possibly through the pre-breaker again and then into the circulating tank, so that
the content becomes homogenous. It then goes through a size reduction machine such as a
shredder, pelletiser, etc. Rubber obtained is in small pieces (crumb rubber), suitable and
clean enough for drying. Water is removed again from the shredded rubber before the
rubber is put in trays passing through dryers further on.
Machines used in producing STR 20
• Creper The machine is made up of two steel

rollers, turning in opposite directions. The surface of the
roller is grooved, so rubber pieces can better cling onto and
pressure is generated. When running the machine, rubber is
pressed and spreads to cover the face of the roller. The
rubber is pressed into sheets having the same thickness
throughout. There is a water pipe running along the length
of the roller, positioned above the rollers. While creping the
rubber, water is sprayed from this pipe onto the rubber, for
the purpose of cleaning and to prevent zero friction.
Figure C2 Creper
• Shredder This functions similarly to the creper, the

difference being a higher friction, as there are more features
on a shredder, e.g., rollers for cutting rubber, which cuts up
rubber that has passed through the creper. This method
shreds the rubber into small pieces and dries it, as this
shredding process creates heat due to high motor rotations.
A shredder is generally used to shred rubber pieces that
have hardened, crushing and breaking the rubber content, so
it is easier to clean or to process into other products.
Figure C3 Shredder

• Slab Cutter The main feature of this machine are the

prongs, shaped like hooks, used to slash and cut up rubber
into small and even-sized pieces, before it goes through
further cleaning processes. Rubber that has been through a
slab cutter will be easier to clean. STR 20 factories prefer
placing the slab cutter as the first machine for rubber to
pass through before further cleaning processes, as it does
not effect the rubber content by shearing nor does it
remove any dirt.
Figure C4 Slab cutter
Figure C5 Slab cutter
• Pre-Breaker This machine works like a meat grinder. It

works by creating a shear force on the rubber content, and
so dirt is removed. It helps to break and soften up the
rubber content, so water can flow through more easily in
the pre-cleaning line. Rubber that has passed through a
pre-breaker will be soft and in strips, caused by the blades
which are the main feature of the machine. Water is used
during the process to transfer heat.
Figure C6 Pre-breaker
• Rotary Cutter Components include a rotor with 3-5
blades. Rubber is fed into the space between blades that
are stationary and those rotating on an axle of the rotor.
The blades will cut rubber into small pieces. Pieces that
are small enough will pass through a screen placed under
the cutter. Those that are too big are spun and cut up
again, until all rubber fed into the cutter is cut up into
pieces small enough to pass through the screen and leave
the cutter. Figure C7 Rotary cutter

Drying rubber
Rubber in small pieces is sent through a dryer, to be dried and
dehumidified, by hot air blowing. The two main types of dryer
popularly used in the industry are those using diesel burners
(preferred by most factories) and those using hot oil burners.
Most dryers can be broken down into four sections, as follows:
Figure C8 Dryer
• Section 1: This adjusts the temperature of the rubber content, so humidity spreads to the
surface of the rubber content. This is important in preventing the rubber from burning.
• Section 2: This is the area where the temperature is highest, so rubber is heated and
dried thoroughly, both its surface and the inner content.
• Section 3: The temperature is reduced in this area. Rubber is left to dry in this section
to ensure that heat is dispersed evenly through the rubber content, but without burning it.
Heat is this section is taken from Section 2.
• Section 4: This area removes odor and humidity from the rubber. This is the last step in
the process before the rubber is packaged.
The design principles for dryers of block rubber are generally the same, differing only in
minor details, i.e.:
• The volume (weight) or thickness of rubber in the trays of the dryer

• Heat circulating in each section
• The design of dryer ventilation – heat transfer or cooling system
• How rubber is fed into the dryer
• Type and number of heat units and the circulation fans
Packaging
Dried rubber is pressed into
blocks by a hydraulic
presser, with 30-70 ton
pressure, for 1-4 minutes.
This is so that rubber is
easier to transport and helps
save space when packing.
Generally rubber is pressed
into blocks of 675 x 330 x
Figure C 9 Packaging 190 mm. in size.
These blocks are wrapped in plastic, of which polyethylene is the most popular. This plastic
is tough and strong and does not tear easily. And it does not effect the quality of the rubber.
Rubber packages are marked for types and grades according to quality tests conducted.
They are then put into crates. Before being wrapped, temperature of the block rubber must
be adjusted to below 60oC, before distribution.

