INTR ODUCT ION TO

THEFATHERSOFTHECHURCH
W IT II CO LOR ILLUSTRATIONS
THE MOST IGNIFlCANT FIGURES OF THE FATilERS OF TI IE Cl !URCI I
PRESE TED [, TI IE CO• TEXT OF lli E CHRISTIAN LIFE OF TI IC fTR..<;T
CENTURIES AND OF THETR OWN WRITl GS
 PIER FRANCO BEATRICE

Introduction to

The Fathers of the Church

A TEACHI\'G AIIJ WITH COLOR /LLU\TRAT/0\15

EOIZIONI (I am ISTITUTO S. GAETANO

STRADA MORA, 57- 36100 VICENZA- g 504000-504474- CCP 18473363

-
Cover:
Gregory Nazianzen preaching to the clergy and faithful.
Miniature, 9th cent.

Teaching aid planned and produced by

«EDIZIONI ISTI1UTO SAN GAETANO DI VICENZA»

Imprimatur: Mons. Carlo Fanton

Vicenza, Mars 25, 1983
Translator: Placid Solari, O.S.B. Patristic texts translated from
the original.

Italian Edition
© 1983 by Edizioni lstituto San Gaetano - Vicenza (Italy)
English Edition
© 1987 by Edizioni lstituto San Gaetano- Vicenza (Italy)

Graphics, maps and printing:

Tipolitografia I.S.G.- Vicenza (Italy)
 Foreword

The chapters making up this volume are derived /rom a series

of introductory lectures on the Fathers of the Church which I have
been presenting for some years in the School of Theology for Laity
of the Diocese of Padua. This book, born out of this experience and
/rom contact with men and women interested in learning more
about the historical roots of their own faith, is intended /or and
dedicated with grateful affection to those who have followed and
who in coming years will be following my lectures in patristics.
However, in all lielihood these lectures would never have taken
the form of a useful instructional tool, furnished with notes and
illustrations, had not my friends of the Istituto S. Gaetano in
Vicenza taken the matter in hand. In particular, I wish to thank
Don Luigi De Franceschi for his concern and skilled collaboration.
The popular nature of this book has led me to divzde it into
two sections. The first is dedicated to the illustration of the
Christian literature of the first three centuries; i.e. of the age
during which the church was formed amid dangers and difficulties
of every kind, con/ranting the persecutions of the Roman political
power, the first controversies with the heretics and various
problems of an organizational and disciplinary nature. In the
second part, on the other hand, I present the great figures of the
Fathers who illuminated the lz/e af the Christian community by
their erudite theological and moral instruction in the fourth and
fifth centuries; i.e. in the age of the liberty of the church, of the
great ecumenical councils and the expansion of monasticism.
In order to give the reader a closer and livelier contact with the
actual words of the Fathers, each chapter is accompanied by a
selection of readings drawn from their more important and
significant works. Furthermore, the use of the text and readings
has been facilitated by a wide selection of maps and color
illustrations which should render the employment of this teaching
aid more attractive, especially to younger readers.
Of course it is impossible to compress a vast and complex
literature such as that of the patristic age into a small book of a
few pages. It has therefore been necessary to make a choice of
material, seeking all the while to present as complete and exact an
image of the subject as possible. In presenting the figures of the
Fathers of the Church we have kept in mind above all the need to
highlight the contemporary importance of their thought and their
actions. This importance derives from the fact that they, for the
first time and in an exemplary manner, formulated the
authentically Christian discussion on the sources of Revelation; i.e.
on the Sacred Scripture, of which they were the magisterial
interpreters, and on Tradition, of which they are the unsurpassed
guarantors for all Christian generations. It was they who first
plumbed the depths of the mystery of Christ and of the church and
consequently set in motion the Christian meditation on the position
of man in God's salvific plan and on the relationship which the
community of the faithful must maintain with the reality of the
world and its material and social problems.
These and numerous other riches are encountered in a reading
of the Fathers, and I will consider that I have not labored in vain
if, with this brief and modest «Introduction», I will have succeeded
in imparting a taste and a desire for just such a reading.

PIER FRANCO BEATRICE

 Table of Contents

Introduction pag. 11

Part One
The Fathers of the Church in the Age of the Persecutions
(lst-3rd century) 17

Ch. I - The Apostolic Fathers, the immediate

successors to the work of the Apostles 19
Ch. II- The Apologists present the reasons for their
faith 47
Ch. III- The anti-Gnostic reaction and the defense
of Apostolic Tradition 77
Ch. IV- The School of Alexandria: The encounter
between faith and culture 107
Ch. V- The beginnings of Christian literature in
latin 135

Part Two
The Fathers of the Church zn the Christian Empire
(4th-5th century)

Ch. VI - Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea in the

«Constantinian Revolution» 169
Ch. VII - Athanasius: The Arian Crisis and the origins
of monasticism 193
9
Ch. VIII - The Cappadocian Fathers: Humanism and
asceticism 219
Ch. IX - Three Western Fathers: Hilary, Ambrose,
Jerome 251
Ch. X - Augustine of Hippo, the brilliant servant of
the faith 285
Ch. XI - John Chrysostom and Cyril of Alexandria 313

Conclusion 341

10
 Introduction

1. Who are the Fathers of the Church?

With the conclusion of the New Testament Revelation in the

Apocalypse of the Apostle John, the «time of the church» began;
that is, the time in which the community of believers in Christ,
spread through the world, faced the trials of history under the
guidance of the Spirit. In the often troubled dynamic of daily
existence, there emerged problems of various natures which
forced the faithful to determine solutions in keeping with the
gospel teaching. This was especially true in an age and
environment such as those in which Christianity began its
development, where signs of hostility multiplied in the face of
the new religion.
It was above all the task of the Fathers of the Church to
elaborate those responses which, because of their authority, still
remain binding points of reference for the ecclesial consciousness
today. The Fathers of the Church are those personages, almost
always bishops and thus endowed with particular pastoral
responsibilities, who decisively influenced by their preaching and
writings both the development of Christian doctrine and the
formation of Christian custom. The Fathers unite in themselves
the enduring characteristics of a holy life, wisdom and antiquity.

2. Patristic literature

The literature left behind by the Fathers of the Church is

eminently pratical in character. Even when it treats of doctrinal
questions and assumes a highly speculative tone, it appears as a
11
Tbe Roman Empin at its greatest extent. Tbe spread of Christianity in tbe
first centuries took place in tbe same geographical area foUowing the great
network of Roman roads.
literature intended for a given situation, a literature which
proposes to penetrate into existing rdations and change them.
This literature, quite different from classical letters, was never
conceived as an academic exercise written by inteUeauals for
intellectuals but as «preaching» directed towards the conversion
of the thought and the life of the public to which it was
addressed. Because of this, it profoundly modified the linguistic
and literary tools which it inherited from the past.
The Fathers of the Church were men of the classical world,
educated in the culture of the Graeco-Roman civilization. It was
from this culture that they drew the patterns of language and
thought into which they decanted the «new wine» of Revelation.
The two principal languages used were Greek and latin, which
were the two most imponant languages spoken in the Roman
Empire at that time. Nevettheless, it should be noted in passing
that there was also a Christian literature in other less widely
spread languages such as Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian
and Ethiopian. In these languages, alongside works of
undeniable freshness such as those of Aphraates or Ephrem,
there have often been preserved, in the form of translations,
works which have been lost in the original Greek.

3. Geography and chronology

The geographical area in which the Fathers of the Church

were active coincides substantially with the area of the Roman
Empire; namely, the territory surrounding the Mediterranean
Basin. This is an immense expanse of territory which has Spain
and Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) as its extremities to the east and
west and England and Egypt to the notth and south.
With regard to the chronological limits of the patristic age, tt
is customary to place its beginnmg in the documents unmediatelv
followmg the New Testament, i.e. with the so-called Apostotzc
IJ
Fathers towards the end of the first century A.D., and to
terminate it around the middle of the fifth century with the great
ecumenical councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451).
After this date, the progressive linguistic and cultural division of
the Mediterranean world gave rise to two different Christian
traditions, the Graeco-Byzantine tradition centered around
Constantinople and the Latin tradition centered around the
Apostolic See at Rome.

4. Recent discoveries

The writings of the Fathers of the Church, unlike the works

of Greek and Latin classical antiquity, have, on the whole,
suffered less damage from the ravages of time and the violence of
men. Nevertheless, they have weathered many misfortunes and
much work has been expended and continues to be expended in
the publication of critical editions. These are editions of the text
as faithful as possible to the original which, like all the works of
antiquity without exception, has been lost. Indeed, especially in
the course of the last century, good fortune has brought works to
light of which even the memory had perished. Papyri and
codices buried for centuries in the sands of the Egyptian desert,
or concealed in amphorae or in library storerooms have
preserved considerable passages of ancient Christian writings.
Their discovery has enriched and at times noticeably modified
earlier images of the life and thought of the first Christian
communities. Among the more significant discoveries are the
Didache, the Easter homily of Melito of Sardis, the papyri of
Tura (near Cairo) containing long extracts from the works of
Origen and Didymus the Blind, the homilies of Chromatius of
Aquileia, etc. A few years ago, thirty new letters of Augustine
were discovered. Who knows how many other surprises are in
store in the future!
14
5. Bibliographical information

There is a wealth of manuals, histories and articles available

for a further study of the Fathers of the Church. A few of the
berter known works are listed below:

Standard English manual:

Quasten, ]. Patrology, 3 vols. Utrecht, 1950, 1953, 1960
(reprint: 1983). An English translation of a fourth volume,
prepared by the faculty of the Pontifical Patristic Institute in
Rome on the Latin Fathers of the 4th-5th cent. has been
published in an English translation by Christian Classics,
Westminster, Md. in 1986.

Handbook for non-specialists:

Barnell, P. Handbook o/Patrology, New York, 1968.

Histories of the church:

Baus, K. From the Apostolic Community to Constantine, vol. 1
of History of the Church, ed. H. Jedin and ]. Dolan.
London-NewYork, 1980.
Baus, K., Beck, H-G, Ewig, E., Vogt, H.J. The Imperial
Church /rom Constantine to the Early Mzddle Age, vol. 2 of
History of the Church, ed. H. Jedin and ]. Dolan. London-New
York, 1980.
Danielou,]., Marrou, H. The First Six Hundred Years, vol. 1
of The Christian Centuries, ed. L. Rogier. London-New York,
1964.
Frend, W.H.C. The Rise a/Christianity, London, 1984.

The following collections offer English translations of many

works of the Fathers accompanied by an introduction and notes:
15
 The Ante-Nicene Chrrstian Library, A. Roberts, ]. Donaldson,
ed. Edinburgh, 1866-1897 (reprint: 1969- 1973 ).
A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the
Christian Church, P. Schaff and H. Wace, ed. New York,
1886- 1900.
Ancient Christian Writers, ]. Quasten and ]. Plumpe, ed.
Westminster, Md., 1946ff.
Fathers of the Church, L. Schopp, G. Walsh and R.J.
Deferrari, ed. New York, 1947ff.

Reading guide
I. The eleven chapters which make up this lntroductron to the
Fathers ofthe Church are each divided into two parts.
In the first part, the reader is presented with the personalities
and Christian faith of the Fathers, the vicissitudes of their lives
and the specific contribution of each one to the expansion and
more profound understanding of Christianity.
The second part (READINGS) offers a direct contact with
some of the writings of the Fathers of the Church. It is an
anthology of representative texts which have been selected for
the richness and depth of their thought. They often show a
surprising modernity The general effect is that of «spiritual
reading» which aids the Christian's faith and his activity in the
world.
2. Every chapter begins with a graph composed of two
columns.
The blue column presents a summary of the principal
historical events connected with the spread of Christianity.
The red column singles out some important dates connected
with the work of the Fathers of the Church.
By comparing the two columns, the reader can, at a glance,
situate each of the Fathers in the period in which he lived and
worked.

16
 PART ONE

THE FATHERS OF THE CHURCH

IN THE AGE OF THE PERSECUTIONS
(I-III cent.)

Part one is dedicated to illustrating the Christian bterature ~

the first three centuries. This was the age during which the church
was formed amzdst difficulties and dangers of every kind in the face
of the persecutions by the Roman state, the first controversies with
the heretics and the vanous problems of an organizational and
disciplinary nature.
Ch. I - The Apostolic Fathers, the immediate successors to
the work of the Apostles
Ch. II - The Apologists present the reasons for their faith
Ch. III - The anti-Gnostic reaction and the defense of
Apostolic Traclition
Ch. IV The School of Alexandria: The encounter between

~v
faith and culture
The beginnings of Christian literature in latin

J7
 (

The spread of Christianity in tbe first century. Although tbey wrote from
Rome, Antioch and Smyrna, tbe Apostolic Fathers clearly express tbe unity of
faith in Jesus Cbrist and its bond with tbe cburcb.
 Chapter I

The Apostolic Fathers,

the immediate successors
to the work of the Apostles

64 Persecution of Nero 160 150 IDIDACHE

67 Manyrdom
of Peter and Paul
90 Persecution
95 ofDomitian
~ LEITER
~ OFCLEMENT
98 Trajan emperor
C-:-1 LEITER
~ OF BARNABAS
J ~ Martyrdom of
E.:.__J IGNATIUS
OF ANTIOCH
11 7 Hadrian emperor
138 Antoninus Pius emperor ~ TilE SHEPHERD OF HERMAS

19
CH. I - lliE APOSTOLIC FATHERS

1. Who are the «Apostolic Fathers»?

The name «Apostolic Fathers» is the term normally used to

indicate a group of very early Christian writers who are regarded
as the immediate successors to the work of the Apostles. These
authors possess a particular importance because they offer a
direct and authentic picture of the life, sentiments, aspirations
and ideas of the first Christian communities scattered around the
Mediterranean Basin at the turn from the first to the second
century A.D.

2. The Letter of Clement of Rome

and the origins of the Roman primacy

The letter written by Clement of Rome to the community of

Corinth in Greece around 96-98 A.D. is generally regarded as
the most ancient patristic docwnent. It consists of an
authoritative intervention by the Church of Rome in the internal
affairs of the Church of Corinth where the presbyters, 1 i.e. the
elders of the community, had been deposed by a rebellion of
some unidentified young upstarts. In this letter, there appears for
the first time in history the manifestation of an awareness of the
«Roman primacy» based on the authority of the founding
Apostles, Peter and Paul.
With his summons to amendment and penance, to bending
«the knees of the heart», Clement aims at restoring the damaged
authority of the local hierarchy. This hierarchy constitutes the
foundation and the guarantee of the peace and harmony of the
members who make up the church, the true Body of Christ. The
intensive use of the Sacred Scriptures is intended to show how
much hatred has injured humanity and, to the contrary, what
benefits the concord willed by the Creator produces.
There is also a homily 2 which has been handed down under
Clement's name. In reality, it ts a sermon which is to be
20
 CH. I 1HE APOSTOUC FATHERS

attributed to an unknown author from the region of Syria. It

dates to ca. 150 A.D. and can thus be considered as the most
ancient extant Christian homily. It contains an exhortation to the
practice of chastity addressed to the new converts in the context
of the liturgy of baptismal initiation.

3. The Didache: the oldest ecclesiastical constitution

T he greatest amount of liturgical information concerning
primitive Christianity has been handed down in a work entitled

Clement of Rome. The

third successor or Peter,
he was bishop or Rome
from approximately 90
to 99 (Rome, Basilica of
St. Paul. Pboto Pont.
Comm. Arch.).
1 From the Greek «presbyteros», i.e. dder, subsequently «pnest»; i.e.
member of the college which participates in the charism of the rnirllstenal
pnesthood together with the b1shop.
1 From the Greek «homzila», which means conversation, lesson and,

subsequently, lirurgical preaching.

21
CH. I - TI-lE APOSTOUC FATHERS

the Didache, which is Greek for «Doctrine» or «Teaching» (of

the twelve Apostles). This document was discovered by chance a
little over a century ago by the Metropolitan Philotheos
Bryennios in a Greek manuscript of Constantinople (now at
Jerusalem). The anonymous work presents elements of great
antiquity which have caused it to be dated as early as the middle
of the first century, making it a text older even than the Synoptic
Gospels! Indeed, this little manual of instructions for the
community contains truly astonishing information. It first
presents the «Catechesis of the two ways» containing an
explanation of the vices and sins leading to death, which the
candidate for baptism must strive to avoid, and an illustration of
the divine commandments, the scrupulous observance of which
alone leads to life and salvation. The author then comments at
length on the baptismal rites and eucharistic prayers before
passing on to practical advice on the manner of receiving the
itinerant prophets, who were a typical institution in early Syrian
Christianity. In short, the Didache can be defined as the outline
of a manual of canon law and liturgical instructions which, not
without reason, would be incorporated in the course of
subsequent centuries into ever larger collections of ecclesiastical
constitutions. Even in the fourth century, Athanasius of
Alexandria, aware of the work's great moral and formative value,
recommended the reading of the Didache as something
particularly useful for the instruction of catechumens. 3

4. The Letter of Barnabas: A sharp anti-Jewish polemic

The so-called Letter of Barnabas, an anonymous work from

the end of the first or beginning of the second century, is
devoted to an anti-Jewish polemic expressed in sharp tones
reminiscent of certain gospel passages. The work does not
appear to be a composition of Barnabas, the companion of Paul,
22
 CH. I - TilE APOSTOLIC FATIIERS

but, like the Didache, with which it has in common the

«Catechesis of the two ways», it possibly comes from the region
of Syria. In the letter, which is a long homily on the Christian use
of the Old Testament, the author reproaches the Jews for their
inability to understand correctly the prophecies of the Old
Testament regarding the coming of the Messiah. This has caused
them to refuse en masse the preaching of Christ. According to
Barnabas, the sole correct method of reading the Old Testament
consists in the identification of the spiritual, and not merely
carnal, significance of the text by the appropriate use of
allegorical exgesis; 4 i.e. of that type of interpretation which
seeks out the hidden meanings of the words which only the Spirit
is able to reveal to the believer.

5. The Shepherd of Hennas and the problem of penance

An insight into the problems under discussion in the Roman

community in the first half of the second century is offered by
the Shepherd of Hermas.
In the great, corrupt metropolis which was the capital of the
empire, the Christians making up the small local community
were not always able to rise to the demands of their calling.
Some of them, even after having received the remission of sins in
the sacrament of baptism, fell again into temptation. The urgent
question was thus raised as to what was to be done in these cases
and, as always happens, diverse and contrasting opinions
emerged. The supporters of the rigorist attitude affirmed that

3
<<Catechumen» is from the Greek word for someone taking instruction, or
«catechesis», in the Christian faith and on the symbol of faith (Creed) in
preparation for baptism.
4
From the Greek <<exegestS>>, i.e. the explanation and interpretation of a
text, in particular of a biblical text.

23
CH I - 11-IE APOSTOUC FAllfERS

there was no longer any way of escape for anyone who had
betrayed his baptismal promises. Therefore, whoever committed
grave sins after the first and only baptismal remission was
destined to eternal damnation. Hermas, for his part, became the
spokesman in the divided community of the revelation
communicated to him by the Angel of Penitence, the Shepherd,
who announced for those who had sinned after baptism one last
possibility of doing penance before the end of the world, which
was already near at hand. The solution proposed by Hermas,
who appears to have been the brother of the Roman bishop,
prevailed. In succeeding centuries, the sacrament of penance

The ~ first vision• of the

Shepherd of Hennas io a
latin translation. Manu-
script of the 15th cen-
tury (Bibl. Ap. Vat.,
Urb. lat. 486, fol. 69v).

24
 01 I 1liE APOSTOUC FATifr.RS

became the church's permanent practice for offering salvation to

repentant sinners, not only once in a lifetime, but as many times
as the desire for reconciliation demanded.

6. Ignatius of Antioch:
Vivid reflections on a religious experience of suffering
The enthusiastic and burning ardor of Ignatius, bishop of
Antioch in the early years of the second century, flashes from the
road leading from Syria to Rome. He was being transported in
chains to Rome to be fed to the wild beasts in the circus and
along the way he was met by friends and admirers. Those he was
not able to meet personally he contacted by means of a letter.
Thus there arose the famous seven letters 5 in which the bishop,
a candidate for manyrdom, sets forth his spiritual testament in a
long series of exhortations and recommendations. In this way the
letters came to be something between a journal of his voyage and
a spiritual diary.
In the letters, three themes in particular are developed which
are characteristic of the spirituality and personal interests of the
exceptional character of Ignatius.
Against those who were sowing discord in the Christian
communities, Ignatius vigorously and repeatedly reaffirms the
fundamental and irreplaceable role of the bishop, the sign of
unity of the local church and the one who fosters the holiness of
its members. Ignatius is the first Christian theologian to have
worked out a strongly defined doctrine on the role and
significance of the bishop in the Christian community. He is the
first theorist of the «monarchical» episcopate.
Against those who were sowing doubts concerning the reality
of the Incarnation of Christ by affrrming that this had been only
5 The authenticity of these documents has been the object of discussion by

scholars for some time.

25
Cll I TilE APOSTOLIC FA..:..;
TI..:..;=·=-----
IERS - - - - - - - -- - -
an incarnation in appearance - these are the first manifestations
of that heretical doctrine better known by the term «Docetism» 6
- Ignatius states plainly that the Lord assumed true flesh and
truly suffered on the cross. Otherwise, redemption would be
non-existent and our faith would be in vain. His speech resounds
with something of the sacramental realism of the Gospel of John.
Above all, Ignatius implores the Christians of Rome, who
were present and active even in the imperial court, to do nothing
to impede his martyrdom. He desires at all costs to suffer the
ultimate torment since only in this way will he be able to become
the true «disciple» and true «imitator» of the Lord, by offering
himself as «God 's grain» to the jaws of the beasts.

Panorama of Antioch in Syria. The modern city is modest in size while tbe
ancient city was a great metropolis, among tbe most important ol tbe Roman
Empire.

26
 CH I TifF APOSTOUC FATII!.R.\

7. Conclusion

The writings of the Apostolic Fathers present practically all

the questions pertaining to the internal organization of the
Christian communities of the time. They deal authoritatively with
problems of liturgical discipline, the power of the hierarchy and
the norms of moral conduct and of correct teaching
(«orthodoxy» in Greek). These authors intervene in individual
situations with recognized prestige in order to establish rules of
conduct, to direct and strengthen a wavering faith and, in short,
to bring order into compromised situations which risked
becoming chaotic and uncontrollable. They speak with the
authority which they feel to be conferred on them directly by the
Spirit. For this reason, precisely because they are not speaking in
their own name, they feel no need to «sign» their works. With
.the exception of the strong personality of Ignatius, which
·overflows in every line of his letters, the other Apostolic Fathers
such as Barnabas, Clement of Rome or Hermas hide their own
individuality to a certain extent behind the authority of the
apostolic tradition, of the church or of the revealing Spirit. The
official and authoritative tone of these writings thus explains
their anonymous (Who is the author of the Didache?) or, at
times, pseudonymous character. It also explains why many of
these writings enjoyed so great an authority in the early church as
to enter into and form an integral part of the canon of the Sacred
Scriptures. Only when the number of the canonical Scriptures
was deftnitively established were these and numerous other
«apocryphal» 7 writings placed outside of it.

6
From the Greek verb «dokein», which means «to seem, to appear».
7
From the G reek «apokryphos», wh1ch means .. hidden». Jr indicates all the
works of unknown authorship. ln particular, in theological parlance, it indicates
the works which do not form part of the canon of the revealed Sacred
Scriptures.

21
Cll I THE A PO~TOUC FATifERS - - - -

Furthermore, two other dimensions in the experrence of the

first Christian generations emerge in the letters of Barnabas and
Ignatius: both of these authors contend with difficulties arising
from outside the Christian community. Barnabas is confronted
with opposition from the active and aggressive Judaism of the
time which was in full missionary expansion and thus was a
dangerous competitor of nascent Christianity. Ignatius, o n the
other hand, runs up against the persecution unleashed by the
pagan political power against the young Christian communities
of Asia Minor and Syria. There have thus been delineated the
three fronts on which the Christianity of the first centuries had to
fight to attain its ideological autonomy and political liberty. The

Christ among the Apostles. The Apostolic Fathers are the immediate echo of
tbe teaching of the Apostles (Rome, Catacombs of tbe Via Anapo. Pboto Pont.
Comm. Arcb.).

28
 CH I Rf.ADf:';GS

polemtc agamst Judamn contributed in a decisive manner to

refining the instruments for the interpretation of the Scriptures.
The confrontation, often bloody, with the Roman tmperial
authority awakened the consciousness of the otherness of the
Kingdom of God and, at the same time, forced the Christians to
come to terms, without dissimulation, with the entire political
and cultural tradition of Greek and Roman classical antiquity.
Finally, the controversies agamst the herestes, in a certain sense an
internal front and for this reason all the more dangerous,
stimulated the elaboration of a theology which was more and
more refined and more conscious of the unfathomable
profundity of the datum of revelation.

R EA DI NGS

1. The church must not be rent and torn

by strife and discord
(Clement of Rome)

To what purpose are these quarrels, ill tempers, dissensions,

schisms 8 and warfare among you? Do we not have one God and
one Christ and one Spirit of charity which has been poured out
on us, and one calling in Christ? To what purpose are we pulling
apart and tearing asunder the members of Christ? Why do we
rise up against our own body and come to such a state of
madness as to forget that we are members of one another? Be
mindful of the words of Jesus, Our Lord. For he said, «Woe to
that man. It were better for him for a millstone to be bound to
him and to be cast into the sea than to lead astray one of my

8
From the Greek «Schtsma•, a.e «tear, divisaon•

29
Figure of the Savior. The right hand is raised in an oratorical gesture while
the left holds a jeweled book (Rome, Catacom~ of St. Cal list us. Photo Pont.
Comm. Arch.).
 0 1 I · READINGS

chosen ones». 9 Your schism has led many astray, has cast many
into discouragement, many into doubt and all of us into sorrow.
Yet your discord persists!
Take up the letter of blessed Paul, the Apostle. What did he
first write to you at the beginning of his proclamation of the
good news? In truth he sent word to you in the Spirit concerning
himself and Cephas and Apollos, since even then you had been
forming factions. But that faction brought a lesser sin upon you,
for you were inclined towards proven apostles and towards a
man having been approved by them. 10
Let us then root this out quickly. Let us fall down before our
Master and cry out beseeching him, so that being propitious he
may reconcile us and reestablish us in our noble and holy
practice of fraternal love.
Indeed the very gate of righteousness has opened unto life, as
has been written : «Open to me the gates of righteousness and
entering them, I will praise the Lord. This in the Lord's gate; the
just will enter it» (Ps. 117: 19). Although many gates are open,
the one which is open in justice is the one which is in Christ, in
which all are blessed who enter and keep straight their path in
holiness and justice, undisturbedly accomplishing all things. If
there is someone who is a believer, someone who is able to
expound knowledge, wise in the discemement of speeches and
pure in works, it is necessary that he be more humble the more
he is considered to be great, and that he seek the good of all and
not his own good.
(UIItr to the Connthums 46 54 7 4; 48. 1·6)

9
Cf. Lk. 17: 1·2.
10
Clement IS referring to the first lcner wh1ch Paul wrote to the
Connthians berwecn 55 and 57. The church in the commercial center and
cosmo politan city o f Corinth was fervid and gene rous b ut also turbulent (Cf. I
Cor . 1:10·3:4 ).

31
CH. I - READINGS

2. Charity as the heart of relations within the church

(ClementofRome)

Let the one who has the love of Christ carry out the
commands of Christ. Who is able to tell of the bond of the love
of God? Who is sufficient to expound the greatness of His
beauty? The height into which love leads is ineffable. Love joins
us to God, «love covers a multitude of sins» (I Pet. 4:8), love
endures all things, forebears all things; there is nothing base in
love, nothing proud. Love has no division, love does not form
factions, love does all things in concord. In love, all the elect of
God were made perfect. Apart from love, nothing is pleasing to
God. In love, our Master took us to himself. Through the love
which he had for us, Our Lord Jesus Christ, according to the will
of God, gave his blood for us and his flesh for our flesh and his
life for our life.
You see, beloved, how great and marvelous love is, and that
there is no explanation of its perfection. Who is worthy to be
found in it except those whom God rendered worthy? Let us
beseech and ask of His mercy that we may be found in love,
spotless and free from human partiality.
(Letter to the Corinthians, 49: 1- 50:2)

One of the obligatory catecheses in the preparation for

baptism (catechumenate) was the teaching of the two
ways. the way of lzfe (of light, of freedom) and the
way of death (of darkness, of slavery). The former is
pe;fected in the love of God and of neighbor while the
latter destroys man in regard to his dignity, freedom
and truth (readings 3-4)
32
 CH. I . READINGS

3. The way oflight

(The Letter a/Barnabas)

This, then, is the way of light. If someone wishes to travel this

road to the place marked out, let him hasten on by his works.
This, therefore, is the knowledge given us for walking in such a
way:
You will love the one who made you, you will fear the one
who formed you, will glorify the one who ransomed you from
death. You will be simple in heart and rich in spirit. You will not
be joined to those walking in the way of death. You will hate
everything which is not pleasing to God. You will hate all deceit.
You will not forsake the commands of the Lord. You will not
exalt yourself, but will be humble in all circumstances. You will
not attribute glory to yourself, you will not conceive an evil plot
against your neighbor, you will not allow impudence in your
soul.
Do not doubt whether your prayer will be heard. Do not take
the name of the Lord in vain. You will love your neighbor more
than your own life. You will not destroy a child by abortion, nor
in turn will you do away what has been hom.
Do not hold back your hand from your son or your daughter,
but from their youth you will teach them the fear of the Lord.
Do not become desirous of your neighbor's goods. Do not
become greedy. Do not be attached with all your heart to the
haughty, but consott with the just and the humble. Receive all
esperiences which happen to you as being good, knowing that,
without God, nothing comes to pass.
You will share with your neighbor in all things and will not
call anything your own; for if you are sharers in incorruptible
things, how much more in corruptible.
Do not be hasty in speech, for the mouth is a snare of death.
To the extent your are able, you will be pure for your soul's sake.
33
CH I READINGS

Do not be stretching our your hands when it is time to receive

but drawing them together when it is time to give.
You will love as the pupil of your eye everyone who speaks
the word of the Lord to you.
You will be mindful of the day of judgment both day and
night. You will seek each day, either through your speech to
bring a word of encouragement and to strive to save a soul, or
through your hands to work for the ransom of your sins.
You will not hesitate to give nor, having given, will you
boast; you will know who is the just giver of your reward.

Moses causes water to

now from tbe rod. The
water wbic:b sprang
forth minculously In
tbe desert is taken as a
symbol of tbe saving
water of baptism wbic:h
brings new life. (Rome,
Catacombs of Sts. Peter
and Marc:elllnus. Photo
Pont. Comm. Arch.)

34
 0 I I - READINGS

You will guard what you received, neither adding to nor

taking away from it. You will hate evil to the end. You will judge
justly. You will not foment a schism, but you will make peace
and bring enemies together.
You will confess your sins. You will not come to prayer with
an evil conscience.
(The Leiter of Barnabas 19 1-3, 5-6. 8-12)

4. The way of death

(The Didache)

But this is the way of death. First of all, it is evil and filled
with a curse: murders, adulteries, passions, fornications, thefts,
idolatries, magic arts, deeds of sorcery, robberies, false
testimonies, hypocrisies, duplicities, deceit, haughtiness,
wickedness, arrogance, greed, obscene speech, jealousy,
boldness, pride, boasting, lack of reverence. They are persecutors
of good people, hating truth and loving falsehood, who are
ignorant of the reward of justice, who do not adhere to the good
nor to just judgment and who do not keep watch for good but
I for eviL Gentleness and patience are far from them, and they

I
love vain things, run after repayment, do not have mercy on the
poor, are not troubled over the oppressed and do not recognize
their Creator. They are murderers of infants, abortionists of the
creation of God; they turn away the needy and despise the
afflicted. They are the advocates of the rich, the unjust judges of
the poor, persons altogether sinful. May you be delivered, my
children, from all of these.
(The Dzdache, 5)
35
CH I READINGS

5. The Eucharist
(The Didache)

The cup and the bread which is broken

Concerning the Eucharist, give thanks in this manner: First,
concerning the cup: We give you thanks, our Father, for the holy
vine of David your sevant, 11 which you have made known to us
through your servant Jesus. To you be glory through the ages.
Concerning the bread which is broken: We give you thanks,
our Father, for the life and knowledge which you have made
known to us through your servant Jesus. To you be glory
through the ages. As this broken bread was scattered over the
mountains and, having been gathered together, became one, so
may your church be gathered together from the ends of the earth
into you kingdom, for yours is the glory and the power through
Jesus Christ through the ages.
Let no one either eat or drink from your Eucharist except
those baptised in the name of the Lord. For concerning this the
Lord has said, «Do not give what is holy to the dogs» (Mt. 7:6).

«We give you thanks»

After you have eaten your fill, give thanks in this manner: We
give you thanks, holy Father, for your holy name, which you
have made to dwell in our hearts; and for the knowledge, faith
and immortality which you have made known to us through your
servant Jesus. To you be glory through the ages.
You, all-powerful Master, created everything for the sake of
your name. You gave food and drink to men for enjoyment so
that they might give you thanks. But to us you gave spiritual food

11
The expression probably indicates the wine transfo nned into the
E ucharistic species.

36
 0 I I READINGS

and drink and eternal life through your servant Jesus. For all of
these we give you thanks, for you are mighty. To you be glory
through the ages.

«Be mindful ofyour church, 0 Lord»

Be mindful of your church, 0 Lord, to deliver it from all evil
and to perfect it in your love. Gather it together, having been
sanctified, from the four winds into your kingdom which you
have prepared for it; for to you is the power and the glory
through the ages!

Symbolk repre;entatioo or the Eucharist in the form or a banquet (end or 2nd

century). On the table can be seen the cup, a plate with the bread and another
with the fish (Rome, Catacombs or Priscilla. Pboto Pont. Comm. Arch.).

37
CH I Rl.ADINGS

May your grace come and may this world pass away.
Hosanna to the God of David! If anyone is holy, let him
approach. If anyone is not, let him do penance. Maranatha!
Amen.

«On the Lord's Day»

When you have come together on the Lord's Day, 12 break
bread and give thanks, having confessed your sins so that your
sacrifice may be pure. Let everyone who has a quarrel with his
companion not come together with you until they are reconciled,
in order that your sacrifice may not be defiled. For this is what
has been said by the Lord: «ln every place and time a pure
sacrifice is offered to me, for I am a great king and my name is
marvelous among the nations». 13
(TheDuiache, 9 1-106, 14 I J)

6. Founded on an unshakeable faith

(Ignatius)

Ignatius, also known as Theophoros, 14 to the church of God

the Father and of his beloved Son, Jesus Christ, which has been
shown mercy in every gift, filled with faith and love, not lacking
any gift; which is radiant with divine splendor and the bearer of
holy things; to that church which is in Smyrna in Asia, may you
rejoice to the full in a blameless spirit and in the word of God.
I glorify the God Jesus Christ who is making you so wise. I
see that you have been perfected in unshakeable faith, as though
you were nailed in flesh and in spirit to the cross of Our Lord
Jesus Christ, and that you were founded in love in the blood of
Christ. You have a firm faith in Our Lord, that he is truly «of the
race of David according to the flesh» (Rom. 1:3 ), the Son of God
according to the will and power of God; truly begotten of a
38
 01 I - READINGS

virgin, baptized by John in order that all justice might be fulfilled

by him, 15 truly crucified for us in the flesh under Pontius Pilate
and Herod the Tetrarch- &om the &uit of which and &om his
blessed passion we exist - in order that he might raise his
standard through the ages by his resurrection to gather his holy
and faithful ones, whether among the Jews or the Gentiles, in the
one body of his church.
He suffered all these things for us that we might be saved.
He truly suffered them just as he truly raised himself up. It is
not, as certain unbelievers say, that he seemed to have suffered;
they who seem to exist. It will happen to them according to how
they think, to be without bodies and like unto demons.
But I know and believe that he is in the flesh even after his
resurrection. And when he came to those who were with Peter
he said, «Hold me, touch me and see that I am not a bodiless
demon». 16 And immediately they touched him and believed,
apprehending him to be in his flesh and his spirit. On account of
this they scorned death and were found superior to death. After
his resurrection he ate and drank with them as a man of flesh,
although spiritually he was united to the Father.
I recommend these things to you, beloved, knowing that you
also think in this way.
(To the Church at Smyrna, 1-4 I)

12
The Kyn'ake hemera is the day of the Lord's resurrection, i.e. Sunday.
13
Cf. Mal. 1:11, 14.
14 Theophoros means «God beareD. The name which Ignatius has chosen
for himself is the synthesis of his teaching and his religious experience. Jesus
Christ is the beginning and the center of the Christian life. Ignatius speaks of
this constantly and desires to speak of Christ to the hearts of alL
IS Cf. Mt. 3:15.
16
Cf. Lk. 24:39.

39
The Good Shepherd (early Jnl century). This image, whicb Jesus chose for
himself and proposed as an example for all the shepherds or the church,
appears often among early Christian images (Rome, Catacombs of St.
Callistus. Photo Pont. Comm. Arch.).
 01 I . READINGS

7. The unity of the church around the bishop

(Ignatius)

With Ignatius there appears clearly /or the first time that
structure of the local church which subsequently became
the traditional one: the of/ice of bishop, the teacher, gutde
and center of unity of the Chnstian community; and the
offices of the presbyters and the deacons. The btshop ts
conscious of being a dtsciple of Chrtst and of speaking to
the Christians as a fellow dtsdple. They all mutually
exhort and build one another up in faith and charity.
Their center of unity ts Jesus Christ, the one foundation of
the church. For the faithful, the sign of this unity ts their
concord and harmony with the btshop.

It is fitting in every respect to glorify Jesus Christ who

glorified you, so that drawn up in one obedience and subjected
to the bishop and to the presbyterate you may be made holy in
every way.
I do not give you orders as though I were someone. For even
though I have been bound for the sake of the Name, I have not
yet been perfected in Jesus Christ. But now I have made a
beginning of discipleship and I address you as my fellow
disciples. It was necessary that I be anointed by you with faith,
with admonition, with patience and with forebearance. But since
love does not permit me to be silent in your regard, I have taken
advantage of this to exhort you, so that you may be in accord
with the mind of God. For Jesus Christ, our unwavering life, is
the mind of the Father, just as the bishops, who have been
established to the boundaries of the world, are in the mind of
Jesus Christ.
For which reason it is fitting for you to be in accord with the
mind of the bishop, as indeed you are. Your presbyterate, in
41
CH I • READINGS

keeping with its name, is worthy of God and has thus been in
harmony with the bishop as strings with the lyre. On account of
this, by your oneness of mind and your concord in love, Jesus
Christ is being hymned. May you become, each one of you, a
chorus. Since you are in concord in your oneness of mind and
have taken up the melody of God in unity, may you sing in one
voice to the Father through Jesus Christ, in order that He may
hear you and recognize you through your good works as
members of His Son. It is thus useful for you to be always in

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t'~" l'"1"'f<+ vJ.,f.,\(....,<t ,..,, ,<-p·~/..,.1 tu~,
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ir•~ t\trl<' -»•PJ:I,'.:T /,...,-y .<,,"'c. Letter to the Ephesians.
Manuscript of the 11th
century (Bibl. Ap. Vat.,
Reg. gr. JO, fol. 16lv).
 Ql I - READINGS

irreproachable unity, so that you may always participate in God.

If I in a brief time have entered into such fellowship, which is
not human but spiritual, with your bishop, how much more do I
consider you blessed who are so closely united to him as is the
church to Jesus Christ and Jesus Christ to the Father, so that
everything may be in concord in unity. Let no one be deceived.
Unless one is within the sanctuary, he is deprived of the bread of
God. If the prayer of two people possesses such strength, how
much more does that of the bishop and of the entire church?
(Letter to the Ephesians, 2:2-52)

8. «I proclaim to all that I am dying willingly for God»

(Ignatius)

At Smyrna, on the first stage of his journey to Rome,

Ignatius wrote four of his letters. One of them was
addressed to the Romans. He was afraid that the Roman
Christians, moved by charity, might attempt and succeed
in commuting his sentence and thus depn"ve him of his
final encounter with God. Throughout the entire letter
there emerges the vivid, sincere and original image of a
great Christian on the vigil ofhis martyrdom.

