COASTAL

ENGINEERING
Coastal Engineering,22 (1994) 57-77

Design and construction of caisson breakwaters-

the Japanese experience
Katsutoshi T a n i m o t o a and Shigeo Takahashi b
~Saitama Universit3'. 255 Shimo-okubo. Urawa, 338 Japan
bPort and Harbour Research Institute, I-1-3, Nagase, Yokosuka. 239 Japan

( Received 15 September 1992; accepted after revision 15 June 1993)

Abstract

The history of breakwater construction in Japan is reviewed and present design methods of vertical
breakwaters are discussed in terms of wave forces and breakwater stability. Current design techniques
of vertical breakwaters in Japan are the culmination of many years of experiences and practical
research in this field. The Goda formula, which accurately predicts the design wave forces under most
conditions of vertical breakwaters, is an excellent aid in the design of the breakwaters. Under certain
conditions, excessive impulsive forces due to the action of breaking waves are exerted on the upright
section. Such conditions must be minimized in the design of vertical breakwaters, and the adoption
of vertical breakwaters covered with wave dissipating concrete blocks or the wave dissipating caisson
breakwaters offer potential solutions of this problem. The bearing capacity of rubble mound foundation
and the stability of armor units are also discussed.

1. Introduction

Since Japan is surrounded by rough seas, breakwaters are of great importance in the
development and expansion of harbour facilities, and so great emphasis is placed on engi-
neering in terms of both design and construction costs. As a result, intensive studies of wave
actions on breakwaters and structural performances have been carried out by various organ-
izations related to harbour engineering.
The most common structural type of breakwaters in Japan is a composite (mixed) type,
which consists of a rubble mound foundation and an upright section, while rubble mound
breakwaters are currently the most common type worldwide. A typical cross-section of the
composite type breakwater is shown in Fig. 1. It may be called a vertical breakwater,
although it is applied not only to standing wave conditions but also to breaking wave

0378-3839/94/$07.00 © 1994ElsevierScienceB.V. All rights reserved

S S D I 0 3 7 8 - 3 8 3 9 ( 9 3 ) E0044-J
58 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi / Coastal Engineering 22 ( I 994) 57-77

S.W.L v / J , ; o. ,-~ ,:~t~ ~7

armour stones ~ _ L _ r ~ _ Z ~ \ ~ L m _ ~ ss°n

\
rubble mound foundation
Fig. 1. Standard cross section of caisson breakwater.

Rumoi i

SEA OF JAPAN /~IF" \

Funakawa ~C~ x'~__c~"°
= D

lSO*6" ~ -L,,---Yagi
/ s~k,,,_...j ~ -
o / .o Sakai ~ c7 f ~-'Karnaishi

° ° g2" L"',,,':'--~'°t),e "-' .Na~ova Y .

~ ~_,,.-~.~j.~ ~. . . . . . . /~---Yokohama

,, . ..~o \ Nagashima
neaono L" Miyazaki

Om "o 1¢°°F
// pAc,F,cOCEAN

Fig. 2. Map of ports referred to in the paper.

conditions. Composite type breakwaters whose upright sections are covered with wave
dissipating concrete blocks are also common in Japan.
In the present paper, the history of breakwater design and construction in Japan is
reviewed (Tanimoto and Goda, 1992) and present design methods of vertical breakwaters
are discussed in terms of wave forces and overall stability. Fig. 2 indicates the location of
ports which are referred to in this paper.

2. Historical development of breakwaters in Japan

2.1. Historical breakwaters

The first modern breakwater in Japan was constructed at Yokohama Port in 1891, and
was designed by H.S. Palmer, a retired British Major-General. A cross-section is shown in
Fig. 3. Palmer introduced the technology of relatively low mound vertical breakwaters as
shown in the figure. In those years, the rubble mound foundation of composite type break-
water became gradually lower and lower in Britain. The Yokohama breakwater, having a
total length of 3630 m, was first completed in 1896. It was redesigned, however, with
concrete blocks for the whole upright section after it was damaged by a storm in 1902.
 K. Tanimoto, S. T~tkahashi I Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77 59

6.71 ,

.2_H.W.L + 2 . 0 4 + 2 . 3 $ - [ ~
_~_L.W.L + 0.00 ~ .~
_:~2.84 /,Concrete in Bags
~ S g _no_Of
i_t Clayey S t o n e s ~ _
l~Grgun_d
........
Rubble(0..5~2.0ton)

Fig. 3. Original cross-section of east breakwater before damage at Yokohama Port (1891-1896).

67 Zl-~/P°ured
~ X363 Concrete-fill
+1
wLW.OS.T +0.61 ' ~ ( '
÷ ±o.oo a ,5 II-":t~ll~ -3.03
7 -5.45 ~-,,.- . . ~ - -5,5

Engineering Fill~
Fig. 4. Cross-section of island breakwater at Otaru Port (1912-1917).