Input Production unit Output

Pre-cleaning line
Various types of dry rubber Sludge
Rainwater Rubber receiving area W astewater
Different types of dry

rubber
Pile of dry rubber softened

W ater W astewater
with sprinkled water
W ater Soaking/cleaning tank W astewater

Energy Rubber cutting machine Lost energy
W ater Soaking/cleaning tank W astewater

Energy Shredder, creper Lost energy
Crepe
Mixing and
Rubber granulator
shredding W astewater
W ater Mixing tank for crepe obtained from dry rubber and
Energy Lost energy
cleaner raw rubber sheets
Rubber pellets
W ater Creper W astewater

Energy Shredder Lost energy
Crepe
W ater Creper W astewater

Energy Shredder Lost energy
Rubber pellets
Drying
Lost energy
Energy Dryer Pollutants
Block rubber
Packaging Rubber trap
W astewater treatment system
Figure C 11 Block Rubber production process, using dry rubber

D. Cost Calculation of Economic Benefits due to Reduced Loss of Rubber Content
Given
Price of fresh latex 19.50 baht/kg. DRC
Price of concentrated latex (60% DRC) 22.05 baht/kg.
Or equivalent to 36.75 baht/kg.DRC
Price of skim rubber 15.00 baht/kg.DRC
Price of rubber from rubber trap and wastewater 1.00 baht/kg.
treatment pond
Assumption Loss of rubber content accounted for can be recovered from the rubber trap
and wastewater treatment pond.
Data from Factory No. 13
Before adjustment
Raw material – field latex 100.0 kg.DRC
Can produce:
Concentrated latex 85.7 kg.DRC
Skim rubber 5.4 kg.DRC
Lost rubber content 8.9 kg.DRC
100.0 kg. DRC
Income:
From concentrated latex: 85.7 x 36.75 = 3,149.48 baht
From skim rubber: 5.4 x 15.00 = 81.00 baht
From rubber trap and wastewater pond:
8.9 x 1.00 = 8.90 baht
Total income = 3,239.38 baht
If production is improved and loss of rubber content is reduced from 8.9% to the criterion
set i.e., 5.%
Raw material – field latex 100.0 kg.DRC
Can produce:
Concentrated latex (same as previous) 85.7 kg.DRC
Skim rubber 9.3 kg.DRC
Lost rubber content 5.0 kg.DRC
100.0 kg.DRC
Rubber Industry D-1 Department of Industrial Works

Income:
From concentrated latex: 85.7 x 36.75 = 3,149.48 baht
From skim rubber: 9.3 x 15.00 = 139.50 baht
From rubber trap and wastewater pond:
5.0 x 1.00 = 5.00 baht
Total income = 3,293.38 baht
After adjustment:
Savings will be = 3,293.98 – 3,239.38 = 54.60 baht/field latex 100
kg.DRC
This factory processes field latex 6,000 ton DRC/year

Or equivalent to 6,000,000 kg.DRC/year
Therefore, such an adjustment will generate

savings of:
54.60/100 x 6,000,000 = 3,276,000 baht/year
Rubber Industry D-2 Department of Industrial Works

E. Acknowledgement
The Cleaner Technology Unit, Bureau of Industrial Environmental Technology, would like
to convey thanks to the Director General, Department of Industrial Works, the Industrial
Sector Committee for Rubber, DANCED, and rubber industries, both Latex and STR 20,
from the eastern and southern regions. The group is grateful for the support received, both
technical and financial, in preparing this Industrial Sector Code of Practice for Pollution
Prevention (Cleaner Technology). Gratitude is hereby extended to the following
individuals:
1. Ms. Kanya Sinsakul Chairperson of Industrial Sector

Director General, Department of Industrial Committee for Rubber
Works
2. Mr. Somchat Satitsuksanau Vice Chairperson
Director, Factory Control and Inspection
Bureau 4
3. Mr. Pitoon Phonpanichrassamee Member
Representative, Department of Industrial
Promotion
4. Mr. Pongsak Thanamongkolrit Member
Representative, Federation of Thai Industries
5. Ms. Penprapa Kumpom Member
Representative, Pollution Control Department
6. Mr. Somkiat Sutiratana
Representative, Department of Energy
Development and Promotion
7. Ms. Cattleya Silaratana Member
Representative, Office of Environmental Policy
and Planning
8. Mr. Anunt Sahasakul Member
Representative, Environmental Engineers
Association of Thailand
9. Ms. Preprame Tassanakul Member
Representative, Songkhla Rubber Research Sub-
Center
10. Mr. Koson Jringsoongnern Member
Representative, Rubber Research Institute
11. Ms. Jiraporn Roungwarunwattana Member
Representative, Thai Latex Producers and
Exporters Association
12. Mr. Maitri Suvannutsiri Member
Representative, Thai Rubber Association
13. Mr. Somboon Saechang Member
Representative, Chalong Latex Industry Co.,
Ltd.
14. Ms. Suporn Siripooncharb Member
Representative, Rung Chaweng Latex Co., Ltd.
15. Mr. Kacha Kwanmongkolsilp Member
Representative, Southland Latex Co., Ltd.
Rubber Industry E-1 Department of Industrial Works