I am writing to all the churches and am proclaiming to all

that I am dying willingly for Christ, if only you do not hinder me.
I plead with you, do not be of an untimely benevolence towards
me. Allow me to be the food of wild beasts, through whom it is
possible to reach God. I am God's wheat and I am being ground
by the teeth of the wild beasts in order that I may be found as
Christ's pure bread. Petition Christ on my behalf, that through
these instruments I may appear as a sacrifice for God.
The joys of this world and the kingdoms of this age profit me
43
Rome. The Interior of the Flavian Amphitheater, or Colo!iseum. In this
symbol of the greatness or imperial Rome were often held the contests
presented for public entertainment In whkb gladiators, slaves and at times,
during the persecutions, Christians were featured.
 CH. I READINGS

nothing. It is better for me to die for the sake of Christ Jesus

than to rule over the ends of the earth. I seek him who died for
us; I desire him who arose for our sake. The birth pangs are
upon me. 17 Understand me, brothers. Neither hinder me from
living nor desire that I die. Do not give to the world the man
who wants to beJong to God; do not deceive him with material
things. Let me grasp the pure light. When I have arrived there, I
will be a man. Allow me to be an imitator of the suffering of my
God. If someone has God within him, let him understand what I
desire and let him have compassion on me, knowing that which
oppresses me.
The ruler of this age wishes to snatch me away and to corrupt
my mind, which is directed towards God. Let no one of you who
are there aid him, but rather be on my side; that is, on the side of
God. Do not be proclaiming Jesus Christ, but desiring the world.
May envy not dwell in your midst. Do not be persuaded by me if
I should plead with you when I am present. Be persuaded,
rather, by these things which I am writing to you. I, who am
writing to you while I Uve, am yearning to die.
My earthly desire has been crucified, and there is in me no
fire for material things. But there is a living water in me which
speaks and says within me, «Come to the Father». I do not take
pleasure in the food of corruption nor in the delights of this life.
I desire the bread of God; that is, the flesh of Jesus Christ of the
seed of David. As drink, I desire his blood, which is
incorruptible love.
I no longer desire to live the life of men. That will come to
pass, if only you will wish it. Do wish it, so that you also may be
found favorable. I am entreating you in a few words. Believe me.
Jesus Christ, the truthful mouth in which the Father has spoken

17
The day of martyrdom is the dtes notolu (day of birth into the Kingdom
of Heaven) for the martyr.

45
CH I READINGS

in truth, will make it clear to you that I am speaking the truth.

Intercede for me, that I may obtain this. I do not write to you
according to the flesh, but according to the mind of God. If I
suffer, you felt affection for me. If I be rejected, you hated me.
(Letter to the Romans, 4 · l-2, 6: 1-8:3 )
 Chapter 0

The Apologists
present the reasons for their faith

161 Marcus Aurelius emperor Martyrdom

of JUSTIN
TATIAN
MELITO OF SARDIS
...-1-60- '-200
---.1 11-IE LETTER TO
1. ' . DIOGNETUS
177 the martyrs of Lyons
19 3 Septimius Severus emperor
The spread or Christianity in the second century. The Apologists opposed the
reaction of the pagan state by cootestiog the KCUSations, empham:ing the
contradictions of pagan religion and philosophy and expounding the true
Christian doctrine.
 Oi II TilE APOLOGISTS

1. Who are the Apologists?

The Apologists take their name from the Greek word

apologia, which means «defense». They took up the pen to
defend the new Christian religion from the accusations and
attacks of the surrounding pagan society. They were able to carry
out this defense with all the more success inasmuch as they were
themselves almost always converts from paganism. By defending
their new religious confession, the Apologists, pagan intellectuals
who had converted to Christianity, intended at the same time to
justify their own conversion to themselves and others and to
offer adequate and cogent reasons for it on the plane of moral
choice and philosophical research. But why, one may ask, was it
necessary to defend Christianity and from what specific
accusations?

2. The accusations against the Christians

The accusations brought from various sides against the

followers of the Christian religion were diverse in nature and
kind. Popular prejudice, always suspicious in the face of little
known and poorly understood novelties, ddighted in vulgar and
superficial calumnies. The Christians were accused sometimes of
cannibalism, inasmuch as they allegedly fed on the flesh of a
child - To such an extent was the doctrine of the Eucharist
misunderstood and misrepresented! - sometimes of incest on
account of the reciprocal love between brothers and sisters, and
sometimes even of «atheism>> because of their total disregard for
the gods of the traditional pagan religion. To the accusation of
«atheism», which sounds paradoxical to modem ears, were
added the accusations of political subversion and, in general, of
immorality. In short, in the eyes of pagan public opinion the
Christians appeared as a destabilizing social element which
49
CH. Il - TilE APOLOGISTS

endangered the traditional religion and, along with it, the

political and economic prosperity of the empire. Who knows
how much hatred was stirred up among the butchers as they saw
their own prosperity placed in jeopardy by good Christians who
refused to eat meat which had been sacrificed to pagan idols.
As is usual in such instances, fear was added to the distrust
and ignorance, and this fear generated the hatred which
unJeashed the flood of persecution and ostracism.

3 . The polemic against the pagans

In order to break this devilish cycle, the Apologists came

forward for the primary purpose of making the true contents of
Christianity known in an objective manner and, in this way, of
discrediting the dangerous prejudices surrounding them.
However, the polemic against the pagans was not limited to
combatting the vuJgar calumnies and crude insinuations of the
common people. It was aimed also at a higher level on which it
intended to respond to more sophisticated objections which were
of an intellectual and philosophical nature and thus were more
dangerous.
Around 178, the professional intellectual and philosopher
Celsus collected a whole series of objectons against Christianity.
His attack was taken up on an even larger scale by the
philosopher Porphyry around 270 and by the emperor JuJian the
Apostate in the fourth century. This attack, which has been
called the «pagan reaction» to Christianity, gave rise to a rich
apologetic literature, the beginnings of which are located
precisely in the second century.

50
 CJ I. ll 11-IE APOLOGISTS

4. J ustin, the man of dialogue

The greatest apologist of this period, and rightly the most

famous, is undoubtedly the philosopher Justin. A native of
Sichem (modern Nablus) in Palestine, he spent a large part of his
life in a long, restless search for the truth. He passed through
numerous philosophical schools, all of which left him dissatisfied.
Finally, he arrived at Christianity, which was revealed to him by
a mysterious old man as the only, true and definitive philosophy
which saves man; the complete philosophy incarnate in Jesus of
Nazareth.
At Rome, the imperial capital where ideas and cultural
currents flowed in from every comer of the Mediterranean
world, Justin, now a Christian, opened a school of philosophy
where he accepted persons wishing to deepen their
understanding of Christianity. It was during those years that he
addressed to the emperor Antoninus Pius his Apology (ca. 155),
which is a classic of its genre. It presented the new religion in
philosophical terms, which must certainly have attracted the

l
The inscription of M.A.
·MAG ·fTlNVICtO .., Sabinianus to tbe
lMPCAfSMAVRllliOANTQb.liNO emperor Antooinus,
called •Pius• for his
Pm'fHA.VCP~lHICiAAX.J~ gentleness, rectitude
RRlT MA~ERA?MAx PONT . and wisdom. During his
reign there was no lack
MAXTJURPOTXVriiMrlllCOSiffi.' of Christian martyrs,
. ~ PROCOS tbe best known of wbom
MAS~ ABINlANVSVCORINSIGNIM was Polycarp (Rome,
Catacombs of St.
l~'t~~ ~f!_\IAq_VijlV~lt~.Sf Callistus, Photo Pont.
., Comm. Arcb.).
51
'
Ephesus. Remains of the public library. Justin's conversion probably took
p~ in this city, which was the seat of a thriving Chmtian community.
 CH. IT- THE APOLOGISTS

interest and sympathy of an emperor who boasted of being a

patron of philosophy, and invited the imperial authorities in
peremptory tones to behave in a juridically more correct manner
towards the Christians. There is no dearth of important
information concerning both the internal life of the Christian
community, especially with regard to the liturgical initiation into
the community and the incipient polemic against the Gnostic
heresy.
Justin, who paid for his fidelity to Christianity with
martyrdom on account of the jealousy of the pagan philosopher
Crescentius, appears on the whole to have assimilated well the
highest values of Greek civilization. If, for Justin, the Incarnation
of Christ revealed all of truth in a definitive and comprehensive
manner, it nevertheless remained true that the greatest minds of
ancient paganism, such as Socrates and Plato, had gained some
insight, at least, of partial verities, the «seeds» of the Word.
Therefore, between ancient philosophy and Christianity there
existed, according to Justin, the relationship of the part to the
whole in the substantial continuity of the revelation of the truth
by one and the same divine Word.
With his Apology, Justin sought to establish a bridge between
Christianity and ancient civilization in its more acceptable forms.
At the same time, however, he was bold enough to propose
precise suggestions of a practical nature. To the pagan emperor,
Justin threw up the possibility, and in a certain sense the
necessity, that the Christians, far from constituting an element of
unrest in the social life of the Roman state, were actually the
most trustworthy and faithful allies of the government inasmuch
as their strict and severe morality constituted the spiritual mortar
of which pagan society showed such dire need. The Christians
thus showed themselves to be the true guarantors of the
established order and the best subjects of the emperor. The
emperor, for his part, ought to renounce the absurd pretense of
taking the place of the divinity and demanding divine honors.
53
CH. II - THE APOLOGISTS

Justin displays the same firmness accompanied by the same

sense of respect in the other of his great works which has come
down to us, the Dialogue with Trypho the few, in which is
developed a detailed discussion on the interpretation of the
messianic texts of the Old Testament.

5. Tatian's harsh polemic

The Discourse to the Greeks of Tatian, a disciple of Justin at

Rome, is radically different. As a native of distant Syria, from
which he had absorbed a profound resentment for the
civilization of the Greek conquerors, Tatian showed himself
much more intransigent than his master in the face of classical
philosophy and all that the Greek world had produced in the
course of the centuries. Pagan civilization was nothing else than
the degradation of the original perfection which Christianity, the
«barbarian» philosophy as he liked to call it, had now come to
restore.
Tatian's intransigent attitude and his refusal of any
ideological and cultural compromise carried over to the area of
sexual ethics. After the death of Justine (167), Tatian, adhering
to the current of strict asceticism known also as «encratism», 1
ended up by condemning marriage and procreation, which he
considered to be works of the devil. After his break with the
Roman community, which did not recognize these teachings as
orthodox, Tatian had no choice but to return to his native Syria.
There he composed a Hannony o/ the Gospels which enjoyed
enormous popularity, thanks above all to its incorporation into
the liturgy.

1
From the greek enkrateia, meaning <<self-control, renunciation, ascesis».

54
 CH II - THE APOLOGISTS

6. Other second-century Apologists

In a certain sense, T atian was an exception in the panorama

of the Greek apologists of the second century; the exception
which confirms the rule of an apologetic stance which was always
rigid and intransigent in its principles, yet ever ready to try the
pratical routes of pacification and collaboration with the empire.
This was the direction taken by such writers as Aristides,
Athenagoras and Theophilus of Antioch, who composed
propaganda in favor of the official recognition of Christianity.
While Theophilus dwells at length in the books To Autolycus on
an interpretation of Christianity which stresses its anteriority in
respect to pagan civilization, Athenagoras, in his Supplication on
Behalf of the Christians addressed to Marcus Aurelius, does not
hesitate to define the great poets and philosophers of classical
Greece such as Euripides and Plato as «monotheists» and thus
legitimate precursors of the Christian creed.

7. Melito of Sardis
and the beginnings of «political theology>>

The author most consistent in his search for a compromise

with imperial institutions was undoubtedly Melito, bishop of
Sardis in Asia Minor. Unfortunately, only a few fragments of his
Apology, which was addressed to Marcus Aurelius around 170,
have survived in Eusebius of Caesarea's Ecclesiastical History.
Melito is the first Christian apologist known to us who
openly declared the existence of a true convergence of interests
betwen the church and the Roman Empire along the lines
inaugurated by Justin. In fact, explained Melito, Christianity and
the Roman Empire were born together since Christ came into
the world at the time of Augustus, the founder of the empire,
55
The ruins or Sardis, the ancient capital of Lydia. Tbe city bad been famous as
a wealthy capital in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C., especially during the
reign or Croesus.
 0~ II Tifl:. APOLOGISTS

and they flourished as fraternal twins since the good of the one
coincided with the good of the other. Because of this, it was only
the bad emperors such as Nero and Domjtian, disliked by the
pagans themselves, who had dared to persecute the true religion!
These ideas subsequently enjoyed great success and from the
beginning of the fourth century they constituted the basis for the
development of a «political theology» in whjch a providential
role came to be attributed to the Roman Empire as guarantor
and champion of the spread of Christianity. Times mellowed
with the «Constantinian Revolution» and it is no accident that
fragments of Melito's Apology were used again by Eusebius of
Caesarea, the first great theorist of Constantinjan political
theology.
Among the many works of Melito whjch were lost almost in
their entirety through the course of the centuries, one of
exceptional importance, the Paschal Homily, was brought to Light
only about forty years ago. It is a homily preached during a vigil
of Quanodecirnan Easter, i.e. Easter celebrated on the fiXed date
of the night between 14 and 15 Nisan according to the ancient
apostolic tradition of Asia Minor. It is the most ancient Christian
Easter homily known and allows some insight into the
theological and liturgical characteristics of an Easter celebration,
such as that of the Quartodecimans, which have been lost in the
darkness of time. The homily is developed as a long exegesis of
chapter 12 of the Book of Exodus in order to show how the
Lord, through his death on the cross, conquered death in order
to liberate believers from death and sin. Christ's passover, in
which he suffered, has become the «passover of our salvation».

57
Cll n · TilE APOLOGISTS

8. The apology To Diognetus:

The Christians are the ..soul of the world•

It is impossible to conclude this rapid presentation of the

Greek apologists of the second century without mentioning an
anonymous work which justly has been defined as «the pearl of
Christian antiquity». Known as the Letter to Diognetus (although
it clearly is not a letter and could be more precisd y called the
Apology to Diognetus), it is addressed to a certain Diognetus
whose identity remains unknown in spite of the numerous
proposals advanced by scholars. The work was composed
between 160 and 200 and has remained justly renouned for the
simplicity and loftiness of its thoughts on Christianity. After
criticizing pagan idolatry and Jewish ritualism, the author
explains to his reader the true nature of the Christian rdigion by

Tbe inscription of Abericius (Asia

Minor, end or second Cftltury)
testifies to faith in tbe EucllarN
and speaks or tbe primacy or tbe
bishop of Rome, of Mary's
virginity and or tbe ef'ficacy or
prayers for tbe deaased. Witb
regard to tbe EucllarN it reads,
• Everywhere faltb led tbe way and
set before me for food tbe fiSh
from tbe spring (Eucharistic
symbol of Cbrbt), mighty and
pure, wbom a spodess virgin
caught, and gave tbls to friends to
eat, always having sweet wine and
gjving tbe milled cup with
bread •.. • .

58
 Of rJ TiiE APOLOGISTS

means of an intelligent selection of themes and motifs taken from

the letters of Paul and the writings of John (Gospel and First
Letter). In this sense, there is a striking resemblance to certain
passages of the Easter homily of Melito of Sardis.
According to the author of the apology to Diognetus,
Christians are like all other people with regard to the habits and
customs of this world. Neverthdess, they differ from the rest of
humanity by the specific function of being for the world that
which the soul is for the body: the guide and suppon. The
Christians are (or at least ought to be) the «soul of the world».
The birth and spread of Christianity, this new religion of love,
has been willed from eternity in the «mystery» of God and the
persecutions of the pagans, far from destroying it, have
paradoxically multiplied the numbers of its followers.

9. Conclusion

The Apologists, naturally, are not only the ecclesiastical

authors listed to this point. The title rightly extends also to all
the Fathers of the Church, from Origen to Augustine, who
through several centuries composed both defenses of Christianity
from the assaults of paganism and polemical and critical works
attacking the beliefs and institutions of that same paganism.
The Fathers of the Church who took up the pen to combat
erroneous doctrines and the mistaken interpretations of the
heretics are defined not as apologists but as controversialists.
Heresy 2 involves a break, a rending in the very body of the
church and for that reason constitutes an element of particular
danger for its life. One special type of heresy, Docetism, turned

2 From the G reek harrtsu, meaning «chol~». Every heresy contains a

kemal o f truth. Its limits consist in the absolutizing of this part of the truth, in
its particularity.

59
CH D · THE APOLOGISTS

up already in the collection of Ignatius' letters. In the course of

the second century these heretical tendencies appeared with
greater force and called forth a notable theological effott on the
part of orthodox authors.
The Gnostic crisis profoundly marked all Christian thought
of the second • and third centuries and produced a rich
heresiological literature into which was poured the best of
ancient ecclesiastical tradition. This literature still constitutes
today the irreplaceable source for a knowledge of those ancient
religious struggles and for an understanding of the toil in action
and thought which enriched the Christian consciousness in
antiquity.

60
 Gl D - READINGS

R EA DI NGS

The Christians of the first three centuries had to contend

with the reality that the emperor was the «supreme
pontiffi>. The state, in the person of its head, the emperor,
took over the nght to regulate the relzgious lz/e of its
citizens. In addition, there was the «cult of the emperor»,
the adoration of the head of the state as the savior of his
subjects. The two texts presented here express the
Christians' loyalty to the Roman state, but also their
refusal to adore the emperor as a god and to swear by his
«genius», i.e. his guardian spirit as ruler. God alone is the
All-Powerful and to Him alone is due the total devotion
of the heart. Political authon'ty is acknowledged, but is
given a new dimension. The acknowledgment of God the
Father is the foundation of the equality and the liberty of
all people (Readings 1-2).

1. Give to Caesar that which is Caesar's

(justin )

We seek everywhere to pay tributes and taxes to those who

are set over us, as we have been taught by Him. For at that time
some people came and were asking him if it was necessary to pay
tribute to Caesar. And he aswered, «Tell me, whose image does
the coin bear?». They said, «Caesar's». And again he answered
them, «Then give to Caesar that which is Caesar's and to God
that which is God's» (Mt. 22 :20-21).
Wherefore we worship God alone. But as. regards other
things, we joyfully serve you, recognize you as king and ruler of
61
Baptismal sane: the priest is plllc.ing his band oa the bald of the one being
bapdad, wbo is standiDg In a small sb'am of water. The fnquent
repraeotatioas of bapCiml in the early ceatwirs of C1riltianlty testify to the
lmportuc:e of the SKra~Da~t (Rome, Catacombs of Peter and Marttlllnus.
Pboto Pont. Comm. Arch.).
 Cll n . READINGS

men and pray that, along with the royal power, you may have a
wise disposition.
But if you will despise us praying and disposing of alJ things
in public, we will suffer no wrong. We believe, or rather we are
convinced that each one, according to the merit of his deeds, will
make just retribution in eternal fire and will have to render an
account to God according to the faculties he received. As Christ
proclaimed, «From the one to whom God has given more, more
will be demanded)> (Lk. 12:48).
(Apology I 17)

2. The emperor is not GOO

(Theophilus of Antioch)

Therefore I will honor the ruler instead, not worshiping him

but praying for him. But I will worship the God who is the real
and true God, knowing that the ruler has been made by Him.
But you will say to me, <<Why do you not worship the ruler?)>.
Because he has not been made to be worshiped, but to be
revered with lawful honor. He is not God, but is a man who has
been established by God not to be worshiped but to judge justly.
(To Autolycus I /1 )

3. Baptism: Washing, rebirth, iUumination

(justin)

justin 's testimony concemmg baptrsm is of prime

importance on account of its antiquity and clarity. Baptism
is not a magic rite, but is bound to the faith and the
conversion both of the one who receives it and of the
entire community. Thrs is ali the more apparent when
63
Cll II READINGS

baptism is administered to adults, as was the practice in

the early days of the church.
Chnstians are members at the same time of civil society
and of the People of God. They belong to their own
country by birth, education, culture and society. However,
they also belong to Christ inasmuch as they have been
reborn in the church through faith and baptzsm. In this
way, renewed in life and works, they may belong to
Chnst and in Christ everything may be subject to God. 3

I will explain by what manner we, who have been renewed

by Christ, have dedicated ourselves to God, so that we may not
seem to be acting wickedly in our explanation by leaving this
out. All those who are convinced and believe that the things we
teach and say are true, and who profess to be able to live in this
manner, are taught to pray and to ask of God in fasting the
forgiveness of their sins while we pray and fast together with
them. Then they are led by us to where there is water and are
reborn in the same rebirth in which we ourselves were also
reborn. They undergo the washing in water in the name of God
the Father and Master of the universe, and of our Savior, Jesus
Christ, and of the Holy Spirit.
For indeed Christ said, «Unless you be reborn, you will not
enter into the Kingdom of Heaven». 4 Now it is clear to all that
it is impossible for those who have already been born to return
again into their mothers' wombs. As we wrote previously, it has
been said through Isaiah the prophet how those who have sinned
and repented will avoid the consequences of their sins. For thus
was it said, «Wash, make yourselves clean, remove the evils from
your souls, defend the orphan and do justice for the widow; and

3
Cf. Vatican Council 11, Ad gentes 21.
• Cf. John 3:3-6; Mt. 18:3.
64
 CH II READINGS

come let us converse together, says the Lord. And if your sins are
like purple, I will make them white like wool; and if they are like
scarlet, I will make them white as snow. But if you do not listen
to me, a sword will devour you, for the mouth of the Lord has
spoken these things>>. 5
We learned this doctrine from the Apostles. In our first birth
we were born unconscious, according to necessity, out of the
humid seed from the intercourse of our parents, and we grew up
in evil customs and bad habits. But in order that we may not
remain children of necessity and ignorance, but of election and
understanding and may obtain remission of sins previously
committed, the name of God the Father and Master of the
universe is invoked in the water over the one who has chosen to
be reborn and who has repented of his sins. This name alone is
the one which he invokes who is leading the candidate to the
washing. Indeed no one is able to pronounce the name of the
ineffable God. If someone would dare to say what it is, he would
be seized with incurable madness.
This washing is called «enlightenment>>, since those who have
learned these things are enlightened in their minds. The one
being illuminated is washed in the name of Jesus Christ, who was
crucified under Pontius Pilate, and in the name of the Holy
Spirit, who through the prophets foretold all these things
regarding Jesus.
(Apology 1.6])

5
Cf. Is 1·16-20.

65
Tbe Last Supper. A precious miniatun from tbe Codex of Rossano, an
Evangelistary from tbe 6th century. From tbe beginning, tbe Christian
communities came together to repeat and raider' praeot Jesus' gesture in tbe
• breaking oftbe brad· (Pboto Pont. Comm. Arch.).
 Cll n · READINGS

4 . The celebration of the Eucharist

(justin)

The Eucharist is the other sacrament which especially

occupied the attention of the Christians of the first
centuries. In this beaull/ul page of justin, there emerge
the connection of Eucharist with faith and Baptism, the
essential reference to the historical Jesus, the fundamental
structure (the liturgy of the word and the great eucharistic
prayer), the simplicity and spontaneity of the celebration
and the strong bond between Eucharist and charity in
providing /or the poor in their need. According to a
tradition going back to the Apostles, the church celebrates
the paschal mystery every week on the day known as the
«Lord's Day». On that day the Christians come together
to listen to the word of God and to share in the Eucharist,
giving thanks to God who has given them new birth to a
living hope through the resurrection a/Jesus Christ. 6

Communion in the Body and Blood of Christ

It is allowed to no one else to participate in that food which
we call Eucharist except the one who believes that the things
taught by us are true, who has been cleansed in the washing unto
rebirth and the forgiveness of sins and who is living according to
the way Christ handed on to us. For we do not take these things
as ordinary bread or ordinary drink. Just as our Savior Jesus
Christ was made flesh by the word of God and took on flesh and
blood for our salvation, so also were we taught that the food, for
which thanksgiving has been made through the word of prayer
instituted by him, and &om which our blood and flesh are

6
Cf. Vatican Council II, Sacrosanct urn concilium 106.

67
CH II READINGS

nourished after the change, is the flesh of that Jesus who was
made flesh. Indeed, the Apostles, in the records left by them
which are called gospels, handed on that it was commanded to
them in this manner: Jesus, having taken bread and given thanks
said, «Do this in memory of me, this is my body». Likewise,
having taken the cup and given thanks, he said, «This is my
blood», and he gave it to them alone.7

The Sunday assembly

Furthermore, after this we always remind one another of
these things. Those who have the means aid those who are
needy, and we are always united. Over everything which we take
to ourselves we bless the Creator of the universe through His
Son Jesus Christ and through the Holy Spirit.
On the day called after the sun 8 there is a meeting for which
all those dwelling in the cities or in the countryside come
together. The records of the Apostles or the writings of the
prophets are read as long as time allows. When the reader has
stopped, the one who is presiding admonishes and encourages us
by a sermon to the imitation of those good examples.
Then we all stand up together and lift up our prayers and, as
I said previously, when we have finished our prayer, bread is
brought forth and wine and water. The one who is presiding
offers up prayers and thanksgiving according to his abiliry and
the people acclaim their assent with «Amen». There is the
distribution of and participation on the part of each one in the
gifts for which thanks has been offered, and they are sent to
those who are not present through the deacons.

7
Cf. Lk. 22 19-20; Mt. 26:28, I Cor. 1123-25
8
Sunday denves from the pagan name for that day which, for the
Christians, became the «Lord's Day», i.e. the day of Christ's resurrection.

68
 01 D • RF.ADrNGS

The prosperous and those who are willing give what each
wishes according to his own decision. What is collected is put
aside with the one who presides, and he aids the orphans and
widows, those who are in need on account of sickness or some
other cause, prisoners and foreigners who are staying with us. In
a word, he is the protector of all who are in need. 9
We all come together on the day of the sun since it is the first
day, on which God changed darkness and matter and made the
world. On that day, Jesus Christ our Savior arose from the dead.
They crucified him on the day preceding that of Saturn, 10 and
on the day of the sun he appeared to his Apostles and disciples
and taught them these things which we have presented also to
you for inspection.
!Apology I 66 67)

5. It was Nero and Domitian

wbo decided to accuse the Christians
(Melito a/Sardis)

Our philosophy 11 earlier flourished among the barbarians,

then it blossomed among the peoples subject to you during the
great rule of your ancestor, Augustus, and has become above all
in your reign an auspicious good. Since then, in fact, the power
of the Romans has increased in magnitude and brilliance. You

9
This refel"li to the fund for the poor. Eusebius states that at Rome in 2~0
tht~ fund provided for the suppon of 1,500 persons.
10
The «Day of Sarum» corresponds to our Saturday.
11
The early Christians used tht~ term in reference to the Christian
revelation (following the example of Philo, who had applted the term
«philosophy,. tO the Bible). «Our philosophy,. is thus the equtvalent of «Our
religion».

69
Cll U JU:.ADI_-.:G-"''S;___ _ _ _ _ _ __
---------
are the longed-for successor of these things and will remain so
with your son, guarding the philosophy which arose together
with Augustus, which has grown up along with the empire and
which your ancestors honored alongside the other religions.
This is a great sign of its goodness, that our teaching
flou rished together with the felicitous commencement of the
empire and that, since the rule of Augustus, nothing evil has
occurred. On the contrary, everything has been splendid and
glorious according to the prayers of all.
Only Nero and Domitian, incited by certain slanderous men,
wished to place our teaching under accusation. From their time

The CI'05Sing of tbe Red Sea. Tbe crossing or tbe sa, tbe frontier or fnedom
for the l.snelites, became a figure of beptism (d . I Cor. 10:2). Tbe CbriWans
colllJ'Mmorated it oo tbe night of E&1ter together with tbe liberating sacrifice
of Cbrbt, the Passover Lamb (Rome, Catacombs in Via D. C001pagnl. Pboto
Po nt. Comm. Arcb.).

70
 U I H . READINGS

it has happened that the lie of the false accusation concerning us

has run on by an irrational habit. But your pious ancestors have
set straight their ignorance and often have reproved in writing
those who dared to innovate concerning the Christians. Of these,
your grandfather Hadrian appears to have written, among many
others, also to Fundanus, the proconsul governing Asia. Your
father, too, when you were administering everything together
with him, wrote to the cities that no innovations were to be made
concerning us. Among those to whom he wrote were the citizens
of Larissa, the Thessalonians, the Athenians and all the Greeks.
Even more are we convinced, since you are of the same mind as
they concerning the Christians and even more benevolent and
wise, that you will do all we are asking you.
!Apology to Marcus Aureftus)

6. Jesus Christ, the Passover of our salvation

(Melito a/Sardis)

Salvation in the Bzble (and thus in the Fathers) rs

interpreted according to the model of the Exodus, the first
experience of salvation for the People of God. For Israel,
it was an exodus from oppression and /ear in order to
enter into a mw convenant with God; a lzberatzon /rom
slavery in order to /omt a new people. The Passover of
Christ is the radical liberation from evil, sin and,
ultimately, death in order to live a new lzfe of freedom
and charity.

Many and various things were announced by many of the

prophets concerning the mystery of the Passover, which is
Christ, «to whom be glory through the ages. Amen» (Gal. 1:5).
He, who arrived &om the heavens on the earth for the sake
71
Cll II READINGS

of suffering man, clothed himself with that very same man

through a virgin mother and came forth a man. He took to
himself the sufferings of suffering man through a body capable of
suffering and he destroyed the sufferings of the flesh. By means
of a spirit incapable of dying, he killed homicidal death.
Indeed, he was led like a lamb and slaughtered like a sheep.
He ransomed us from the service of the world as from the land
of Egypt, and he freed us from slavery to the devil as from the
hand of Pharaoh. He sealed our souls with his own spirit and the
members of our body with his own blood. He is the one who
clothed death in shame and the devil in mourning as Moses did
to Pharaoh. He it is who smote lawlessness and deprived
injustice of its progeny, as Moses did to Egypt.
He is the one who delivered us from slavery into freedom,
from tyranny into an eternal kingdom. He has made us a new
priesthood and a special people forever. 12 He is the passover of
our salvation.
Although Lord, he clothed himself with man and suffered on
account of him who was suffering, was bound on account of him
who was being conquered, was judged on account of the one
condemned and was buried on account of him who had been
buried.
He arose from the dead and cried out in a loud voice, «Who
is making accusation against me? Let him stand before me. I
have set the condemned free. I have given life to the dead. I raise
up him who is buried. Who contradicts me?». «l», he says, «am
the Christ. I am the one who destroyed death, who triumphed

12
The People of God is a «pnestly people• whtch is called to be the
spokesman of humanity before God by gathering together and expressing the
p rayers, anxieties, hopes and expectations of all people. It is to be a witness and
a messenger of God before men by announcing and showing fo rth the love of
God which saves and sets free (Ex. 19:6; l Pet 2:9; Rev. 5·10). Cf Vatican
Council II , Lumen ?,enllum 10.

72
 CH ll READINGS

over the enemy, who trampled down Hades, who bound the
strong o ne and who snatched man into the heights of the
heavens. I , the Christ».
«Come, now, all you fam ilies of men who have been steeped
in sin and receive forgiveness of your sins. For I am your
forgiveness, I am the passover of salvation, I am the lamb who
was slain for you. I am your ransom , I am your life, I am your
resu rrection. I am your Light, your salvation, your king. I lead
you up into the heights of heaven. I will show you the Eternal
Father. I will raise you up by my right hand».
(Easter Homtly 65 69a, 100-/03)

7. The Christians in the world

(The Letter to Dzognetus)

For the Christians are distinguished neither by country, by

language nor by customs from the rest of men. They do not
anywhere inhabit their own proper cities, nor do they make use

The funeral inscription

or Theodore decorated
witb a fish. It reads,
• We Uve in Gocl-. 'lbe
fish was a common
symbol among the early
C hristians. 'lbe letters
or the Greek word for
fish (1-Ch-Tb-Y-8) were
the initials or their
profession of faith
(Jesus-C brist-Soo~f­
God-Savior). (Rome,
Catacombs or Prticilla.
Photo Pont. Comm.
Arch.).

73
CH. 11 - READINGS

of a different dialect nor do they lead a special type of life. This

teaching of theirs has not been discovered by the design and
thought of inquisitive men. They do not champion a human
opinion as do others. But they inhabit Greek and barbarian cities
as is each one's lot, and, while following the local customs in
dress, food and the rest of their life, they manifest the amazing
and confessedly incredible manner of their society.
They dwell in their own countries, but as strangers; they
participate in all things as citizens and endure all things as
foreigners. Every foreign land is their homeland and every
homeland is foreign to them. They marry as everyone does and
give birth, but they do not cast their newborn infants away. They
serve themselves from a common table, but not a common
marriage bed. They live in the flesh but not according to the
flesh. They pass their life on earth, but have their citizenship in
heaven. They obey the established laws and by their own lives
they vanquish the law.
They love all people and are persecuted by all. They are
unknown yet are condemned, are put to death yet are made to

Tbe peacock was a

symbol of immortality.
Tbe illustration sbows a
detail of tbe mosaic
pavement or tbe paleo-
christian basilica or
Aquileia (4th cent.).
(Photo Pont. Comm.
Arc h.).

74
 Cll U - READIN!;S

live. They are poor, yet enrich many; they are lacking all things
yet abound in all things. They are dishonored and in dishonor
they are glorified. They are slandered yet they are justified, they
are insulted yet they bless, they are maltreated yet they return
honor. Although they do good, they are punished as evil and
when they are punished they rejouce as though they are being
made to live. The Jews battle them as strangers, the Greeks
persecute them and those who hate them are not able to say the
cause of their hostility.
To put it simply, that which the soul is in the body, the
Christians are in the world. The soul has been spread through aU
the members of the body and the Christians through the cities of
the world. The soul dwells in the body but is not of the body and
the Christians dwell in the world but are not of the world. The
invisible soul in guarded in the visible body and the Christians
are known to be in the world, although their service of God
remains invisible. The flesh, although it has never been wronged,
hates and wars against the soul since it hinders the enjoyment of
its pleasures. Likewise the world, though it has never been
wronged, hates the Christians, for they are drawn up against its
pleasures.
The soul loves the flesh and its members which hate it and
the Christians love those who hate them. The soul has been
enclosed in the body yet it holds the body together, and although
the Christians are held in the world as in a prison, they
nevertheless hold the world together. The soul, though immortal,
inhabits a mortal dwelling, and the Christians dwell among
corruptible things while awaiting incorruptibility in heaven. The
soul, maltreated with regard to food and drink, grows better, and
the Christians, when they are being chastised, grow more
numerous each day. God has placed them in so great a post,
which it is not licit for them to abandon.
(The Leiter to Diognetus 5-6)

75
CH II · READINGS

8. Charity
(The Letter to Diop,netus )

Indeed, God loved men. He made the world on their

account, subjected to them all things on the earth, gave them
reason and intelligence and permitted to them alone to look up
to heaven. He formed them according to His own image, sent
them His Only-Begotten Son and promised them the kingdom in
heaven which He will give to those who have loved Him.
With what joy do you imagine you will be filled since you
have known this? Or how will you love the one who has first
loved you so? When you have loved Him, you will be an imitator
of His goodness. Do not be amazed if a man is able to become
an imitator of God. He is able if he wishes. Happiness is not
lording over one's neighbors, getting the best of the weak,
growing rich nor doing violence to inferiors, nor is one able to
imitate God in these things, but these are foreign to His majesty.
Whoever takes up his neighbor's burden, who, in that in which
he is stronger, desires to benefit the less fortunate, who ministers
to the needy the things he has received from God; he is a god for
those who receive from him. Such a one is an imitator of God.
(The l..eller to D10gnetus, 102-6)

76
 Chapter m

The anti-Gnostic reaction

and the defense of Apostolic Tradition

161 Marcus Aurelius emperor

~
IRENAEUS
177 The Martyr.; of Lyons bishop of Lyons

Controversy over
~ the date of Easter
202 Persecuuon
of Septimius Sevenrs
! 2001235 1 HlPPOLYTUS OF ROME
235 Persecuuon
of Maximmus Thrax

77
lreoaeus came to Lyoos from Asia Minor. His name city was almost certainly
Smyrna, where be bad been • disciple ofPolycarp.
 Of Ill IRF.NAF.US OF LYONS HIPPOLY11JS OF ROME

l. Gnosticism:
One of the graver crises for early Christianity

Gnosticism (from the Greek gnosis, meaning «knowledge»)

was a spiritual movement which enjoyed a vast diffusion through
the entire Mediterranean Basin in the second and third centuries.
The origins of this religious ideology are perhaps to be sought in
certain peripheral Jewish circles, but it was above all in nascent
Christianity where it exercised a profound influence.
It is not easy to define the specific traits of Gnosticism.
Current knowledge of this complex and elusive phenomenon has
been notably increased thanks to the fortunate discovery, which
happened by chance, of an entire library of original Gnostic texts
in Coptic at Nag-Hammadi (Upper Egypt) after the Second
World War. This discovery has helped to complete and, at times,
modify earlier scholarly opinions.
The following paragraphs will summarize the ftndings of the
present stage of research, which is developing and evolving &om
year to year.
The knowledge preached by the Gnostics as the goal of their
religion is a revealed knowledge which has the spiritual world as
its object. It concerns the vicissitudes of the divine soul, which,
because of a mysterious fault committed in a time preceding
history, has fallen down to this world here below and into the
evil matter of the body. Gnosticism is thus presented as the
revelation of the ways and means through which the redeemer
allows the soul to return to its primitive state of integrity, free
from the bonds of the body and of the material world.
The diverse currents existing within Christian Gnosticism
possessed certain fundamental doctrines in common regarding
the idea of man and his salvation (religious anthropology), the
mission of the Savior and his work of redemption (Christology)
and the structure and function of the church (ecclesiology).

79
CH ill · IRENAEUS OF LYONS HIPPOLY11JS OF ROME

2. Some Gnostic doctrines

According to the Gnostics, there are three different

categories of people. The first category is that of the spirituals
(p neumatics), 1 those who are predestined to salvation inasmuch
as they possess the divine spirit and thus the gnosis, or
knowledge of the mysteries, which is superior to the faith of the
ordinary Christians. The second category, to the contrary,
consists of those who are composed of matter (hylics or
choicists) 2 and who are destined to damnation. Finally, there is
an intermediate category of those who are endowed with a
rational soul (psychics) 3 and have the possibility of choosing
good or evil on the basis of the autonomous exercise of free will.
The Savior, in his tum, came into the world not so much to

Nag-Hammadi. An entire library or Coptic Gnostic texts was found in this

locality which dominates the NIJe V•lley.

80
 CH III IRENAEUS OF LYONS . lllPPOLY11JS OF ROME

redeem all of sinful humanity by shedding his blood on the cross

and thus creating the conditions for the resurrection of the body.
Instead, he came to reveal to the predestined the saving
knowledge which awakens their consciousness fallen asleep in
matter. For this purpose it was not necessary that he assume a
true body. His Incarnation was thus a mere appearance
(Docetism).
The truth of this revelation was guaranteed by an esoteric 4 ,
i.e. private, transmission within the group of the predestined and
not by the public magisteriurn of the ecclesiastical hierarchy
guided by the bishops, to whom the authority of apostolic
tradition had been entrusted.
To such questions, which formed the favorite field of battle
between Gnosticism and Orthodoxy, there was added yet
another concerning the use of the Old Testament, the Scriptures
of the Hebrew People.
Some Gnostics, especially Marcion of Sinope (in Asia Minor),
espoused a far more radical and extremist position on this point
than, for example, the Egyptians Basilides and Valentinus.
According to the extremists, the Old Testament had to be
repudiated in its entirety by Christians for the obvious reason
that it revealed not God the Father of Jesus Christ, who came to
announce the good news of grace and divine mercy, but only the
lesser god, just and vindictive, of the Hebrews. Marcion
identified this god with the Demiurge 5 , the creator of this
wicked and corrupt world.
There was sufficient matter here to ignite a conflict which

1
From the G reek pneuma = spirit.
2
From the Greek hy!P and chous = matter, eanh.
3
From the Greek psyche= soul.
4
From the G reek esotenkos = internal, not public.
5
From the Greek demzurgos = craftsman, producer, creator.