~.8. I Concrete
~..H.W. L + 2.0 ~ *3.b . /¢'2Y +^~
~ . L ._
V L.WL-+O.O --I ~ - - - ' ~

-5.2 _

~ ~ R u b b l e ~ ~ " ~ ~

Clay
Fig. 5. Cross section of outer breakwater at Yokohama Port (1928-1943).

Construction of the first vertical breakwater consisting of concrete blocks, built at Otaru
Port by I. Hiroi, lasted from 1897 to 1907. Hiroi used the breakwaters at Karachi, Madras,
and Colombo as prototypes of the Otaru breakwater. The breakwater with reinforced con-
crete caissons in Japan was introduced at Kobe Port for the first time in 1911, and then
utilized for an island breakwater at Otaru Port in 1912. Since the wave conditions are much
more severe at Otaru than Kobe, the breakwater was quite sturdy, as shown in Fig. 4. The
caissons weighing 883 tons were filled with poured concrete. This breakwater still exists
today as it was constructed. The present design wave conditions are 4.8 meters for the
significant wave height, 8.2 m for the maximum wave height, and 11.5 s for the significant
wave period for very oblique wave incidence.
While concrete was the principal fill material for the early caisson cells, gravel and sand
have gradually replaced concrete. One of the first examples of a sand-filled breakwater is
the outer breakwater at Yokohama Port, which was designed by S. Samejima; its construc-
tion lasted from 1928 to 1943. As shown in Fig. 5, the caissons were very sturdy, with a
60 K. Tanimoto. S. Takahashi I Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77

mixture of sand and cobbles to give the greatest possible density. Filling of caissons with
sand was initially done in areas where the wave conditions were relatively mild, but sand
fill soon became popular in areas of rough seas as well. This was particularly so in the
period shortly after World War II, when cement was scarce because of damage to production
facilities.

2.2. Caisson breakwaters'

Caisson breakwaters soon became the predominant type for use in rough seas. It is said
that the early introduction of reinforced concrete caissons influenced the later development
of vertical breakwaters in Japan. Recently, the Construction Office of Port Onahama, a
major port in northern Japan, celebrated their 1500th caisson fabricated in the construction
yards of the port. The first caisson was built in 1932, 131 caissons were made in a year of
1971 and more than 20 caissons are being constructed every year still now. Those caissons
were used for breakwaters and bulkheads of not only Onahama Port but also nearby ports.
The production level at Onahama Port is typical of the rapid development of Japanese ports
in general, and especially of caisson breakwaters.
The widest caisson breakwater is found at Hedono Port, located on a southwest island.
The caisson is 38 m wide (Fig. 6) based on the following design wave characteristics: 9.7
m significant wave height, 17.5 m maximum wave height, and 13.2 s significant wave
period.
In 1992, the longest caisson was used as a temporary breakwater at Kochi Port: One unit
of the caissons is 100 m long, 19.7 m wide, and 13.5 m high. The caisson was designed to
incorporate steel frames and prestressed concrete walls. The caisson was fabricated in a
ship dock and towed to the site over a distance of 370 km. Fig. 7 shows the long caisson
installed at Kochi Port in 1992. The long caisson is expected to receive a reduced mean
wave force per unit length for obliquely incident waves because of the phase difference
along the extension.
The deepest caisson breakwater in Japan, and probably in the world, is under construction
at a maximum depth of 60 m at Kamaishi Port. Fig. 8 shows a cross-section at the deepest
part. The shape of the lower part of the upright section is trapezoidal to provide a wide
stable bottom slab. This caisson is a wave dissipating type with double horizontal slit walls
at the upper part. Since 1961, when the first perforated caisson was proposed by G.E. Jarlan,
such wave-dissipating caisson breakwaters have been constructed at many ports in Japan.

, 38.0 --

+o.ooF- - -

Fig. 6. Cross-section of the widest caisson breakwater at Hedono Port.

 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi / Coasud Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77 61

Fig. 7. Long caisson in Kochi Port (courtesy of 3rd Port Construction Bureau. MOT).

16D,
~ 0 .~n
~7 I:I.W L + 1.50 l,..~r~.~ "~'~-
T L w,±ooo - -
3oo - e o o ~ ~I~)-IN~-'

-32.0 - z~'--'-~'~-~l ~u ~ -~"["~-

i - - '-,.,,..

~,;. -6o.o ......

Fig. 8. Cross-section of the deepest caisson breakwater at Kamaishi Port.

1 2 . ~ 0 Rubble Stone Fill

V g H.W.L I. 15 0.4!,~"L_~ ~
- .w. :ooo

- ~b.O

Fig. 9. Cross-section of tsunami protection breakwater at Ofunato Port ( 1963-1967 ).