16. Mr. Chongsak Katithong-ake Member

Representative, Teck Bee Hang Co., Ltd.
17. Mr. Chalerm Kokanutaporn Member
Representative, Thai Eastern Rubber Co., Ltd.
18. Mr. Preedee Leelasetavong Member
Representative, Tong Thai Technical Rubber
Co., Ltd.
19. Asst. Prof. Dr. Veerasak Thonglimp Member
Representative, Prince of Songkhla University
20. Mr. Somkid Wongchaisuwan Member and Secretary
Bureau of Industrial Environmental
Technology
21. Mr. Pornchai Pongsaengkum Member and Assistant Secretary
Factory Control and Inspection Bureau 4
22. Mr. Prasit Luangrungrong Assistant Secretary
Factory Control and Inspection Bureau 4
23. Mr. Mongkol Preukwatana Assistant Secretary
Technology
24. Ms. Prapairat Lawanwattanakul Assistant Secretary
Technology
25. Mr. Soren Vildrik Chief Technical Advisor
CT Capacity Building in DIW
Project
26. Ms. Varaporn Kajornchaiyakul Project Advisor
27. Ms. Srunya Kongkeo Project Engineer
28. Mr. Yongyut Chairattanawan Project Engineer
Rubber Industry E-2 Department of Industrial Works

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Industrial Sector of Practice for Pollution Prevention (Cleaner Technology)

INDUSTRIAL SECTOR CODE OF PRACTICE

Rubber Industry Department of Industrial Works

Industrial Sector Code of Practice for Pollution Prevention

This CT Code of Practice can be used as a guideline by government officials in their

The CT Code of Practice consists of two main features, i.e.:

1. CT Criteria, which are standards used to indicate whether CT is being practiced by a

Principles in selecting an industrial sector

Factors considered in establishing the Code of Practice

Rubber Industry Department of Industrial Works

2. Cleaner Technology (CT) Criteria for Rubber Industry

2.1 CT Criteria for Latex Industry

3. CT Options for Rubber Industry

3.1 CT Options for Latex Industry

A. Overview of Raw Rubber Industry in Thailand

Rubber Industry Department of Industrial Works

Pollution Prevention or Cleaner Technology is a possible mean for industries to adopt in

In its scope, the CT Code of Practice for Rubber covers:

1.3.1 CT Code of Practice

“CT Code of Practice comprises measures to be implemented by a specific industrial sector,

1.3.2 Industrial Sector Committee

Rubber Industry 1-1 Department of Industrial Works

2 CT Criteria for Rubber Industry

CT Criterion 1: Loss of Rubber Content

Areas of loss of rubber content

4. Skim rubber production: if coagulation is inefficient, serum discharged from the

Rubber Industry 2-1 Department of Industrial Works

Output Concent 79.1 – 88.9 All factories have this data.

Rubber Industry 2-2 Department of Industrial Works

Criterion I Loss of Rubber Content

(baht/ton field latex)

Reasons for using the median value:

3. It is a value that reduces the margin of error.

Savings of 3,276,000 baht/year

Rubber Industry 2-3 Department of Industrial Works

Ammonia solution of 15-20% concentration by weight is prepared for field-latex suppliers,

Rubber Industry 2-4 Department of Industrial Works

Min 7.9 143 10 4 22 16

Max 18.8 338

Savings of 954,000 baht/year

Savings of 864,000 baht/year

Rubber Industry 2-5 Department of Industrial Works

CT Criterion 3 : Water consumption

Criterion III Water CT criterion 3

Rubber Industry 2-6 Department of Industrial Works

CT Criterion 4: Diammonium Hydrogen Phosphate (DAP)

Criteria IV Diammonium Hydrogen Phosphate (DAP)

3.00 median 2.26 kg/ton latex

Savings of 600,000 baht/year

Rubber Industry 2-7 Department of Industrial Works

CT Criterion 5 : Electricity Consumption

System 1, a system using clutch and gear

From study of 10 factories, electricity consumption (kwh/ton conc. latex) is as shown in

Criteria V Electricity Consumption

16 116.4 256 300

13 150.0 330 150

17 241.9 532 50.0 100

Median 90.0 198

Min 74.2 163 8 7 2 1 3

Max 241.9 532

Rubber Industry 2-8 Department of Industrial Works

Criterion 6 : Sulfuric Acid