81
01 DI IRI· AEUS Or LYONS· IIIPPOLYTIJS OJ ROME

broke out with no quarter given on any side. Justin, the apologist
and martyr for the faith, and Melito of Sardis did not delay to
point out the danger and to attack the Gnostics, especially
Marcion, whose sect appeared with the organizing force and
missionary zeal of a true alternative church. Their works,
however, like so many others from that period, have been lost.
The first great anti-Gnostic work which has come down to us,
although only in a latin translation, is that of lrenaeus, bishop of
Lyons in Gaul (ca. 140-200).

J. Irenaeus of Lyons, the man of Tradition

lrenaeus was a native of Asia Minor. In his youth he had

been in contact with Polycarp, the famous bishop of Smyrna,
who was the addressee of a letter of Ignatius of Antioch and, in
his own right, a disciple of the Apostle John. lrenaeus was in
Gaul at the time of the great persecution of 177 which claimed
numerous victims in the local Christian communities. After the
martyrdom of the bishop Pothinus, lrenaeus, then a presbyter,
became the bishop. In that office he actively opposed the
infiltration of the Gnostic heresy which, from its Eastern roots,
was already extending into the Rhone Valley.
Irenaeus entered the &ay endowed with a good education
and, what is more, with the spirit of a pastor who rejected
doctrinal error in no uncertain terms, yet knew how to
distinguish the error itself &om the one in error and who sought
to draw people back to the truth.
The Refutation and Rejection of the False Gnosis, his great
work in five books, announced its program of polemics against
the Gnostics already in its title. However, it included also the
presentation of the true, orthodox gnosis guaranteed by the
Tradition of the Apostles, of which Irenaeus felt himself to be
the legitimate heir and interpreter.
82
 _ __ __ _ _ ___;:
O_I_ m_
. _IREN
__AEUS_O_F_LYO~S
__ HIPPOLYruS OF RO.\{E

The first two books contain the exposition and critique of the
various Gnostic doctrines in the form of a precise and well
documented review. In the final three books, lrenaeus expounds
the orthodox doctrine which is essentially based on the
recognition of a few fundamental truths: The two Testaments
come from the same God and revelation thus unfolds in a single,
harmonious plan in which God progressively leads fallen man to
the acceptance of salvation brought by Jesus Christ. Man is
endowed with free will and thus Christian preaching does not
recognize the predestined but is addressed indiscriminately to all

(.

Fragment of the
Re/utatwn of lrenaeus.
Manuscript of the lOth
cent. (Bibl. Ap. Vat.,
Vat. gr . 423, fol. 403).

8.1
Lyons. The remains of the AmpbitMater of the 1'hree Gauh. The
ampbitbellttr (with the altar of Rome and Aupstus and with a temple) was
located in the quarter wbtre the Council of the 1'hree Gauls md.
 CH Ill lRENAEUS Of' LYONS - I IIPPOLYTUS 0 1 RO\IE

men of good will who are disposed to receive the message of

salvation. The guarantors of the authenticity of the gospel
preaching are the bishops alone, who are the heirs and
successors to the mission of the Apostles and the guardians of
the Tradition inaugurated by them.

4. The first «theology of history•

With these arguments, Irenaeus completely overturned the

logic of the Gnostic doctrines. In his tum, he elaborated an
impressive theological system which attempted to explain in one
complete synthesis the entire history of salvation from the
beginning of creation until the end of time. Human history is
divided into two great periods. After original sin and the fall of
our first parents, Adam and Eve, all of human history has been
providentially guided by God until the fullness of time, which
was realized by the coming of Christ. He is the New Adam who
recapitulates preceding history and subjects creation to himself.
The concept of «recapitulation» is indeed of central importance
in such an approach and offers the key for understanding this
first outline of a «theology of history».
lrenaeus explains Christian doctrine more concisely in
another work, the Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching. It
consists precisely in the recognition of the universal plan of
salvation revealed in human history in the work of Jesus Christ
and extended to all of humanity by the sending of the Apostles,
who were guided by the Holy Spirit.

5. lrenaeus, a man of the church

There is one faith which unites all Christian commumttes

spread through the world, all of which are equally custodians of
85
Cll m IRF.I\'AEUS OF LYO:'\S HIPPOLY11JS OF ROME

the apostolic preaching in spite of any possible diversity in

liturgical praxis. This explains the admiration and profound
devotion nourished by Irenaeus towards the Church of Rome,
which was founded on the authority of the Apostles Peter and
Paul. However, it also explains why, in keeping with his name
(lrenaeus in Greek means «man of peace»), he intervened as a
peacemaker in the famous question concerning the date of
Easter. This arose between the Asiatics, who upheld the
Quartodecirnan celebration on the fixed date of the 14th of
Nisan, and the Church of Rome, which had already adopted the
movable Sunday celebration for Easter 6 .
Irenaeus is the last great representative of the theological
tradition of Asia Minor. With this tradition, he shares the
doctrine of «millenarianism», according to which the end of the
world will be preceded by the reign of a thousand years which
Christ will inaugurate on earth together with the just, who will be
raised from the dead. His spirituality and vital interests are all
concentrated on the defense of the church, his £1ock, from the
temptation of heresy, represented by the treacherous and subtle
play of the Gnostics' abstruse doctrinal speculations. For this
reason, Irenaeus incarnates the qualities typical of a pastor of
souls who is solicitous above all for the well being of the souls
entrusted to his care. His theology, profound and majestic,
remains tenaciously attached to the biblical roots of Christian
thought.
It is not certain whether Irenaeus died as a martyr. In any
case, his teaching left a profound mark on the theology of his
successors, especially on those who, like himself, were engaged in
the front lines of the battle against the Gnostic heresy.

6
Cf Ch. VI, reading 3.
86
 01. m · !RENAEUS 0~ LYONS IIIPPOLY11JS OF ROM!:.

6. The enigma of Hippolytus of Rome

The other great anti-Gnostic polemicist who lived at the tum

of the second and third centuries was Hippolytus, known also as
Hippolytus of Rome. In reality, nothing precise is known of this
mysterious and enigmatic figure. Owing to the evident difference
in content and style in the two distinct blocks of writings which
have been passed down under the name of Hippolytus, there is
reason to suspect that this name covers at least two different
persons.
Whatever the case may be, it appears that this Hippolytus
was a man of considerable education and a Roman priest of
Eastern origin (he wrote in Greek at a rather late date) who,
because of a disciplinary conflict, became at one point the head
of a schismatic rigorist community at Rome in conflict with the
bishop, Callistus. He made reparation for the schism by his
martyrdom around 235.

7. Christian heresy, the offspring of pagan philosophy

Hippolytus' anti-Gnostic activity is bound up above all with

his great work in ten books, the Refutation of All Heresies. In
this, he intended to show how the Christian heresy introduced by
Gnosticism was nothing dse than the product of the corruption
of the authentic gospd message by the doctrines of the pagan
philosophers. In other words, the Gnostics were heretics
inasmuch as they wished to interpret Christianity with the
categories and concepts of Greek philosophy and ended up
mangling the authentic apostolic tradition. This was an
accusation which would continue to find suppon in subsequent
ages.
87
CH III IRENAEUS OF LYO:-IS IIIPPOLYI1:S OF R0~1E

8. Bible and liturgy

The need for showing one's own fidelity to the teachings

received from the Living tradition of the church inaugurated by
the Apostles was so strong in that period of struggle against the
innovations of heresy that Hippolyrus wrote a work entitled The
Apostolic Tradition. This is an extremely important composition
which is rich in material of a disciplinary and liturgical nature.
Hippolyrus was also the author of numerous exgetical works,
i.e. interpretations of Sacred Scripture. He wrote commentaries
on the Blessings of Isaac and Jacob and on the Book of Daniel.
His commentary on the Canticle of Canticles gave rise to a long

The calendar for tbe date of

Easter of Hlppolytus of Rome.
It is carved on tbe side of a
marble cathedra at tbe
entrance to tbe Vatican
Library.

88
 CH In . IRENAEUS OF L YONS I ITPPOLYTU~ OF ROME

series of patristic commentaries on this biblical poem which,

because of its content, at times explicit in a bold way, had
aroused no little perplexity in Jewish as well as Christian circles.
For Hippolytus, who Christianized earlier Jewish exegetical
attempts, the bridegroom and bride of the Canticle symbolized,
respectively, Christ and the Church in their marital relationship
which was well documented, for example, in various texts of the
New Testament. Once the Canticle had been inserted into
Christian exegetical tradition and had found its proper
theological interpretation, Hippolytus' successors had no
difficulty in deepening and enriching the interpretation of the
poem in the more specific sense of the mystical marriage
between Christ and the soul. In this manner, beginning with
Origen, continuing through Ambrose and Gregory of Nyssa and
reaching into the Middle Ages with Bernard of Clairvaux, the
Canticle became the exemplar for all of Christian mysticism.
In the final analysis, not the least of Hippolytus' merits was
that of having given the initial thrust to the current practice of
continuous and systematic interpretation of every book of Sacred
Scripture. In this way he sealed the definitive appropriation of
the entire biblical canon on the part of the church, which by
then had issued victorious from the struggle against the doubts
and errors sown by the heretics.

89
Scenes or the life of Christ from a 6th century enamel. Center: the crucifixion;
below: the nativity and baptism; above: the angel with the women and the
descent of tile Spirit (Pboto Pont. Comm. Arcb.).
 CH. UJ . READINGS

R EA DIN GS

1. The church preserves the faith,

adheres to it and transmits it faithfuUy
{Irenaeus)

In the face of the message she has recezved, the church has
three responszbilities: fidelity (to preserve), adherence (to
believe) and transmission (to proclaim, teach and pass on).

The church, which is spread throughout the whole world

even to the ends of the earth, has received from the Apostles and
their disciples that faith in one God, the Father Almighty who
made heaven, earth, the sea and all that is in them, 7 and in one
Jesus Christ the Son of God, who became incarnate for our
salvation, and in the Holy Spirit. Through the prophets, the Holy
Spirit preached the designs of God and the advent, the birth
from a virgin, the passion, resurrection from the dead and bodily
ascension into heaven of our beloved Lord Jesus Christ, as well
as his coming in the glory of the Father. He will come to
«recapitulate all things» 8 (Eph. 1: 10) and to raise up all human
flesh so that, according to the pleasure of the invisible Father,
every knee may bend of those in heaven, on the earth and under
the earth and every tongue may confess (Phil. 2:10) Jesus Christ
our Lord and God, our Savior and King, and that he might
pronounce a just judgment on all.

7
Cf. Acts. 4:24.
8
From all ete rnity, God wishes to «recapitulate all things in Christ», i.e. to
gather together and unite all people and the entire created universe under one
single head, J esus Christ.

91
CH. IT! · READINGS

Since she has received this preaching and this faith, as we

have said, the church spread throughout the world carefully
preserves them as though inhabiting one house, and likewise
both believes them as though with one heart and one soul, and
finingly preaches, teaches and passes them on as though with
one mouth.
Although there are different languages in the world,
nevertheless the strength of the tradition 9 is one and the same.
Those churches which have been founded in Germany do not
believe or hand on any other doctrine than those in Spain, or
among the Cdts, or in the East, in Egypt, in Libya or in the
center of the world. 10 Just as the sun, God's creature, is one and
the same in the whole world, so does the preaching of the truth
shine everywhere and enlighten all who desire to come to a
recognition of the truth. Neither will the one who is
accomplished in oratory among church leaders say anything
other than these things - for no one is above his master - nor
will the one who is weak in speech diminish the tradition. Since
the faith is one and the same, the one who is able to say much
concerning it does not increase it, nor does the one who is able
to say little diminish it.
(Refutation of the False Cnosrs l, 10, 12)

9
The word «Tradition» (from tradere = transmit) can indicate either the
handing on of the gospel from one generation to another or the content which is
handed on. In her doctrine, life and cult, the church perpetuates and hands on
to succeeding generations all that she is, believes and lives.
10 To demonstrate the spread of the church in the entire inhabited world,

Irenaeus lists the churches according to the cardinal points of the compass in the
order North, West, East, South. The expression «center of the world» perhaps
indicates the Church of Rome.

92
 ------------------------------~CH rn
___ru~mcs __
2. The gospel, foundation and pillar of our faith
(/renaeus)

The Lord of aJJ things gave to his Aposcles the power to

preach the gospel. Through them, we have come to know the
truth, the teaching of the Word of God. The Lord said to them,
«Who hears you hears me and who rejects you rejects me and
the one who sent me» (Lk. 10: 16).
Not from others have we come to know the economy of our
salvation but from those through whom the gospel has come
down to us. They preached that gospel in their time, then, by the
will of God, they transmitted it in some writings so that it might
be the foundation and pillar of our faith.
(Refutation ofthe False Gnoszs Ill, I, J)

In the presence or
Mark, Peter imparts
the episcopal consecra-
tion to Hennacoras,
wbo, IICCOrdlng to le-
gend, was the founder
of tbe church at Aqui-
leia. Tbe scene effecti-
vely illustrates the
principle of apostolic
succession. The faith
handed on by the Apo-
stles has been fa.ith-
fuUy preserved by their
successors, the bishops
(Aquileia, fresco of tbe
Cripta Massenziana,
12th cent.).

93
CH ill READINGS

3. The Roman Church,

the principal witness to tradition
(Irenaeus)

The tradition of the Apostles, manifest in all the world, is

able to be seen in every church by those who wish to see the
truth. We can enumerate the bishops who were established by
the Apostles in the churches and their successors to our own
time.
But since it would be too long in this work to list the
successions in all the churches, we will take the greatest and
oldest church, known to all; the church founded and established
at Rome by the two most glorious Apostles, Peter and Paul. By
pointing out that tradition which it has from the Apostles and
the faith which, having been announced to men, has come down
to us through the succession of bishops, we confound all those
who in some way, whether through self indulgence or pride or
blindness and bad doctrine, conclude more than what is just.
Indeed, on account of its more excellent origin, it is necessary
that the entire church, i.e. the faithful everywhere, be in accord
with this church, in whom the tradition of the Apostles has been
preserved for people everywhere.

At this point Irenaeus lists the names of the bishops of

Rome /rom Linus, the first successor to Peter, down to
Eleutherius ( 174-189), who was the bishop of Rome at
the time lrenaeus was writing.

By this order and succession, the tradition which is in the

church from the Apostles and the preaching of the truth have
come down to us. This is the fullest proof that it is one and the
same life-giving faith which has been preserved and handed on in
truth in the church from the Apostles until now.
(Re/ulalton of the False Gnosis Ill. J.J)
94
 CH Ill - READINGS

4. The Holy Spirit dwells in God's creatures

(Irenaeus)

The Holy Spirit, who guided all of biblical history and

was active in Jesus dunng his entire mission, is poured out
with i"esistzble f ullness zn the whole community, whose
m embers become prophets. The Spirit is the soul and the
guide of the church. He is the livzng water promised by
Jesus (c/ John 7:30-39).

As he was giving the disciples the power of rebirth in God,

he said to them, «Go out and teach all nations, baptizing them in
the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit»
(Mt. 28:19).
This is the Spirit whom he promosed through the prophets to
pour out in the last days over his servants and handmaids so that
they might prophesy. 11 Wherefore the Spirit also descended on
the Son of God made man. With him he grew accustomed to
dwell in the human race, to rest in men and to live in the
creatures of God, carrying out in them the will of the Father and
renewing them from old age into the newness of Christ.
Luke says that, after the Ascension of the Lord, this Spirit
descended upon the Apostles on Pentecost, having power over
all nations to lead them into life and open for them the New
Testament. Thus the Apostles all together proclaimed a hymn of
praise to God in every tongue as the Spirit was leading separated
tribes back into unity and offering the first fruits of all nations to
the Father.

11
A prophet is someone who speaks in the name of God, who has charged
him to carry a message to men. All Christians express the gift of prophecy by
interpreting events in the light of God's plan and by giving everywhere a living
witness to J esus Christ, especially through a life of faith and charity (Cf. Vatican
Council II, Lumen Gentium U ).

95
CH . Ill READINGS

Therefore the Lord promised the he would send the Spirit,

who would render us fit for God. For just as one mass of dough
or one loaf is not able to be formed &om dry grain without
moisture, so were we, who were many, not able to be made one
without the water which is &om heaven. And just as the dry
earth does not bring forth fruit if it does not receive moisture, so
we, who were dry wood, would never bring forth the &uit of life
without the rain given freely from above.
(Refutation ofthe False Cnom Til 17, 1-2)

The descent of the

Holy Spirit. Detail of a
6th cent. enamel.
Pentecost (cf. Acts
2:1-13) ~arks the
foundation of the
church and its birth.
It is not a human
undertaking. Rather,
the transforming po-
wer of God is the soul
of the church (Pboto
Pont. Comm. Arch.).

96
 Q-1. ill - READINGS

5. Where the church is, there also is the Spirit of God;

where the Spirit of God is, there is the church
(lrenaeus)

This gift of God has been entrusted to the church, just like
the breath to the creature, for this purpose: that all the members
who receive it might be quickened. In this gift there has been
entrusted the communion with Christ, that is, the Holy Spirit,
the pledge of incorruptibility, confirmation of our faith and
ladder of ascent to God. For, «In the church», it says, «God has
placed apostles, prophets and teachers» and all the rest of the
work of the Spirit. Those who do not come together to the
church do not share in this Spirit, but defraud themselves of life
by their false doctrine and depraved work. For where the church
is, there also is the Spirit of God; and where the Spirit of God is,
there is the church and all grace. The Spirit, indeed, is Truth.
Therefore, they who do not participate in him, who are not
nourished unto life at the breasts of their Mother nor partake of
the shining font coming forth from the Body of Christ, but who
<<dig for themselves broken cisterns» (Jer. 2: 13) out of earthen
ditches and drink water fetid with filth, these flee the faith of the
church lest they be unmasked, and reject the Spirit so that they
are not instructed.
(Refutation ofthe False Gnosis III 24, I)

6. Jesus Christ is the Redeemer of man

{lrenaeus)

The glory of man is God, but man is the receptacle of God's

entire work and of all His wisdom and power. Just as a doctor
proves his worth in those who are sick, so is God made manifest
in men. On this account Paul says, «God has enclosed all things
97
CH Ill · READINGS

in unbelief that He might have mercy on all» (Rom. 11:32). He

does not say this with regard to the spiritual powers but with
regard to man, who disobeyed_ God and was cast out from
immortality. Thereupon he received mercy through the Son of
God in attaining that adoption which comes through him. For if
this man receives without vanity and pride the true glory from
the things which have been made and from Him who made them
- who is Almighty God and who gives existence to all things -
and if he continues in love of Him, and in subjection and in
thanksgiving, he will receive a greater glory from Him. When he
has been advanced by the receiving, he will be made similar to
the one who died for him. Therefore the Son of God «was made
like unto sinful flesh» (Rom. 8:3) in order that he might
condemn sin and cast it out of the flesh as though condemned
and might call forth man into his own likeness, marking him as
an imitator of God and leading him into the kingdom of the
Father by giving him the grace of seeing God and receiving the
Father.
The Word of God dwelled in man and became the Son of
Man in order that he might accustom man to receiving God and
accustom God to dwelling in man according to the Father's
pleasure. Therefore, the Lord himself gave us the sign of our
salvation, the one who is Emmanuel, born of the virgin, because
it was the Lord himself who was saving those who in themselves
had no means of being saved. On account of this, Paul,
announcing man's infirmity, says, «1 know that the good does
not dwell in niy flesh» (Rom. 7: 18). He signified that the good of
our salvation is not from us but from God. Again, «Miserable
man that I am, who will deliver me from the body of this
death?» (Rom. 7:24). Then he presents the deliverer: <<The grace
of Our Lord, Jesus Christ». 12
Isaiah says this, too: «Be strengthened, weak hands and
feeble knees. Take courage, weak in spirit. Be strengthened, fear
not. Behold, our God gives judgment and will grant recompense.
98
 CH ill - READINGS

He Himself will come and will save US». 13

This shows that we are able to be saved not by ourselves but
by God's help.
(Re/utatron of the False Gnosrs lli 20.2-3)

7. Adam and Christ, Eve and Mary

(lrenaeus)

The salvation brought by Christ is not a private and

peripheral question, but a universal one touching on all of
history. In order to express this idea, Paul had already
made recourse to the parallel between Christ and Adam
(Cf Rom. 5: 12-19; I Cor. 15:2 1-22, 45-49). If Adam is
the head of a humanity moving towards death, Christ
breaks the solidarity with sin and inaugurates the new
humanity destined for the true lz/e of freedom and love.
The Fathers extend this idea and apply the same parallel
to Eve and Mary.
«]ust as the disobedience of a single man (Adam) rendered
everyone a sinner, so will the obedience of a single man
(Jesus Christ) justify everyone» (St. Paul). «That which
the virgin Eve bound by her lack offaith, the virgin Mary
has loosened by her faith» (lrenaeus).

The Lord manifestly came into his own creation and was
carried by that creation which was sustained by his own self. By
his obedience on the tree he recapitulated that disobedience
which had come through the tree. Likewise, that seduction
through which the virgin Eve, destined for her husband, was

u Cf. Rom. 7:25 .

13
Cf. Is. 35:3-4.
99
CH l1I READINGS

evilly seduced, was destroyed by the good n~s honorably

announced to the virgin Mary, who was also subJect to a man.
Just as the former was seduced by the :vord of an angel so that
she fled from God, having disobeyed H1s word, so has the Ia.tter
received good news by the word of an angel so that she might
bear God in obeying His word. Just as the former was seduced
so that she disobeyed God, so was the latter moved to obey
God, so that the virgin Mary became the advocate of the virgin
Eve.
Therefore, in recapitulating all things in himself, Christ has
also recapitulated the battle against our foe. He challenged and
expelled him who, in the beginning, had led us captive in Adam
and trampled his head as God said to the serpent in Genesis,
«And I will place enmity between you and the woman, between
your seed and her seed; he will keep watch for your head and
you will keep watch for his heel» (Gen. 3: 15).
Therefore it was foretold of him, who took his birth from the
virgin according to the likeness of Adam, that he would watch
for the head of the serpent. This is the seed of whom the
Apostles speaks in his epistle to the Galatians, «The law of works
was established until the posterity would come to whom the
promise was made». 14
He shows this even more clearly in the same epistle when he
says, «When the fullness of time came, God sent His Son, born
of a woman» (Gal. 4:4). For the enemy never would have been
justly conquered unless there were a man born of woman who
conquered him. Man was overcome by a woman, since the
enemy set himself up against man from the beginning.
On this account, the Lord proclaims himself to be the Son of
Man, recapitulating in himself that primordial man from whom

14
Cf.Gal.3:19.

100
 CH ill · READINGS

was made that creation according to woman. This was done so

that, just as our race descended into death through a man who
was conquered, we might ascend to life again through a man
who was victorious; and just as death obtained victory over us
through a man, so again through a man might we receive victory
over death.
(Re/utatwn ofthe False Gnoszs V 19, /; 21, I)

The M•donna with

Child llDd • prophet.
The fresco d8tes to the
beginning of the 3rd
cent. ud is tbe oldest
represent.tion of the
Mother of God (Rome,
C•t.combs of Prbcilllt.
Photo Pont. Comm.
Arcb.).
101
CH ill - READINGS

8. Tbe Word wbo became flesh makes us like unto God

(Hippolytus a/Rome)

This, all you people, is our faith _ We are not persuaded by

empty words nor carried away by the whims of our heart nor
enchanted by the persuasiveness of fine words, but rather we are
not disobedient to words having been spoken by the power of
God.
God commanded these things to the Word and the Word
pronounced them in speech, turning man away from
disobedience. He did not treat him as a slave with the force of
coercion, but called him to freedom by the volunatry act of free
will.
The Father sent this Word in the last times, no longer
desiring to speak through a prophet or to be perceived as having
been vaguely announced. He willed that he be manifestly
perceived so that the world, on seeing him, might be persuaded
not by the urging of the prophets or the terror from an angelic
power, but by the presence of the one who had spoken.
We know that he took his body from a virgin and
transformed the old man by a new creation_ We know that he is
of our own substance. For if he did not take his origin from the
same substance it would be foolish to prescribe as law that we
imitate him, our teacher. If he, as man, is of another substance,
why does he command likeness with himself to me, who have
been born in weakness? And how can he be good and just?
But in order not to be considered different from us, he
endured weariness, desired to experience hunger and did not
refuse thirst. He rested in sleep, did not oppose suffering, was
obedient unto death and revealed the resurrection. In all these
things he offered his own human nature as the first fruits so that
you might not lose heart in suffering and, in confessing that you
are a man, you might yourself look forward to that which the
102
 CH. III · READINGS

Father offered him.

When you have learned of the true God, you will have a
body which is immortal and incorruptible along with the soul.
You will receive the kingdom of heaven, you, who while living
on earth, have acknowledged the king. You will be a companion
of God and a fellow heir with Christ, no longer subject to
passions, sufferings and illnesses. Indeed, you will have become
God. All the sufferings you endured as man God gave you
because you are a man. All the things which pertain to God,
these things God promises to give when you have been divinized
and have become immortal.
Christ is the God of all things. He decreed to blot out sin
from man as he made the old man new and called him his image
from the beginning, thus displaying through a figure his love
towards you. In you obey his holy commandments and are good
as he in good, you will become like him and be honored by him.
For God is not poor, who, for His glory, has made you God.
(Refutation of All Heresies 10, 33-34 )

9. No one can serve two masters

(Hippolytus of Rome)

This is the most ancient Christian homily on the state,

which was given at the time of the violent persecution of
the emperor Septimius Severus. Daniel, who opposed
Darius' decree forbzdding prayers to any god or man other
than himself (Dan. 6), became an example for all
Christians who were struggling against the religious
despotism of the Roman state.

It is necessary to look at the reverence of blessed Daniel and

how, although he seemed to be occupied with royal affairs, he
103
Daniel in the lions' den. In his homily, ffippolytus exhorts the Christians to
oppose the injustice of the state. He coodudes with a hymn to the
super-terrestrial freedom of the Christians, whom God delivers from the
lions' den of political slavery in order to Je.d tbem to everlasting Hfe.
 CH m · READINGS

devoted himself daily to prayer, rendering «to Caesar that which

is Caesar's and to God that which is God's» (Mt. 22:21). But
someone will perhaps say, «So what? Was he not able to pray to
God in his hean during the day and at night give himself secretly
over to prayer in his house as he wished?». He could have, but
he did not want to. If he had done this, the ministers and satraps
would have been able to say, «How does he fear God when he is
afraid of the decree of the king and obeys his commands?». For
they wanted to bring against him some cause for blame or charge
of impiety. However, this was a work of hypocrisy and not of
fear and faith in God. On this account he did not give his
adversaries grounds for slander. «To whomever one subjects
himself, to that man he is a slave» (II Pet. 2: 19).
Indeed, unless they practice evil, those who fear God do not
need to dissimulate or to fear those who have been set up in
positions of power. But if they are forced to act contrary to their
faith in God, they prefer rather to die happily than to do what
has been commanded them. For the Apostle said to be subject to
all «governing authorities» (Rom. 13: 1) not on this account, that
we deny our faith and the commandments of God in order to
carry out the orders of men, but that out of respect for the
authorities we do nothing evil in order not to be punished by
them as evildoers.
Thus the Apostles, when they were hindered by the leaders
and the scribes, did not stop preaching the word and obeyed
«God rather than man» (Acts 5:29). The leaders were enraged
on account of this and put the Apostles in prison, but the angel
led them out at night and said, «Go out and speak the words of
this new life».
Thus Daniel, too, when he was prohibited to pray, did not
submit to the decree of the king lest he place the glory of God
below that of men. If someone dies for God he ought to rejoice
in having found eternal life. While living in the world it is
imponant not to give a single cause for accusation to those
lOS
CH . ill · READINGS

seeking a cause, in order that they may be put to shame all the
more. In the same way, the ministers were seeking to find a cause
for accusation against Daniel but did not find one because he
was faithful. If some people force us not to worship God and not
to pray to Him by threatening us with death, it is better to die
than to do what they order. «Who will separate us from the love
of God? Affliction, distress, persecution, hunger, danger or
sword?» 15 Because of this, since blessed Daniel preferred to fear
God and gave himself over to death, he was rescued from the
lions by the angel. But if he had respected the decree and
remained quiet during the thirty days, his faith in God would
have existed no longer, for «no one can serve two masters». Such
has always been the devil's art in persecuting, affljcting and
oppressing the saints, so that they might not lift up pure hands in
prayer. He knows that the prayer of the saints brings peace to
the world and chastisement to the evil one.
Therefore, imitate Daniel and do not fear the satraps nor
submit to human decrees, so that when you have been thrown
into the lions' den you may be protected by the angel and may
tame the wild beasts. They will bow down before you as the
servant of God and no wound will be found on you. You will be
drawn up living out of the pit and will be found a partaker in the
resurrection. You will rule over your enemies and will give
thanks to the God who lives forever.
To Him be glory and power in the everlasting ages of ages.
Amen.
(Commentary on Daniel III 22·24, 31)

15
C f. Rom. 8:35 .

106
 Chapter IV

The School of Alexandria:

The encounter between faith and culture

202 Pe~tion
of Septimius Severus
CLEMENT OF A.
seeks refuge in Cappadocia
235 Pe~tion
of Maximinus Thrax
249 Pe~tion
25 1 ofDecius
~ Death of ORIGEN

107
Alexandria and Caesarea in Palestine were the two cities which witnessed tbe
activity of Clemeat and Origm, the latter of whom was the most widely
discussed figure in the ftrst centuries of Christianity.
 CH. IV - CLEMENT OF A.. ORJGEN

1. The School of Alexandria

After Rome, the imperial capital, Alexandria in Egypt was the

most important city in the entire Mediterranean Basin at the end
of the second century. Alexandria was a vital economic and
commercial center, located as it was at the crossroads of the
great maritime and land route connecting Europe to Africa and
the immense continent of Asia. Alexandria was also the liveliest
intellectual center of antiquity where all the philosophies and
religions of the known world flowed together.
As the cradle of the Gnostic heresy, Alexandria witnessed the
formation of that particular Christian institution knows as the
School of Alexandria (Dzdaskaleion in Greek) which was the
focal point and best organized center in the struggle against
Gnosticism. The origins of the School of Alexandria remain
shrouded in the deepest obscurity. Concerning the Sicilian,
Pantaenus, who supposedly started the school, his name is
known but nothing more (The Apologist Athenagoras has also
been proposed as the initiator of the school). Only with Clement
of Alexandria does this institution acquire precise contours and
documentation and emerge into history with impressive
intellectual vigor.

2. Clement of Alexandria,
the true HeUenist of the Church Fathers

Clement was Greek by birth and lived intensely all the

cultural and religious experiences offered by classical paganism.
After his conversion to Christianity, he desired to place his
philosophical knowledge and admirable erudition at the service
of a considerable work of evangelization of the surrounding
pagan world at Alexandria, with special attention to the wealthy
upper classes of Alexandrian society. To this end he wrote the
109
Cll IV CLEME.'IT Of A_-_;_
O_RI_;_GE
_:N_ _ __ __

1
Protrepticus, an exhortation to conversion in which he
demolished the framework of paganism, which he knew so well,
and made a great display of his secular learning.
To the pagans who had converted to Christianity and had
need of precise instruction on the behavior required by the
adherence to this new religion, Clement addressed a work in
three books in which the Divine Word takes on the role of
«teacher» in expounding an entire series of exhortations and
directions of various kinds intended to teach the Christian way of
life. The work, approriately entitled the Pedagogus, 2 contains
important notices on contemporary life and forms a type of
Christian «book of etiquette» which offers precise regulations on
all aspects of daily life from food to clothing and from the bath
to household furnishings.

J. Gospel and culture:

The «true Gnostic ,. and «Christian humanism,.

Clement's major effort, however, is contained in the eight

books which make up the Stromateis, i.e. a hodgepodge, a
miscellaneous collection (the word literally means «carpets»).
These books take up various doctrinal, moral and religious
problems, often in a confused manner and according to an order
which is not always dear. They give every indication of being
notes from his lectures which were not given a good revision
before their publication.
After having dealt along the lines of Justin and Athenagoras
with the problems of the relationship between the Christian faith
and Greek culture, of which he tries to preserve as much as
possible in a positive manner, Clement proposes the essential
scope of his work as defining the figure of the Christian who is
the «true Gnostic», as opposed to the heretical Gnostic, whom
he judges to be false and inauthentic.
110
 CH TV CLE.\iE.'IT OF A - ORIGEN

According to Clement, heretical Gnosticism is essentially

distinguished by the congenital incapacity to follow the path of
the proper mean between opposing extremes; this in such
different fields such as sexual ethics or martyrdom. Depaning
from the presupposition that material things, the body and the
world are evil and not susceptible of redemption, the Gnostic
was able to vary in his moral behavior &om forms of rigorous
ascet1c1sm which condemned marriage and procreation
(encratites) to forms of open sexual permissiveness and
unbridled licentiousness which did not impair the fate of the soul
predestined for salvation.
Likewise, the Gnostic could easily renounce his faith in the
supreme moment of martyrdom since the truth was connected
with his soul, not his tongue. At the opposite extreme, he could
engage in a fanatical quest of martyrdom sought out for the sole
purpose of liberating himself in a bloody way from the body,
which he considered as an obstacle, an enemy to remove or
eliminate.
The orthodox position outlined by Clement in such questions
consisted in knowing how to value correctly sexual activity
which, through matrimony, was nobly ordered towards
procreation and thus towards the conservation of the world,
which was good inasmuch as it had been created by God. With
regards to martyrdom, it was not necessary to seek it out as a
substitute for suicide (Even the Indian gymnosophists 3 have the
courage to burn themselves alive, but what good is such boldness

1
From the greek protreptik6s, meaning «exhortation». This was an ancient
Greek literary genre which was used for the exhortation to a life of philosophy.
If the use of this tenn was intentional on Clement's part, it indicates that for him
Christianity is the true philosophy to which one must be converted.
2
From the Greek paidagog6s, the one who educated youths and prepared
them for life.
3
The G reek word for the wise men of ancient India; akin to «fakir».

Ill
Alexandria. Remains of a small Roman theater. This city, reDQwned for its
wealth and magnificence, bad been fOUDded in 332·331 B.C. by AJexander the
Great, wbo wNled to make it a cosmopolitan cmter where the cultural and
economic currents of his empire would meet.
 CH IV CLE.\IE.Vf OF A ORJGI~\1

without Christian love?), nor was it allowed to avoid it in a

cowardly manner when it was necessary to publicly profess one's
faith.
Obviously, the ideal championed by Clement was that of a
i moral equilibrium which renewed the ancient ideal of the just

I
mean and interior harmony. In this sense, it can be said that
Clement laid the foundation of a Chrisitan culture which
blended gospel faith and the best of the heritage of classical
antiquity. With Clement, the birth of «Christian humanism» has
arrived.

4. What rich man will be saved?

In a great metropolis such as Alexandria in Egypt, the young

Christian community, composed of persons from the most
diverse social backgrounds, could not avoid confronting the
concrete problems raised by the inequalities and disparities in
the distribution of wealth. This was all the more true to the
extent that the Lord's word, by which he had invited the rich
young man to sell all his goods in order to follow him in the way
of perfection, 4 still echoed strongly. In the discussions which
troubled the Christian community of that time, Clement
decisively opposed the rigorist position which maintained the
absolute necessity of abandoning all riches in order to obtain
salvation. He interpreted the gospd account of the rich young
man as an invitation to interior detachment from the desire for
riches, the longing for possessions. Earthly goods, considered in
themselves, are neither good nor bad but are morally neutral,
like any other instrument. Their value depends on the use which
is made of them. Therefore, the wealthy person who makes good

4
Cf. Mk. 10:17·31.

113
CH. IV C LLMEI-rr OF A. OR!GE.'I

use of his property by giving alms is morally better than a poor

person who passes his life yearning for and desiring riches. The
evil, then, does not lie so much in the possession of riches as in
the passionate attachment to them and in the heedless desire
which makes them the supreme value in life.
The importance of this preaching of Clement is obvious.
Unfortunately, all trace of his teaching activity is lost after the
persecution of Septirnius Severus (202). It is known only that he
took refuge in Cappadocia and was at Jerusalem for some years;
nothing more. With Clement's departure from Alexandria, the
Didaska/eion underwent a profound change. What had been the
seat of the private instruction of a Christian philosopher carne
under the hierarchical authority of the bishop, Demetrius, who
made it into a school of theology for the laity. As teacher, he
called the eighteen-year-old Origen, who would be
incontrovertably the greatest thinker of the Greek Church.

5. Origen : the torment of perfection

Origen (185-253 ) was moved by a great religious enthusiasm

and even as a youth had exhorted his father, Leonidas, to
courageously face martyrdom. Furthermore, in order to avoid
gossip concerning the women who were his pupils in the
Didaskaleion, he took literally Jesus' statement about the eunuchs
for the Kingdom of Heaven 5 and castrated himself. When he
commented on this gospel passage many years later, he
recognized that it was to be interpreted allegorically.
Nevertheless, the bold deed of his youth speaks of itself of the
temper and character of this man who was tormented his whole
life long by the desire for religious perfection and who reached

5
Cf. Mt. 19: 12.

114
 CH IV CLI:..\\l.J\'T OF A - ORIGE.\1

the very heights of mystJciSm. This anxiety of his was

accompanied by a formidable speculative ability and he was
endowed with an admirable talent for reading and for the
articulation of his concepts. All of these guaranteed him an
immense personal success and his fame soon spread throughout
the entire East. He was often invited to resolve doctrinal
differences among bishops and was even invited to address the
pagan empress.
His ordination to the presbyterate in Palestine, outside the
boundaries of his ecclesiastical province, brought him into open
conflict with his bishop, Demetrius, who expelled him from
Alexandria in 230. Not even under Demetrius' successor,
Heraclas, was he allowed to return. He settled in Caesarea in
Palestine, a brilliant intellectual center of the age, where he
established an important library with an adjoining scriptorium.
After a long period of intense intellectual activity and especially
of preaching, Origen died in 253 as a result of the torture he
suffered during the persecution ofDecius.

6. The Bible,
the foundation of theology and spirituality

Origen can be called the first systematic «biblical theologian»

in the sense that his thought always takes its point of departure
from the reading and interpretation of the inspired text
considered within the organic unity of the two Testaments. The
Bible offers him the opportunity and the material to elaborate his
boldest speculations and to express all the powerful force of his
ascetic mysticism.
The word of God, revealed in the Scriptures, is truly the
center of his thought, his inspiration, his entire life. It is a
Presence, the sacrament of the Presence of God in the world.
Origen expounded the principles of biblical hermeneutic already
115
Cli. IV CLLM I:.NT OF A • ORIGF.N

in his youthful work On First Principles, which even in antiquity

was the most debated and controversial of Origen's works. It was
written to combat Gnostic theories on the predestination of the
elect and thus to reaffirm, in conformity with the traditional
teaching of the church, the principle of the freedom of moral
choice. To this end, Origen explains how in the beginning God
created only rational spirits which subsequently, because of their
disobedience to the command of the Creator, were transformed;

Various works of
Origen, Pamphilus
and Didymus or
Alexandria in the
latin translations of
Jerome and Rulinus.
Manuscript of ca.
1474-1480 (Bibl. Ap.
Vat., Vat. lat. 214,
fol. lr).
116
 CH IV CLEMENT OF A. • ORIGEN

some into angels, others into men and still others into demons.
At the end of the world all will be saved, including the devil,
because the mercy of God will be all in all (doctrine of the
apocatastasis). 6
Origen always remained attached to the typically Greek
doctrine, Platonic in origin, of the fall of souls into bodies, which
he had learned in the schools of the Platonists of Alexandria
such as Ammonius Saccas. This doctrine would always be held
against Origen even to the point of bringing about various
condemnations in later centuries. Today it is recognized that,
although these bold speculations are foreign to the biblical text,
they were used more as hypotheses for theological research than
as incontrovertible truths in themselves. Their purpose was that
of preserving the fundamental principles of orthodox morality.
Throughout his entire life, Origen dedicated much attention
to the biblical text and especially to the philological
determination of its exact meaning. In this sense, Origen can be
called the creator of Christian «biblical philology». His continual
meditation on the Scriptures also produced an endless series of
homilies, i.e. sermons addressed to the people during the
liturgical service, and the more demanding theological and
spiritual commentaries such as those on the Canticle of Canticles
and the Gospel ofJohn.
Origen's goal in these commentaries was to ascend above the
literal sense of the text to the truer and more profound spiritual
sense. Thanks to his interpretive techniques, the Bible thus
became not only the foundation for the development of any
strictly doctrinal question, but also the collection of examples
and illustrations which guided both the church as a community
and the individual believer along the way of perfection in the
Christian life. Origen inaugurated what in later centuries would

6
From the G reek apokotastaSJS, meaning a restoration of the original state.

11 7
Caesarea in Palestine. Ruins of a Roman temple probably dedicated to
Augustus. The city, which was built by Herod the Great on the site of the
earlier Straton 's Tower , became an important port, crossroads and
commercial center.
 CH. IV - CLEMENT OF A. - ORIGEN

become the lectio divina 7 of the monks.