2.3. Tsunami and storm surge protection breakwaters

Breakwaters are also constructed as barriers against tsunamis and storm surges. Storm
surge protection breakwaters, with a total length of 8,250 m, were built at Nagoya Port from
1962 to 1964 after a catastrophe caused by the Isewan Typhoon in 1959. Since sea bottom
in the area is soft ground consisting of very low-strength clayey soil deposits, a sand drain
method was used to stabilize the soil.
Subsequently, a tsunami protection breakwater as shown in Fig. 9 was built at Ofunato
62 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi / Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 5 ~ 7 7

Port from 1963 to 1967 after the damage sustained due to the Chilean Earthquake Tsunami
in 1960. The breakwater is located at the bay mouth, where the maximum water depth is
38 meters. At the central harbour entrance with an opening of 200 m, a submerged dike up
to the level - 16.3 m was built to reduce the opening area as much as possible. The Kamaishi
breakwater is also a tsunami breakwater located near Ofunato Port.

2.4. Caisson breakwater covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks

The emergence of artificial concrete blocks called tetrapods, which was proposed by P.
Danel in 1949, greatly affected the design of breakwater structures in Japan and this type
of blocks was first used at Yagi Port in 1955. Thereafter, a caisson breakwater at Rumoi
Port, which was originally built from 1911 to 1933 and occasionally suffered damage over
the years, was reinforced with artificial concrete blocks (Fig. 10). This type of breakwater
came into widespread use as a breakwater in relatively shallow areas with high breaking
waves. The main function of artificial concrete blocks in front of a vertical wall is to reduce
the impact of waves on the wall, wave overtopping, and wave reflection by dissipating wave
energy, while the artificial blocks for rubble mound breakwaters are used to protect the sub-
layers. Consequently, they are not called armor blocks, but "wave-dissipating concrete
blocks" in Japan.

2.5. New caisson breakwater design

Various new caisson structures which are suited to varying water depths and wave
conditions have been developed in Japan, i.e. a curved slit caisson, a multi-cellular caisson
(Okada et al., 1990), a dual cylindrical caisson, a semi-circular caisson, and a wave power
extracting caisson (Takahashi, 1988), etc. Some of these new designs have already been
constructed at several ports and other prototypes are undergoing field tests.

15.O
j 8.0•I 106 . I
Tetropods +4,5 +3'016 i
LWL ~-00 ~ - 0 2 5

Fig. 10. Cross-section of caisson breakwater reinforced with wave dissipating concrete blocks at Rumoi Port.

18.0
A- {'4"'5/' • +4"~ ~-50
~, LW.L_+0.0 ~;~H,W.L+u.~ ~ '

Fig. I 1. Cross-section of curved-slit caisson breakwater at Funakawa Port.

 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi / Coastal Engineering 22 (I 994) 57-77 63

Fig. 12. Conceptual figure of dual cylindrical caisson breakwater.

Fig. 13. Dual cylindrical caisson in Nagashima Port (courtesy of Mie Prefectural Government).
64 K. Tanimou~, S, Takahashi / Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57 77

~- K . O _

LWL*O005
-5.5~0H,W.L*
. 5 ~ _ _ A s halt -5.5Mat
v-85 -7." ~ . 4.~.". . . "qi . -8.5
~...-.-... . . . . .. . ... . . ,,~Li~
. 75 £85
-7~5
. . . . . . . . t zo ~,oI 90 I ,4o _jeo_13d_5ol . . . . . .

Fig. 14. Possible cross section of semi-circular caisson breakwater for extremely high breakers.

Fig. 15. Semi-circular caisson in Miyazaki Port (courtesy of 4th Port Construction Bureau, MOT).

The curved slit caisson was proposed to apply a wave-dissipating caisson for rough seas
in 1976. After successful laboratory and field tests, the first curved slit caisson breakwater
150 m long was constructed at Funakawa Port in 1984. A cross-section of this caisson
breakwater is shown in Fig. I 1. The curved-slit members were prefabricated with prestressed
concrete and fixed to the main body of the caisson by a dry joint method.
According to calculations (Tanimoto et al., 1987), trapezoidal and cylindrical caissons
are more effective and stable as the water depth increases and in rough seas. The Kamaishi
breakwater is a typical example of a deep water trapezoidal caisson.
Even for deep water breakwaters, the construction of low reflective and permeable
structures is sometimes preferable to minimize the environmental impact. In response to
this consideration, a dual cylindrical caisson (Fig. 12) has been developed. A doughnut-
shaped wave chamber is formed between the outer permeable cylinder and the inner imper-
meable cylinder. Field tests have been conducted at Sakai Port from 1989 (Tanimoto et al.,
1992), and a 180-m breakwater was constructed in a marine recreational area of Nagashima
Port (Fig. 13), although the water depth is not so large ( 11 meters).
For shallow water, a semi-circular caisson breakwater is under development at Miyazaki
Port. Because of the high stability against waves and the soft feature with a round top, it is
 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi/ Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77 65

expected that a semi-circular caisson is well suited for offshore breakwaters designed to
protect beaches from erosion, particularly in marine recreational areas. Fig. 14 shows a
cross-section of design under consideration for use in areas with very intensive breaking
waves. Fig. 15 shows a semi-circular caisson manufactured in a caisson yard at Miyazaki
Port.

3. Wave forces and stability examinations

3.1. Design standards for port and harbour facilities in Japan

The various design of breakwaters in Japan have been improved based on experiences in
the field and extensive research. Those engineering experiences have continuously been
integrated into the design manuals and standards for port and harbour facilities by the Port
and Harbour Bureau, Ministry of Transport (Port and Harbour Bureau, Ministry of Trans-
port, 1989).
The first design manual for wharves and breakwaters was published in 1950 and revised
in 1959. In 1967, the first edition of design standards for port and harbour structures was
published and have been revised several times since then. The first edition of technical
standards with expository comments for port and harbour facilities was published in 1980
and last revised in 1989. Goda's formula to calculate the design wave forces on the upright
section was adopted as a standard formula in the design of vertical breakwaters in the 1980
edition, and a new method to examine the bearing capacity of rubble mound foundations
was introduced in the 1989 edition.
In this chapter, the Goda pressure formula, and other methods of stability analysis of
vertical breakwaters against waves are outlined. Problems related to excessive impulsive
forces by breaking waves are discussed in the next chapter.

3.2. Wave forces on the upright section

External wave forces on the upright section are the most important considerations in the
design of vertical breakwaters. Therefore, these forces have been the subject of intensive
research. As a result, a formula to calculate the design wave forces was established by Goda
in 1973. With a later modification to account for the effect of oblique wave incidence, this
formula has been successfully applied in the design of vertical breakwaters in Japan.
In the Goda formula, the wave pressure along a vertical wall is assumed to have a
trapezoidal distribution both above and below the still water level, and the uplift pressure
acting on the bottom of the uptight section is assumed to have a triangular distribution (Fig.
16). The buoyancy is calculated for the displacement volume of the upright section in still
water below the design water level. In the figure, h denotes the water depth in front of the
breakwater, d the depth above the armor layer of the rubble mound foundation, h' the
distance from the design water level to the bottom of the uptight section, and hc the elevation
of the breakwater above the design water level. The elevation at which the wave pressure
is exerted, 77* and the representative wave pressure intensities p~, P2, P3 and Pu can be
written in a generalized form as follows:
66 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi/ Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77

r/* = 0 . 7 5 ( 1 + cos/3)A jHD (1)

Pl = 0 . 5 ( 1 + COS/3)(Alal + A2 a2COS2/3)w~rHD (2)

p3 = ce3pj (3)

P4 = a4Pl (4)
p. = 0 . 5 ( 1 +cos/3)A3ch o~3woH D (5)

in which,

oq = 0.6 + 0.5 [ ( 4 r r h / L D ) / s i n h ( 4 7 r h / L D ) ] 2 (6)

cr+_= min { ( 1 - d / h b ) ( H o / d ) 2 / 3 , 2 d / H D } (7)
ce3 = 1 - ( h ' / h ) [ 1 - 1 / c o s h ( 2 r r h / L D ) ] (8)
c~4 = 1 - h<*/r/* (9)
h* = min{ r/*,h,. } (lO)

/3 is the angle between the direction of wave approach and a line normal to the breakwater,
A ~, A 2, A 3 are the modification factors depending on the structural type, Ho, Lo are the wave
height and the wave length applied to the calculation of design wave forces, respectively,
wo is the specific weight of sea water, hb is the water depth at the location offshore by the
distance of five times the significant wave height H~/3, min{ a, b} is the minimum of a
and b.
For the ordinary vertical breakwater, the modification factors of A j = A~_= h3 = 1 are
applied since the Goda formula was proposed originally to describe this type of breakwater.
The first factor A ~ represents the reduction or increase of the slowly-varying wave pressure
component, while the second factor A2 represents the change of the breaking pressure
component (dynamic pressure component or impulsive pressure component). The third
factor A3 represents the changes in the uplift pressure. In the tbllowing chapters, the
modification factors are explained for other types of caisson breakwaters.
The wave height and the wavelength applied in the calculation of design wave tbrces are
those of the highest wave in the design sea state. Its height is taken as H D = H ...... =

~'-P, ~-~--B~ L
sea ~ .... harbour
side ~ it , J_ side

h, V S.W.L

h' _ _ ~ o.oy N

Fig. 16. Distribution o f wave pressure on an upright section.

 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi / Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77 67

1.8H~/3 seaward of the surf zone, and as the largest wave height of random breaking
H I/25 o =
waves at the water depth hh within the surf zone. The wavelength of the highest wave at the
water depth h is taken as that corresponding to the significant wave period Tt/3.

3.3. Stabilio' examination of upright section

The design of the upright section must be stable against sliding and overturning. To
accomplish this, safety factors against sliding and overturning must not be less than 1.2. In
most cases, sliding is more severe than overturning because of the relatively low crest of
breakwaters in Japan. The safety factor, SF, against sliding under wave action is defined
as follows:
SF~ = ~ ( W o - U)/P (il)
in which p, denotes the coefficient of friction between the upright section and the rubble
mound, Wo the weight of the upright section per unit extension in still water, U the total
uplift force per unit extension, and P the total horizontal wave force per unit extension
calculated by Eqs. (1) to (10). The coefficient of friction (static friction) between a
concrete slab and rubble stones is usually taken as 0.6.
Goda (1985) examined the stability of prototype breakwaters by using the safety factor
against sliding of the upright section. Fig. 17 shows the results in a different way from the
original presentation. In this figure, the abscissa indicates the safety factor against sliding
calculated by the Goda formula, and the ordinate indicates the root mean square values of
sliding distances observed for the upright sections under similar conditions. Analysis of the
data of the prototype breakwaters obtained before 1973 revealed that no sliding occurred in
any of prototype breakwaters, when the safety factor according to the Goda formula
exceeded 1.2.