A zealous soul such as Origen's could not fail to express itself
on the most important spiritual themes of the Christian life. To
the theme of the mystical marriage, which played so great a role
in his thought and religious experience, Origen dedicated
unforgettable pages in his Commentary on the Canticle.
Numerous other pages of his immense literary production
likewise develope this theme, originally launched by Hippolytus.
He referred to martyrdom specifically in the Exhortation to
Martyrdom of 235, which was written to encourage some of his
friends in the moment of supreme trial. The little treatise On
Prayer contains the oldest Greek commentary on the «Our
Father».

7. The apologist

Origen's greatest apologetic work is the Against Celsus, in 8

books, in which he refutes one by one all the accusations made
against Christianity by the pagan philosopher Celsus in his
libellus, the True Doctnne. Celsus' attack had gone nearly seventy
years without a response until the genius of Origen and his
powerful personality as a Christian philosopher took up the
challenge.
Origen's reply was not limited to the strictly doctrinal aspects
of the confrontation. To Celsus' appeal to the Christians that
they take up arms to defend the empire from the ever more
dangerous assaults of the barbarians, Origen, in the midst of a
political crisis (the year was 248) dared to respond that the

7
The systematic reading of the Sacred Scripture for the spiritual edification
of the monk who has taken up the way of perfection and the evangelical
counsels.
119
Cl I fV CLEMENT OF A ORJGEN

Christians work for the salvation of the empire not with the use
of arms but with prayers for the emperor and his good fortune.
This response, which at that time could not but sound
provocative, given the dramatic situation of emergency in which
Roman institutions found themselves, raised the prospect of a
new world in which the gospel, having been accepted by all,
Romans and barbarians alike, would render military violence and
the shedding of blood useless. The history of the following
centuries, which saw the formation of a Christianized
romano-barbarian world, would in some way show the
correctness of Origen's utopia.
The procedure of directly citing extracts of the work he was
refuting, a procedure which allows us to know many fragments
of Celsus' work, is the same followed by Origen in the
Commentary on the Gospel of John in which he cites, for the
purpose of criticism, entire phrases drawn from the commentary
on John of the Gnostic Heracleon, who wrote the earliest
commentary on the Fourth Gospel.
After Origen moved his school to Caesarea in Palestine, the
Dtdaskaleion of Alexandria still continued its activity for some
time and counted among its masters names of a certain prestige
such as Dionysius in the third century and Didymus the Blind in
the fourth. In spite of Origen's condemnation and forced exile in
Palestine, the tradition of Origenist thought continued to
exercise its influence although purified from the excesses of
Greek philosophy. Never again, however, would the height of his
theological and spiritual speculation be attained.

120
 CH IV READINGS

READINGS

Clement of Alexandna puts the emphasis not on the

radical abandonment of one's possessions but on the use
one makes of them. In his day, Alexandria was the largest
and wealthiest city of the East and there were many
well-to-do Christians. Clement describes the demands of
the Chn'stian message in relation to the common sharing
of goods. God's generosity, Christ's love and the dignity of
man indicate that the whole of creation is / or man.
Therefore, every person has the right to find therein that
which is necessary /or lz/e (readings 1-2).

l. Moderation in tbe use of material goods

(Clement ofAlexandrza)

The goods we possess, which are useful to our neighbors, are

not to be cast away. Indeed, they are called possessions because
they are possessed, and are called goods because they have been
prepared by God for man's good. These things are present and
at hand as though they were some material or instrument which
is at hand for the good use of those knowing how to employ it. H
you use it skillfully it is useful, but if you lack skill it partakes in
your lack of ability, though it is itself without blame. In the same
way, wealth is also an instrument. Are you able to use it justly? It
has been placed at the service of justice. Does someone use it
unjustly? He in tum will be found a servant of injustice. Wealth
by nature is to serve but not to command. Thus, since of itself it
is neither good nor evil, it need not be censured. The mind and
judgment of man, which has in itself the freedom and control to
make use of the things which have been given it, is able to make
use of these things in a good or a bad way and to choose &om
121
Another representation of the Good Shepherd (3rd cent.). · Good Master.
what must I do to have eternal life?• , the young man asked Jesus (cf. Mk.
10:17-31). Clement draws his inspiration from this episode for his work \Vhdt
Ru·J. \l,m \I'd! he \,u·edJ (Rome, Catacombs of Priscilla. Photo Pont. Comm.
Arch.).
 01 IV READI>iGS

them on its own. Thus let no one do away with possessions but
rather with the passions of the soul which do not consent to a
better use of his goods in order that, once he has become good
and upright, he may be able to make good use of these riches. In
this way it is expected that we bid farewell to our goods and sell
all we have; namely, as referring to the passions of our souls.
Let us then bid farewell to harmful goods and not to those
which, if someone understands their right use, are able to be
helpful. Those things are helpful which are administered with
understanding, prudence and piety. Hurtful things are to be
thrust away, but external things do not harm. Therefore the Lord
introduces the use of external things and commands us to put
aside not the things necessary for life, but the things which make
bad use of them ; that is, the illnesses and passions of the soul.
But the one who bears riches in his heart and gold and silver
instead of the Spirit of God, who heaps up endless possessions
and is always looking for more, who is inclined towards things
below and is ensnared in the traps of the world, who is dust and
to dust will return, how can such a one desire the Kingdom of
Heaven and give heed to it? This man, who has a field or a heap
of precious metal in place of a heart, will be found and snatched
up in the midst of these things; for where a man's mind is, there
is his treasure.
!What Rich Man M1ght be Saved' 14, 15, 17)

2. It is contemptible that one lives in luxury

while tbe majority are needy
(Clement ofAlexandria)

«The things God has shown to us, why do we not use them?
Why do I not enjoy them, since it is in my power to do so? For
whom have these things been made if not for us?».
123
CH_ TV - READfNGS

These are the words of those who are perfectly ignorant of

the will of God ... «Seek first the kingdom of heaven and all these
things will be provided for you» (Mt. 6:33 ). And if all things
have been given to us and all things have been conceded to us
and if «all things are lawful» says the Apostle, «still, not all things
are beneficial» (I Cor. 10:23). God Himself brought our race
together into communion. He earlier shared His own goods and
placed His own Logos 8 as a common possession at the disposal
of all. He made all things for all. All things are thus common to
all and the rich may not claim more than their share.
To say, «It is in my power, I have more than enough, why
not enjoy it?», is neither human nor social. It is rather proper to
charity to say, «It is in my power, why not share with the
needy?». For the one who is perfect is the one who fulfills the
commandment, «You shall love your neighbor as yourself».
This is true enjoyment and riches stored up. But that which is
given out for the satisfaction of foolish desires is reckoned as loss
not as expenditures. For I know that God has given us the
power to make use of things, but only to the extent necessary;
and the use is intended to be common to all.
It is contemptible that one lives in luxury while the maority
are needy. How much more glorious it is to benefit many than to
live sumptuously! How much wiser it is to spend money on
people than on gold and precious stones! How much more
useful it is to adorn ourselves with friends than with lifeless
objects! Whom will property benefit so much as showing
kindness will?
In the gospel, the Lord dearly calls that rich man a fool who
is filling up his barns and saying to himself, «You have many

8
Logos is the Greek word from which is derived Verbum, which means
«word>>. Jesus Christ is the «Word» of God who became incarnate to save all
people_

124
 CH N READINGS

goods stored up for many years. Eat. Drink. Make merry». He

says, «This very night your life will be required of you. The
things you have stored up, whose will J}ley be?» (Lk. 12: 18-20).
Apelles, the painter, on seeing one of his disciples painting
Helen adorned with much gold, said, «Since you were not able
to paint her beautiful you made her rich». Such Helens are the
women of today, not naturally beautiful but richly made up.
{Pedagogus IT 12, 119-120, 125)

3. Those who share in the sufferings of Christ

will share also in his consolation
(Origen)

This text is a part of the Exhortation to Martyrdom

which Origen composed in 235 at the beginning of the
persecution ofMaximinus.

If we have passed «from death to life» by having passed from

unbelief to faith, let us not be amazed if the world hates us. For
no one who has not passed «from death to life», but who
remains in death, is able to love those who have passed from the
dark dwelling of death, so to speak, to the structures of living
stones filled with the light of life.
Jesus «laid down his life for us». Let us lay down ours; not
for him, I shall say, but for ourselves and, I suppose, for those
who will be edified by our martyrdom.
For us Christians the time for boasting has come. It is said,
«Not only this, but let us even boast in our sufferings, knowing
that suffering produces endurance and endurance produces tried
character and tried character, hope; and hope does not put to
shame» (Rom. 5:3-5). Only <det the love of God be poured out
in our hearts through the Holy Spirit».
125
CH. TV - READINGS

Just as <<the sufferings of Christ abound, so too, through

Christ, does consolation abound» (IT Cor. 1:5). Let us most
eagerly take up the sufferings of Christ and let them abound in
us if we reach out for the abundant consolation by which all who
are weeping will be consoled, though perhaps not in equal
measure. If indeed the consolation were equal in measure, it
would not have been written, «Just as the sufferings of Christ
abound in us, even so does our consolation abound». According
to the proportion in which they are partakers of the sufferings
with Christ, those who are partakers of the sufferings will be
partakers also of the consolation. These things you learn from
him who speaks most confidently, «As you are partakers of the

Glass with a represen-

tation in gold or the
Roman martyr Agnes,
wbo was put to death
possibly during the
persecution or Diocle-
tian (Rome, Catacombs
or Pamphilus. Pboto
Pont. Comm. Arcb.).

126
 Cll IV READINGS

sufferings so also are you of the consolation» (II Cor. 1:7).

Indeed, God says through the prophet, «In an acceptable
time I have heard you and on the day of salvation I have helped
you». 9 What other time is more acceptable than when, through
reverence to God in Christ, we march in procession in the world
under guard and are led away as victors rather than as the
vanquished?
The martyrs in Christ despoil along with him the
«principalities and powers» and triumph with him. As they are
partakers in his sufferings so likewise are they partakers of his
brave deeds in his sufferings. Thus, what other day of salvation is
there like the day of our great deliverance from here?
But I exhort you, give no scandal in anything so that the
,, priesthood or diaconate may not be blamed on your account.
,
But in everything present yourselves as God's ministers in much
endurance and say, «What is our endurance? Is it not the
Lord?» 10
(Exhortation to Martyrdom 41-42)

4. The sacrifice of Abraham

is a figure of the sacrifice of Christ
(Origen)

Origen is a man of the Bzble, passages of which he

memorized as a youth. He is the founder of bzblical
studies. There follows a passage from the homily in which
he gave a commentary on Abraham's sacrifice (Genesis
22: 1-19). The sacrz/ice of Abraham is a «type», that is, a
figure of the sacrifice of Christ. just as Abraham did not

9
Cf. Isaiah 49:8.
10
Cf. IT Cor. 6:3 and Ps. 38:8.
127
The Sacrifice of Abraham. Tim episode from the Bible CICClln with great
frequency in early Christian art. Abraham's sacrifice is a symbol of Cbmt's
sacrifice and thus of redemption (Rome, Catacombs of the Via Anapo. Photo
Pont. Comm. Arch.).
 CH. IV · READINGS

spare his son at God's command, so God the Father

would not spare His Son, but would give him up f or us all
(c/. Rom. 8:32).
«Abraham took the wood for the holocaust and placed it on
his son Isaac, picked up the fire and the knife and they set off
together». The fact that Isaac himself carries the wood for the
holocaust is a figure, because Christ carried his cross himself.
Nevertheless, to carry the wood for the holocaust is the function
of the priest. Thus he becomes himself both the sacrifice and the
priest. But even that which is added, «and they both set off
together», refers to this. Although Abraham carries the fire and
the knife as though about to offer sacrifice, Isaac does not walk
behind him but with him, so that it may be shown that Isaac
likewise exercises the priesthood with Abraham.
What follows these things? It says, «Isaac said to his father
Abraham, 'Father'». In these circumstances this is the voice of
temptation which has been put forth by the son. How do you
think the son, who was to be sacrificed, struck his father's heart
with this word? Although Abraham was quite unmoved in
keeping with his faith, he nevertheless returned the word of
affection and answered, «What is it, my son?» And he said,
«Here is the fire and the wood. Where is the sheep for the
holocaust?» Abraham responded, <<God Himself will provide the
sheep for the holocaust, my son».
This loving and circumspect reply of Abraham moves me. I
do not know what he was seeing in his mind, for he speaks not
concerning the present but the future: «God will provide the
sheep for Himself». To his son, who is asking about present
matters, he replies concerning future events. For indeed, the
Lord Himself will provide for Himself a sheep in Christ.
It says, «Abraham stretched out his hand to take the knife
and slay his son. And the Angel of the Lord called him from

129
Cll IV - READINGS

heaven and said, 'Abraham. Abraham'_ And he said, 'Here I am'.

He said, 'Do not lay your hand on the boy or do anything to
him. Now I know that you fear God'»- Let us compare these
things with the words of the Apostle where he says concerning
God, «He did not spare His own Son, but handed him over for
us all» (Rom. 8:32). Look at God contending with men in such
magnificent generosity. Abraham offered to God his mortal son
who was not going to die; God gave His immortal Son over to
death for the sake of men.
It says, «Abraham lifted up his eyes and saw a ram caught by
its horns in a thicket». We said above, I believe, that Isaac was a
figure of Christ, but this ram in no way seems to be the figure of
Christ But it is worth the effort to know how each of these
refers to Christ; both Isaac, who has not been slain, and the ram,
who has been.
Christ is the Word of God, but <(the Word was made flesh»
Uohn 1: 14). Thus Christ suffers, but in the flesh. He even
undergoes death, but in the flesh of which this ram is a figure.
Therefore John said, <(Behold the Lamb of God, who bears the
sins of the world» Uohn 1:29). But the Word continued in
incorruptibility, which is Christ according to the Spirit, of whom
Isaac is the image. Thus he is himself both the sacrifice and the
priest According to the Spirit he offers the sacrifice to the
Father and according to the flesh he is himself offered on the
altar of the cross.
(Homilies on Genesis, Hom. VIJJ, 6, 8, 9)

5. The Kingdom of God is in our midst

(Origen)

God has a plan /or all of humanity which He realizes

through history. There/ore, God created man, called
130
 CH. IV - READINGS

Abraham and chose the People of Israel. The prophets

revealed this plan and announced the coming «kingdom»
of God the Savior, who would restore freedom and
dignity to mankind, make a new convenant and
completely renew the world.
The «kingdom» of God reaches its fulfillment and «is
clearly manzfested to men in the words, the works and the
person of Christ». 11 The word «kingdom» stands /or
God's decisive action which saves man, gives a new
direction to the world and offers the possibility of
salvation for all. The church, as the community of the
disciples and witnesses of Jesus, is called to be in the
world both the sign that the «kingdom» is already present
and the instrument by which it may reach every person. In
this page, Origen shows the experience and the
participation ofthe individual in the Kingdom of God.

«Thy Kingdom come». If, according to the word of Our

Lord and Savior, the Kingdom of God does not come so that it
is observed, nor will they say, «Here it is, or it is there», but the
Kingdom of God is within us 12 (for the word is very near, on
our lips and in our heart), it is clear that the one who prays that
the Kingdom of God come prays with good reason that it rise
up, bear fruit and be perfected in himself. Each of the saints 13 is
ruled by God, obeys God's spiritual laws and dwells in himself as
in a well-ordered city. The Father is present to him and Christ

11
Vatican Council II, Lumen Gentium 5.
12
Cf. Lk. 17:21 and Rom. 10:8.
13
In the New Testament and the Fathers all Christians are called saints
inasmuch as through baptism «they have been sanctified in Christ Jesus; are
called to be saints» (I Cor. 1:2 ) and take part in the «holy mysteries» (the
Eucharist).

131
CH. IV · READINGS

reigns along with the Father in the soul which has been made
perfect according to the saying mentioned a little earlier, «We
will come to him and make our dwelling with him» Uohn 14:23).
For those who progress unceasingly, consummation in the
Kingdom of God will be established when the saying of the
Apostle is fulfilled, that Christ, once all his enemies are subjected
to him, will hand over the Kingdom to his God and Father so
that God may be all in all. 14 On this account, as we pray
unceasingly with a disposition rendered divine by the Word, let
us say to Our Father in heaven, «Hallowed by thy name. Thy
Kingdom come» (Mt. 6:9-10).

The great Constantinian

monogram within a
triple halo (symbol or
the T rinity?) and
surrounded by twelve
doves. Sth cent. mosak
(Baptistry or Albenga.
Photo Pont. Comm.
Arch.).

132
 01 IV - READINGS

Moreover, this too must be distinguished concerning the

Kingdom of God, that just as there is no participation between
justice and injustice nor communion of light and darkness nor
harmony of Christ and Beliar, 15 sq the kingdom of sin is not
able to exist in the Kingdom of God.
Therefore, if we desire God to rule over us, <det not sin reign
in our mortal body» (Rom. 6: 12), and let us not listen to its
ordinances when it summons our soul to works of the flesh and
things which are at enmity with God. Rather, let us mortify «our
members which are on earth» (CoL 2:5) and let us bring forth
the fruits of the Spirit. In this way, the Lord may walk in us as in
a spiritual garden and alone may reign in us with His Christ, who
has taken his place in us at the right hand of the spiritual power
which we pray to receive, and who is seated there until all his
enemies in us become «a footstool under his feet» (Ps. 109: 1)
and every principality, power and virtue is abolished in us. All
these things can happen in us and the final enemy, death, can be
destroyed (cf. I Cor. 15:26) so that Christ may say also in us,
«Death, where is your sting? Hades, where is your victory?»
(Hos. 13:14, I Cor. 15 :55 ). Let what is corruptible in us put on
holiness and purity and, since death has been abolished, let that
which is mortal put on the immortality of the Father (cf. I Cor.
15:54). Thus, as God reigns over us, we may already share in the
good things of rebirth and the resurrection.
(On Prayer 25)

14
Cf. I Cor. 15:24, 28.
15
Cf. II Cor. 6: 14-15. Beliar, a synonym for Satan, is the name used to
indicate the prince of demons (the supreme personification of evil) who is
opposed to Christ/God.

133
CH IV - READINGS

6. Christians and their homeland

(Origen)

If Celsus desires that we setve as officers in the army for the

sake of our homeland, let him know that we do that also, but not
for the sake of being seen by men or obtaining empty gloty from
them. In secret, in the very core of our being prayers are sent up
as though from priests on behalf of our fellow citizens. Christians
are more beneficial to their homeland than other people. They
instruct their fellow citizens, teach piety towards the God who
guards the city and lift up to some divine and heavenly city those
who have lived well in the smallest cities. It might be said to
them, «You have been faithful in a small city, come into a great
one». 16
(Agamst Celsus VTll, 74)

16
Cf. Mt. 25:21.

134
 Chapter V

The beginnings of Christian literature in latin

180 Martyrs of Scilli

MINUClUS FELIX (?l

TERTULLIAN
203 Passion of
Sts. Perpetua and Felicny
G (Apologist)

2-l9 Persecution CYPRIAN

ofDecius (bishop of Canhage)
251
257
258
Persecution
of Valerian
CJ H
martyrdom of
CYPRIAN

135
The spread of Chrimanity in the third century. Carthage, the seat of a
Christian community since the sec:ood century, establisbed itself also as a
great cuJtural center and produced the first Christian writings in the latin
language.
 0 I V · TER11JLUAN · CYPRIAN

1. The first attempts

The authors studied up to this point all, without exception,

used Greek for the composition of their works. Even
Hippolytus, who was active at Rome in the first decades of the
third century, wrote fluently in Greek. As paradoxical as it may
seem, the first Christian documents in latin come not from Rome
but from Roman Africa, i.e. the territory corresponding roughly
to modern Northwest Africa, including Tunisia, Algeria and
Morocco. At that time they were known, respectively, as Africa
Proconsularis, Numidia and Mauretania and were centered
around the metropolis of Carthage (near modern Tunis).
The primary necessity behind the composition of Christian
texts in latin was certainly that of placing at the disposition of the
faithful translations of the Sacred Scriptures in their own
language. Many latin versions of the Bible, intended above all for
use in the liturgy, were undertaken by various individual
communities scattered over this vast territory. Only with Jerome,
around 400, was a common, revised latin text of Scripture
published known as the Vulgate.
In addition to the scriptural translations which nourished the
liturgy and spirituality of the first African Christians, other texts
were translated from Greek into latin of account of the high
esteem in which they were held and the great normative
authority which was usually attributed to them. These included
some writings of the Apostolic Fathers such as Barnabas, the
Didache, the Shepherd of Hermas and the letter of Clement of
Rome to the Corinthians. These obviously were popular
translations with no pretense of literary merit which were
adapted to the mediocre cultural level of the Christians of the
time.
The strong religious tension in these young communities
fo und a significant instrument of expression in the composition
of the Acts of the Martyrs. These were drawn up on the basis of
137
The arcbeological site at Carthage. This city witb its glorious history became
famous as the see of the primate of Africa and produced many great bishops
and apologists.
----------------------------------------------------·
CH . V · TI:RTIJLUAN · CYPRIAN

the Roman procedural documents which recorded the

interrogation of the martyr and his condemnation by the Roman
authorities. The Acts contributed to the edification of the
community and became a part of the collective cultural
consciousness which recognized in them the community's own
values and aspirations. Through continual reading and
reworking, the Acts were transformed into Passions and became
an integral part of the liturgy. Two of the more important and
evocative of these documents bear special mention: the Acts of
the Martyrs of Scilli ( 180) and the Passion of Perpetua and
Felicty (202).

2. Latin apologetics

After these first attempts, whose origins remain shrouded in

obscurity, true Christian latin literature had its beginnings with
rwo exceedingly gifted and refmed individuals, both lawyers by
profession and both Africans, Minucius Felix and Tertullian. The
question of the priority of one writer over the other has been
discussed at length and will probably continue to be discussed
for some time. The problem is rendered even more complicated
by the obvious similarities between the Octavius of Minucius
Felix and the Apology of Tertullian. Whatever the case, it is not
insignificant that both of these works belong to the litera.t"o/ genre
of the apology, even though Minucius Felix's work is in the form
of a dialogue.
In the dialogue Octavius, which betrays to no small extent the
1 influence of latin literary models, Cicero in particular, Minucius
imagines that a pagan named Caecilius and a Christian, Octavius,
are engaged with him in a polite dialogue on the shore at Ostia.
After a discussion of their respective religious convictions, the
pagan admits defeat and is converted.
This literary jewel always remains on the level of the most
139
Cll V - TERTIJLLIAN - CYPRIAN

refined philosophical culture of the day and never delves into the
particulars of the Christian faith which, at the outset, would have
been annoying and counterproductive for the conversion of a
pagan. It is characteristic of apologetic literature to begin the
philosophical demostration by searching in the first place for the
elements of mediation and union with the most noble and
exalted ideas of the classical tradition (e.g. monotheism, the
immortality of the soul, etc.), and to leave more or less in the
background the specifically Christian elements of the faith under
discussion.
As Minucius is refined and courteous, even if intransigent in
questions of principle and harsh in his judgment on paganism, so

Nt:t t'Amif"Y_..,,.....,,..1J
(it I 'f tr~ tiJn(• ,~_.,..•t1•An~'rum (iA.A
Ju:nt (N..., (t"' """.U•'i t"ttA( u(lJliA. ,1.
t rt ('ht ,....,.. J,f,J r"h • ~Uf t ""' A • f tr"Yl•

"'14',....,.... (iJ•"'f'T'~,....... mfl'

AL .•Jtt .l•ml'(htt(mdttu(n,T11(Af''r1A
mAnt(r(l.u•• {Wl"'t:-h•'ru(•..,,.._,,, u t Ar
h,..,..(loru l tr..rA r- ucrffA't ur t uf tA

t.4tA. tA t t .A.rum lut•t'o(l"Ut,A·{At.(r (

wfh·A( fi'YU'rtiYI' J"C aJu( A, AU(A (u•
,.1.-,Yf' ..ttu)"". T" ""' .,,.,. J~ , onJuu"'*' ,.,,
l'#f"fl (c f ·rw"rtnAm t n ••·rrt (~
The beginning of
Tertullian's Apology in
a Vatican manuscript
(Bibl. Ap. Vat., Vat.
lat. 194, fol. lr).

140
 CH V TERTULLIAN - CYPRIAN

is T ertullian fiery and impetuous in the ardor of a new convert

deeply moved by the spectacle of the courage of the Christian
martyrs in the circus. As he wrote in his Apology, echoing a motif
of the Letter to Diognetus, the blood shed by the martyrs is the
seed of new conversions. In the Apology Tertullian shows off his
skill as a lawyer by laying bare the contradictions of Roman
legislation regarding the treatment of the Christians. Are the
Christians really criminals as public opinion claims? Then it is
necessary to search them out and condemn them and not allow
them to exist on the basis of an ambiguous deposition of the
emperor Trajan. 1 Are the Christians, on the other hand, good
people? Then they must not be condemned for crimes they have
not committed or, what is still worse, just because of their name.

3. Tertullian: F.rom Catholicism to Mootanism

The impulsive and impetuous character and the intransigent

rigorism which always led T ertullian, who was well aware of his
«defect», to assume extreme poistions finally led him around
206-7 to abandon the Great Church of the Catholics in order to
adhere to Mo'ntanism. This charismatic-prophetic movement,
which was started by Montanus in Phrygia (a region of Asia
Minor), spread rapidly in all the Christian communities of the
time and soon reached Carthage. The propagators of this
movement, among whom were many women endowed with a
prophetic spirit, preached absolute chastity and the rejection of
the world in view of its imminent end which was to accompany
the advent of the Holy Spirit, the Paradete.
1
In his response to the famous letter of Pliny the Younger, governor of
Bithynia in Asia Minor (ca. 110), the emperor Trajan had ordered that the
Christians were not to be officially sought out by the police but that once in
custody they were to be put to death if they refused to deny their faith. This was
certainly no model of logical jurisprudence!
141
CH V - TERTULLJA,'I · CYPRIA.'I

Tertullian displayed this radical turn in his life in many

works. In these works he expressed judgments and opinions
which were often in complete opposition to his position
regarding the same questions in the earlier period of his
adherence to the orthodox community of Carthage.
For example, although at an earlier period he had recognized
the church's power to remit all sins, including mortal sins such as
idolatry, murder and adultery, once he passed over to
Montanism he limited this recognition to the forgiveness of
venial sins and maintained that the more serious sins were
remitted only by the inscrutable grace of God and by the
shedding of blood in the supreme witness of martyrdom.
Tertullian's passage over to the Montanist ranks thus led him to
condemn unreservedly second marriages and to consider them as
a disguised adultery, even though he had previously admitted
that they were legitimate.
Finally, his adherence to Montanist rigorism brought him
openly to condemn even the attitude of those who took flight in
the face of martyrdom and sought safety as fugitives. According
to Tertullian the Montanist, the Christian faith could not admit
of these unworthy weaknesses in a genuine soldier of Christ. On
the contrary, a substantial continuity of thought is to be found in
T ertullian with regard to his judgment on military service, which
he considered to be fundamentally incompatible with the true
service of Christ. In this, Tertullian expresses an opinion widely
diffused among the early Christian communities in Africa where
conscientious objection was lived out even to the sacrifice of
martyrdom.

4. Tertullian, a master of literature and doctrine

In spite of the extremist positions expressed in various

treatises of his Montanist period - T ertullian ended up breaking
142
 CH. V · TERTULLIAN . CYPRIAN

with Montanism and establishing an even inore rigorist sect of

the «T ertullianists» who survived until the time of Augustine -
he left behind many works rich in doctrine and in authentic
Christian faith, such as the oldest latin commentary on the «Our
Father», a work on baptism and one on penance.
Tertullian's activity was not restricted to his moral, liturgical
and disciplinary interests, and he also displayed a great
theological endeavor in the anti-heretical struggle and in
doctrinal elaboration. As a result of his familiarity with Greek
Christian literature, he drew his inspiration above all from the
works of Melito, Theophilus, Irenaeus and Hippolytus.
Tertullian wrote against the Valentinians and against
Marcion. His work Against Marcion is practically the only source,
or at least the most valuable in our possession, which provides a
fairly precise idea of that heretic's doctrine. Against Gnostic
docetism he affirmed the value and salvi.fic power of the real
incarnation of Christ and he devoted a specific treatise to the
defense of the orthodox doctrine of the ultimate resurrection of
the flesh.
Tertullian laid the foundation for the Trinitarian doctrine of
the Latin Church, and this represents perhaps the most
important aspect of his doctrinal activity. The concepts and
technical terminology which he expounded in his doctrinal
treatises exercised a great influence on subsequent authors. The
formula which defined the Trinity as «one substance in three
persons» represented a decisive acquisition. Tertullian was led to
develop the questions regarding the Godhead by the polemic
against a certain Praxeas, who maintained that in God there was
only the monarchia, 2 i.e. unity without the distinction of the

2
This Greek word indicates the unity of the governing power. In
theological language it indicates the uriity of God. Its opposite, in this context, is
oikonomia, i.e. the salvi.fic plan in which each person of the Trinity carries out
his specific role.

143
 CH V · TI:RllJLUAN CYPRIAN

single persons. This heresy took the name of «Monarchianism»

but was known also as «Modalism» inasmuch as it maintained
that the Father, Son and Spirit were in reality only «modes» of
the one divinity. As a result, it was also called «Patripassionism»
to the extent that it upheld that the Father, identical with the
Son, suffered on the cross. Thanks to the fundamental
contributions of his thought to the development of Christian
theology and morality, Tertullian continued to enjoy great
respect in the African Church of the third century and beyond,
in spite of his departure &om orthodoxy. Cyprian, the bishop of
Carthage sometime later, nourished himself on the reading of
Tertullian's works. When he sought them out he requested
simply «the master».

5. Cyprian, champion ofthe church's unity

Cyprian found himself at the head of the community of

Carthage in a particularly dramatic moment of its history.
He was a convert &om paganism, where, as he recounts
himself in the To Donatus, he had been a «Stranger to truth and
to the light», but where he had also received a polished literary
education. As soon as he was elected bishop he sold all his goods
for the benefit of the poor and devoted himself to an intense
pastoral activity.
In him, unlike Tertullian, there emerges not so much the
theologian and polemicist as rather the gentle figure of the pastor
of the community, the bishop solicitous for the practical
problems and the religious and moral life of the faithful. In this
area he showed considerable evidence of his lofty spirituality

Cyprian writing in his cell. It is a miniature (1475-1482) of a master in the

style of Bottkelll, executed with great precision and a minute attention to
details (Bibl. Ap. Vat., Urb.lat. 63, fol. 8v).

145
Cl!. V . TERTULLIAN . CYPRIAN

which was completely imbued with biblical motifs and

characterized by a strong pedagogical aspect.
Long years of tranquility and security for the church had
multiplied conversions, but the increase in the number of the
faithful had not been followed by an improvement in the quality
of Christian life. Thus, when the persecution of Decius was
unleashed, it produced vast and profound rents in the fabric of
the Christian community. Out of fear of martyrdom, many
abjured their faith and gave in to the demand to offer sacrifice to
the statue of the emperor (These are known by the term lapsr). 3
Others sought to circumvent the problem by secretly purchasing
false certificates &om the imperial police, documents which

Another view of tbe archeological site at Carthage. In this city numerous

synods or regional councils were held where the orthodox formulation of the
Christian faith always prevailed.

146
 CH V - TERTULlJAN - CYPRIAN

attested to the offering of the required sacrifice (These were

given the name libellaticz). 4 Once the tempest passed, the
problem of the readmission of all these persons to the church
presented itself in all its gravity. There was a clash between the
different tendencies. The rigorists wished to impede at all costs
the reintegration of the apostates into the ecclesial community
while others were in favor of a general amnesty and did not
hesitate to have recourse to the intercession of the confessors of
the faith 5 and to resort even to obscure maneuvers and attempts
at corruption.
In the midst of such great confusion, Cyprian, who had
himself been accused of fleeing in the face of danger rather than
turning himself in to the police and facing martyrdom,
intervened decisively to restore the hierarchical authority of the
bishop, which had been called into question, and to indicate the
proper solution. The apostates were allowed to do penance and
enter again into the unity of the church, «outside of which
salvation is not granted to anyone». Cyprian illustrated this
theology of the church, if it can be characterized as such, in his
two most important works, On the Lapsed and On the Unity of
the Catholic Church, in which he explains how the unity of the
church is founded on the unity of the body of bishops in union
with the Roman See.

3
This latin term designates those who have slipped or committed an error
and who thus are «apostates».
4
This latin term designates those who possess a libellus or certificate of
sacrifice.
5
The «confessors of the fai th» were Christians who had courageously faced
martyrdom and survived. They enjoyed a great moral and spiritual prestige in the
community which at times rivaled that of the bishop.

147
CH V TER1lJLLIAN - CYPRIA.\1

6. The conflict with Rome

For so determined a champion of the unity of the church as

Cyprian, the conflict in which he found himself embroiled with
Stephen, the bishop of Rome, must have been a source of great
bitterness. Stephen maintained that when heretics wished to
enter into the Catholic church, it was not necessary to baptise
them again since the imposition of hands was sufficient to confer
the gift of the Holy Spirit. On this occasion, however, Cyprian
assumed a far more rigid attitude than he had demostrated in the
question of the lapsi. He did this precisely on the principle of the
absolute necessity for salvation to adhere totally to the traditional
sacramental praxis of the church. For this reason, Cyprian, the
defender of the unity and the catholicity of the church, reacted
strongly against the bishop of Rome and his unjust meddling. He
obtained from the African episcopate, which was united solidly
behind him, the recognition of the invalidity of baptism
conferred by heretics and the reaffirmation of the absolute
necessity to rebaptize heretics who had requested to be admitted
to orthodoxy.
The dispute was resolved by the martyrdom of the
antagonists. Cyprian crowned his episcopal ministry and his
combat in this world with the palm of martyrdom in 258 during
the persecution of Valerian. His name endured as a beacon for
all of African Christianity in the following centuries. The rich
collection of Cyprian's letters remains even today a literary and
spiritual monument of great value. The service of this bishop,
marked by tragedies such as two persecutions and the plague,
could not have ended more gloriously. He confronted his destiny
in the confidence that the world was already growing old and
that the end was near. The web of evils and calamities which was
closing in on the life of the people from every side was the
warning sign that something new was soon going to happen and
that after the lengthy darkness of the third century, a new sun
148
 CH V . READINGS

would appear on the horizon.

After Cyprian, Latin Christian literature in the third century
knew such authors as Novatian, the schismatic Roman priest who
wrote a treatise on the Trinity, and Arnobius, the African
professor who composed an apologetic work against the pagans
in which he displayed a better knowledge of the paganism he was
combatting than of the Christianity he intended to defend. With
Lactantius one arrives at the historic turn of events of the fourth
century; an era rich in novelty and promise but also with tensions
and unexpected problems.

READINGS

1. The Apostles preached the same faith everywhere

(Tertullian)

Tertullian, too, affirms the principle of the necessary

adherence to Tradition. jesus Christ founded the church
on the Apostles. They, under the guidance of the Holy
Spirit, founded the particular churches in which the
message of Christ has been preserved in its entirety by the
uninterrupted succession of bishops and the assistance of
the same Spirit.

Our Lord Jesus Christ, as long he was on the earth, himself

declared what he was, what he had been, what will of the Father
he was administering and what he was establishing to be done by
men. He did this either openly before the people or separately
before his disciples, from whom he elected as intimate
companions twelve chosen ones who were to instruct the nations.
Then, since one of them had been removed, as he was returning
149
---

Christ with the twelve ApostJes. Jesus, who is depicted as a youth, has at hi<!
feet a basket containing the scrolls of the Scriptures. The mosaic is from the
end oftbe 4th cent. (Milan, chapel of Sant'Aquilino).
 CH. V - READINGS

to his Father after the resurrection he ordered the remaining

eleven to go and teach the nations, baptizing them in the Father,
the Son and the Holy Spirit.
Once Matthias had been added by lot as the twelfth in the
place of Judas according to the authority of the prophecy in
David's psalm, 6 and once they had received the promised power
of the Holy Spirit for working miracles and for preaching, the
Apostles - the name means «those who have been sent» -
immediately proclaimed the faith in Jesus Christ and established
churches, beginning in Judea. They then set out into the rest of
the world and proclaimed the same teaching of the same faith to
the nations. In like manner they founded churches in every ciry,
from which the scion of the faith and the seeds of doctrine were
transplanted and are transplanted daily in other churches so that
the church comes into existence. For this reason, as offspring of
the apostolic churches, these churches are themselves considered
to be apostolic. 7
Every race must be judged according to its origins.
Therefore, of so many and such great churches there is one
which is the first, founded by the Apostles, from which the rest
are derived. Thus all are first and all are apostolic since all are
one. The communion of peace, the tide of fraternity and the
bonds of hospitality bear witness to this uniry. No motive
governs these rights other than the one tradition of the same
sacred bond.
What did they preach? That is, what did Christ reveal to
them? I would prescribe that this must be proved in no other
manner than by the same churches which these very Apostles
founded, who preached to them either viva voce, as they say, or

6
Cf. Acts 1:15-26.
7
Churches founded by the Apostles or by those who were in direct and
personal contact with the Apostles are known as «apostoliC>>.

151
CH. V · READINGS

subsequently by letters.
At some time the Lord said plainly, «I have many things still
to say to you, but you are not able to bear them now». Yet he
added, «When the Spirit of Truth will have come, he will lead
you to all truth» Qohn 16:12-13). He showed that those whom
he promised were going to obtain «ali truth» through the Spirit
of Truth were ignorant of nothing. Indeed he fulfilled his
promise, as the Acts of the Apostles prove when they speak of
the descent of the H oly Spirit. 8
(The Prescription ofthe Heretics 20, 1·9; 21,3; 22,8-10)

2. The spiritual riches of Christian marriage

(Tertullian )

The treatise To his Wife (/rom which this reading is

taken) is a type of spiritual testament which Tertullian
wrote to his wife and in which he poured out his great
esteem for Christian mam'age.

The three figures

represent three stages in
the life of a woman:
matrimony (left); ma-
ternity (right); and life
after death (center)
represented by the
figure in a posture of
prayer (Rome, Cata-
combs of Priscilla.
Photo Pont. Comm.
Arch.).
152
 CH. V - READINGS

Such a beautiful and modem text on the value of mamage

is a rarity in the Fathers. Tertullian himself, in the last
years of his lt/e, came under the influence of Montanist
tendencies which led him to exalt virginity at the price of
denigrating mamage.

How am I able to tell of the happiness of that marriage which

the church unites and strengthens with the Eucharistic Sacrifice
and seals with a blessing, which the angels announce and which
the Father considers valid? What a beatiful couple two believers
make, who share one faith, one promise, one way of life and the
same service of the Lord! Both are children of the same Father,
both are fellow servents. There is no division of spirit or body,
but they are truly two in one flesh. Where there is one flesh there
also is one spirit. Together they pray, together they work and
together they make their fast. They instruct one another,
encourage one another and sustain one another. They are each
together in the church, at the table of God, in difficulties, in
persecutions in refreshment. Neither of them conceals anything
from the other, neither of them shuns the other, neither is a
burden to the other.
They freely visit the sick and help those in need. They give
alms without need of persuasion, make sacrifices without
hesitation and attend to their daily work without hindrance.
They do not hide the sign of their faith, and are neither hurried
in their thanksgiving nor muted in their blessing.
When Christ sees and hears these things he rejoices and
sends his peace to these spouses. Where these two are, there
Christ is. Where Christ is, there is no place for the evil one.
(To his Wife II 8, 6-9)

8
Cf. Acts 2:1-13.

153
CJI. V - READINGS

3. What will God deny to prayer made in spirit and truth?

(T ertullian)

This indeed is the spiritual sacrificial offering which puts an

end to the ancient sacrifices. «Of what use to me», he says, «are
the multitude of your sacrifices? I have had my fill of holocausts
of rams and the fat of sheep. I do not want the blood of bulls
and goats. Who ever demanded these things of yours from your
hands?» (Is. 1: 11).
The gospel teaches what God wanted. «The hour will come»,
it says, «when true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit
and in truth. God is spirit», and thus these are the kind of
worshipers he seeks Qohn 4:23-24). 9
We are the true worshipers and true priests who, when we
pray in the spirit, offer in sacrifice in the spirit the prayer which
is the proper and acceptable sacrificial offering of God. This,
namely, is the sacrifice He wanted, the sacrifice He provided for
Himself. This is the sacrificial offering vowed with our whole
heart, nourished on faith, attended by truth, unblemished in
innocence, pure in chastity and crowned with love, which we
must lead to God with a procession of good works amidst
psalms and hymns. This is the sacrifice which is going to obtain
all things for us from God.
What will God, who demanded it, deny to prayer coming to
Him in spirit and in truth? What great proofs of its efficacy do
we read and hear and believe! The prayer of the old dispensation
kept away fire, wild beasts and famine even though it had not
received its form from Christ. How much more widely active is

9 This is the solemn affirmation of the new religious spirit brought by

Jesus. Moved by the Spirit, the faithful will recognize and adore the Father
above all in their hearts, where they will receive the truth and put it into
practice.

154
 CH V - READINGS

Christian prayer? It does not stand as an angel of gentle dew in

the midst of flames, nor close lions' mouths, nor transport a
simple meal to the hungry, nor turn away the feeling of suffering
by a gift which has been granted. However, it does instruct the
suffering, the oppressed and those who are grieved with
endurance and increases the gift of strength, so that faith may
know what is obtained from the Lord when it understands what
is suffered for the name of the Lord.
Formerly, prayer used to call down blows, scatter the armies
of enemies and forbid the benefits of rain. But now the prayer of
justice turns away the wrath of God, keeps vigil of behalf of
enemies and intercedes for persecutors. Is it any wonder that it
knows how to wrest water from the heavens if it was able to call
down fire? Prayer alone conquers God. Christ, however, wanted
it to work nothing evil, so he gave it every power of good. Thus
it knows how to do nothing other than call back the souls of the
departed from the very path of death, refresh the weak, heal the
sick, atone for the possessed, open prison gates and loosen the
bonds of the innocent. It is prayer which does away with crimes,
repels temptations, puts an end to persecutions, consoles the
weak, delights the magnanimous, guides pilgrims, calms the sea,
confounds thieves, feeds the poor, governs the rich, raises up the
fallen, catches the stumbling and sustains those standing fast.
Prayer is the bulwark of faith, our arms and weapons against
the enemy who is on the watch for us from every side. Therefore,
let us never venture out unarmed. We will be mindful of our
watch in the day and our vigil in the night. Let us guard the sign
of our commander under the arms of prayer and let us await the
angel's trumpet in prayer.
Even the angels pray as well as every creature. Cattle and
wild beasts both pray and bend their knees. As they come out
from their stables or dens they do not look up to heaven with an
idle mouth but cause the air to resound, each in its own way.

ISS
A miniature representing the churdl as mother. Detail of a scroll of the
Exultet done at Montecassioo in the 11th cent. 1be illustration shows bow the
distinction between clergy and laity bad become more pronounc:ed through
the centuries (Bibl. Ap. Vat., Barb. lat. 592).
 CH V READINGS

Even the b irds when they awake and betake themselves up to the
heavens stretch out the cross of their wings in place of hands and
say something which seems like a prayer.
What more can I say concerning the duty of prayer? Even
the Lord himself prayed. To him be honor and power forever.
(On Prayer 28-29)

4. One cannot have God as a Father

who does not have the church as a mother
(Cyprian)

The Fathers lived in the church and /or the church. They
possessed to an eminent degree a «sense» of the unity,
maternity and historical reality of the church. They saw it
making its pilgrimage on earth «between the consolations
of God and the persecutions of the world» (Augustine)
/ rom the time of A bel until the end of the ages. Thus,
they exhorted the faithful to remain safe within it, no
matter what difficulties might arise. When controversies
dzd arise, they were to be resolved within the body of the
church, «with holy humility, catholic peace and Christian
charity» (Augustine).
Cyprian w rote the treatise O n the Unity of the CathoLc
Church (which was read to the bishops at the council in
Carthage in 251) at a time when two dangers were
threatening the church. On the one szde was persecution
which provoked numerous defections and on the other
was heresy and schism which rent the unity of the church.
No one can have God as a Father, admonished Cyprian,
who does not have the church as a mother.

The pure and chaste bride of Christ is not able to commit

adultery. She knows one home and guards the sanctity of one
157
CH. V · READINGS

bedchamber with modest chastity. She keeps us for God and

destines the children she has begotten for the Kingdom.
Whoever has separated from the church and is joined to an
adulteress is cut off from the promises of Christ. He is a stranger,
profane, an enemy. He is not able to have God as Father who
does not have the church as mother. If anyone outside Noah's
ark was able to escape, then he who is outside the church
escapes.
The Lord admonishes and says, «He who is not with me is
against me, and he who does not gather with me scatters» (Mt.
12:30). He who breaks the peace and concord of Christ works
against Christ; he who gathers elsewhere than in the church
scatters the church of Christ. The Lord says, «The Father and I
are one» Uohn 10:30). Again, it has been written concerning the
Father, Son and Holy Spirit, «And the three are one» (I John
5: 7). Does anyone believe that this unity in the church which
derives from divine constancy, which is bound to the heavenly
mysteries, is able to be torn asunder and be split apart by the
divergence of opposing wills? Whoever does not hold fast to this
unity does not hold fast to the law of God, does not hold fast to
the faith of the Father and the Son, does not hold fast to life and
salvation.
This mystery of unity, this bond of abiding concord is
manifested when, in the gospel, the tunic of the Lord Jesus
Christ is in no way divided or torn. Rather, the entire garment is
received. Whole and undivided, it becomes the possession of the
ones casting lots for the garment of Christ, who would have done
better to put on Christ. Divine Scripture says, «But concerning
the tunic, since it had been woven in one piece from top to
bottom and was without a seam, they said to one another, 'Let us
not tear it but cast lots for it, to see whose it will be'» Uohn
19:23££). He brought that unity which comes from above; that is,
from heaven and from the Father. Such unity was not at all able

158
 CH. V • READINGS

to be tom by the one who took it into his possession, but

continued whole and undamaged. He is not able to possess the
garment of Christ 10 who tears and divides the church of Christ.
(On the Unity a/the Catholic Church 6-7)

5. Our peace and fraternal harmony

is tbe greatest sacrifice we can offer to God
(Cyprian)

The Lord openly adjoined, added a law and bound us by a

definite condition and promise that we might ask for our sins to
be forgiven us according to the manner in which we ourselves
forgive those who have sinned against us. We know that we are
not able to obtain what we ask for concerning our sins unless we
ourselves do likewise to those who sin against us. Therefore he
says in another place, «By which measure you measure out, it
will be returned to you» (Mt. 7:2), and that servant who, after his
entire debt had been cancelled for him by his master, did not
want to cancel his fellow servant's debt is thrown into prison.
Because he did not wish to be generous with his fellow servant,
he lost that which had been pardoned him by his master.
These things Christ now proposes more strongly in his
precept by the greater force of his own authority. He says,
«When you stand to pray, forgive whatever you have against
anyone so that your Father in heaven may forgive you your sins.
But if you do not forgive, neither will you Father in heaven
forgive you your sins» (Mk. 11:25). No excuse remains for you
on the day of judgment, since you will be judged according to
your own sentence and what you have done, you will suffer
yourself. God commands that we be at peace and in harmony

10
I .e., he is not able to be a true Christian who...

159
Cornelius Oeft) and Cyprian (right). In this fresco of the 6th ttnt. the two
figures are dotbed in pontifkal vestments and are holding a jeweled book In
tbelr left hands. Tr8d.ltion has assodated the two in veneration and llturgkaJ
celebration (Rome, Catacombs of St. Calmtus. Pboto Pont. Comm. Arch.).
 0 I. V RI~DINGS

and at one in His house. He wants those who have been reborn
to remain such as He has made them by their second birth so
that we, who are children of God, may remain in the peace of
God and that those who have the one Spirit may be one in mind
and heart. Thus God does not accept the sacrifice of one who is
quarreling, but orders him to leave the altar and first go and be
reconciled with his brother so that God, too, may be appeased
by peaceful prayers. Our peace and fraternal harmony and a
people gathered together by the unity of the Father, Son and
Holy Spirit is the greatest sacrifice we can offer to God.
In the sacrifices which Abel and Cain first offered, God did
not look at their gifts but at their hearts, so that he was able to
please God with his gift who was pleasing in his heart. Abel, a
peaceful and just man, when he sacrificed to God in innocence
also taught others, when they offer their gift at the altar, to come
with fear of God, with an undivided heart, with the law of justice
and with the peace of concord. It is fitting that he who showed
himself to be this type of person in his sacrifice was himself
subsequently made a sacrifice to God, so that as the first to
manifest martyrdom he might begin the Lord's passion by the
glory of his blood, since he possessed the Lord's justice and
peace. Such ones are crowned by the Lord at last and will be
vindicated with the Lord on the day of judgment. As for the rest,
the one who sows discord, who is contrary and does not keep
peace with his brothers, even if he will have been killed for the
name of God, will not be able to escape the crime of fraternal
discord, as the blessed Apostle and Holy Scripture testify. It has
been written, «He who hates his brother is a murderer» (I John
3: 15), and a murderer does not enter the Kingdom of Heaven or
live with God. He is not able to be with Christ who has
preferred to be an imitator of Judas rather than of Christ. Such is
the trangression which is not able to be washed away by a
baptism of blood, such is the crime which is not able to be
expiated by martyrdom! (On th~ Lord's Prayer 23-24 )
161
CH. V • READINGS

6. You have given aU Christians

a shining example of unity and constancy
(Cyprian)

Cyprian sends greetings to his brother Cornelius. 11

We are aware, dearest brother, of the glorious acts of
testimony of your faith and virtue, and we have received word of
the honor of your confession with such joy that we regard
ourselves as partakers and companions in your merits and
praises. Indeed, since we are in one church and are joined in a
common purpose and undivided harmony, what priest is there
who does not take pleasure in his fellow priest's praises as
though in his own? What brother does not rejoice in the joy of
his brothers ever-yWhere? It can hardly be told how great our
exaltation and joy was when we had received the news of your
brave and noble deeds. We heard that you had stood forth as the
leader of the confession for your brothers and that the confession
of the leader was increased by the agreement of the brothers.
Thus, while you go ahead on the way to glory you have created
many companions in glory and have persuaded that the people
become confessors of the faith. We therefore are not able w
discern what we must acclaim in you first, whether it be your
prompt and firm faith or the inseparable charity of the brethren.
The strength of the bishop who took the lead in that matter has
been proved in public and the union of the brethren who
followed has been made manifest. Since there is one mind and
one voice among you, it is the entire Roman Church which has
given witness.
That faith of yours which the blessed Apostle acclaimed has
shone forth, dearest brother. Even then he foresaw in spirit this
praise of your virtue and constancy of your strength. He publicly
praised your merits in those who were to come since in praising
the parents he was encouraging the children. Since you are thus
162
 CH, V - READINGS

united and strong, you have offered to others of the brethren a

great example of unanimity and strength. You have taught us to
fear God exceedingly, to adhere firmly to Christ; you have
instructed the people to be joined with their priests in time of
danger and the brethren not to be separated from one another in
time of persecution. You have taught that a community united in
harmony is not able to be conquered at all.
We plainly urge as much as we can, dearest brother, that we
not cease to be steadfast in fasting, in vigil and in prayer with the
whole people. We are being instructed by the Lord's providence
and warned by the wholesome counsels of divine mercy that the
day of our contest and struggle is drawing near. These are the
heavenly arms which enable us to stand fast and courageously
persevere. These are the spiritual fortifications, the divine
weapons which protect us.
Let us always be mindful of one another, at peace and of one
mind. Let prayers be offered on both sides for each other and let
us ease our burdens and distress by mutual charity. And if one of
us should go before the other by the swiftness of divine favor,
then let our love persevere before the Lord and let out prayer for
our brothers and sisters not cease before the Father's mercy.
I wish, dearest brother, that it always be well with you.
12
(Letter 60, I, 2, 5)

11
This is Pope Cornelius, who was condemned to exile, where he died in
253.
12
Cyprian's letters are a valuable source for a knowledge of the life of the
church in a decade (249-258) filled with events such as the persecutions of
Decius and of Valerian and the schisms of Felicissimus in Africa and Novatian at
Rome.

163
Cll. V - READINGS

7. The Proconsular Acts

of the martyrdom of the bishop Cyprian

The P roconsular Acts of Cyprian's martyrdom are

composed of four fragments: 1) the interrogation be/ore
the proconsul Aspasius Patemus (August 3, 257); 2) the
narration of Cyprian's exile at Curubis 0 and his return;
3) the interrogation on September 14, 258 before the
proconsul Galerius Maximus; 4) the account of his
martyrdom.

Detail of an illumi-
nated initial (1487)
depleting a martyr
(Saturninus) and
two companions
brought before tbe
emperor on his
throne (Bibl. Ap.
Vat., Urb. lat. 112,
fol. 346r).

164
 CH. V . READINGS

The interrogation before the proconsul

The next day, the fourteenth of September, a great crowd
gathered early in the morning near the Villa Sexti at the
command of the proconsul, Galerius Maximus. Then the same
proconsul, Galerius Maximus, ordered that Cyprian be brought
to him that very day as he was sitting in the atrium at the
Sauciolum. 14 When he had been brought forward, the
proconsul Galerius Maximus said to the bishop Cyprian, «Are
you Thascius, known also as Cyprian?» The bishop Cyprian
responded, «l am». The proconsul Galerius Maximus said,
«Have you presented yourself to people as the head of a
sacrilegious movement?» The bishop Cyprian responded, «I
have». The proconsul Galerius Maximus said, «The most sacred
emperors have ordered you to offer worship». The bishop
Cyprian said, «I will not». Galerius Maximus said, «Have a care
for your own interests». The bishop Cyprian responded, «In so
just a matter there need be no reflection».
After he had spoken with his council, Galerius Maximus
hesitatingly and unwillingly pronounced the sentence in words of
this sort: «You have lived for a long time in a sacrilegious frame
of mind, have gathered very many other members of this impious
conspiracy around you and have set yourself up as an enemy of
the Roman gods and their sacred rites. Our pious and most
sacred princes, the august Valerian and Gallienus and our most
noble Caesar, Valerian, have not been able to call you back to
the observance of their worship. Therefore, since you are the
author and admitted leader of the most worthless crimes, you
will yourself be a warning for these people whom you have

13
The ancient Roman colony (Colonia Iulia Curubis) was on the coast not
far from Carthage.
14
A public building.
165
CH V . READINGS

gathered around you in your crime. Respect for the law will be
confirmed by your blood». Once he had said this, he read out
the sentence from the tablet: «It has been decided that Thascius
Cyprian is to be executed by the sword)). The bishop Cyprian
said, «Thands be to God».

Cyprian's martyrdom
After this sentence, the crowd of the brethren said, «Let us
also be beheaded with him». On this account a great commotion
broke out among the brethren and a large crowd followed him.
Cyprian was led into the field of Sextus. There he took off his
mantle and hood, knelt down on the ground and prostrated
himself in prayer to the Lord. When he had taken off his
dalmatic and given it to the deacons, he stood erect and awaited
the executioner. When the executioner came, Cyprian ordered
his attendants to give the executioner rwenty-five gold coins.
Linen cloths and handkerchiefs were spread out in front of him
by the brethren. After that, blessed Cyprian put on the blindfold
with his own hands, but since he was not able to tie the ends by
himself, the priest Julianus and the subdeacon Julianus tied them
for him.
In this manner the blessed Cyprian suffered death and his
body was laid in a place nearby on account of the curiosity of the
pagans. Then it was taken up at night with candles and torches
and brought with prayer and great triumph to the cemetery of
the procurator Macrobius Candidianus, which is near the pools.
After a few days the proconsul Galerius Maxim us died.
The most blessed martyr Cyprian suffered on the founeenth
of September under the emperors Valerian and Gallienus, but in
the reign of Our Lord Jesus Christ, to whom is honor and glory
forever and ever. Amen.
(Proconmlar Acts 3·6)

166
 PART TWO

THE FATHERS OF THE CHURCH

IN THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE
(IV-V cent.)

Part two presents the great figures of the Fathers who tllumined
the lzfe of the Christian community by their theological and moral
teachings in the fourth and fifth centuries. This was the age of the
lzherty of the church, of the great ecumenical councils and of the
spread of monasticism.

Ch. VI Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea m the

«Constaminian Revolution>>
Ch. VII Athanasius: The Atian Crisis and the rise of
monasticism
Ch. VITI The Cappadocian Fathers: Humanism and asceticism
Ch. IX · Three Western Fathers: Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome
Ch. X - Augustine of Hippo, the brilliant servant of the faith
Ch. XI · John Chrysostom and Cyril of Alexandria

167
 <

The spread of Christianity in the fourth century. Christianity, already present

in the entire territory and within the very structures of the Roman Empire,
was beginning to replace paganism as the bond between peoples.
 Chapter VI

Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea

in the ~~ constantinian Revolution»

303 Persecution LACTANTIUS

of Diodetian 1 290/305 1 at Nicomedia
305
3 13 FREEOOM OF WORSHIP
(Licinius and Constantine)
LACTANTIUS
1 317 at Trier

3 18 Beginning of EUSEBIUS
the Arian Crisis 1 313/ 340 1 bishop of Caesarea
in Palestine
325 Council of NICEA

169
( H VI LA( I'A, TIUS EUSEBIUS OF CAE$ARl:.A

1. Lactantius, the «Christian Cicero»

Known as the «Christian Cicero» for the purity of his latin

prose, Lactantius, a native of Roman Africa where he had been a
pupil of Arnobius, taught rhetoric in the imperial capital of
Nicomedia (Asia Minor). The outbreak of the last great
persecution of the Christians at the order of the Emperor
Diocletian in 303 forced him to flee and to lose both his position
and his stipend. Some years later, after the decade of tempest
had passed, he appeared at Trier, in Gaul, at the court of the
new emperor Constantine. As teacher of Constantine's son,
Crispus, he was once again in his official post as court professor
under the protection of the first Christian emperor in history.

2. Christ, the teacher of justice

With his work The Divine lnstLlutes in seven books,

Lactantius appears as the author of the first attempt - to a great
extent successful - to compose a comprehensive theological
summa of Christian doctrine with an apologetical intent. As a
result of this composition, Lactantius enters authoritatively into
the decisive conflict between Christianity and paganism,
although he perhaps betrays a better knowledge of the latter than
of Christianity. It must not be forgotten, however, that his work,
which is strongly apologetic in nature, is intended to present the
new religion to the cultivated classes of imperial society among
whom Lactantius desired to obtain an entry. He undertakes a
dialogue and a confrontation in cultural tenns adapted to the
mentality and background of the public to which his work is
addressed.
Christianity, as explained by Lactantius to the cultivated
pagans of his time, is characterized as the true wisdom which
brings salvation by means of the revelation of the way of mercy
170
 <II VI l.A.CTA'IITJl:S EUS!JliUS OF CAFSAREA
---------------------
and justice brought by Christ. Christ is the revealer, the teacher
who communicates to humanity, which is wandering in the
darkness of pagan error, the way to practice that justice which is
at the basis of the proper relationship of man with God and with
his neighbor. This justice is thus the only thing which can form
the necessary foundation for creating a truly human society
where there no longer dwells the ignorance of the divine truths
and the resulting violence.

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century (Bibl. Ap. Vat.,
Pal. tat 161, rol. lr).
171
Cl! VI LACTANTIUS - EUSEBfUS OF CAESAREA

J. Providence in nature and history

A vast and complex work such as Lactantius' also reflects the

variety of cultural and theological influences which affected this
man of varied experiences who had traveled throughout the
empire. For example, Lactantius still accepts millenarianism,
characteristic of Asiatic theology, and tends towards
subordinationism in his Christology. 1 There is, nevertheless, a
central idea, a kind of leitmotiv running through all his writings,
which guides Lactantius in his judgment of events and doctrines:
It is the idea of divine providence, which, in the end, amidst
difficulties and delays of every kind, succeeds in overcoming and
defeating evil in all its fonns. Lactantius' familiarity with ancient
Stoic philosophy 2 contributed much in this direction, but the
main influence was his own deeper reflection on the data of
biblical revelation and Christian history.
Indeed, Lactantius does not see divine providence at work
only in nature, but also, and primarily, in human history. The
configuration of the human body itself displays a rational
structure conceived with an end in view and thus betrays the
intervention of divine intelligence. On the other hand, an even
clearer proof of the existence of divine providence is the violent
end of the wicked emperors who dared persecute the holy
church of God and His Christ. Lactantius dedicated a work
entitled On the Death of the Persecutors to this theme. Thus,
providence is also manifested as anger or «the wrath of God».
He could not have been further from the Epicurean
philosophers, 3 who denied any fonn of intervention or interest
on the part of the divinity for natural phenomena and human
events.
It is interesting to note how, at the advent of Constantine,
who finally granted to the church the liberty for which it eagerly
longed, the Christians felt the need to look back over past history
in the awareness that an era had ended and the time had come to
172
 CH VI - U.CTANilUS - EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA

close the books on an epoch which had extended over three

centuries.
Lactantius could not but feel authentic admiration and
boundless gratitude towards Constantine, who put an end to the
persecutions by legally recognizing the Christian religion (313)
and who then openly favored it with gifts, subsidies and the
erection of basilicas. This same need of reflection on the sense
and the lesson of the Christian history of the first centuries in
light of the events which had radically modified its direction with
the «revolution» imposed by Constantine is found in the work of
Lactantius' Greek contemporary, Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea
in Palestine.

4. Eusebius and «political theology"

With Eusebius, unconditional enthusiasm for the first

Christian emperor reached tones of unreserved celebration never
excelled. This took literary form in The Lzfe of Constantine, a
biography which more than once drifts into hagiography. 4 In
this work, Eusebius intended to celebrate in the laudatory
fashion customary in the imperial panegyrics of the time the
merits gained by Constantine not only in his political and
military undertakings, but especially in his defense and
1
The doctrine according to which the Word, or Son of God, is in some
way inferior or «subordinate» to the Father, whose instrument he is for creation
and redemption.
2
The Stoics (the philosophers of the «portico») anributed central
importance to the concept of providence, which ruled and ordered the world.
3
The Epicureans, who took their name from their founder, Epicurus (3 rd
cent. B.C.), maintained that reality was the product of the random ronjunction
and dissolution of the atoms.
4
From the tenn, hagiographza, meaning «the life of a saint». Eusebius'
biography of Constantine resembles a life of Saint Constantine!

173
CH. VI LACTANTIUS EUSEBIUS OF CAESA.REA

propagation of the Christian religion. The figure and work of

Constantine are in fact at the center of Eusebius' theological and
political speculation. In Constantine, Eusebius sees fulfilled the
realization of a dream long cultivated by preceding Christian
generations and openly prefigured already by apologists such as
Melito of Sardis in the second century and by Origen. This was
the dream of the creation of a Roman-Christian empire in which
the coincidence of the birth of Christ with the reign of Augustus
would receive full recognition and proper appreciation as a sign

A medallion of Constantine the Great and Licioius. In recognition of the

actual state of affairs, they granted freedom of worship to the Christians in
313 (Paris, Louvre. Pboto Pont. Comm. Arch.).

174
 Cll VI · !.ACTANnUS EUSEB!US OF CAESAREA

of the profound identity of interests which bound the church and

the empire. It would lead to the creation and maintenance of a
new order of universal peace which would in some way
anticipate on this earth the eschatological 5 reign of God.

5. The first «history of the church»

Eusebius had personally experienced the dramatic events of

the long persecution of Diocletian and witnessed its unspeakable
horrors, of which he gives some idea in his work The Martyrs of
Palestine. Therefore, he was perhaps incapable of fully realizing
the inevitable risks inherent in this new situation of too close an
embrace berween church and empire; an embrace destined to
become suffocating. The fact is that in the course of his work as
a theologian, historian and apologist, Eusebius made himself the
interpreter, or better, theorist of the new arrangement in which
Christianity found itself.
His Ecclesiastical History was intended to describe the path
traversed by the community of believers scattered through the
world from its beginnings through the persecutions and internal
struggles to the ultimate and inevitable triumph which resulted
fro m the providential and salvific intervention of Constantine.
This work of Eusebius is of enormous importance for at least
rwo reasons. Prescinding from the Acts of the Apostles, it is the
first history of the church. It inaugurated a literary genre which
was completely original and radically different, although
analogous in its narrative arrangement, from the works of
classical Greek and Latin historiography. It was Eusebius'
Ecclesiastical History which provided the inspiration for all the

5
«Eschatological>> refers to everything concerning the fmal events of
history. It is derived from the Greek eschata, meaning «the last things».

175
Eusebius divided the gospels into numerous brid' episodes and assigned a
progressive number to eac:b or them. He tbeu regrouped the numbers tn ten
lists (the Gospel Canons): passages c:ommoo to aD four tv~ (Canon 1),
to three (Canons 0-IV), to two (Canons V-IX) and passages proper to each
evangelist (Canon X). Tbe illustration sbows Canon I from a manuscript of
the 11th century (Bibl. Ambr., LS3 Sup., fol. llr).
 Q l VI · LAC!"ANTIUS EUSUliUS m c.:AESARM

church historians in the centuries of Late Antiquity and the High

Middle Ages who dared venture upon a narration of the events
marking the expansion of Christianity within and without the
empire up to the conversion of the barbarian tribes. The latin
translation of the work, done by the great translator Rufmus of
Aquileia, assured its great success also among Western writers.
Furthermore, the Ecclesiastical History introduced the great
innovation of directly citing more or less extensive extracts of
original ancient documents. This procedure has allowed for a
knowledge even today of aspects, figures and events of Eastern
Christianity in the first three centuries which would otherwise be
unknown. Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History is like a great mosaic
of precious materials and it is to be lamented only that he was
not more generous in his transcription of documents. In
addition, the fact that the citations are incomplete and were
chosen on the basis of the theological and apologetic outlook
which inspired the composition of the work in its entirety o&en
renders problematic the interpretation of the documents which
have been preserved.

6. The apologist and scholar

Within these objective limits, the Ecclesiastical History

remains a literary and religious monument of incomparable
value. Also in his great apologetic work against paganism,
entitled Preparation of the Gospel, Eusebius abounds in citations
of the works of ancient philosophers. He o&en enters into
polemics with Porphyry, the formidable adversary and critic of
C hristianity who had composed flfteen books entitled Agamst the
Christians.
In all his indefatigable literary acrivity, Eusebius shows
himself to be essentially an investigator and a student of texts, an
attentive editor who had learned a love of philology fro m his
177
( II VI READL'IGS

idol, Origen. Indeed, aside from the Emperor Constantine,

Eusebius' other great passion was the memory of Origen, whose
lib rary at Caesarea in Palestine he used extensively. He dedicated
the sixth book of his Ecclesiastical History to a complete
biography of the Alexandrian master, the only such biography
extant, and together with Pamphilus he composed a Defense for
Origen.
Eusebius was not outstanding as a theologian. H e was
basically attached to the traditions of Palestinian Christianity and
can in no way be compared to O rigen. In the end, he
sympathized with the doctrines spread by a priest of Alexandria
in Egypt; a certain Arius, who in the years around 318-320
stirred up the whole Christian world with his preaching and
jeopardized the beautiful structure set up by Constantine on the
foundations of the Christian empire.

R EA DI NGS

These two readings deal with the f undamental truth about

creation stated m the Book of GeneSIS. The visrble world
has been created for man (c/ Gen 1-2). Man, «the only
creature on earth whrch God wanted /or Hrmsel/», 6 must
acknowledge the wrsdom, love and providence of God,
who is the source of all good and man 's ultimate personal
goal. «The ultimate /oundatzon of the drgnity of man rs
his vocation to communion with God. From the moment
of his birth, man is called to a dialogue with God. Indeed,
man does not exist but for the fact that, having been
created by God in love, he is always preserved by Him
through love, nor does he live fully according to the truth
unless he f reely acknowledges and freely entrusts hrmsel/
to his Creator>> 7 (Readings 1-2)
178
 CH VI READINGS

1. The world was created by God

so that man might be born
(Lactantius)

A house is not built for the mere purpose that there be a

house, but that it receive and protect the one who Lves in it.
Likewise, a ship is constructed not just so a ship may be seen,
but in order that people may sail in it. Containers are made not
only that containers may exist, but that they may hold those
things necessary for use. Thus it is inevitable that God made the
world for some use.
The world was made by God in order that people might
come into existence. People come inro existence in order that
they may recognize God as their parent in whom is wisdom ; that
they may recognize Him in order to worship Him in whom is
justice. They worship Him in order that they may receive the
reward of eternal life and they receive the reward of eternal life
that they may serve God in eternity. Do you see how everything
is joined together, the beginning with the middle and the middle
with t he end? Let us take a look at the individual assertions and
see if this scheme stands up to investigation.
God made the world on account of mankind. Whoever does
not see this is not much different from an animal. Who looks up
at heaven except man? Who admires the sun, who admires the
stars, who admires all God's works except man? Who cultivates
the earth and who receives its fruits ? Who navigates the sea?
Who has the fish, the birds and the beasts in his power except
man? Therefore, God made aU things for man because all things
are given over to man's use. The philosophers saw this correctly,
but what foUows they did not see; namely, that God created man

6
Vatican Council IT, Gaudwm et Spes 24.
7
Ibtd., 19
179
Cll VI - READI~<;S

for Himself. Indeed, since such a great work was set in motion
for man's sake, since so much honor and power were given him
that he was supreme in the world, it was a dutiful and necessary
consequence both that man acknowledge God as the author of
such great benefits who made him and the world for his sake,
and that he render H im worship and due honor. God is thus to
be worshiped so that through religious observance, which is itself
justice, man may receive immortality from God. There is no
other reward for the faithful soul. This reward is not seen since
on ly an invisible reward is able to be granted by an invisible
God.
(Epttome to the Dtvme Tnsttlutes 8 63 64)

2. Justice demands that we acknowledge God

and recognize others as brothers and sisters
(Lactantius)

We must keep to the way of justice, which leads to life. The

first duty of justice is to acknowledge God, to reverence Him as
Lord and love Him as Father. He is the one who begot us, who
quickened us with the spirit of life, who nourished us, who saved
us and who has the right, not only as Father but also as Lord, of
correcting us and who holds the power of life and death.
Therefore, man owes Him the dual honor of love and reverence.
The second duty of justice is to acknowledge man as a
brother. For if the same God made us and all people by like
condition for justice and eternal life, then we are joined together
by fraternal intimacy. He is unjust who does not acknowledge

8
This is an abridged edition of the Dtvme Tnsltlutes which must have been
composed after 315.

180
 U l VI READI'IG~

this. But the ongm of this evil, by which the society of men
among themselves and the bond of intimacy is dissolved, arises
from ignorance of the true God. Indeed, the one who is ignorant
of the source of goodness is in no way able to be good. from the
time when many gods begans to be consecrated and worshiped
by men, justice has been put to flight as the poets relate, every
treaty has been broken and the society of human law has been
tom apart. Then, since each person was seeing to his own
interests, they considered right to lie in strength, they harmed
their neighbor, were given over to crimes, ensnared others by
deceitful acts, added to their o.wn convenience by the
inconvenience of others and spared neither relatives, children or
parents. They prepared poisonous cups for the murder of others,
ambushed roads with the sword, made the seas unsafe, loosened
the restraints of desire wheresoever their frenzy led and, finally,
held nothing sacred which their unspeakable passion did not
violate.
Since this was the case, men then established laws for
themselves in keeping with the common good so that for the
time being they might protect themselves from harm. However,
fear of the laws did not put an end to crimes, but merely
repressed license. Laws were able to punish offenses but not
consciences. Therefore, what previously was done openly began
to be done secretly. Justice was defrauded and even the very
judges of the laws, since they had been corrupted by bribes and
gifts, were selling sentences either for the freeing of the wicked
or the ruin of the just. To this were added dissensions, wars,
mutual plunderings and the power of violence which was
recklessly arrogated by the force of oppressive laws.

The Lord showed the way to a more human way of /zfe

Since human affairs had reached this state, our merciful God
revealed Himself to us and showed that in Him we might learn
181
A fresco entitJed • The Sermoo on the Mount.. Jesus' Beatitudes emphasize
right conduct towards God and neighbor but they are also a severe judgment
and a Ihnat for the rich, the carefrft and those wbo are commonly regarded
as fortunate (Rome, Catacombs in the Via D. Compagni. Photo Pont. Comm.
Arch.).
 U I VI READINGS

religious observance, faith , chastity and mercy. Thus, once the

error of our previous life had been cast aside, we could, together
with God Himself, come to know our own selves whom
infidelity had separated and, since the Lord Himself was handing
it on, we might take up the divine law which joins human
realities to the heavenly ones. By this law, all the errors in which
we were ensnared with empty and godless superstitions were to
be taken away. That very same divine law prescribes what we
owe to man which teaches that whatever one does for man is
done for God. The root of justice and the whole foundation of
equity is not to do to another what one does not want done to
oneself and to measure the spirit of another by one's own spirit.
If it is bitter to suffer injustice and the one who has perpetrated
it is considered unjust, then transfer to the person of the other
what you feel concerning yourself and apply to yourself what you
judge concerning the other. Understand that you act equally as
unjustly if you harm someone else as he does if he harms you. If
we tum these things over in our mind we will hold fast to
innocence where justice takes its stand as though on its first step.
The first precept, then, is to do no harm, the next is to do
good. But just as before you begin to sow in uncultivated fields
the land must be prepared by pulling out the briars and cutting
out all the roots of plants, so likewise must vices first be removed
from our souls and only then must virtues be planted, from
which the fruits of virtues sown by the word of God will arise.
(Eprlome to the Drvine Instrlu/es 59 60)

183
CH. VI · READINGS

3. Peace and pluralism in tbe church

(Eusebius)

Eusebius's account of the events concerning the

controversy over the date of Easter 9 sheds light on the
intervention of Irenaeus, who was a man of peace and of
the «unity offaith», yet at the same time was respectful of
tradition. «While they preserve unity in necessary matters,
let all in the church, according to the task assigned to each
one, enjoy the proper f reedom whether in the various
forms of the spiritual life or discipline, or the diversity of
liturgical rites or even in the theological elaboration of
revealed truth. Let them observe charity in everything. By
acting in this manner, they manifest better each day the
true catholicity and apostolicity of the church». 10
As a result of the letter in which the bishops of As:tz
Proconsularis stated their wish to follow their own
tradition:

Victor, who presided over the Church of the Romans,

straightway tried to cut off as heterodox 11 the dioceses of all of
Asia together with the neighboring churches from the common
unity and he wrote letters and announced that all the brethren
there were completely excommunicated. However, this was not
pleasing to all the bishops. They in turn summoned him to
consider the question of peace, unity and love towards his
neighbors, and the words have been preserved of those who
attacked Victor rather sharply. Among these, lrenaeus also sent a
letter in the name of the brethren in Gaul, whose leader he was.
Although he defends the position that the mystery of the Lord's
resurrection ought to be celebrated only on the Lord's day, he
exhorts Victor suitably and at length not to cut off entire
churches of God for observing a tradition of ancient custom. To
these words he adds, «The dispute is not only about the day, but
184
 Cll. VI - READINGS

about the very form of the fast. u Some suppose that they ought
to fast for one day, others for two, others for more and still
others measure their day as forty day and night hours. Such a
variety of observances did not arise in our own time but much
earlier, among our ancestors who, without regard for exactness,
observed these things and passed them on to the future
according to simplicity and individual custom. Nonethdess, they
lived in peace with one another and we also live in peace, and
the diversity of the fast commends the harmony of the faith».
To this he adds a narrative which I will quote as fitting. It
goes like this: «Among these were the presbyters before Soter
who presided over the church which you now lead: Anicetus,
Pius, Hygenus, Tdesphorus and Xystus. They neither observed
this practice nor commanded it to their own faithful.
Nonetheless, even though they did not observe it, they were at
peace with those coming to them from the churches in which it
was observed. Furthermore, no one was ever rejected for this
reason, but the presbyters before you who did not observe this

9
Nearly everywhere, and especially at Rome, Easter was regularly
celebrated on the Sunday which coincided with or immediately fo llowed the
14th of Nisan of the Jewish calendar (= the first full moon after the spring
equinox) since the Lord arose on Sunday.
In the province of Asia Proconsularis, however, by an appeal to the authority
of John the Apostle, Easter was always celebrated on the 14th of Nisan, which
was the very day of the Lord's death. Because of this, the celebration of Easter
almost always fell on a day different from that observed by the rest of
Christianity. This difference, which was all the more annoying given the
solemnity of the feast, was at the root of the controversy.
10
Vatican Council II, Unitatis Redintegralio 4.
11
Heterodox, i.e. opposed to orthodoxy (correct teaching).
12
The reference here is to the strict fast immediately preceding the Easter
celebration itself, not to the Lenten fast.
185
Smyrna. The remains of the old city contrast with the modem city seen in the
background. Polycarp, the martyr and the teacher or lrenaeus, was bishop of
this city in Asia Minor.
 CH VI • READfNGS

custom used to send the Eucharist 13 to those &om churches

which followed this observance. When blessed Polycarp 14 was
staying at Rome at the time of Anicetus and they differed a little
with one another concerning some other things, they
immediately made peace since they did not wish there to be strife
between them concerning this matter. For neither was Anicetus
able to persuade Polycarp not to observe this custom which he
had kept with John the disciple of the Lord and the other
apostles with whom he had associated; nor did Polycarp
persuade Anicetus to observe it, since he said that it was good
that the custom received &om the presbyters before him prevail.
In these circumstances they were in union with one another, and
in the church Anicetus yeilded the celebration of the Eucharist to
Polycarp, dearly out of respect, and they paned &om one

Fish with b~ad and

wine. The early
Christians used these
symbols to ~present
Jesus as the eucharistic
food as weD a to
express their faith in
him as Son of God and
Savior. (Rome, Cata-
combs of St. Callistus.
Photo Pont. Comm.
Ardl.).
13
Eusebius is referring to the custom of bishops to exchange a ponion of
the Eucharist as a sign of communion.
14
Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna, was in Rome at the end of 154 or the
beginning of 155.