3.4. Bearing capaci~ of rubble mound foundation

The bearing capacity of the rubble mound and the sub-soil under inclined and eccentric
loads due to the weight of the upright section and wave forces must be investigated for

I0 l I I I l I I

0 S=O
8 0 <S_<I.O
• 1.0< S

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

safety factor against sliding

Fig. 17. Examination of the safety factor of prototype breakwaters against sliding.
68 K. Tanimoto. S. Takatu vI /CoaYt~ I E gil eeri g 22 (1994) 57 77

stability. Previously, the Japanese technical standard had employed a complex procedure
to evaluate the stability of gravity structure on rubble mounds. The procedure included
calculation of the maximum contact pressure, or toe pressure, which had usually been taken
at 40 to 50 tf/m 2 (400 to 500 kN/m2). Kobayashi et al. (1987) proposed a new calculation
method for the bearing capacity of a gravity structure on a rubble mound with the simplified
Bishop method of circular slip failure analysis, which was included in the 1989 edition of
the technical standards.
In this procedure, the apparent cohesion is introduced for rubbles, based on the results of
large triaxial tests. The standard values, the apparent cohesion C = 2 tf/m 2 and the angle of
shear resistance qb= 35 °, are applied for normal rubble which is widely used in Japanese
harbour construction.
It is common practice in Japan to evaluate the internal angle of friction @ of sand from
the N value obtained from the standard penetration test. The following standard value of
is applied depending on N value:

@= 40 ° for sand with N < 10

@= 45 ° for sand with N > 10

The safety factor according to the simplified Bishop method must not be less than l for
breakwater subjected to wave action.

t,,rmo,,r f sson j

Foot Protection Block

Fig. 18. Armor layer of rubble mound foundation.

,oo K ~O 'W';, . . . . . . J'"~P ' ' 'r',

' C
E eL
Je

em 50 eF eB B : Wove Angle
E° •H sI •G W: Weight of Stones
We: Colculoted Weight
IN
o ' , , ,I .... J , , M,~ .... ,_A , ,o ....
o.o', 0.05 o.l 0.5 l 3 ~ ~,o
W/ Wc

Fig. 19. Examination of the stability of prototype armor stones.

 K. Tanimoto. S. Takahashi/ Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77 69

3.5. Stability of armor units for the rubble mound foundation

The stability of the armor units for rubble mounds against wave action must be investi-
gated. The stable weight of armor units W can be expressed by the following relation:
W = wrH3/3 / {N~( Wr/Wo - - 1) } 3 (12)
in which Wr denotes the specific weight of the armor unit, H~/3 the design significant wave
height, and N~ the stability coefficient.
The stability coefficient N, depends on such variables as shape of armor unit, manner of
placing, shape of rubble mound foundation, wave conditions (height, period, direction)
and so on. Tanimoto et al. (1982) proposed a formula to calculate the stability coefficient
for two layers of quarry stones based on analytical considerations and the results of random
wave experiments. Takahashi et al. (1990b) modified Tanimoto's formula so it can be
applied to obliquely incident waves. That is,
Ns =max{ 1.8, 1.3a+ 1 . S e x p [ - 1.5a(l - k ) ] } (13)
in which,
or= {( 1 -- K)IKI/3}(h'/Hj/3) (14)

Ki = (4rrh'/L')/sinh(47rh'/L') (15)
(K2) B = max{ ce~sin2flcos2 [ (2rrx/L')cos/3], cos2/3sin 2[ (27rBM/L')cos/3] }
L' denotes the wavelength corresponding to the significant wave period at the depth h', x
the distance from the wall ~<BM, and BM the berm width as shown in Fig. 18. The term c~
is a correction factor obtained from experiments in a wave tank and is 0.45. The formula is
also extended to include the stability of the rubble mound armor layer in the breakwater
head.
Fig. 19 shows a comparison of the field data with the formula. In this figure, the abscissa
represents the ratio of the mean weight of armor stones W to the weight calculated by the
proposed method We, and the ordinate represents the damage percentage of the prototype
armor units in front of the upright section. The prototype data are obtained for the period
from 1965 to 1980. When W/W~ < 1, damage is expected, and this is borne out in the above
comparison of calculated and empirical results.