187
Cll VI • READL\JGS

another in peace. The peace of the entire church was maintained

both by those who followed this observance and by those who
did not».
lrenaeus, well deserving of his name, was a peacemaker in
this way. He called on these things and served as an ambassador
on behalf of the peace of the church. He took up the discussion
of the matter at hand through letters not only to Victor but also
to many other heads of churches.
(Ecc/esJaslical History V, 23·24)

4. The charity and benevolence of the Roman Church

(Eusebius)

But frrst I must speak about Dionysius, who acceded to the

episcopal throne of the Church in Corinth and tirelessly
extended his divinely inspired labor not only to those under him,
but also to those in other places... A letter of Dionysius to the
Romans has been handed down addressed to Soter, 15 who was
bishop at the time. It is not out of place to report the section of
this letter where, as he approves the custom of the Romans
which has been preserved down to the persecution of our own
time, he writes, «You have had this custom from the beginning
of showing kindness to the brethren in many ways and of
sending provisions to the many churches in every city. In this
way you have relieved the want of the needy and have supplied
the needs of the brethren in the mines by means of the
provisions which you have sent from the beginning, preserving as
Romans the ancestral custom of the Romans. Not only has your
blessed bishop Soter observed this custom, but he has even
increased it both by administering the bounty sent to the saints
as well as by encouraging with blessed words the brethren who
come to him as though an affectionate father his children».
188
 CH. VI . READINGS

In the same letter he also makes mention of the letter of

Clement to the Corinthians and he shows that from the very
beginning it had been read in the church by ancient custom. He
says, «Today we celebrated the holy day of the Lord and read
your letter, which we will continue to read from time to time for
our admonishment as we do with the first letter which was
written to us by Clement».
(Ecclesiastical History TV, 23)

5. ,.J can show you the trophies of tbe Apostles"

(Eusebius)

Eusebius makes reference to the oldest testimony (end of

the 2nd cent.) concerning the place where Peter's body
was buried.

It is said that Paul was beheaded at Rome itself and that

likewise Peter was crucified at the same time. The title of Peter
and Paul which up to now has been attached to the cemeteries
there confirms this story as does to no lesser extent a man of the
church, Gaius by name, who lived at the time when Zephyrinus
was bishop of the Romans. This man, in the course of a written
debate with Produs, the leader of the Phrygian sect, 16 says these
things concerning the places where the sacred bodies of the
aforementioned Apostles are deposited: «But I can show you the
trophies of the Apostles. For if you should go out to the Vatican
or on the Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of the ones who

15
Soter was bishop of Rome from 166 to 174.
16
Phrygian sect, i.e. Montanists (followers of a rigorist sect begun by
Montanus). They were given this name because the sect originated in Phrygia.

189
Glass witb a representation in gold of Peter and Paul unikd in the glory of
martyrdom. Precious cups with this design on their base in gold leaf were
given as gifts to friends, especially on the solemnity of June 29 (Pboto Pont.
Comm. Arch.).
 Cll \1 READf'IGS

founded this church». That they were both martyred at the same
time, Dionysius, the bishop of the Corinthians, confirms in this
way in his written correspondence with the Romans: «Therefore
you have blended together by such a great teaching the two
plants of the Romans and Corinthians which have sprung up
from Peter and Paul. For both taught and implanted us here in
our Corinth and likewise in Italy they taught in the same place
and were martyred at the same time».
(EcclesiasttCJJI Htstory ll25, 5·8)

191
Tbe city of Alexandria was Athanasius' episcopal see. He was forced five
times to leave it and go into exile.
 Chapter VD

Athanasius:
The Arian Controversy
and the rise of monasticism

325 Council of NICEA

328
ATHANASIUS
bishop of Alexandria
exiled five times for his
337 Constantius emperor struggle against
the Arian heresy
361 Julian the Apo~tate emperor
373 death of Athanasius

193
CH . VII - ATHANASIUS

1. Lights and shadows of the fourth century

The liberty conferred on the church by Constantine in 313

represented an absolute novelty fraught with consequences for
the life and organization of the communities as well as for
Christian literature.
With regard to the ecclesiastical hierarchy, a series of close
ties were established between the hierarchy and the structures of
the empire which did not always foster clear and correct
reciprocal relations. If on the one hand the bishops obtained
grants and favors from the emperors, these latter in their tum felt
themselves to be invested with a certain ecclesiastical authority
which permitted them even to convoke ecumenical councils and
to actively intervene in theological questions in order to influence
personally the development of the discussions and the final
decisions.
On the other hand, if there was a notable increase in the
number of new converts attracted by the gospel message of
salvation now at the free disposition of the good will of all
people, there was also the specter of conversions which were
hasty and immature, if not indeed motivated by opportunism.
The creation of a Christian court in the new capital of
Constantinople, far from Rome, the old capital of defeated
paganism, gave the emperor a greater freedom in relation to the
bishop of Rome. Furthermore, it created the conditions both for
a secularization of a part of the clergy who were sensitive to the
allure of the center of power as well as for an ever deeper rift
between the two Romes on the plane of ecclesial communion.
The sound forces of the church reacted vigorously in the face
of the risks and dangers which threatened to compromise the
fruits of a liberty acquired so laboriously. The preparation of
catechumens aspiring to baptism was intensified and developed
and bishops preached their theological and liturgical instructions,
their «catecheses», in the basilicas which already adorned the
194
 CH vn · ATHANAS/US

Christian world both East and West. Many people preferred

resolutely to take the road into the desert, which, it has been
said, came in this age to be populated «like a city».
There was no lack of occasion or place for an intense literary
production. Early monasticism expressed itself in various and
suggestive literary forms such as the «sayings of the desert
fathers», the «lives» of the holy hermits and the «rules». The
struggle against paganism, which in spite of everything continued
to offer resistence, gave rise to apologetic writings composed in
increasingly aggressive tones. Above all, however, the fourth
century witnessed the development of a long and painful
controversy which arose at the time of Constantine and occupied
the best intellectual forces of the time: The Arian Crisis.

2. The Arian Crisis and the Council of Nicea

The theological movement known as «Arianism» takes its

name from Arius, a priest of Alexandria in Egypt. It had as its
basis the affirmation that the Son does not participate in the
divinity of the Father but is subordinate to the Father. The Son
is merely the first and greatest of the creatures of the Father,
because «there was a time when he did not exist».
Arius' preaching immediately aroused vast opposition, but
there were also expressions of sympathy within the Eastern
episcopate. It was necessary to resolve the division in the name
of the unity of faith, but also, for Constantine, in the name of the
unity of the Christian world. The emperor thus convoked the
first ecumenical council in the history of the church at Nicea in
Asia Minor in 325 in order to settle the question once and for all.
At Nicea, Arius' bishop and bitter enemy, Alexander of
Alexandria, succeeded in having the indisputable authority of the
emperor approve and uphold the formula according to which the
Son is consubstantial (Homoousios), i.e. of the same divine
195
CH VII - ATHANASIUS

substance of the Father; begotten, not created by the Father.

This terminology is still used in the Creed today!
Neverthless, no sooner had the council closed with at least
the apparent unanimity of the fathers who had participated than
everything began all over again, worse than before. Interminable
struggles between factions continued for decades between
defenders of the Nicene Creed and Arians; struggles complicated
by personal animosities, misunderstandings, excommunications
and exiles. The powerful figure of Athanasius stands out

Page of the ·Gelasian

Sacramentary• contai-
ning the Nicene Creed
in Greek and latin.
Manuscript of the 8th
century {Bibl. Ap. Vat.,
Regin. lat. 316, fol. 46).

196
 0 I VII · AlliANASIUS

throughout the entire affair. He had been merely Alexander's

deacon at Nicea, but three years later, in 328, he became bishop
of the Egyptian metropolis of Alexandria and set himself up as a
champion in the struggle in which he yielded no quarter in
defense of «Nicene» orthodoxy.

3. Atbanasius, tbe cbampion of tbe faith

Athanasius had already showed his mettle as a theologian and

apologist in an early composition entitled Against the Pagans -
On the Incarnation of the Word. In this work, after he used the
familiar traditional arguments on monotheism against pagan
idolatry, he concentrated on the concept central to all
subsequent developments of his Christology and spirituality, that
only the incarnation of the divine Word could have redeemed
humanity, which was fallen on account of sin at its origins.
Athanasius dedicated the rest of his literary activity almost
exclusively to combatting, with eminently pastoral intent, the
Arian heresy, which he perceived as a mortal danger to the
Christian faith. In his eyes, the denial of the divinity of the Son
radically compromised the true salvific significance of the
Incarnation and, consequently, the reality and indeed the very
possibility of the redemption of sinful humanity. Athanasius set
down his theological meditation, expressed in increasingly harsh
and polemical terms even to the point of invective and irreverent
jeers, in works such as the Discourses Against the Arians or the
History of the Arians. In reality it must be said that as an
authentic «father of the true Christian faith», as Pachomius, one
of the founders of early monasticism, called him, he was not so
much concerned with the conceptual development of the data of
revelation as with the defense of the sound points of the doctrine
he had received. He was a pastor and a man of the church rather
than a theologian, and he was immersed even to the point of
197
harsh and violent polemics in an existence which was totally a
profession of faith: unpolished, overwhelming and absolute. No
disaster, no temporary failure, however serious or dangerous,
succeeded in stopping him or turning him aside from the course
he had taken.
His obstinate steadfastness, which knew no yielding or
compromise in the defense of the creed of Nicea, mirrored
precisely the indomitable character of the man. It cost him
dearly, however. Out of the 46 years of his episcopate, he was
forced to spend 20 in exile. Five times he took the road which
led him far from Alexandria at a period when the heirs of
Constantine were neither hiding their sympathy nor sparing their
support for the Arian party.

4. Tbe~of~nartk~m

During one of these forced exiles, Athanasius passed through

Northern Italy on his way west and stopped at Aquileia and
Padua. More often, however, he found refuge in the Egyptian
desert where he was received by that strange resident population
of the monks, 1 who were accustomed to the long solitude of
separation from the world. Who were these people?
Already at the end of the third century the desolate wastes of
the Egyptian desert, the habitat of wild beasts, scorpions and
snakes, had begun to be populated by men and women who
were fleeing the cities in search of the way of salvation in a world
where life was particularly difficult and violent. These were the
hermits, 2 who faced the hard struggle of the solitary life far from

1
From the Greek monachos, meaning «solitary, celibate, someone detached
from relationships with society and family».
2
From the Greek eremos, meaning «desert». The hermit led a solitary life
in the desert.

199
Cl! VII - ATI-IANASIUS

human society, prey to the assaults of temptation. Some even

went so far as to pass their entire life on the top of a tall column,
for which reason they were called «stylites». 3 Very soon,
however, forms of common monastic life, known as
«Cenobitic», 4 began to be organized. The real founder of
cenobitic monasticism was the Egyptian, Pachomius, who was
also the first to compose a Rule for his community. Athanasius'
attention was nevertheless directed to the champion of the
eremitic life who undoubtedly held a special fascinatjon for him
and for many others. This was Anthony, the story of whose life
Athanasius wrote shortly after the hermjt's death (357).

Hermit in prayer.
Detail from an
illuminated manu-
script of the 15th
century (Bibl. Ap.
III>:'!iii:i!ttii!Ea~~iliiaiiiiii!M..
.., I Vat., J48v).c. IV,
114, fol.Chig.
200
 CH VI! - ATI!ANASIUS

The Ltfe of Anthony is a work of truly extraordinary

importance. It enjoyed rapid circulation and was soon translated
into latin; a sign of the interest which centered on this exemplary
figure from all sides. It was this story which influenced Augustine
at the time of his final conversion! The Lt/e of Anthony by
Athanasius can be considered as the beginning of a whole new
literary genre which was preceded in Christian circles only by the
Lt/e of Cyprian, written by the deacon Pontius in 258. The Lt/e of
Anthony was the model which through the centuries inspired the
authors of innumerable lives of the saints which have enriched
early Christian literature and the history of ascetic and monastic
spirituality.

5. Politics and theology

Atha11asius displayed keen discernment in recognizing what a

great impact the spread of monastic ideals, which in a new age
renewed the era of the martyrs, would have on the Christian
world . Once the bloody persecution by the imperial authorities
had ceased, the monks appeared to a society ever more
permeated by the gospel message as the new champions of the
faith, and thus as the legitimate heirs and successors of the
martyrs of earlier centuries.
The propaganda of the monastic movement which
Athanasius carried out, first in person in the course of his exiles
in the West then through the Life of Anthony, had surprising
results. In the second half of the fourth century all of Christianity
showed signs of the beneficial influence of this activity in behalf

3 From the Greek sty/os, meaning «column».

• From the Greek l•omos, meaning <<Common» and h""· meaning <<life·•: life
in common.

20 1
 CH. VTI - ATIIANASIUS

of monastic ideals, and even in the West experiments modeled

on the Egyptian example increased in number. The clergy, too,
experienced the attraction of monasticism. Communities of
priests began to be formed to lead a life in common after the
example of cenobitic monasticism. More and more often
episcopal sees came to be occupied by men with a monastic
formation and background, that is, the monk-bishops. For
example, Serapion of Thmuis in Egypt had been a monk and was
a friend of Anthony and Athanasius, the latter of whom
addressed to him the famous Letters in which he dearly stated
the principle of the divinity of the Holy Spirit.
Of course Anthony, the hero of the monastic life, was also a
champion of Nicene orthodoxy. This was one of the reasons for
Athanasius' partiality to the monastic movement in general,
which appeared to him as a natural ally in the long struggle in
defense of the true faith and of the definition of Nicea. Defense
of Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism and promotion of the
monastic experience thus go hand in hand in the work of
Athanasius. It can be added that, while Arianism came to be seen
more and more as the «imperial» version of Christianity, open to
the influences of secularization and compromise inaugurated by
the conversion of Constantine, monasticism preserved the
aspiration, never extinguished, to safeguard the transcendental
values of Christianity. In this way, the struggle for the Nicene
faith was placed objectively on the plane of the struggle to
defend the non-political character of religion represented by the
monastic experience in all its forms.
Nevertheless, all of this does not take away from the fact that
further clarification was still needed in the area of theological

Atbanasius concentrating on his writing. Detail of a decoration of the Roman

school done in 1478 (Bibl. Ap. Vat., Vat. lat. 263, fol. lv).

203
CH. VII . READINGS

definitions in order to solve the difficulties of interpretation

present in the formula of Nicea. In particular, it was necessary in
developing that formula to clarify better the relationship between
the Father and the Son in such a way that, beyond the identity in
divine substance, the distinction of persons might also be
recognized. Finally, there was a need to deal in a comprehensive
manner with the problem of the divinity of the third person of
the Trinity, which Athanasius had clearly stated in the letters to
Serapion but which still remained unresolved in the critical
consciousness of contemporary theology.
The resolution of such difficult questions was taken up by the
Cappadocian Fathers, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus
and Gregory of Nyssa, the three luminaries of the Greek Church
in the second half of the fourth century.

READINGS

1. A pope defends freedom

before the tribunal of the Christian emperor

The fou rth century was marked by the struggle /or

f reedom within the state church. The bishops were aware
of being at the mercy of an imperial protection which had
scant regard fo r the supreme values offaith in Christ.
Athanasius was one of the great de/enders of orthodoxy
and of the f reedom of the church in the face of the designs
of the Emperor Constantius, who personified state
domination of the church and ruthlessly pursued a policy
of religious unzformity in favor of Arianism. The extent to
which Athanasius remained undefeated in his struggle is
clear f rom the discussion between Pope Liberius and the
204
 CH. Vll . READfNGS

Emperor Constantius at Milan in 355, a portion of which

is presented below.
Liberius had been brought to Milan by command of the
emperor. For the first time in the church's history a pope
was present in person before the tribunal of the emperor.
No other document could testify with greater effect to
what lay in the balance. In the finest moment of his lzfe,
the pope is truly the advocate of freedom for the whole
world.

Emperor Constantius said, «Since you are a Christian and the

bishop of our ciry, we have judged it proper to summon you and
advise you to renounce your communion with the unspeakable
Athanasius. The whole world has found this to be right and by a
decree of a synod has judged him to be a stranger to
ecclesiastical communion».
Bishop Liberius said, «Ecclesiastical judgments must be made
with much just discernment. Therefore, if it pleases Your
Reverence, order that a tribunal be established, and if Athanasius
should appear worthy of condemnation, then a sentence will be
handed down against him according to the form of ecclesiastical
process. It is not fitting that a man be condemned whom we
have not judged».
Emperor Constantius said, «The whole world has passed
sentence concerning his impiery, but he, as he has done from the
beginning, makes light of the matter».
Bishop Liberius said, «Those who signed were not
themselves eyewitnesses of what had happened but were moved
by thoughts of honor, fear and disgrace on your account». 5

5
At the synods of Aries (353) and Milan (355) nearly all the bishops,
intimidated by the threats of the emperor, signed the deposition of Athanasius.
Those who refused to acquiesce were exiled.

205
The three young Hebrews in the furnace of Babylon. Above tbe figures Is a
dove with an olive branch, a sign of divine intervention. The fresco dates to
the 3rd century and was a favorite theme of the early cbun:h which
recognized its solidarity with these yoong me:n In its struggle against the
religious despotism of the Roman Empire (Rome, Catacombs of Priscilla.
Photo Pont. Comm. Arch.).
 Qi. VTI - READINGS

The emperor, «What is this honor, fear and disgrace?»

Liberius, «Those who do not love the honor of God but
prefer rather your gifts have condemned without judgment one
whom they have not seen themselves. This is something foreign
to Christians».
The emperor, «Nevertheless he was judged while present at
the synod at Tyre 6 and in that synod all the bishops of the world
passed sentence».
Liberius, «The man has never been condemned while
present. Those who gathered together at that time passed
sentence after Athanasius had withdrawn from the tribunal».
The emperor said to Liberius, «From what part of the world
are you that you assist this impious man and destroy the peace of
the world and the entire universe?»
Liberius, «The truth of the faith is not lessened by the fact
that I am alone. Even in the Old Testament three alone are to be
found resisting a decree». 7
Eusebius the eunuch said, «You are making our emperor a
Nebuchadonosor»!
Liberius, «Not at all. But you rashly condemn a man in this
way whom we have not judged. But I request that a general
declaration first be drawn up confirming the faith established at
Nicea. In this way, once our brothers have been recalled from
exile and reestablished in their own sees, if those who are causing
disturbances in the churches should appear to agree together in
the apostolic faith, then let all gather at Alexandria and let the
accused and the accusers meet there together with their defender
and, having examined the things concerning them, let us hand
down a sentence».

6
This synod, presided over by an imperial official, had deposed Athanasius
from his see for the first time (335).
7
Cf. Dan. 3:8-97.

207
CH . Vll - READINGS

The bishop Epictetus said, «But the service of the public

transport is not sufficient for the need of the bishops' travel».
Liberius, «Ecclesiastical affairs do not require the service of
the public transport. The churches are able to send their own
bishops as far as the sea».
The emperor, «The things which have already received the
seal cannot be undone. The sentence of the majority of the
bishops must have effect. You alone are claiming friendship with
that unholy man».
Liberius said, «Emperor, I have never heard of a judge, in
the absence of the accused, denouncing his impiety as though
transferring his own hatred into the man».
The emperor, «He has wronged all alike, but no one as much
as me. Since he was not satisfied with the death of my older
brother, he did not cease to incite the blessed Constans 8 to
hatred for us while we with greater gentleness bore the weight of
the instigator and the one who listened to him. No victory of
mine, even against Magnentius and Silvanus, can equal the
removal of that disgusting man from ecclesiastical affairs».

Pope Liberius (to the

rigbt of tbe picture) was
bishop of Rome from
352 to 366 (Rome,
Catacombs of Praete-
xtus. Photo Pont.
Comm. Arch.).

208
 CH. VII · READINGS

Liberius, «Do not avenge your hatred by means of the

bishops, emperor. The hands of men of the church must be
devoted to sanctification. Wherefore, if it seems good to you,
order that the bishops be recalled to their own sees. If they
appear to be in accord with the one who today is laying claim to
the orthodox faith established at Nicea, then let them come
together in one place and see to the peace of the world lest an
innocent man be found to have been branded».
The emperor, <<One thing is being sought. We wish to send
you back to Rome as one who has embraced communion with
the churches. Therefore trust in peace and, having signed, return
to Rome».
Liberius, «I have already taken leave of the brethren in
Rome. The ecclesiastical ordinances are more important than my
presence in Rome».
The emperor, «Then you have an interval of three days for
reflection whether you wish to rerum to Rome after you have
signed or to consider to what place you wish to be transferred».
Liberius, «The interval of three days will not change my
mind. Send me where you wish».
After rwo days, when Liberius was questioned and had not
changed his mind, the emperor ordered him to be exiled to
Beroea in Thrace. As Liberius was departing, the emperor sent
five hundred gold coins to him as provisions for the journey.
Liberius said to the one bringing them, «Go. Give them to the
emperor. He needs them to give to his soldiers». The empress
likewise sent him the same amount. Liberius said, «Give them to
the emperor. He has need of them for the provisions of his
soldiers. But if the emperor does not need them, let them be
given to Auxentius and Epictetus, for they do need them». Since

8
Emperor of the West from 337 to 350. At his death, Constantius became
the sup reme head of the entire empire.

209
CH VII · READINGS

he did not accept their offerings, Eusebius the eunuch brought

him others. Liberius said to him, «You have despoiled the
churches of the whole world and you bring me alms as though to
a condemned man? Go and first become a Christian».
Three days later he was banished.

2. He became a man out of love for us

(Athanasius)

Jesus Christ became man and took on a body like unto

our own since he did not wish simply to dwell in a body
or merely seem to be a man. «With the lncamation, the
Son of God has joined himself in some way to every
person. He worked with human hands, thought with a
human mind, acted with a human will and loved with a
human heart. When he was bom of the virgin Mary, he
truly became one of us, like unto us in all things except
sin». 9
Athanasius is particularly impressed by Christ's victory
over death. «By his own death he has destroyed death and
by his own resu"ection he has given us the gift of lzfe
since we, too, who have become sons in the Son, are able
to pray by crying out in the Spirit: Abba, Father». 10

The incorporeal, incorruptible and immaterial Word of God

entered into our own situation, even though he previously was
not far distant. No part of creation was deprived of him and he
always filled all things since he existed together with his Father.
But he came down to us on account of his benevolence and
appeared among us. Seeing how all were liable to death, he had
mercy on our race and compassion on our weakness. He came to
the aid of our corruption and did not stand for the domination
of death, in order that what had been created might not perish
210
 CH VU • READINGS

and that the Father's work on behalf of man might not be in

vain. He took a body to himself which was in no way different
from our own. For he did not wish simply to dwell in a body nor
did he want only to seem to be a man. Had he only wanted to
appear to be a man he could have appeared by means of a better
body. But he took our own.
Although he was the powerful creator of the universe, he
prepared for himself in the Virgin the temple of his body and
made it his own, as though an instrument, in which he dwelled
and was made known. Thus he took on similarity with us and,
since all were subject to the corruption of death, he gave himself
up to death on behalf of all. He offered this to the Father with
love so that the law of death against mankind might be dissolved
for all those who die in him, seeing as how once the power of
death was exhausted in the body of the Lord it no longer had a
hold on the rest of men. He thus turned those heading for
corruption towards incorruption again and brought them to life
from death. By making use of his body and by the favor of the
resurrection he destroyed their death like a reed destroyed by
fire. For this reason he took to himself a body which was able to
die in order that this, by partaking of the sovereign Word, might
both be subject to death for the sake of all and, by reason of the
indwelling Word, might remain incorruptible, so that henceforth
corruption would cease for all by the favor of the resurrection.
As a sacrifice and offering free of every blemish he presented to
death the body which he had taken to himself and straightway he
destroyed death for all who are like him by the sacrifice of one
like them.
The Word of God, exalted over all, rightly presented his own
temple and instrument of his body as a substitute on behalf of all

9
Vatican Council II, Gaudium et Spes, 22.
10
Thid.
211
CH Vfl READI 'GS

and fulfilled what was due to death. Therefore, since the

incorruptible Son of God was joined to all on account of this
similarity, he rightly clothed all with incorruptibility by the
promise of the resurrection. The corruption of death no longer
has a hold on men because of the Word who dwells in them
through a body.
(On the Inca mal/on ofthe Word 8-9)

Athanasius. Miniature from tbe Menologion of Basil 0 (a collectloo of

bagiograpbical texts) made at tbe end of tbe lOth century for the emperor
Basil 0 (Bibl. Ap. Vat., Vat. gr. 1613, fol. 320).

212
 Oi VJJ - READINGS

3. We possess the love of the Father, the grace ofthe Son

and the communion of the Spirit
(Athanasius)

The New Testament does not use the word «Trinity» but
speaks of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit and emphasizes
their salvt/ic action towards us more than the nature of
their interpersonal relations. The Fathers, motivated by
the existence of partial or erroneous points of view, sought
to encapsulate the relations between the persons of the
Trinity within a precise formula. The result of this effort
was the formulation of the «creed» as a doctrinal synthesis
of the faith . They did not, however, neglect the
relationship of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit with
human history or their action in the church through
charisms and their active presence in the individual
Christian.

Concerning these things let us likewise look at that tradition

and teaching and faith which was the Catholic church's from the
beginning, which the Lord gave, the Apostles preached and the
fathers guarded. For in this the church has been founded and
anyone who falls away from it neither is nor any longer is called a
Christian.
The Trinity is holy and perfect which is acknowledged as
divine in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. It contains nothing
foreign or extraneous nor has it come into being through a
creator or a created substance, but is entirely creative and
operative force. It is identical with itself, undivided in nature and
one in its action. Indeed, the Father does all things through the
Word in the Holy Spirit and thus the unity of the Holy Trinity is
saved. Therefore one God is proclaimed in the church, who is
213
CH VII READINGS

«above all, and through all and in all». 11 «Above all>> as Father,
as origin and source; «through all» by means of the Word and
«in all» in the Holy Spirit. The Trinity is not only a name or a
mere word but truly and really is Trinity.
The blessed Paul wrote to the Corinthians about spiritual
matters and recapitulated all things into one God the Father
saying, «There are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; and
there are varieties of ministries, but the same Lord; and there are
varieties of actions but the same God who accomplishes all
things in all people» (I Cor. 12 :4-6). u
The things which the Spirit distributes to each person are
given by the Father through the Word. Everything which is the
Father's is the Son's and therefore the gifts given by the Son in
the Spirit are the Father's. When the Spirit is in us, the Word
who gives the Spirit is also in us and the Father is in the Word.
Thus there is realized what has been said, «My Father and I will
come and we will make our dwelling in him» (John 14:23). For
where there is light there is also its splendor, and where there is
splendor there also is its action and splendid gift.
Paul taught this very thing when he wrote again to the
Corinthians and said in his second letter, «The grace of Our
Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God and the fellowship of the
Holy Spirit be with you all» (IT Cor. 13: 13 ). For the grace freely
given in the Trinity is given by the Father through the Son in the
Holy Spirit. Just as the grace given is from the Father through
the Son, so there can be no participation of the gift in us except

Cf. Eph. 4:6.

II

u All charisms oome from the one Spirit of God; all those who receive
them serve one Lord, Jesus Christ; everything, ultimately, goes back to the one
God, C reator and Father of the universe. All charisms are free gifts of God.
They must be in keeping with the faith and serve the building up of the
community. Every gift of God is directed towards the service of one's neighbor.

214
 0 1. VII - READINGS

in the Holy Spirit. When we participate in this we have the love

of the Father, the grace of the Son and the participation of the
same Spirit.
(Leiter I to Serapion, 28, 30)

4. How Anthony's vocation to the monastic life came about

(Athanasius)

After the death of his parents, he was left alone with a

younger sister and, being around eighteen or twenty years of age,
he took over the care of his house and his sister. Not six months
had passed since the death of his parents and, according to his
custom, he was going to the Sunday Eucharist thinking to
himself as he walked and pondering it in his mind how the
Apostles had left all things and had followed the Savior. He was
thinking, too, of those in the Acts of the Apostles who sold all
their possessions and brought what they earned and laid it at the
Apostles' feet for distribution to the needy, and of what kind and
how great was the hope stored up for them in heaven.
While he was reflecting on these things he entered the
church. It happened that the gospel was being read just then and
he heard the Lord saying to the rich man, «If you wish to be
perfect, go, sell all your possessions and give to the poor and
come follow me; and you will have treasure in heaven» (Mt.
19:21).
Anthony, as though he had received from God the reminder
of the saints and as though the reading had been on his account,
went out immediately from the Eucharist and gave to the
villagers the possessions he had from his parents - three
hundred fertile and extremely lush fields - so that they might
not be any further bother to himself or to his sister. He sold all
the other goods they had and, gathering up the substantial sum
215
Cll Vll · READINGS

of money, he gave it to the poor, holding back a little on account

of his sister.
As he entered the Sunday Eucharist on another occasion, he
heard the Lord saying in the gospel, «Do not be concerned
about tomorrow» (Mt. 6:34). He did not remain any longer but
went out and gave away to the poor even what he had held back.
He entrusted his sister to some trustworthy virgins known to him
in order that she might be raised in their house and he gave
himself over to the ascetic life near his house, attending to
himself and patiently training himself.
He worked with his hands since he had heard, «Let the one

Anthony the Abbot.

Detail of a miniature
panel exec:uted by a
Flemish artist in 1459
(Bibl. Ap. Vat., Vat.
lat. 362, fol. lr).

216
 CH VII · READL'IGS

who does not work not eat» (II Thes. 3: 10). He used pan of
what he earned for his bread and gave the rest to the needy.
He prayed continually since he had learned that one must
pray unceasingly by oneself 13 . He payed attention to reading in
such a way that nothing of what had been written escaped him
but he retained everything and subsequently his memory served
him in place of books. All the inhabitants of the village and the
honorable men whose company he kept, when they saw him
living in this manner, called him a friend of God. Some
welcomed him as a son and others as a brother.
(The L1je of Anthony 2-4)

13
Cf.IThes.5: 17.

217
The location or Cappadocia, a region or Asia Minor. Tbe principal city today
is still Kayseri, the ancient Caesarea.
 Chapter VID

The Cappadocian Fathers:

Humanism and Ascetisicm

36 1 Julian the Apostate emperor

BASIL
1370/379 1 bishop of Caesarea
in Cappadocia

GREGORY
137l/394 1 bishop of Nyssa
379 Theodosius I the Great

380 Edict ofTheodosius: 380 GREGORY OF

Catholicism becomes NAZIANZUS
the state religion bishop of Constantinople

381 Council of 381 presides at the council

CONSTANTINOPLE and resigns

2 19
CH VIII - BASIL - G. OF NAZlANZUS - G OF 1'\'YSSA

1. Three pillars of orthodoxy

The three great Fathers of the Greek Church known as «the

Cappadocians» flourished not more than a century after
Cappadocia, the harsh interior region of Asia Minor, had been
evangelized by G regory Thaumaturgus, a disciple of Origen.
Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa
form a harmonious trio of intellectuals and ecclesiastics who
were profoundly imbued with Greek culture and ascetic
aspirations and who in an exemplary fashion marked the whole
history of Christian theology and spirituality in both East and
West.
Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus were joined by deep bonds
of friendship and education dating back to their youth, when
they had attended the best schools of the Hellenized East. Later,
they lived an intense monastic experience together which
attracted them to the thought and spirituality of Origen. They
became enthusiastic admirers of the great Alexandrian master
and edited an anthology of his writngs knows as the Philokalia, a
text which for centuries would delight ascetics and mystics of the
Eastern Church.

2. Basil the Great: Bishop, monk and theologian

In spite of this, all three Cappadocians were quite different in

character and temperament. Basil (330-379), the most famous,
was a man of upright character, solid but authoritarian. He
became bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia in 370 and expended
his multifarious activity in substantially three directions. Above
all, he took to heart the lot of the poor who were numerous at
th at time because of usury, odious taxes and the endemic
economic crisis which aflicted the East. His social activity is one
of the salient characteristics of Basil's apostolate. In order to
220
 CH VUI · BASIL · G OF NAZIANZUS · G. OF NYSSA

cope with the poverty of the mass of the workers oppressed by

the arrogance of the great landowners, who did not hesitate to
make an indecent display of their riches, Basil conceived the idea
of constructing a type of city of refuge known by the name
«Basilias». It is easy to imagine that these initiatives did not earn
the sympathy of the upper classes. In his work and his preaching,
the bishop minced no words in attacking their unjust privileges.
To the prefect Modestus, who attempted to intimidate him, Basil
replied with the intrepid attitude of a martyr of the early days,
«You certainly have never met a bishop yet!»
Of equal importance was his organization of monastic life. As
the author of two severe and strict monastic Rules, Basil can be
considered the real founder of Greek monasticism, which even
today takes its name «Basilian» &om him as though to underline
the basic continuity of ideals and ascetic motives. Of course
Basil, a man with an intense and profound interest in society and
its organization, preferred and devoted his attention to the
cenobitic mode of monasticism. He saw in this form a greater
possibility for the exercise of the virtue of patience and for
mutual love and service. He never would have been able to
practice and foster an eremitic monasticism of the Egyptian type
or the monasticism of the stylites!
Third, but not least, Basil did not lack the opportunity to
manifest his profound speculative reasoning in theology and
ecclesiastical politics. As a convinced adversary of Arianism,
which in the second half of the fourth century had received a
new and more radical formulation as a result of the work of two
formidable dialectitians, Aetius and Eunomius, Basil joined the
struggle with theoretical writings such as the ·Against Eunomius
and the treatise On the Holy Spirit. He endeavored to place all
his friends, faithful followers of Nicene orthodoxy, in the
episcopal sees of the Near East. Basil's death in 379 before he
was yet fifty years old did not allow him to participate in person
at the triumph of his policy and his doctrine which was officially
221
Cappadocia. Characteristic rock dwellings (bouse:s carved into the volcanic
tufa). The region witnessed a great tJourishing or Cbristianity which
profoundly marked its history, civilization and art.
 Qf VIll - BASU. - G OF NAZIANZUS - G. OF NYSSA

promulgated at the second ecumenical council at Constantinople

in 381.
Rather, it was the other two Cappadocians present at the
council who brought Basil's work to fruition. They are the ones
responsible for the definitive formulation of the Trinitarian
dogma which describes the nature of God in terms of the unity
of substance, as had been stated at Nicea, with the added
specification of the distinction of the three divine persons. Now
the Holy Spirit was also defined to be one of the divine persons
and thus the uncertainties of earlier theology were laid to rest.

3. Basil, the man of the church and man of culture

The importance which Basil attributed to the distinction of

the divine persons within the one substance and to the
recognition of the divinity of the Holy Spirit is mirrored precisely
in his image of the church as a community of love and mutual
service whose bond, as in God, is constituted by the action of the
Spirit. The church, and the little church which is the monastery,
reflect in themselves the Trinitarian dynamism of the personified
love of the Spirit; that Spirit who descends on the believers at
baptism to distribute his gifts to each one.
Such a vision of the church could not but give rise to a bitter
lack of understanding between Basil and the bishop of Rome, the
haughty Damasus, whom Basil would try in vain to involve in the
program of restoring the life of the church.
Basil was the author of numerous commentaries on the Bible
which, endowed with the greatest authority, were destined to
exert a great influence even in the West (Ambrose studied them
carefully and willingly imitated them). Basil also left his mark on
the history of secular culture with the little work Address to
Y ouths on the Right Use of Classical Literature, which was small
in size but of great importance. This exhortation is addressed to
223
CH VIII - BASIL G Or NAZIA'IIZUS G o r 'IYSS...

his nephews who were preparing to attend school where they

would encounter the great authors of the past, the pagan poets
and ph ilosophers of the Greek world. It sets forth the criteria
which must be kept in mind in order to make advantageous use
of a literature which is far from and often contrary to the Sacred
criptures. Basil, who shows himself to be much more
open-minded than other bishops of his time, maintains that the
study of carefully selected classical literature can offer a good
foundation for moral and intellectual formation even for

Page or an eucbologion
(book or prayers) with
the Coptic-Arabie U-
turgy or Basil, Grego-
ry and Cyril. Manu-
script or 1288 (Bibl.
Ap. Vat., Vat. copto
17, fol. 66).
....... ------------~~
0 I VIII BASIL - G OF ~AZJ.ANZUS (, OF NYS-\A

Christians. By such a judgment which, all things considered, was

liberal and tolerant, Basil made a decisive contribution to the
survival of at least a part of the cultural heritage of pagan
antiquity in the Byzantine Christian civilization.
No treatment of Basil would be complete without a mention
of his activities in favor of liturgical reform. Tradition attributes
to him the creation of many liturgical texts, the so-called
«Liturgy of Saint Basil», and thus numbers him among other
important Fathers in his century such as Hilary of Poitiers and
Ambrose of Milan in the West and John Chrysostom in the East;
all of whom were involved in preserving, modifying and
composing liturgical texts for various needs in the life of the
church_

4. Gregory of Nazianzus, the theologian turned poet

Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390) in known to tradition as

Gregory «the Theologian» on account of the speculative force of
his justly famous five Theological Orations delivered at
Constantinople against Arianism, which was still quite strong in
the imperial capital.
Gregory arrived in Constantinople only after a long series of
misfortunes. He had been a brilliant student of literature in the
years of his carefree youth, but his father, the bishop of
Nazianzus, ordained him a priest against his will. Gregory at first
fled but subsequently returned. On account of his weak and
indecisive character he was attracted to his friend, Basil, who
represented a stable and fixed point of reference. Nevertheless,
when Basil wished to have him elected as bishop of Sasima,
Gregory complained that he had been betrayed in his feelings of
friendship and trust and refused to set foot in the inaccessible
village Basil had assigned to him.
Gregory was sensitive and refmed in spirit to the point of
225
Gregory of Nazianzus preaching to the clergy and faithful. Miniature from a
manuscript ofthe 9th century {Bibl. Ambr., E49, Int., fol. 4).
 Ql VID BASIL · G OF NAZI.ANZUS · G. OF NYSSA

morbidity. He was inclined to introversion and a certain

pessimism with regard to the world, mankind and the body and
he ended up dwelling sorrowfully on the misfortunes and
calamities of his life. His last years of retirement from
ecclesiastical activity gave rise to an intense production of letters,
which are littJe jewels of linguistic purity, and to poems on
dogmatic and moraJ themes. Indeed, his assets as a writer emerge
above alJ in his poetry - he is the greatest of the Greek
Christian poets - in which the aesthetic vaJues of the classicaJ
tradition are harmoniously blended with the themes and motifs
of Christian meditation. Of particular notoriety among his
compositions in verse is the autobiographicaJ poem On His Own
Lt/e, in which Gregory anticipates the tones and aspects of that
other more important Christian autobiography, the Confessions
of Augustine.
The collection of his letters remains as a witness to a life of
profound suffering, but one which was aJso spent in the service
of the faith and of the love of neighbor. The letters vibrate with
the intense bonds of friendship which Gregory formed with
many men of his time; that friendship which, by his own explicit
admission, was his weakness.
As bishop of Constantinople (380-381) in the decisive years
of the finaJ conflict with Arianism, he succeeded, thanks in part
to his admirable gifts as an orator, in polarizing around the
orthodox position the attention of the citizens of Constantinople,
who came in ever greater numbers to listen to his homilies.
Gregory presided at the council of 381, where he took part in
the triumph of the policy of his friend, Basil, who had died not
long before. Even here, in such a prestigeous see, Gregory
encountered no lack of misunderstandings and hostilities of
various kinds which grieved him to such an extent that he was
forced to withdraw to his own town of Nazianzus. From there he
went to Arianzum, where he brought the days of his tormented
life on earth to a close.
221
CH VIII - BASIL G OF NAZIANZUS - G. OF NYSSA

Although he was a celebrated preacher and a luminary of

orthodoxy as a theologian, Gregory's spirit was of a mystical
bent which, with consummate literary skill, resolved doctrinal
discourse into the fluid cadence of his poetical verses. In him,
theology becomes personal experience and finds its proper
accents in lyrical and autobiographical verse. In spite of his love
for solitude and meditation, Gregory was caught up in the great
religious events of his age, which he sought to master by the
instruments of his erudition. Nevertheless, reality had the upper
hand and he was able to accomplish nothing against the
factiousness of his adversaries. «Farewell, august basilica» - it

Constantinople. Plan of
the city from a
manuscript of 1472
(Bibl. Ap . Vat., Urb.
lat. 277, fol. 13lv).
228
 CH. VIll - BASU.. - G. OF NAZIANZUS - G. OF NYSSA

was with these words that Gregory took his leave from the
Council of Constantinople - «Farewell, Holy Apostles ...
Farewell, episcopal see. Farewell, illustrious city, renowned for
the ardor of your faith and love for Jesus Christ. Farewell, East
and West for whom I have struggled so much and who have
exposed me to such great battles. Farewell, my sons. Preserve the
heritage entrusted to you. Remember my sufferings, and may the
grace of Our Lord Jesus Christ be always with you».