4. Impulsive forces by breaking waves

4.1. An example of breakwater damage due to impulsive wave forces

In the winter of 1973/74, a typical sliding failure of a caisson breakwater occurred at

Sakata Port. Fig. 20 shows a cross-section before the damage, and Fig. 21 shows sliding
distances of individual caissons based on the measurements taken after storms. The break-
water extension from caisson No. 1 to caisson No. 39 is almost parallel to the depth contours
and is connected to another breakwater extending seaward. All caissons with the exception
70 K. Tanimoto. S, Takahashi I Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77

IZO ~ . j

-- lOt Tetrapod
/ \
- - 3 4 3 4.5_11
: ~--~
II
~1
I
~4 5 1 ~~- ~ 1
14.5 , -5 3
.., -,.,, ,.
~ _ _ _ ~ ...... L-~o_=C_~L~

Fig. 20. Cross-section of caisson breakwater before damage at Sakata Port.

No. of caisson
/11213141 sis 1718 I§ h oh lh 2h 311dl'd116117118h9120~21~22123~2L~25i2
6~2'7~28~29~30~31
b213313z43513~768139 I
o~ .... - ~ . U , - : ;-:--~-=---- " z - " ~'= =-: = -' ' z -~= > -S = ~--~ ,.-l~tT~

g so . . . . ,.,

I00 "- -~, ~" - / "~" \ ~" "" ~ ""

:6

c
150

200 I
1 :
~"

/"
,'¢
'" "

..... '!
""
date of survey
~ A u g , 29,1973"
\ ""

:~ 250 / ----Oc t, 27,1973

to ,.. ~ / ---Nov. 9,1973 ~-
300 ---Dec.l 2,1973
I " ~ .... Jan.21,1974
" -*-Feb. 6,1974
350

,oo I , lllllll I I
Fig. 21. S l i d i n g d i s t a n c e o f c a i s s o n s at Sakata Port ( 1 9 7 3 - 1 9 7 4 ) .

of three units around the connection part slid by winter storm waves, although the final
sliding distance did not exceed 3.8 m. Waves were recorded at a depth of 14 m. The
maximum significant wave height during the winter was 7.2 m on 17 November. The depth
at the breakwater site was 9.5 m, including the tide, which means that breaking waves acted
on the breakwater during heavy storms.
Model experiments with a scale of 1/25 were carried out in a wave channel for the
damaged breakwater (Tanimoto et al., 1981 ). The experimental results showed that large
impulsive pressures acted on the caisson, causing it to slide significantly when H = 6.88 m
and T = 14 s.

4.2. Variation o f wave f o r c e s due to m o u n d configuration

Although the Goda formula can successfully be applied to the design of the upright
section in most cases, it fails to predict the wave forces under certain conditions, such as
when the wave forces act on the upright section with a large and high rubble mound
 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi I Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 5 7 - 7 7 71

foundation. For example, Fig. 22 shows the variation in the wave pressure intensity t5
averaged over the total height of the upright section. In the figure, the abscissa represents
the berm width of the rubble mound foundation relative to the water depth, and the ordinate
represents the thickness of the rubble mound foundation, including the armor layer, relative
to the water depth.
The data o f p are obtained on the basis of sliding tests of an upright section for different
sizes of the rubble mound foundation by using the following relation (Tanimoto et al.,
1981):

ill= IzWoJ ( 1 + I~U~/ Po) (16)

where I is the total height of the upright section ( = hc + h' ), Wo~ is the threshold weight in
water against sliding determined experimentally for a given wave condition, and Uc and
Pc are the total uplift force and the total horizontal wave force calculated by the Goda
formula, respectively. Therefore, p is not the actual wave pressure but is an equivalent static
wave pressure intensity which allows the stability examination against sliding to be calcu-
lated from Eq. ( 11 ).
In the figure, the variation of the pressure intensity (15/wHo) is shown by the isolines for
the wave condition where h/L = 0.0712 and H/h = 0.719. This example illustrates how
greatly wave pressure intensity is influenced not only by the height of the rubble mound
foundation but also by the berm width, and that the breaking wave forces become very large
when the rubble mound foundation is too high and wide. Under these wave conditions, the
horizontal wave pressure (equivalent static pressure) exceeds 2.5 w~M and takes the max-
imum when ( h - d ) / h = 0 . 6 and BM/h = 1.5. Fig. 22 is one of the figures obtained from
comprehensive sliding tests conducted in a wave tank.
Since the influence of the berm width is not considered in the Goda formula, and since
the non-dimensional pressure intensity predicted by the Goda formula never exceeds 2.1,
the inability of the Goda formula to predict wave forces under all conditions becomes
apparent. Regardless, the Goda formula is very useful as a design wave force formula,
because the breakwater sections should not be designed to receive excessively large wave

I0
~.~__. I . . . . . __ h/L=ODTI2, H/h=O.719
0 1.0213
0.9
0.8

0.7
h-d
X o6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 5.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
8w/h

Fig. 22. Example of wave force variation due to mound configuration.

72 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi / Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77

forces in terms of the stability and construction cost of the breakwater. In fact, a low rubble
mound foundation (d/h>0.6) is strongly recommended when breaking waves act on
breakwaters with normal incidence.

4.3. Impulsive pressure coefficient

Recently, Takahashi et al. (1992) proposed an impulsive pressure coefficient which is

obtained by a re-analysis of the results of comprehensive sliding tests mentioned above.
The impulsive pressure coefficient is a non-dimensional value representing the impulsive
pressure component, which should be regarded as an additional effect to the slowly varying
pressure. The effect of the dynamic (impulsive) pressure indicated by the coefficient o~2 in
Goda's formula does not accurately estimate the effective pressure (equivalent static pres-
sure) due to impulsive pressure under all conditions. A new impulsive pressure coefficient
a~ is introduced into the Goda pressure formula. The pressure p~ at the water surface in the
Goda pressure formula Eq. (2) is replaced by

p, =0.5( 1 +cos/3)(h, a, +h~cr*cos2fl)wJ-1D (17)

where a* represents the coefficients of dynamic (impulsive) pressure, a, is pressure coef-
ficient for slowly varying pressure,/3 is wave direction, and H D is the design wave height.
The correction factors A ,, A 2 and A3 are all unity. The coefficient o~* is newly expressed by

a * = max{cr2,a, } (18)
Fig. 23 is a calculation diagram for the impulsive pressure coefficient a~ obtained from
sliding tests. The coefficient a~ is expressed by the product of a,~ and crib. where air ~
represents the effect of wave height on the mound, i.e..

ato = H / d H <~2d )
=2 H>2d (19)

and O~l~represents the effect of the mound shape and is shown by the contour lines. This
term is also evaluated using

all = cos32/cosh61 62 ~ 0 }
= I/[cosh61(cosh62) I/2] 6~>0,, (20)

6j=2061~ 611~0"~
=15611 611>0,, (21)

62 =4.9622 622 <~0

=36~2 622 > 0 , , (22)

6~ =0.93(BM/L-O. 12)+O.36[(h-d)/h-0.6] "~

(23)
6.2 -0.36(BM/L-O. 12) + 0 . 9 3 [ ( h - d ) / h - 0 . 6 ) ] /
The value of tr[ reaches a maximum of 2 at BM/L = O. 12, d/h = 0.4, and H/d> 2. When
d/h > 0.7, cr[ is always close to zero and smaller than o~. It should be noted that the
impulsive pressure decreases significantly when the angle of incidence is oblique. An
 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi/ Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77 73

jo:
I I I /~ 0
/

02 ct I : Clio ~ a l l
BM_ 10 8
( H H<2d
alt = )
t 7
L2 H>2d
0 I I l
0 0 0.2 BM 03 04
L

Fig. 23. Calculation diagram of impulsive pressure coefficient.

experimental result in a wave basin shows that the impulsive pressure can be neglected
when the incident wave angle is above 30 ° .

5. Countermeasures against strong impulsive pressure

Strong impulsive wave forces are exerted on vertical walls when the slope of sea bottom
is steep and/or when the rubble mound foundation is high and wide, and when breaking
waves act on them with nearly normal incidence (wave angle is nearly zero). The impulsive
pressure coefficient can reflects the level of the danger associated with impulsive pressures.
It is very important to avoid these conditions in the design of vertical breakwaters.

5.1. Caisson covered with wave-dissipating blocks

An alternative design to avoid strong impulsive wave forces is to use wave dissipating
concrete blocks in front of the upright section as in Fig. 10. Wave forces acting on the
upright section are reduced by placing wave-dissipating concrete blocks in front of the
caisson. In this way, strong impulsive breaking wave forces can be minimized. Fig. 24
demonstrates how the wave pressure intensities (equivalent static pressure) differ with and
without wave-dissipating concrete blocks. The pressure intensity is greatly decreased by
the addition of the blocks when the rubble mound foundation is high ( d / h = 0.405).
The wave forces acting on the upright section with wave dissipating concrete blocks
74 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi I Coastal Et gineering 22 (1994) 57-77

2.5
without blocks
d/h
---*- 0 . 4 0 5
2D .-c-- 0 . 6 4 3
with blocks
d/h
WoH 0.405
--~-- 0.643
1.5

1.0
/ \
,,P" q

0.5

o
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I.O
H/h
Fig. 24. Change of impulsive wave force by covering with wave dissipating concrete blocks.

//~t I
- @ . . . . . . . . . . . .

-~........ --J~Cres
. t IIa .-" gh ff

.." b gh~

Fig. 25. Phases for pressure calculations of perforated wall caissons.