5. Gregory of Nyssa
and the foundations of mystical theology

The strongest intellect of the group, the real theologian and

philosopher among the Cappadocians, was Gregory of Nyssa
(335-394), Basil's younger brother. If he did not excel in
ecclesiastical politics like his brother or in rhetoric and poetry
like Gregory of Nazianzus, he nevertheless occupies an
outstanding position in the history of speculative and, especially,
mystical theology.
Gregory maintained special spiritual bonds with his sister,
Macrina, whose biography he wrote, and remained in the
shadow of his more famous brother (who had nominated him
bishop of Nyssa in 371) for many years. At Basil's death,
Gregory received his theological and monastic heritage and came
into his own with important contributions to the anti-Arian
struggle and to biblical exegesis.
Gregory was fascinated perhaps even more than Basil by the
works of Origen, some of whose more daring speculations, such
as that on the apocatastasis, he shared. Nevertheless, he did not
hesitate to distance himself from the more controversial
teachings of the Alexandrian master. For example, in adherance
to the biblical data, Gregory stated that the creation of man was
not due to the fall of souls into bodies but that the entire man
229
CH. Vlli · BASIL · G. OF NAZIANZUS · G OF NYSSA

had been created by God from the beginning, just as It IS

recounted in the Bible (cf. On the Creation o/ Man and the Great
Catechetical Discourse). Furthermore, the affirmation of the soul's
immortality, which is treated in a splendid dialogue of Platonic
inspiration which Gregory supposedly held with his sister
Macrina on her deathbed (On the Soul and the R esurrection), is
at the root of a whole mystical theology which sees the soul as
involved in a tension of continual purification and overcoming of
obstacles deriving from material passions along the way of
perfection and of mystical union with God.
By detaching himself from some of the doctrinal extremes of
Origen, Gregory became the first great mystical theologian of
Christianity and the initiator of a mystical theology which would
find other followers in the East in Pseudo-Dionysius and
Maximus the Confessor, both of whom were indebted to the
teachings of Gregory. In mystical theology the meditation on the
nature of man, which is nourished by the best of the Greek
philosophical tradition, flows into a spiritual doctrine which
agrees with the fundamental Christian experience of monasticism
and the asceticallife.
From his youthful work On Virginity until the ascetical works
of his maturity on the goal and perfection of the Christian,
Gregory did not cease to meditate on the Christian mystery of
the monastic life and on the mystical and Christological
implications of the union of the purified soul with the divine
Word. Through the allegorical exegesis inherited from Origen,
the figure of Moses and the Canticle of Canticles offered the
biblical models for spiritual discourse. This has all the more
value when one recalls that Gregory of Nyssa was married (at
that time married men could be chosen as bishops) to that pious
woman Theosebia and that he carried out a great deal of his
work on the value of virginity and the cares of marriage before
the death ofhiswife!
Brooding and shy and completely caught up in his lofty
230
 CH. VIII - BASil. - G. OF NAZIANZUS - G. OF NYSSA

mission as theologian and preacher, he could not help but feel an

irrepressible annoyance and express biting criticism about certain
forms of popular devotion much in vogue in his day, such as
pilgrimages to the Holy Land, which must have appeared to him
as noisy and useless village fairs.
On the other hand, if his propensity towards monastic

Gregory of Nyssa and

Gregory of Nazianzus
pictured together in a
beautiful miniature in a
manuscript dating back
to tbe 9tb century (Bibl.
Ambr. , E49 Inf., fol.
136).
23 1
CH. VUI - BASIL - G. OF NAZIANZUS - G. OF NYSSA

solitude found its justification in a natural tendency to pessimism

and its ideological interpretation in a vast culture of Platonic
derivation, it is to be explained above all in the light of his
meditation on the mystery of evil and the freedom of the human
person, who is able to choose to refuse salvation, as happened in
the beginning in the earthly paradise. The centrality of this theme
in the development of his thought emphasizes his greatness as a
theologian and, in a singular manner, places him near to
Augustine, the greatest of the Latin Fathers, with whom Gregory
displays a remarkable and impressive similarity in character and
interior disposition. It is no coincidence that Gregory of Nyssa is
one of the more popular figures today in the study of the Fathers
of the Church. This represents the authentic rediscovery of a
greatness which perhaps was too long ignored or
underestimated.

6. The end of Arianism

Thanks to the joint action of the Cappadocian Fathers, the

three luminaries of Greek patristics, Arianism was decisively
condemned and the formulation of orthodoxy prevailed which
has endured through the centuries. Arianism, which had upset
the life of the church in both East and West throughout all of the
fourth century, survived only among the barbarians (Goths),
among whom, as a result of the missionary efforts of the Arian
bishop Ulfilas, it had become the only form of Christianity
permitted and practiced. When successive waves of Goths
invaded the Western provinces of the Roman Empire, which was
gradually crumbling, Arianism reappeared. It would be a couple
of centuries before it finally disappeared from the stage of
history.
On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that in 380, one
232
 CH VIO - BASil. - G OF NAZIANZUS - G. OF NYSSA

year before the Council of Constantinople, the Catholic emperor

Theodosius had proclaimed the Christian religion, in the fonn
professed by the bishops of Rome and Alexandria, to be the
official religion of the state. This was a qualitative leap in respect
to the recognition of the liberty of the church decreed by
Constantine in 313. The church now became the «State
Church». In the East, the new situation led to the Byzantine
caesaropapism with all the negative consequences for the
freedom of the church which it entailed. In the West, history
evolved differently, thanks to the work of great bishops who
fought to defend the autonomy of the spiritual sphere from
interference by the political power. Latin theology continued to
progress throughout the fourth century, culminating in the
thought of Augustine of Hippo.

Representation of com-
munal baptism. Ba-
ptism signified tbe
passage from death to
fullness of life. Fresco of
the l:Zth century
(Aquileia, Cripta
Massenziana).

233
CH. VII1 - READINGS

READINGS

1. The Spirit gives us the guarantee oflife

(Basil)

Thus the Lord, the administrator of our life, established for

us the convenant of baptism, which contains the figure of death
and of life. The water fulfills the image of death and the Spirit
supplies the pledge of life.
Thus, the object of our inquiry is made clear for us here as to
why the water has been joined to the Spirit. There are in fact rwo
purposes present in baptism: to abolish the body of sin so as to
no longer bear fruit unto death and to live in the Spirit and
obtain the fruit of holiness. The water, which supplies the image
of death, receives the body as though into a tomb. The Spirit
infuses the life-giving power which renews our souls from the
death of sin to the newness of life. This is the birth from above
from water and the Spirit, as dying is accomplished in the water
and our life is brought about through the Spirit.
The great mystery of baptism is accomplished in three
immersions and a like number of invocations in order that the
figure of death may be represented and the baptized may be
illumined in their souls by the handing on of divine knowledge.
Therefore, if there is some grace in the water, this is not from the
nature of the water but &om the presence of the Spirit; for
baptism is not the setting aside of uncleanness of the flesh but
the pledge to God of a good conscience.
The Lord, in preparing us for the life of the resurrection, sets
o ut and prescribes the entire evangelical way of life, which is free
from anger, patient, pure &om attachment to pleasure and free
from greed. In this manner, we anticipate by deliberate choice of
234
 CH. VIIJ . READINGS

right conduct those things which the coming age will possess by
nature.
Through the Holy Spirit we are reestablished in paradise, we
have an approach to the Kingdom of Heav~n, a return to our
status as adopted children, the courage to call God our Father,
communion with the grace of Christ, our name as children of
light, participation in eternal glory and, to put it simply, the
entire fullness of blessing in this age and the age to come. We
contemplate as in a mirror, as though already present, the grace
of the good things stored up for us in promises, the enjoyment of
which we receive through faith.
If such is the pledge, how great will the perfection be? If the
first fruits are so grand, what will be the fullness of all?
(On the Holy Spirit 15, 35-36)

2. We have different gifts according to the grace of God

which bas been given us
(Basil)
The Tloly Spirit is the heart of the church and the heart
of every individual Christian. The Spirit gutdes the
church, umfies it in communion and mystery, instructs it
and directs it with various gt/ts. 1 Every Christian must
think of himself as a member of the same body, different
from the other members but in harmony with them in the
unity of the whole body. This diversity is equivalent to
richness and complementarity; each makes his own
contribution and needs the contribution ofothers.

1
To some He gives the gift of teaching or of discerning events, to others
that of acting in faith and confidence and to still others that of guiding Lhe
community or of carrying our various services within it.
235
CII VJ[( • Rr:AOTl'GS

He who no longer lives according to the flesh but is led by

the Spirit of God is called a son of God, and he who has been
conformed to the image of the Son of God is called spiritual.
Just as the power of sight is in the healthy eye, so is the
power of the Spirit in the purified soul. Just as reason dwells in
the soul sometimes as a thought in the heart sometimes proferred
in speech, so is the Holy Spirit, whether he bears wimess in our

Miniatures from the Meoologlan of Basil D. The manuscript with its CO

miniatures presents an incomparable picture gallery of Constantioople at the
end of the lOth century (Bibl. Ap. Vat. , Vat. gr. 1613, fol. :Zll).

236
 CH Vlll RFADI~GS

spirit, whether he cries out in our hearts «Abba, Father» (Gal.

4:6) or whether he speaks in our place according to what has
been said, «It will not be you who speak, but the Spirit of your
Father speaking in you» (Mt. 10:20).
Again, the Holy Spirit is considered as a whole in its parts in
keeping with the distribution of gifts. We are all members of one
another, having different gifts according to the grace of God
which has been given us. Therefore, «The eye cannot say to the
hand, 'I do not need you', nor again the head to the feet, 'I do
not need you'» (I Cor. 12:21). But all the members together
make up the body of Christ in the unity of the Spirit and render
to one another the necessary service according to their gifts.
God, in fact, established the members in the body, each one
of them as He wished. Nevertheless, the members share the same
concern for one another in keeping with the spiritual
communion they have of sympathy. Therefore, «If one member
suffers, all the members suffer too, and if one member is
honored, all the members rejoice together» (I Cor. 12:26). Just as
pans are to the whole, so are each of us in the Spirit because we
are all in one body and were baptized into one Spirit.
(On the TToly Spin"t 26, 5])

3. Poor in love, in humaneness, in faith and in hope

(Basil)

Although he is a diligent and profound theologian, Basil is

at the same time an attentive and sensitive participant in
the social problems of his time. The social condition of the
poor and the rich, of the needy and those who have more
than they need is not willed by God. It is the result of
man 's sin and, as Basil states in hzs homily on charity, of
the miserly man who turns superfluity into necessity.
237
CH Vlll READINGS

But since you think of earthly things, have your belly as your
god, are completely carnal and are enslaved to passions, listen to
the name which fits you, which no man, but the Lord himself has
given you: «Fool, this very night they will demand your life of
you. But these things you have prepared, whose will they be?»
(Lk. 12:20). This derision of your heedlessness is greater than
eternal punishment. What is he resolved to do who, after a shon
time, is going to be snatched up and led away? «I will pull down
my barns and will build bigger ones» (Lk. 12: 18). «You are
doing well>>, I would say to him. The storerooms of injustice are
worthy of destruction. Pull down with your own hands what you
have built badly. Destroy the warehouses of grain from which no
one ever departed having found relief. Do away with every house
which shelters greed, pull off the roof, overturn the wall, expose
the molding grain to the sun, lead out the captive wealth from its
prison and make a public display of the dwelling places of
wealth.
Listen to Solomon: «Do not say, 'Go, and come back again
and I will pay tomorrow'» (Prov. 3:28). You do not even know
what the next day will bring. What commandments you despise,
you who have stuffed your ears with love of money! What great
thanks you ought to have had for your benefactor, how cheerful,
how shining with honor you ought to be that you do not trouble
the doors of others but that others occupy you own! But as it is
you are gloomy and hard to speak with, and you avoid those who
approach you lest you somehow be forced to let even a linle
something out of your hands. You know only one saying: «I have
nothing. I will give nothing. I am poor». You really are poor and
lacking in every good thing: poor in benevolence, poor in faith in
God and poor in perpetual hope. Share your grain with your
brothers and give today to the needy what will rot tomorrow.
The very worst form of greed is not even to share with the needy
that which is spoiling.

238
 Cll VID READINGS

«Whom do I injure», he says, «when I hold on to what is my

own?» Tell me, what things are your own? Whence have you
taken them to bring them into life? Just as if someone, having
taken his seat in the theater, would try to shut out those entering
and would consider for himself alone that which was offered for
the common enjoyment of all, just so are the rich. Having gotten
possession of the things intended for common use first, they
make them their own by the fact of having been first. Surely, if
everyone would take enough to supply his own necessities and
would leave the rest to the needy, no one would be rich and no
one would be lacking.
(H onulv on Lk 12 18, 6-7)

Only in the mystery of the Incarnate Word ts the mystery

of man truly clanfied. Predsely in revealing the mystery
of the Father and His love, Jesus Christ fully reveals man
to man and makes him aware of his sublime vocation. 2
The Fathers Looked at the mystery of Chnst with an
understanding deriving from love, but in the mystery of
Christ they saw that the mystery of man was clarified and
resolved (Readings 4-7).

4. He asks for my human nature as alms

so that I may become rich out of his divine nature
(Gregory ofNazianzus)

The Word of God himself, existing before the ages, invisible,

incomprehensible, incorporeal, the beginning from the

2
Vatican Council U, Gaudzum et Spes 22.

239
 CH \111 Rl:.AOI~GS

beginning, light from Light, the font of Life and immortality, the
expression of the archetype, the immoveable seal, the
unchangeable image, the Father's definition and reason, comes
into his own image, takes on flesh on account of my flesh and is
joined to an intelligent soul on account of my soul. He does this
in order to cleanse Like by Like and he becomes a man in
everything except sin. He was conceived from the Virgin who
had already been cleansed in body and soul by the Spirit, for it
was necessary that the birth be honored and virginity upheld.
The Lord came forth with his assumed humanity and made
one thing out of two contraries, the flesh and the spirit, of which
the one conferred divinity and the other was divinized.
He who makes rich becomes poor. He asks for my flesh as
alms so that I may be enriched by his divinity. He who is fullness
empties himself. He empties himself for a short time of his glory
so that I may partake of his fullness.
Who is this so rich in goodness?
What is this mystery concerning me? I partook of the image
but did not preserve it. I Ie partakes of the flesh so that he may
both save the image and render the £lesh immortal.
It is clear that the Father accepted the sacrifice of the Son not
because He demanded it or was in need of it, but on account of
the economy and the necessity fo~ man to be sanctified by the
humanity of God. He did this in order that, having broken the
power of the ryrant, he might set us free and lead us to Himself
through the Son, who acted as mediator and arranged this for
the honor of the Father, to whom all things submit.
The Good Shepherd, who lays down his life for his sheep,

The crucifixion or Jesus surrounded by ten scenes or tbe passion and

resurrection. Miniature or tbe 15th century (Bibl. Ap. Vat., Vat. lat. 3467,
rol. 176v).

241
( ll VlU - READ.:..:..
IN..:.:G_:_
S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

came to the mountains and hills on which you used to offer

sacrifice and found the sheep who had gone astray. When he had
found it, he took it upon his shoulders, on which he had also
born the wood of the cross, and took it up to the life of heaven.
The resplendent light follows the lamp which goes ahead and
the Word follows the voice. The groom comes after the friend of
the groom, who prepares for the Lord a chosen people purified
through water for the coming of the Spirit
I t was necessary for us that God become flesh and die so that
we might live. We died with him so that we might be cleansed.
Since we died with him, we arose with him; and since we arose
with him, we were glorified with him.
(Sermon 45 9, 22, 26, 28)

5. We bear in ourselves that divine character

by which and for which we were made
(Gregory of Nazianzus)

«What is man that you are mindful of him?» (Ps. 8:5). What
is this new mystery about me? I am small yet great, lowly yet
exalted, mortal yet immortal, earthly yet heavenly. The former
things come from this world below, the latter from God ; the
former derive from the flesh , the latter from the spirit.
It is necessary that I be buried together with Christ, that I
arise together with Christ, that I become an heir together with
Christ, that I become a son of God together with Christ, that I
become God.
This is what the great mystery means for us. This is what God
means for us, who became poor and took on human narure for
our sake in order to raise up the flesh, restore the image and
refashion man so that we all might become one in Christ.
Everything which he is in himself he has become in all of us in a
242
 CH \1ll READIJ'\GS

perfect way. We bear in ourselves that divine character by which

and for which alone we were made. We have been so shaped and
transformed by him so as to be known by reference to him alone.
May what we hope for come to be, according to the great
benevolence of our munificent God. He asks little but gives great
gifts now and in the coming age to those who love Him sincerely.
We bear all things and endure all things because of our love and
hope in H im. We give thanks in good times and in bad since we
know that even these are often the armaments of salvation.
0 Master and Creator of all things and especially of this your
creature! 0 God, you are Father and Guide of all people! 0
Lord of life and of death ! 0 benefactor and director of our
souls! You make and transform all things at the proper time by
your skillful Word as you alone know by the depths of your
wisdom and governance.
(Sermon 7./or h1s brother Caesanus, 23-24!

6. I must embrace my body as a friend

(Gregory of Naziam:us)

How I was joined to a body, I do not know. H ow I am the

image of God and am kneaded together from clay, I do not
know. This body, when it is doing well, makes war on me and,
when it is oppressed, it grieves me. I love it as a fellow servant,
yet turn my back on it as an enemy; flee it as a prison, and am
ashamed of it as a coheir with me. I struggle to waste it away and
I do not have any collaborator to use for the best undertakings,
since I know for what purpose I have come to be and that I must
ascend to God through my actions.
I spare it as a collaborator and I have no way in which I may
flee from its rebellion, nor any way in which I may not fall away
from God, since I am weighed down by shackles which drag me
243
t II VIII READINGS

down or hold me to the earth. It is a gracious enemy and a

treacherous friend. 0 what union and what estrangement! I
e mbrace what I fear and fear what I love. Before making war on
it I am reconciled with it and before making peace discord
breaks out. What is this wisdom about me and what is this great
mystery? Perhaps since we are God's portion and have come
down from above He wants us to look always to Him on account
of the struggle and battle lest, having exalted and raised ouselves
up on account of our dignity, we despise the Creator. He wants
the weakness which has been joined to us to serve for the
education of our dignity, so that.we may see that we are at once
very great and very lowly, of earth and of heaven, temporal and
immortal, heirs of light and ftre as well as of darkness; to which
ever way we might incline. This is our mixture which, as it
appears to me, exists for this reason: As we have been exalted by
the divine image we bear so may we also be humbled by our
clay.
We must, brothers, care for our body as for a kinsman and
fellow servant. And if I accuse it on account of the suffering it
causes, I nevertheless embrace it as a friend of account of the
One who has bound us together.
(Sermon 14, On the Love o/lhe Poor 6·8)

7. Evil is born from man,s will

(Gregory of Nyssa)

In chapter five of the Great Catechetical Discourse,

Gregory of Nyssa deals with man created m the image and
lzkeness of God and, as a result, confronts the problem of
the presence of evil. The text is composed m the form of a
dialogue.
244
 Ol VIn READNGS

But the one who looks to the present situation contradicts,

perhaps, what has been said and proposes to convict our
argument as false inasmuch as he sees that man does not live in
possession of these goods now but in nearly completely the
contrary situation.
Where is the divine character of the soul? Where is the
body's freedom &om desire? Where is everlasting life? Man is
quick to die, subject to emotion, perishable, prone to every type
of suffering of soul and body. By saying these and other such
things and by ravaging our nature, he will think himself able to
overturn our aforementioned argument concerning man.
But the fact that human life is now lived in an unnatural
situation is not sufficient proof that man has never lived in
possession of these goods. Since man is the work of God who,
through His goodness, led this living being into existence, no
right-thinking person might suspect the one whose goodness is
the cause of his weakness. However, there is another reason why
we find ourselves in this condition and are deprived of more
honorable gifts.
In fact, He who created man for participation in His own
goods prepared in him by nature the foundations of all the
virtues, so that the longing of each of these foundations might be
carried towards the corresponding virtue. He would not have
deprived him of the most noble and honorable of those virtues, I
mean the independence and freedom of love.
If some kind of necessity governed human life, the image
would be falsified in this regard by having been altered
according to an element unlike the archetype. How can that be
called an image of the sovereign nature which has been subjected
to and serves some necessity? Therefore, that which has been
made similar to the divine in every respect must in every way
possess independence and self-determination, so that the
participation in the goods prepared by the Creator may be the
reward of virtue.
245
Cl I VIIl READINGS

But how, you will ask, has the creature, once honored by
these noblest of all goods, received an inferior state in exchange
for them?
The reason for this is also clear. No genesis of evil had its
origin from the divine will. Evil would indeed be free of blame if
it called on God as Creator and Father. Evil, however, somehow
springs up within, taking shape in the will when there is a
separation of the soul from the good.
Since the characteristic of the free will is the ability to choose
what is desired, the cause of your present evils is not God, who
formed your nature independent and free of restraint, but the
thoughtlessness which tends towards the worse instead of the
better.
(The Great Catechetzcal Disrourse 5, 8- 12)

8. Tbe Christian is another Christ

(Gregory of Nyssa)

Paul, better and more clearly than all others, showed what
Christ is and showed by the things he did what type of person
the one who bears Christ's name must be. He imitated him so
clearly as to show his Lord having been formed in himself.
Through a most exact imitation, the very form of his soul was
transformed into its prototype so that it seemed no longer to be
Paul living and speaking but Christ himself living in him. He was
so beautifully convinced of his own virtues as to say, «You seek a
proof of the Christ who is speaking in me» (II Cor. 13:3) and,
«It is no longer I who live but Christ who lives in me» (Gal.
2:20).
He made known to us what the name of Christ means, saying
that Christ is the power and wisdom of God. But he also called
him peace and light unapproachable in which God dwells,
246
 CH. VIIl - READINGS

sanctification and ransom, high priest and passover lamb,

propitiation for souls, splendor of glory and image of the divine
hypostasis, creator of the ages, spiritual food and drink, rock and
water, the foundation of our faith and keystone of the arch,
image of the unseen God, the great God, the head of the body of
the church, the first-born of those who sleep, the first-born of
the dead and the first-born of many brothers, the mediator
between God and man and the Only-Begotten Son crowned with
glory and honor, the Lord of glory and ruler of all that exists, the
ruler, the king of righteousness, the prince of peace and universal
monarch who possesses his royal power without end.
He also added many other titles, the number of which is not

Tbe race or Christ between tbe alpba and omega. Mosaic or tbe Stb century.
Jesus is the beginning and tbe end or history and or tbe universe (Naples, s.
Matrona inS. Prisco. Pboto Pont. Comm. Arch. ).

247
CH Vlll · READ£NGS

easily counted. If these are all compared with one another and if
the significance of each of these titles joins in showing what is
signified, they give us a certain image of the meaning of the name
of Christ. They show us as much of his inexpressible greatness as
our souls are able to understand.
Our good Master has granted us fellowship with that
greatest, most divine and first of all names, so that those who
have been honored with the name of Christ are called Christians.
It necessarily follows that all the meanings expressed by such a
word be perceived likewise in us, so that our name may not be a
false one but may receive confirmation from our way of life.
(H omily to 0/ympioson Perfection )

9. Salvation consists in being completely united in love

(Gregory ofNyssa)

If love completely casts out fear, as it has been written, and if

fear having been transformed turns into love, then it is
discovered that love is that which saves, in the harmony towards
the one good of all who have been joined to one another by the
perfection attributed to the dove. 3
This is explained for us most clearly by the Lord's word in
the gospel. When he had conferred on the Apostles all of his
own power by a blessing, he gave other gifts to the saints
through his words to the Father and bestowed the highest of all
gifts. They are no longer to be often divided by some difference
of opinion in the judgment concerning virtue but are to become
one since they were all joined together in the one single good,

3
In Christian mystical tradition, the image of the dove in the Canticle of
Canticles has been taken as a symbol of Christian perfection.

248
 CH. VIII - READINGS

just as through the unity of the Holy Spirit, as the Apostle says,
they were bound by the common bond of peace and became one
body and one spirit through the one hope to which they were
called.
But it might be better, instead of these words, to present the
divine voice of the gospel itself. «That all may be one as you,
Father, in me and I in you, that also they might be one in us»
(John 17:21).
(Homzly 15 on the Canticle ofCanticles)

249
These cities were tbe scene for tbe activity of Hilary, Ambrose and Jerome,
the three great Western Fatbers of tbe 4th century.
 Chapter IX

Three Western Fathers:

Hilary, Ambrose and Jerome

-
3 37 Constantius emperor
353 Ha!J\RY
bishop of Poitiers

356 exile
360 returns to his see
361 Julian the Apostate emperor ' - - -
379 Theodosius I the Great
I 374/397 I AMBROSE
bishop of Milan
380 Edict ofTheodosius:
Catholicism becomes
the state religion

38 1 Council of
CONSTANTINOPLE
JEROME
secretary to Pope Damasus

at Bethlehem
death

25 1
Cll IX . HILARY AMBROSE JEROME

1. Hilary of Poitiers before his exile

The first Western champion in the struggle against Arianism

was Hilary, bishop of Poitiers in Gaul. Because of his reserved
character, little is known of Hilary. He converted to Christianity
and was elected bishop of the city where he had been born into a
prosperous and cultured pagan family. Hilary's life was
practically divided into two parts by the bitter experience of his
exile in Asia Minor. The pro-Arian emperor sentenced him to
exile there from 356 to 360 because of his involvement in the
disputes which in those years were beginning to arise in the
West. Prior to th is, the Western part of the empire had been
little disturbed by the Arian Controversy which had been blazing
in the East for some forty years.
In the years of his episcopate preceding his exile, Hilary
distinguished himself as a pastor and preacher in his community,
for whom he explained the Gospd of Matthew in a Commentary
which is extant today. In this commentary, some of the
anti-Arian themes are expressed in an imprecise and archaic
terminology still ignorant of the profundity and complexity
which marked the Eastern debate between Orthodoxy and
Arianism.

2. Hilary during and after his exile

The experience of his exile marked a significant change in

Hilary's thought. Precisely through his exile, he became the first
Latin Father to come into direct contact with the protagonists
and the theological terminology of the Arian Controversy in the
East. In this manner he succeeded for the first time in
understanding the true state of affairs with a certainty heretofore
unknown in Western Christianity.
The change which took place in H ilary's mind and spirit was
,-,
-:l-
 CH I:X HILARY AMBROSF JEROME

deary expressed in his writings. In comrast to the Commentary

on Matthew, written in the distant regions of Gaul before his
exile, there now appeared the powerful treatise On the Trinity in
12 books. This was the first great systematic work written on this
topic in the West (with the exception of a less demanding
attempt by Novatian in the third century) and in speculative
force it is second only to Augustine's treatise of the same name.
In this work, Hilary at last demonstrates a complete mastery of
the Greek terminology and thus of the real problems underlying
this terminology. His Trinitarian synthesis is a model of clarity
and profundity which overcomes the uncettainties of earlier
Latin theology and opens the way for the further advances of
Augustine.

Hilary of Poitiers' On
the Tnmty (IV 16-17).
Fragment of a famous
papyrus manuscript of
tbe 6th century (Bibl.
Ap. Vat., Barb. lat.
9916).

253
Above: Ambrose aban-
dons Milan to escape his
appointment as bisbop.
Below: The band of
God calls him back to
the city. These are two
scenes from the • Histo-
ry of the Life or St.
Ambrose• which are
depicted on the splendid
silver frontal of the
altar of the Basilica of
Saint Ambrose (Milan).
Tbe work dates to the
9tb century.

25-'
 o-1. IX HILARY A.\o!BROSE · JEROME

Once he had returned to Gaul from his Eastern exile, where

he had caused nothing but trouble for the Arians, Hilary
dedicated himself wholeheartedly to his episcopal ministry,
which was taken up with the struggle against the Arian
opposition in Gaul and Nonhero Italy. He was further
distinguished for his protection of the extraordinary f.tgUre of
Manin, the first great ascetic of Roman Gaul, who subsequently
became the bishop of Tours and inaugurated in the West the
series of bishops drawn from the monasteries, the monk-bishops.
Sulpicius Severus, an aristocrat who had been converted to the
ideals of the monastic life, wrote his biography, the Lzfe of Saint
Martin , in 397. This work rivaled in popularity the Lzfe of
Anthony which had been written forty years earlier by
Athanasius.
Hilary also commented the Psalms for the faithful and
brought back with him from the East the memory of the
important role occupied by congregational singing in the local
liturgies. However, the hymns which he composed for use in his
own church did not enjoy great success. It is likely that Hilary,
who was above all a thinker and, if the circumstances required, a
man of action and a pastor attentive to the demands of pastoral
care and ecclesiastical discipline, did not have a poetic bent. The
hymns which he composed must have been too detailed to be
able to fix themselves easily in the ears and hearts of the faithful.
Far more famous and justly important are the hymns
composed by Ambrose, the bishop of Milan and another great
champion of the anti-Arian struggle in the West.

3. Ambrose of Milan,
a master of spirituality and liturgy

Ambrose, scion of one of the richest and most powerful

families of the empire, was born at Trier in Gaul around
255
CH IX - HJLARY - AMBROSE - JEROME

339-340. He was destined naturally for an administrative career

and, after having completed the studies required by his high
social rank, was already in 370 governor of Northern Italy with
his seat at Milan. It was in this city, after the death of the Arian
bishop Auxentius, that Ambrose was elected bishop by popular
acclaim on December 7, 374, without even having been baptized
yet. (At that time it was not unusual for young Christians to delay
baptism until they were adults.) He immediately set about
studying Sacred Scripture and the Fathers under the direction of
the priest Simplicianus in order to acquire the religious
education which he was lacking up to that point. Ambrose
waited three years before entering the public arena with the
publication of his first attempts as a preacher in a work enticled
On Virgins. Virginity was in fact one on Ambrose's favorite
themes and one to which he dedicated various works throughout
the course of his life. Already in his first work (377), Ambrose
revealed the dominant traits of his character and personality, his
sensitivity and his theological and spiritual erudition.
No less demanding were his efforts to reorganize the liturgy
and discipline of the Milanese church. To this end there can be
mentioned some of his works on the responsibilities of the
clergy, on the explanation of the sacraments to the neophytes 1
and on the sacrament of penance. Ambrose stands at the origins
of that which still today, after so many centuries and so many
modifications, is known as the «Ambrosian Liturgy». In order to

1
«Neophytes>>, i.e. Christians who had just been baptized and therefore
just born into the new life of the Spirit. These catecheses where generally given
in the week following Easter and were intended to illustrate the significance of
the rites of initiation (baptism - confinnation - eucharist) which had been
celebrated during the Easter Vigil. For this ~son, they were also called
«mystagogicah•, i.e. «introduction to the mysteries». In addition to those of
Ambrose, the mystagogical catecheses of Cyril of Jerusalem, John Chrysostom
and Theodore of Mopsuestia are also extant and are a valuable source for a
knowledge of early Christian liturgy.

256
 CH. [)( HILARY • AMBROSE · JEROME

foster a more intense participation of the faithful in the liturgy

and in the struggle against Arianism, he composed impressive
hymns which were easily learned by heart.
His activity as a preacher was directed primarily to the
commentary and explanation of the Old Testament to the
catechumens, who were preparing during Lent for their baptism
at the Easter Vigil. Out of this arose a long series of exegetical
commentaries on the books of the Old Testament from Genesis
to Psalms in which Ambrose shows a distinct preference for the
allegorical and mystical interpretation of the sacred text which he
had learned in the school of Hippolytus, Origen and Basil. This
type of reading of the Old Testament was intended to lead his
listeners to an understanding of the mystery of Christ and the
church and to the mystical joys of the soul's nuptial union with
the Word. It was Ambrose's bold preaching which convinced
Augustine, who because of Manichaeism had rejected the Old
Testament as contrary to the gospel message, of the possibility of
retaining its value in an authentically Christian sense. Ambrose
also composed a lengthy commentary on the Gospel of Luke,
perhaps because he encountered there in particular the themes of
mercy and pardon which were so congenial to his strong but
sensitive nature.

4 . The defender of the poor

and of the liberty of the church

Ambrose was a sensitive commentator on the grave social

malaise of his time. He did not hesitate to attack from the pulpit
the arrogance and murderous injustice of the rich in terms more
scathing than those of Basil in Cappadocia. He used the story of
Naboth, the victim of King Ahab's oppression, to exemplify their
violence.
In Ambrose, the social apostolat~ was joined to a fervid
257
CH IX - IIJ LARY - AMBROSE - JEROME

missionary spirit which led him to promote the conversion of the

barbarians who were pressing on the borders of the empire. It
was in these years that the three missionary martyrs of the Va1 di
Non (Province of Trent) were residing at Milan. They had come
from Cappadocia and were sent by Vigilius of Trent to
evangelize the rough pagan tribes of the mountain region.
Ambrose's anti-Arian activity was carried out at Milan in
particularly dramatic circumstances, such as those posed by the
threatened occupation of the basilicas by imperial police at the
instigation of the pro-Arian empress Justina (385-86). From the
point of view of ecclesiastical discipline, his policies culminated

Ambrose. Tbis mosaic is conside-

red to be tbe oldest portrait (Stb
cent.), and perbaps an authentic
one, of the gnat bishop of Milan
(Milan, San Vittore in Clel
d'Oro).

258
 CH. IX · HILARY - AMBROSE - JEROME

in the provincial council held at Aquileia (381) where Ambrose

had two Arian bishops condemned.
He was also active against the Arians on the theological
plane. If his theology cannot be characterized as particularly
vigorous and original from the speculative point of view, it
neverthless shows Ambrose's ability to absorb the best of Greek
literature and translate it into terms suitable to Latin culture. It is
to a large extent the fruit of his authoritative interventions that
the emperors finally abandoned their traditional position as
defenders of Arianism and became the public defenders of
Nicene Orthodoxy. The relations which Ambrose maintained
with three Catholic emperors, Gratian, Valentinian II and
Theodosius (he gave the funeral orations for the latter two) were
marked by moments of tension when the former aristocratic civil
servant employed all his tenacity in defense of the rights of the
church which were being trampled down or threatened. At
times, the manner of his defense was open to question.
Ambrose did everything in his power to see to it that the
Statue of Victory, the symbol of the pagan senatorial aristocracy's
opposition to the Christian empire, was removed from the Senate
in Rome (384). On this occasion he engaged in a memorable
oratorical duel, conducted by means of letters to the emperor,
with Symmachus, who presented the defense of paganism on
ideological as well as financial grounds.
In 390, Ambrose forced the Emperor Theodosius himself to
do public penance for having ordered the massacre of seven
thousand inhabitants of Thessalonica in punishment for that
city's revolt against representatives of the imperial power. Such
bold and, at the same time, admirably courageous behavior
derived from Ambrose's deep-seated conviction that «the
emperor is in the church and not above it», and that thus even
he must be subject to the norms which regulate the life of the
community of believers in Christ.
Nothing hindered Ambrose from defending the Catholic
259
Aquileia. The remains of the Roman forum with an elegant series of columns
topped by Corintbian capitals. Aquileia wti one of tbe most celebrated
markets of the Roman world and at its beigbt had more than 200, 000
inhabitants. After decades of silent growth, Christianity enjoyed a llllli'Veiom
nowering there in the 4th century.
 CH. IX - 1-Ul.ARY - AMBROSE · JEROME

faith and the rights of the church. In 388, when Theodosius had
ordered the bishop of Callinicum, a city on the banks of the
Euphrates in Mesopotamia, to rebuild at his own expense the
Jewish synagogue which some Christian fanatics had burned
down, Ambrose opposed the imperial order on the grounds of
the superiority of Catholic orthodoxy.
These events made Ambrose the initiator of the attitude
characteristic of ecclesiastical tradition in the Latin West, which
would see the religious power always battling strenuously to
defend its autonomy against the interference of the political
power. It did not always succeed in avoiding falling into the
excess, opposed to Byzantine caesaropapism, of wanting to
absorb the political power into the practice of a theocracy, 2 with
its inevitable consequences of intollerance and fanaticism with
regard to different or foreign elements Uews, Moslems, etc.).
The anguishing experience of Arianism, in addition to its
theological developments, also led the Christian conscience to be
vigilant and wary of the subtle and alluring appeal of the charm
of power.

5. Jerome, the apostle of the Roman patriciate

Ambrose's exegetical activity, so important &om many points

of view, nevertheless failed to find favor with Jerome (347-420),
who accused the bishop of Milan of being merely a bad imitator
of the Greek Fathers. It is not surprising that even Ambrose
ended up a target for the barbed arrows of Jerome's polemic. An
aggressive and irascible character, Jerome spent the better part of

2
«Theocracy» literally means «the power of God>>. It is used for a form of
government in which the religious authority attempts to incorporate or control
the political authority, thus robbing it of its autonomy.

26 1
CH. IX - HH.ARY - AMBROSE . JEROME

his tormented existence and of his excellent intellectual

endowments in innumerable and sometimes violent arguments
which he carried to the point of sarcasm and the moral
destruction of his adversaries. And his adversaries were many!
Jerome's entire life was surrounded by controversies: against
detractors of virginity and monastic ideals, against the Pelagians,
against the Origenists... As a young man, Jerome himself,
together with his friend Rufinus of Aquileia, had been a fervent
admirer of Origen. At a certain point, however, he became
involved in the bitter quarrel which had broken out over Origen
and passed over completely to the ranks of the denigrators of the
Alexandrian master. He broke clamorously with his old
companion Rufinus and attacked him in so indecent a manner
that all of Christendom was scandalized and even Augustine
mourned! Rufinus, for his part, withdrew into a resigned and
indignant silence.
Jerome, who was from Stridon in Dalmatia, had studied at
Rome and there had mastered the treasures of Latin literature.
The passion for the classics never left him in spite of the fact
that, as he himself recounts it, the Lord in person had reproved
him harshly in a nightmarish dream of being «a Ciceronian but
not a Christian». The severe trials of the Syrian desert, where he
underwent a sort of monastic novitiate, did not quench his desire
for a more profound study of the Scriptures. He acquired a
superior proficiency in Greek and Hebrew in addition to latin
and was rightly considered to be the only trilingual individual in
the entire empire. Jerome had contacts with important
personalities of his time at Antioch and at Constantinople, where
he was enraptured by the eloquence of Gregory of Nazianzus.
At Rome, he was an acclaimed spiritual director of
aristocratic women and entered into the good graces of Pope
Damasus as his secretary. It was at Damasus' invitation that he
began the revision of the latin translation of the Bible which
would occupy his attention for the rest of his life.
262
 CH. IX - 1-!ll.ARY - AMBROSE - JEROME

Unfortunately, his character was not such as to guarantee him

rapid success in the old capital of the empire. He had brought
weighty accusations of worldliness against a part of the Roman
clergy, even going so far as to use terms such as «two-legged
asses». After the death of his protector, Damasus, they succeeded
in making life difficult for Jerome and eventually forced him to
leave Rome.

Jerome intent on his

writing. Elegant initial
from a manuscript
illuminated between
1475 and 1482 (Bibl.
Ap. Vat., Urb. lat. 52,
fol. 2r).

263
CH. IX · HILARY · AMBROSE · JEROME

6. Scholar and polemicist

Once he had settled at Bethlehem, where for thirty years he

led a strict monastic life amidst personal and theological
polemics, Jerome became universally famous as an undisputed
authority in the field of biblical studies. Aside from his numerous
exgetical commentaries, Jerome's tireless activity was centered
above all on the revision and translation of the latin text of the
Bible, which would come to be known as the Vulgate. It replaced
all previous latin versions to the extent that it imposed itself as
the only authorized translation in the Latin Church. His
predominantly scholarly and philological interests also led him to
translate Eusebius' Chronicle, which remained the basis for all
the historical and chronographical speculations of the Medieval
latin writers, and to compose a work entitled On Famous Men,
which is a veritable portrait gallery of character sketches and
notices concerning early Christian authors &om Peter down to
himself! This was the first systematic attempt at writing a
«patrology», a literary history of early Christianity, and was
based on the model of analogous pagan works well known to a
cultured humanist such as Jerome.
His struggle in the defense of orthodoxy and his lessons in
spirituality and biblical studies more than redeem the less
agreeable aspects of Jerome's personality. Along with Origen,
Jerome can be called the true founder of biblical science. It was
to Jerome that Augustine, the greatest of the Latin Fathers and
one of the greatest geniuses in all human history, turned as to a
recognized expert in this field.