.... _.:'_'_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fig. 26. Wave pressure distribution at Crest-lib for perforated wall caisson.
 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi / Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77 75

TABLE 1

Modification factors for vertical slit wall caisson

Crest -I Crest-lla Crest-lib

Slit wall As~ 0.85 0.7 0.3

As2 J" 0.4 (a* ~<0.75) 0 0

( 0.3/a* (a*>0.75)

Front wall ALt 1.0 0.75 0.65

hL2 .J" 0.4 (a* <0.5) 0 0
0.2/a* (a* >0.5)

Wave chamber ARI 0 201/3L' (I/L'<~O.15) { 1.4 (H/h<~O,I)

rear wall* 1.6-2H/h (0,1 <H/h<0.3)
1.0 (I/L' >0.15) 1.0 (H/h>~0.3)
AR2 0 0.56 (a* ~<25/28) 0
0.5/a* (a*>25/28)

Wave chamber )tMi 0

bottom slab 1.6- 2H/h (0.1 < H / h <0.3)
1.0 (l/L'>O.15) 1.0 (H/h>~0.3)
/~M2 0 0 0

Uplift hu ( = h3) 1.0 0,75 0.65

In the calculation of a* for the rear wall, a~ should be replaced by ot'~which is obtained with the parameters d', L' and B'M instead
of d, L and BM respectively, where d' is the depth in the wave chamber. L' is the wave length at water depth d, B'M = I-- ( d - d' ),
and I is the width of the wave chamber including the thickness of the perforated vertical wall.

placed in front can be calculated by the generalized Goda formula incorporating the follow-
ing modifications (Tanimoto et al., 1984; Takahashi et al., 1990a):

A l = A 3 = 1.0 H/h<~0.3 ]
1.2-2/3(H/h) 0.3 <H/h<0.6I (24)
=0.8 H/h>~0.6
A2 = 0 (25)

5.2. Perforated wall caissons

Another alternative to avoid strong impulsive wave forces on the upright section is to
adopt the wave dissipating caisson which employs a perforated front wall and a wave
chamber. Perforated wall caissons are becoming the design of choice in the construction of
seawalls and breakwaters in Japan. This is because perforated wall caissons have low wave
reflection and overtopping characteristics, and are highly stable due to their ability to absorb
wave energy. This type of breakwater was initially intended for use in relatively calm seas,
but has gradually been used in heavier, open seas.
76 K. Tanimoto, S. T.kahashi / OJa.s'tal Engineering 22 (/994) 57~77

In the design of perforated wall caissons, the pressure distributions at several important
phases should be evaluated. This is because the forces on the members of caisson reach
their peaks at different phases, and the peak of sliding or overturning forces does not
necessarily occur when the wave crest is just in front of the caisson. Appropriate design of
the members of the perforated wall caisson is vital if the caisson is to be used as a breakwater
in rough seas, especially when subjected to highly impulsive waves. There are six wave
phases: Crest-I, Crest-IIa and Crest-IIb, Trough-I, Trough-II and Trough-llI, as shown in
Fig. 25. At Crest-I, the force on the front wall is greatest. The force on the rear wall in the
wave chamber has one impulsive peak at Crest-lla and one gentle peak at Crest-Ilb.
The pressure distribution at each phase is given based on the Goda pressure formula with
modification factors, A~, A2, A 3, and Eq. (17) (Tanimoto et al., 1981; Takahashi et al.,
1991 ). Fig. 26 shows the distribution of the pressure at Crest-Ilb. The correction factors
are determined at each phase for each member. The suffixes of A like A R indicate the
positions where the factors are employed. Table I shows the modification factors, A ~, A~,
andA~, for a typical perforated wall caisson, a vertical slit wall caisson. As expressed by the
modification factors, not only the impulsive pressure component but also the slowly-varying
pressure component is reduced fbr perforated wall caissons. Most of the wave pressure
formulas of new caisson breakwaters were adopted from the Goda formula as with the
vertical slit caissons ( Tanimoto et al.. 1987 ).

6. Concluding remarks

The design techniques of vertical breakwaters in Japan have developed as a result of

abundant experiences in the field and applied research. The most important force to be
considered in the design is the wave force acting on the upright section. The basic and
modified Goda formula can be applied successfully to calculate the design wave forces for
most conditions of vertical breakwaters.
In a limited number of conditions, however, excessive impulsive forces due to the action
of breaking waves are exerted on the upright section, These conditions must be avoided in
the design of vertical breakwaters. The adoption of the vertical breakwater utilizing wave-
dissipating concrete blocks or the wave-dissipating caisson breakwaters are appropriate as
alternative designs.
All new caisson breakwaters described in the present paper avoid strong impulsive wave
forces due to the wave-dissipating mechanism and/or the wave phase dispersion mechanism.
They are no more the breakwaters just struggling against waves but the breakwaters har-
monizing with waves.
The examinations of the bearing capacity of rubble mound foundation and the stability
of the armor units under the action of waves are also important in the design of vertical
breakwaters. Recent developments in this area are certain to improve overall safety and
durability.
An exciting subject related with the vertical breakwater design, currently being investi-
gated, is an assessment of stability in a probabilistic way. Takayama and Fujii (1991)
proposed a method to estimate the degree of instability of the upright section which is
represented by the value of probability of a sliding failure occurring during the lifetime of
 K. Tanimoto, S. Takahashi / Coastal Engineering 22 (1994) 57-77 77

the breakwater. Furthermore, a method for predicting breakwater deformation, such as the
sliding distance, which takes into account the statistical variability is soon to be explored.

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