264
 Ql. IX - READINGS

R EA DI NGS

1. Give us the light of understanding,

efficacy of preaching, true faith
(Hilary)

Hilary begins his Treatise on the Trinity with this prayer_

His sole purpose is to make God known.

I am aware, 0 God, Almighty Father, that I owe to you even

this foremost duty of my life, that my every word and feeling
speak of you. Nor can this faculty of speech which you have
granted me return any greater reward than that I serve you by
preaching and that I show both to the world which does not
know you and to the heretic who denies you that you are Father,
the Father of the Only Begotten God.
This alone in my intention. For the rest, it is necessary to
beseech the gifts of your aid and mercy so that you may fill the
sails of our faith and profession with the breath of the Spirit and
send us on the course of this preaching we have undertaken.
Indeed, the author of that promise is not unfaithful who said,
«Ask, and it shall be given to you; seek, and you shall find;
knock, and it shall be opened to you» (Mt. 7:7). We, therefore,
who are needy, will ask for the things we lack and will apply
tenacious ze~ to scrutinizing the sayings of your prophets and
apostles. We will knock at all approaches to the understanding
which is barred to us. But it is up to you to grant what has been
asked, to be present to the one who has asked and to open to the
one who has knocked_ Yet we are numb with a certain lazy
sluggishness of our nature and are held back by the weakness of
our intelligence from understanding matters pertaining to you.
However, the study of your teaching trains us for the recognition
265
Hilary of Poitiers. Fresco of the 12th century. Hilary, who became a Christian
after a restless passage through various papn pbiJosopbies In search or God,
was an outstanding figure In Western Cbr6ianity.
 Oi. IX - READINGS

of your divinity and the obedience of faith lifts us above general

conjecture.
We therefore wait for you to inspire the beginnings of this
anxious undertaking and to strengthen it with growing success.
We await that you call it to fellowship with the spirit of the
prophets and apostles so that we may understand their words in
no other sense than that in which they have spoken and may
relate the meaning of their words with the same significance.
For we are about to speak of things announced by them
under the veil of mystery; namely, that you are the eternal God,
the Father of the eternal, Only-Begotten God; that you are the
only one without beginning and that the one Lord Jesus Christ is
from you by an eternal birth and is not to be numbered among
the gods by a difference of truth. We preach that he is begotten
from you, who are the one God. We confess nothing other than
that he is true God who is born from you, the true God and
Father.
Grant to us, therefore, the efficacy of words, the light of
understanding, the ministry of speech and the confidence of
faith. Grant that we may speak that which we believe. Against
the heretics who deny you, may we proclaim you, the one God
and Father and one Lord Jesus Christ, acknowledged by the
prophets and apostles, and say nothing false concerning you.
(Treatise on the Trinity 1, 37-38)

2. T he Holy Spirit, the Father's gift in Christ

(Hilary)

After Jesus Christ's ascension into heaven, the Holy Spirit

continues his work among the faithful. He is the
«Consoler» who dwells in the church and in the hearts of
the faithful, the Advocate who intercedes with the Father
267
CH. IX · READINGS

and the Spirit of Truth who leads to complete truth. He

bnngs us to understand Jesus Christ's mysterious person,
his words and his acts.

The Lord commanded us to baptize in the name of the

Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit; that is, in the
profession of the Creator, the Only Begotten and the Gift.
There is one God, the Father, &om whom all things come,
and one Only Begotten, Our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom
all things are, and one Spirit given as gift to all. All things have
been ordered according to his virtues and merits. There is one
power from whom all things are, one offspring through whom all
things are and one gift of perfect charity. There is nothing
lacking in such perfection in which, in the Father, Son and Holy
Spirit, there is infinity in the eternal, manifestation in the image
and enjoyment in the gift.
Let us hear in the words of the Lord himself what the Spirit's
ministry is in us. He says, «I still have many things to say to you
but you are not able to bear them now» Uohn 16:12). It is good
for you that I go, for if I go I will send you the Advocate. 3 And
again, «I will ask the Father and He will send you another
Advocate, the Spirit of Truth, who will be with you forever»
(John 14:16-17). «He will guide you into complete truth, for he
will not speak on his own but will speak whatever he hears and
will anounce to you what is to come. He will glorify me for he
will take from what is mine» Uohn 16:13-14). These things have
been told to you &om among many others which express the will
of the donor and the nature and manner of the gift in order to
point out the way of understanding. Since our weakness
comprehends neither the Father nor the Son, it is up to the gift
of the Holy Spirit, by a certain bond of his intercession, to
illuminate the faith we find to be difficult in the Incarnation of
God.
268
 Gl. lX · READINGS

The gift of the Spirit is received for the sake of knowledge.

Indeed, the human body will become idle if the prerequisites for
its functions cease. If there is no light or day, the eyes do not
function and unless there is a voice or a sound, the ears will not
realize their function and unless there be some fragrance, the
nostrils will not carry out their function. This is not because they
are lacking in capacity, but because their function is conditioned
by certain causes. In the same way, the human spirit, unless it has
drawn on the gift of the Spirit by faith, will have the capacity of
knowing God but will not have the light of knowledge.
The gift which is in Christ is given entirely to all. Since it is
nowhere lacking, it is imparted to all to the extent that anyone
wishes to receive it. It dwells in all to the extent that anyone
wishes to merit it. This gift remains with us until the end of the
world. This is the pledge of our future hope in the realization of
his gifts, this is the light of our mind, this is the splendor of our
spirits.
(Treatise on the Trinity Tl, I, 33, 35)

3. Open your mouth to God's word

(Ambrose)

Let the meditation of wisdom be ever in our heart and on

our lips, let your tongue speak justice and the law of your God
be in your heart. 4 Thus Scripture says to you, «You will speak
of these things when you are seated in your home, when you are
walking along the way, when you lie down to sleep and when
you arise» (Dt. 6:7). Let us therefore speak of the Lord Jesus, for

3
C f. John 16:7.
4
Cf. Ps. 36:30.
269
 0 I. IX - READINGS

he is Wisdom, he is the Word, he is the Word of God. This also

has been written, «Open your mouth to the Word of God».
Let him who echoes his discourses and meditates on his
words diffuse him about. Let us always speak of him. When we
speak of wisdom, it is he of whom we speak; when we speak of
virtue, it is he; when we speak of justice, it is he; when we speak
of peace, he it is; of truth, life and redemption, we speak of him.
«Open your mouth to the Word of God», it has been
written. You open, he speaks. Therefore David has said, «l will
hear what the Lord says in me», 5 and the Son of God himself
says, «Open your mouth and I will fill it» (Ps. 80: 11). But not all
are able to receive the perfection of wisdom like Solomon and
Daniel. Nevertheless, the Spirit is poured out to all according to
their capacity, to all who are faithful. If you believe, you have the
spirit of wisdom.
Meditate always, therefore; speak the things of God «when
you are seated in your home» (Dt. 6:7). For «home» we can
understand «the church», we can undestand «our inner self», so
that we speak within ourselves. Speak with deliberation that you
may escape sin and not fall into talkativeness. When you are
seated, speak with yourself as though you had to judge yourself.
Speak while walking along the way, that you may never be idle.
If along the way you speak in Christ, you will be speaking in the
way, for Christ is the Way. Along the way speak with yourself,
speak with Christ. Listen how you are to speak to him: «l wish»,
he says, «for people to pray in every place, lifting up pure hands

5
Cf. Ps. 84:9.

Ambrose, seated on his cathedra, is inspired by an angel. Miniature from tbe

Hexaemeron, manuscript of tbe 12th century (Milan, Arch. Cap., M31,
beginning ofrns.).

271
CH. IX - READINGS

without anger and contention» (I Tim 2:8). Speak, 0 man, when

you lie down to sleep lest the sleep of death take you by surprise.
Listen how you are to speak as you lie down to sleep: «I will not
give sleep to my eyes nor slumber to my eyelids until I find a
place for the Lord, a dwelling for the God of Jacob» (Ps.
13 1.4-5).
When you arise speak to him that you may fulfill what you
are commanded. Listen how Christ arouses you. Your soul says,
«The voice of my beloved knocks at my door». And Christ says,
«Open to me, my sister, my bride» (Cant. 5:2). Listen how you
are to awaken Christ. The soul says, «I adjure you, daughters of
Jerusalem, not to arouse and awaken love» (Cant. 3:5). Christ is
love.
(Commentary on Psalm 36, 65-66)

4. Jesus Christ has reconciled the world to God

through his blood
(Ambrose)

Since Ch rist has reconciled the world to God, he certainly

had no need of reconciliation himself. For what sin of his own
would he, who knew no sin, be appeasing God? Furthermore,
when the Jews were demanding the temple tax provided for in
the Law because of sin, he said to Peter, «Simon, from whom do
the kings of the earth receive tax or tribute, from their sons or
from foreigners?» Peter replied, «From foreigners». The Lord
said to him, «The sons, therefore, are exempt. But in order not
to offend them, cast out a hook and take the first fish which
comes out. Open its mouth and you will find a coin. Take it and
give it to them for you and for me» (Mt. 17:25-27).
The Son of God shows that he does not need a propitiation 6
of sins for himself, because he was not a slave of sin but was free
272
 CH. IX - READINGS

from every error. The son sets free, the slave is guilty. Therefore,
he is free from all sins and does not offer a price for the ransom
of his soul, he, the price of whose blood was sufficient for the
redemption of all the sins of the whole world. He justly sets
others free who owes nothing for himself.
I will say yet more. Not only does Christ not owe a price for
his redemption or propitiation for sin on his own behalf, but the
same is able to be understood, if you will, about any person.
Individuals do not have to offer their own propitiation because
Christ is the propitiation for all and he is the redemption of all.
Indeed, whose blood is sufficient for his own redemption since
Christ has poured out his own blood for the redemption of all?
Can anyone's blood be compared to the blood of Christ? Or
what person is powerful enough so as to be able to offer his own
propitiation on his own behalf over and above that propitiation
which Christ offered in himself, who alone reconciled the world
to God by his blood? What greater offering, what more pleasing
sacrifice, what better advocate than the one who became the
intercessor for the sins of all and who gave himself up for our
redemption?
Thus the propitiation or redemption of individuals is not
required because the price for all is Christ's blood, with which
the Lord Jesus redeemed us. He alone reconciled us to the
Father and suffered to the end. Since he took our suffering on
himself he says, «Come to me, all you who are burdened, and I
will refresh you» (Mt. 11:28).
(Commentary on Psalm 48, 14-15)

6
P ro pitiation signifies expiation, purification.

273
CH. [)( - READINGS

5. Penance obtains Christ's mercy for us

(A mbrose)

Moderation alone has propagated the church, purchased at

the price of the Lord's blood. It is the imitation of the heavenly
gift and the redemption of all people. It rules by such healthy
discretion that the ears of men are able to bear it, their minds do
not flee from it and their spirits are not terrified of it.
Whoever is striving to emend the imperfections of human
weakness must bear them on his own shoulders and in some way
compensate for them, not reject them. Indeed, that shepherd in
the gospel is said to have carried the exhausted sheep, not to
have cast it aside. Solomon says, «Do not be excessively just»
(Eccl. 7:16) . Moderation must temper justice. How can someone
present himself to you to be cured whom you hold in disdain,
who feels himself to be despised, who does not consider that he
will be an object of compassion for his physician?
Therefore, the Lord Jesus took compassion on us in order
that he might call us to himself and not scare us away. He comes

Tbe paralytic who was

cured. This man, whose
sins Jesus forgave and
then cured, is a symbol
of God's mercy. Tbe
church preaches this
mercy and renders it
present through the
ministry of reconcilia-
tion (Rome, Catacombs
of Sts. Peter and
MarceUinus. Pboto
Pont. Comm. Arch.).

274
 CH . fX · READINGS

as someone gentle, someone humble and then he says, «Come to

me all you who labor and I will refresh you» (Mt. 11:28). Thus
the Lord Jesus refreshes; he neither excludes nor casts away. He
rightly chose such disciples who, as messengers of the Lord's
will, would gather together God's people, not disdain them.
It is clear, then, that they are not to be considered disciples
of Chirst who believe that hard and proud principles are to be
preferred to gentle and humble ones. They seek God's mercy
themselves but deny it to others. Such ones are the teachers of
the N ovatians, 7 who call themselves pure. They deny that it is
necessary for these, who have fallen away by collusion with the
pagans, to be returned to communion. They say that they are
paying reverence to God, to whom alone they reseiVe the power
of forgiving sins. On the contrary, no one does greater harm than
he who wishes to rescind the Lord's commandments and take
back the gift which has already been given. Indeed, since the
Lord Jesus himself has said in the gospel, «Receive the Holy
Spirit. Whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven and whose
you shall retain, they are retained» Gohn 20:22-23 ), who is it
who honors the Lord more, the one who obeys his commands,
or the one who resists them?
(On Penance 1. 1-3; 2.5,6)

6. The church is not at the mercy of the state

(A mbrose)

The barbarians were already pressing against the

crumbling borders of the W estern Empire and the time

7
Ambrose is opposing the rigorism of Novatian and his fo llowers, the
Novatianists, who refused pardon to those who were guilty of grave sins after
baptism.
275
CH. IX - READINGS

had come /or the church to free itself from a fatal

identification with the empire in order to remain a center
of liberty for the new era which was beginning.
By his conduct throughout the course of the conflict in
Milan, Ambrose pointed out to the church the path to
liberty when he insisted with biting clarity, «The emperor
is within the church and not above the church.'»
The following text is /rom the concluding section of the
sermon against Auxentius, 8 which Ambrose gave to the
people gathered in church on Palm Sunday, 386.

What response has not been made humbly by us? If he asks

for taxes, we will not refuse. The land belonging to the church is
subject to taxes. If the emperor desires the land, he has the
power to lay claim to it; none of us is intervening. The people's
collection is able to suffice for the poor. Let them not stir up
envy on account of the land. Let them take it, if it is the
emperor's pleasure. I do not give it away, but neither do I deny
it. They want money. I can say, «I do not desire silver and gold».
However, they stir up envy because money is distributed to the
poor. Indeed, they always accuse me of the crime of distributing
money to the poor. But if they object that I do this because I
need the defense of the poor, I do not deny it. I even seek it out!
I have my defense, but it is in the prayers of the poor. They, the
blind and the lame, the weak and the aged, are stronger than
powerful warriors. Furthermore, gifts to the poor are binding on
God, for it has been written, «He who gives generously to the
poor is lending to God» (Prov. 19: 18). The protection of
warriors often does not merit divine favor.

8
.The Arian Mercurinus, court chaplain of the empress, wished to have
himself installed as bishop. He had thus changed his name to Auxentius in
honor of Ambrose's predecessor of that name, who had been an Arian.
276
 0 I IX · READINGS

They say that the people are deceived by the verses of my

hymns. Clearly I do not deny it. That poetry is great and nothing
is more powerful. What is more powerful than the profession of
the Trinity which is praised daily by the mouth of the entire
people? All strive eagerly to profess their faith and they know
how to preach the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit in poetry.
Those who were scarcely able to be disciples have all became
teachers.
What can be more obedient than to follow the example of
Christ who, «Since he was in the form of man, humbled himself
and became obedient even unto death» (Phil. 2:7-8)? In short,
he set all people free through obedience. «Just as through the
disobedience of one man many were made sinners, so also
through the obedience of one man have many been made just»
(Rom. 5: 19). If he, then, was obedient, let them accept the
instruction of obedience to which we adhere, and say to those
who are stirring up envy for us with regard to the emperor, «We
give to Caesar the things which are Caesar's and to God the
things which are God's». Tribute belongs to the emperor, that is
not denied. The church belongs to God and must not be granted
to the emperor, because the temple of God cannot be under the
emperor's jurisdiction.
No one can deny that this has been said with honor for the
emperor. What can be more honorable than that the emperor be
called a son of the church? When one says this, he says it
without fault, he says it with favor. The emperor is within the
church, not above the church. Indeed, a good emperor seeks to
aid the church, he does not refuse it. We say this with humility
but state it with firmness. Some people threaten firebrands, the
sword, exile. We, the servants of Christ, have learned not to be
afraid. Those who are not afraid never know great terror. It has
been written, «Their blows are like arrows hurled by infants»
(Ps. 63:8).

277
Cll IX - READIJIIGS

7. Our only profit b that we are joined together

by the love of Chmt
Uerome)

Xerxes, 9 that most powerful king who overturned mountains

and cast seas into turmoil, is said to have wept when from a high
place he saw an innumerable army and an endless multitude of
men, because none of them whom he was looking at then would
be alive after one hundred years. 0, if only we were able to
ascend such a lookout from which we would be able to see the
entire earth under out feet! I would show you the ruins of the
whole world, nations having risen against nation and kingdoms
against kingdoms, some people tortured, some slaughtered,
others overturned by the waves and still others led into slavery.
There would be marriage celebrations here, mourning there;
these people coming to birth, those dying; some abounding in
riches, others begging. I would show you that not only the army
of Xerxes, but that the people of the whole world, who now are
living, are going to die in a short time. Speech is overwhelmed by
the immensity of the matter and whatever we say is less than the
reality of the situation.
Let us, then, turn our attention to ourselves as though
coming down from heaven and briefly consider our own
situation. Do you perceive, I beg you, at what time you are an
infant, at what time you are a youth, at what time you enter
mature age and at what time you become old? Each day we are
dying, each day changing and still we believe we are eternaL This
very thing which I am dictating, which I write, which I review
and correct is taken from my life_ As many points as the scribe
makes, so many instants are lost from my span of years. We write

9
Persian king, «the king of kings», from ca. 486 to ca. 465 B.C.
278
 CH. IX READINGS

and we respond, our letters cross the seas and, as the keel cleaves
a trough through each wave, the moments of our life grow less.
Our only profit is that we are joined together by the love of
Christ. «Love is patient, love is kind, love is not jealous, does not
act wrongly, is not puffed up; it bears all, hopes all, believes all,
endures all. Love never fails» (I Cor. 13:4,7,8). It lives
continually in the heart.
(Leiter 60, 18-19)

The Fathers studied the Scriptures, wrote commentaries

on them and explained them to the people. The Scriptures
provzded the nourishment for their spirituality and
pastoral activity as well as the very form of their thought.
«You possess in them the Word of God. Do not search for
another teacher» (john Chrysostom). The greater and
more valuable part of Jerome's work deals with the Bible.
The following texts (nos. 8 and 9) give two examples.

8. To be ignorant of the Scriptures is to be ignorant of Christ

(jerome)

I therefore am paying back what I owe to you (Eustochium)

and to him (Parnmachius). I obey the commands of Christ who
says, «Search the Scriptures» Uohn 5:39), and, «Seek, and you
will find» (Mt. 7:7), in order that I may not hear along with the
Jews, «You go astray, since you know neither the Scriptures nor
the power of God» (Mt. 22:29). If, according to the Apostle
Paul, Christ is the power of God and the wisdom of God, then
whoever is ignorant of the Scriptures is ignorant of God's power
and wisdom. To be ignorant of the Scriptures is to be ignorant of
Christ.
(Commen tary on Isaiah, prologue)
279
 CH. IX - READINGS

9. God's word is a source of joy

(jerome)

I entreat you, dearest brother, does not dwelling among these

things, meditating on them, knowing and seeking nothing else
seem to you to be the dwelling place of the heavenly kingdom on
earth? I do not wish that you be offended in the Sacred
Scriptures by the simplicity and almost banality of the words.
They have been set down in this manner either through the fault
or the skill of the translators so that they might more effectively
instruct the uneducated multitude. Thus, in one and the same
sentence, the learned person might hear one thing and the
unlearned another. I am not so impudent and dumb as to state
that I know these things and that I gather on earth the fruits of
those things whose roots are in heaven. But I have the desire and
show that I am making an effort. Although I refuse to be a
teacher, I offer myself as a companion. The one who asks
receives, the one who knocks is admitted and the one who seeks
finds. Let us learn on earth the knowledge of things which will
remain with us in heaven.
(Letter 53, 10)

10. «May you never disparage anyone»

(jerome)

In Jerome are to be f ound not only prof ound explanations

of the Sacred Scriptures and lively controversies, but also
pages rich in the instruction of spiritual exercises, such as

Tbe four evangelists. Full-page illumination on a gold background from an

11th century manuscript (Bibl. Ap. Vat. , Vat. gr. 756, fol. ltv).

281
Cll IX - READINGS

in the following selection. The passage deals with the vice,

still wzdespread, of criticism and of grumbling against
one's neighbor. Jerome places the blame not only on the
one who speaks ill of another but also on those who stand
and listen.

May you never disparage anyone and wish to make yourself

seem praiseworthy by blaming others. Learn more to dispose

Jerome de picted with tbe lion from whose root be bad removed a thorn.
Mjniatun from a manuscript iUunllnated before 1434 (Bibl. Ap. Vat., Barb.
lat. 613, fol. lr).

282
 0 l. IX - READINGS

your own life well rather than to criticize that of others. Be ever
mindful of the passage of Scripture which says, «Do not love to
disparage others lest you be rooted out» (Prov. 20:13 ). There are
right few people who renounce this vice and it is rare that you
find someone who is leading such an irreprehensible life that he
does not gladly reprove another. Such a great lust for this evil
has invaded people's minds that even those who have distanced
themselves far from other vices nevertheless fall into this one as
though into the devil's ultimate snare. But you, flee this vice to
such an extent not only that you do not disparage others
yourself, but also that you neither give credence to someone
else's disparaging remarks nor lend a detractor the authority of
your consent and encourage his vice by agreeing.
It is this vice which first must be extinguished and altogether
excluded from those who wish to establish themselves in a holy
way of life. There is nothing which so disturbs the soul, nothing
which makes the mind so inconsistent and ustable as to easily
believe everything and to follow the words of detractors with the
mind's thoughtless consent. From this are born frequent
arguments and unjust hatred. It is this which often makes
enemies of the closest friends, while the tongue of a slanderer
divides harmonious but gullible souls.
On the other hand, it is a sign of great peace of mind and a
great gravity in virtue not to fear to hear anything sinister from
anyone. He is blessed who has so armed himself against this vice
that no one dares to disparage anyone in his presence. But if this
zeal were in us, we would not indiscriminately put our faith in
detractors. Everyone would be afraid to disparage others lest
they make not others but themselves seem vile by their
detracting. But here is why this evil is often repeated and on this
account this vice flourishes in so many people: Because almost
everyone gladly listens to detractors.
(Letter 148, 16)

283
 VANDALS

{/2.

At tbe twiligbt of claWcal civilization and on tbe eve of tbe collapse of tbe
Western Roman Empin before tbe Germanic invasiom, tbe light of
Augustine's tbougbt and activity shone on tbe new age whicb was dawning in
history.
j

Chapter X

Augustine of Hippo,
the brillant servant of the faith

387 AUGUSTINE
baptized by Ambrose
395 Death of Theodosius I 396 AUGUSTINE
as bishop of Hippo
f 410 Sack of Rome by
Alaric and the Visigoths
430 Siege of Hippo 430 death of Augustine
by the Vandals

285
Cfl X AUGU~TI'-11·_.- - - - - -- ------------

1. Augustine's conversions

Augustine's work and personality are not easily treated in a

single chapter. The presentation here is limited to the most
important points.
Augustine was born in 354 at Thagaste in Numidia (modern
Algeria). In spite of the fact that his mother, Saint Monica, was a
fervent Catholic, the nineteen-year-old Augustine turned to
Manichaeism 1 in his search for a rdigious truth able to respond
to his inquiries. He remained an auditor of this sect for nine
years until, in disillusionment, he gave himself up to complete
scepticism. He found no satisfaction either in his youthful love
affairs (Augustine had a son, Adeodatus, out of wedlock. Monica
did everything in her power to prevent her son from marrying
the girl with whom he was living.) nor in his first enthusiasm for
philosophy, which had been aroused by his reading of Cicero.
Only his ambition for a career and for public honors
remained to give any sense to the life of this African provincial,
whose quick intelligence and broad literary education promised
easy success in the world. He chased after justified acclaim from
Carthage to Rome and fmally to Milan, the capital of the empire
and seat of the court. Here, too, was the see of the aristocratic
bishop Ambrose, who succeeded in charming the professor of
rhetoric by his preaching and illuminating for him the way
towards his decisive conversion to Catholicism.
Ambrose's preaching led Augustine to understand how the
Old Testament, whose style, crude in comparison to the classical
latin of Cicero, had aroused in him such overwhelming feelings

1 h took its name from its founder, Mani, a Pe~1an prophet who lived m
the 3rd century. Man1chaeism is one of the great universalist religions and
succeeded in spreading as far as Nonh Africa and China.

2R6
 0-1 X · AUGUSTINE

of disgust, was in reality a gold mine of spiritual, ascetical and

mystical teachings, if only it was interpreted allegorically. It was
in no way to be rejected as the Manichaeans taught.
At Milan, Augustine succeeded in overcoming another typical
Manichaean problem thanks largdy to the hdp of Neoplatonic
philosophy (Plotinus, Porphyry) . This clarified for him how evil,
unlike the affirmations of the Manichaeans, is not to be thought
of as an autonomous substance, as a principle opposed to the
principle of Good, which is God. Rather, it is merely a lack, a
deficiency of the Good, which is the only reality there is.
He conquered his final psychological barriers as a result of
his hearing of the Life of Anthony, which attracted him to the
ideal of the monastic life, and the Letter to the Romans, which
revealed the secrets of divine grace. After a period of retreat and
meditation, Augustine was baptized by Ambrose at the Easter
Vigil in 387.
He began the journey back to Africa, in the course of which
his mother Monica died at Ostia. On his return home,
Augustine, along with a few friends, embraced the monastic life
and together formed a circle of intense communal rdigious and
intellectual life. His reputation was such that Valerian, the
bishop of Hippo, ordained him a priest and entrusted him with
the ministry of preaching. Five years later, in 396, Augustine
succeded Valerian as bishop and remained at Hippo until his
death in 430 during the Vandal siege of the city.

2. Tbe Doctor of Grace

We are well informed with regard to Augustine's life and

thought thanks not only to the Lzfe of Augustine written by his
friend Possidius, bishop of Calama, but above all to Augustine's
own very numerous works which make him second perhaps only
to Origen in Literary productivity.
287
CH. X - AUGUSTINE

The decade between his conversion and episcopal ordination,

the so-called «decade of preparation», culminated in the
publication of the Confessions in 13 books (397). 1bis work is a
type of spiritual autobiography containing a wealth of
information on his public life, but especially rich in detail
concerning the dynamics of conversion which had accompanied
Augustine's anguished search for God since his youth.
In this work, which is justly numbered among the

Tbe baptismal pool where Ambrose baptized Augustine on April 24, 387
(Milan, Cathedral, excavations).

288
 CH. X · AUGUSTINE

masterpieces of world literature, Augustine «confesses» his sinful

past and moral impotence. At the same time, in a continual act
of thanksgiving which dissolves into psalm-like prayer and
liturgical praise, he «confesses» the power and mercy of God
which have saved him from sin and directed him towards
salvation. Augustine's entire life is reconsidered in light of this
experience of election and predestination brought about by the
inscrutable mercy of God.
It is no mere coincidence that Augustine has been given the
title of «Doctor of Grace». What had been for him a personal
intuition dictated by his personal religious experience became
the occasion for a «theological» confrontation after 412,
particularly with the Pelagians. It was Augustine's longest and
most exhausting controversy, involving his most profound and
strongly held convictions and lasting until his death.
Pelagius was a talented British monk with a great reputation
as a spiritual master. His rigidly ascetical preaching led him to
emphasize too vigorously the value of human freedom and the
natural capacity of the will for salvation. According to him,
Adam had given merely a bad example and people, even after
original sin, were still substantially capable of moral
self-determination in the choice of good or evil.
Augustine never ceased to reproach this excessively
optimistic doctrine for its fundamental denial of divine grace
which alone saves, without any merit on man's part, whomever it
will and whomever it chooses from all eternity. As a result of
original sin, all mankind, for Augustine, is subject to a just
condemnation. It is only God's mysterious grace which
intervenes to save the elect, the predestined. It is grace which
calls man to undertake the path of ascesis and humility indicated
by Christ in his incarnation and death.
These doctrines aroused violent reactions and for centuries,
down to the present, much discussion has been dedicated to
clarifying Augustine's thought in all of its ramifications.
289
 0-1 X - AUGUSTINE

3. The shepherd of souls

In the course of his long pastoral activity at Hippo,

Augustine had to face two other dangerous heresies.
Manichaeism, which he had himself adhered to as a youth and
which he had subsequently repudiated to return to Catholicism,
was particularly attractive with its elaborate doctrinal system and
severe moral asceticism. No one was in a position to refute this
heresy with greater precision and competence than Augustine,
who was acquainted with it by personal experience. He did this
regularly in a substantial series of treatises and disputations,
including public debates with representatives of the sect. His
weapons were the anti-Manichaean arguments he had learned
from the Neoplatonists and from Ambrose and which had
helped him respond to these same questions for himself_ Evil,
according to Augustine, is not a substance, a subsistent negative
principle, but is only the lack of good. Evil entered the world
through the free initiative of man, who rebelled against God's
command. Furthermore, the Old Testament is an integral part of
the Christian Scriptures and forms an harmonious unity with the
revelation of the New Testament. It was obvious that
Manichaeism was a recrudescence of the old Gnosticism and
Augustine did not hesitate to take lessons from the school of
Irenaeus in combatting these new Gnostics.
A more delicate problem was posed by the controversy with
the Donatists, a movement which had agitated Christian Africa
for an entire century with grave social and political implications.
The Donatists, who took their name from one of their first
bishops, Donatus, had separated from the Catholic church,
which they considered to be too closely bound to Roman
imperial power and the Latin culture and thus essentially foreign
to the culture of the local African population. Following
Diocletian's persecution, they took a decisive stand against the
readmission to ecdesiastial communion of bishops who had
291
CH X - AUGUSTINE

handed over sacred books to the authorities_ According to the

Donatists, the church was supposed to be a perfect society of the
saints and sacraments administered by unworthy priests were
invalid.
Both an ecclesiology and a doctrine of the sacraments were at
stake and Augustine could not remain indifferent. He entered
the controversy by attempting to convince the Donatists on the
doctrinal level and to engage them in lofty theological
discussions, but without significant results. The doctrine of grace
elaborated by Augustine had to offer precise and definitive
answers. If the grace of God is operative in the sacraments, the
worthiness of the minister - or lack thereof - can have no

Augustine debates with

Faustus the Manl·
chaean. Detail of the
initial •F• from a
miniature of the 15th
century (Bibl. Ap. Vat.,
Urb. lat. 82, fol. 2r).

292
 CH. X - AUGUSTINE

influence on their validity. At most, the sacraments can remain

inefficacious for those who receive them unworthily.
Furthermore, the church, as long as it is a pilgrim in this world,
is a mixed body of saints and sinners who will be separated only
by the last judgment at the end of time.
In the end, Augustine accepted the imperial intervention
which imposed a solution to the Donatist Schism at the Council
of Carthage in 411. The fact that Augustine recognized both the
legitimacy and goodness of «coercion» in religious matters, albeit
in extraordinary circumstances, as well as the right to fight a
«just» war to defend against the barbarians gives an indication of
the harshness of the times in which he lived.
A concern for doctrine was intimately bound up with
Augustine's pastoral activity as leader of the community in all
aspects of ecclesiastical and everyday life. He was a great
preacher and in his sermons he instilled his biblical wisdom and
theology in his listeners through terms that were easily
understood. He took an active part in the liturgical life of the
church and, by his vast correspondence, made his authoritative
voice heard far and wide. He followed a monastic manner of life
together with his priests at Hippo and trained himself and others
in the virtue of humility.

4. The mystery of the Trinity

In Augustine's enormous literary production, composed of

philosophical dialogues, theological treatises, sermons on the
Bible, moral and ascetical works and controversies with the
Manichaeans, Donatists, Pelagians, etc., two works stand out
which are equal in importance with the Confessions although of a
completely different genre.
The first is the treatise On the Trinity. It represents the
culmination of early Christian thought on the problem which had
293
CH X - AUGUSTINE

kept the entire fourth century in turmoiL Following Hilary, who

had pointed the way for Western theology, Augustine expresses
practically in its definitive form the orthodox doctrine on the
question while attempting at the same time to shed some light on
the fathomless mystery of the Trinity. In order to do this he
makes use of a comparison with the functions of the human
mind. Just as in the mind there exist the three distinct yet
integrated faculties of memo ry, understanding and will, so there
exist in God the three distinct persons who nevertheless are of
the same nature: The Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. These
persons, by analogy, are homologous to the functions of the
mind in such a manner that the mind reflects the intimate
structure of the Trinity.
Augustine's authoritative interventions in all theological and
disciplinary matters made him the undisputed leader of the
African episcopate, which unfailingly found the authentic
tradition of the church expressed in his declarations. However,
the sphere of Augustine's influence rapidly extended across the
Mediterranean to include the major centers of Western
Christianity; Rome, in the first place, and then the new imperial
capital of Ravenna. Augustine took on the stature of the
counselor of the Christian West and the theological conscience
of the church, above and beyond the polemics and controversies
that marked his last years in particular.

5. The City of God

Augustine was at the height of his episcopal ministry when, in

410, an unheard-of event occurred which cast panic and dismay
into the hearts of all the inhabitants of the empire: Rome, the
Eternal City, was sacked by Alaric's Visigoths. Christians and
pagans alike experienced the same sentiments of anguish, but the
latter took advantage of the situation to reassert themselves. They
294
 Gl. X · AUGUSTINE

began to attack the Christians by blaming the sad debacle on the

new religion, which had induced the gods, offended by their
abandonment at the hands of the Christian empeors, to withdraw
their protection from the city. The accusation was an insidious
and subtle one, not least of all because many Christian
authorities and theologians had constructed the apology for their
faith on the observation and the promise that the fate of the
empire would be secure as long as it remained Christian. Now
the dramatic experience of the sack of Rome appeared to negate
this political theology in a sensational manner! It was necessary
to find a satisfactory response, for the situation was now the
reverse of that at the time of Constantine.
The response came from the tireless pen of Augustine who,
in order to respond to the criticisms of the pagans, composed
within a span of ft.fteen years the largest apology for Christianity
which has been handed down from antiquity, the 22 books of

Christ appears to
Augustine as be is
writing. IDumination
from tbe lStb century
(Bibl. Ap. Vat. , Vat.
lat. 451, part. n, lr).
295
CH. X - AUGUSTINE

The City of God. This is the second of the two works mentioned
above.
Augustine basically intended to prove two things: that
paganism had already exhausted its historical potential both on
the plane of social and religious organization as well as on that of
culture and philosophy and, in the second place, that Christianity
was not bound to any earthly political structure, not even to the
Christian empire, since its scope was transcendent and universal.
All of human history thus appears as the field of battle for
the two opposing cities: that of the devil, composed of all those
who love themselves to the point of denying God; and that of
God, composed of all those who Jove God to the point of
denying self. Only at the end of time, with the last judgment, will
lasting peace be established by the triumph of the city of God.
With this monumental work, Augustine extended Irenaeus'
first attempt at a «theology of history» on new historical and
theological foundations. He pointed out to his contemporaries
and even more to posterity the course to follow. This involved
the abandonment of all those daydreams often simplistically
cultivated by Christians of his time who thought it would be
possible to construct a perfect Christian society on this earth,
perhaps with the aid of the Christian emperor. The Middle Ages,
however, in spite of its acclaimed <<Augustinianism», did not
succeed in completely assimilating this teaching, so deeply rooted
in the Christian conscience, of the otherness of the Kingdom of
God.

6. The end of classical civilization

Augustine died while the barbarians were besieging Hippo. It

was a death which symbolized only too well that, with Augustine,
it was really the entire ancient civilization which was being
besieged by the rising tide of barbarity and was dying. In reality,
296
 CH. X · READINGS

however, what was taking place was more of a transformation

than a death ; a transformation of which Augustine himself was, if
not the only, at least the most authoritative artisan. Thanks to his
profound classical education, especially in Latin culture (he was
never at home in Greek), he knew how to translate the demands
of the new Christian society and of the culture it had succeeded
in expressing into terms inherited from antiquity. In doing this,
he laid the foundations for the structure of the Middle Ages,
which justly recognized Augustine's indispensable paternity.
Augustine thus marks the end of ancient culture but also the rise
of a new biblical and patristic culture.
Augustine towers over the histoty of Western Christianity.
Neverthdess, because of the modernity of his religious intensity
and the keeness of his intellect, he rightly belongs to the whole of
human civilization. Perhaps this best explains the infmite
number of publications and studies concerning Augustine which
have appeared in recent decades.

R EA DI NGS

1. The earthly city is founded on love of self,

the city of God on love of God
(Augustine)

In the general confusion following Alaric's sack of Rome

(410), Augustine arose to encourage, enlighten, console
and defend his fellow Christians. He answered the
accusations of the pagans («By casting aside the gods of
Rome, who alone are capable of de/ending the empire,
Christianity has made itself responsible /or all these
humiliations and disasters.)>) and formulated the Christian
297
A symbolic representation of Augustine as tbe Inspirer of religious (pope,
cardinals, bisbops, monks) and political (emperor, kings, teachers) thought.
Miniature oftbe 15th century (Blbl. Ap. Vat., Vat. lat. 451 , part. I, fol. lr).
 - - - - - - -- - ____
CJ_l X RFAO~GS

vision of the vicissitudes of human history. The Christian

martyrs dzd not die so that the earthLy city might remain
safe. «Dtd Peter perhaps die and be buned at Rome in
order that the stones might not fall from the theater')» 2
In his work The City of God, Augustine intended to offer
the Christians the reasons with which they could
effectively oppose the renewed attacks of the pagans
without unjustified and dangerous discouragement.
Furthermore, he wished to offer the joy of contemplating,
from the heights of the divine plan of salvation, the course
of human history which unfolds between «the
persecutions of the wold and the consolations of God» 3
The vision of history as divzded into two cities which
make thetr way together through the ages is one that
occurs frequently in Augustine's writings.

Two loves, therefore, founded two cities: love of self to the

contempt of God founded the earthly one but love of God to the
contempt of self founded the heavenly one. The former boasts in
itself, the latter boasts in God. The former seeks glory from men
whereas for the latter, God, the witness of its conscience, is its
greatest glory. The first lifts up its head in its own glory, the
second says to its God, «My glory, who lift up my head» (Ps.
3 :4). The desire of dominating found in its princes or in the
nations it conquers rules the first city. In the second, the rulers,
as they look out for the common good, and the subjects, as they
obey, serve one another in love. The former ciry loves its own
strength in its mighty ones. The latter city says to its God, «l love
you, Lord, my strength» (Ps. 17:2).
Therefore, in the former city its wise men, living on the

2
Augustine, Sermon 296. 12.
3
Augustine, The City o/God 18, 51, 2.

299
CH X - READINGS

human plane, have sought after the good things of the body or
the mind or of both. Those who were able to know God «have
not honored Him as God or given thanks but have passed away
in their own thoughts and their foolish heart has been darkened.
They proclaimed themselves to be wise (that is, they vaunted
themselves in their own wisdom since pride was ruling in them)
and have been made foolish. They have exchanged the glory of
the incorruptible God for the likeness of an image of corruptible
man and of birds and of beasts and of serpents (they were
leaders of the nations or followers in adoring idols of this type),
and worshiped the creature rather than the Creator, who is God
forever blessed» (Rom. 1:21-15).
(The City of God 14, 28)

2. The two precepts of love

must never be erased from your hearts
(Augustine)

The Lord himself, full of love, has come as the teacher of

love «carrying out» as was foretold of him <(his word on the
earth» (Rom. 9:28), and has shown that the Law and the
Prophets depend on the two precepts of love. Recall with me,
brethren, what these two precepts are. Indeed, they ought to be
very well known and not only come to mind when we mention
them but must never be erased from your hearts. Consider
always that you must love God and your neighbor: <(God, with
your whole heart, with your whole soul and with your whole
mind» and «your neighbor as yourself» (Mt. 22 :37, 39). It is this
that you must always consider, meditate, remember, put into
practice; it is this which you must ful6ll. Love of God is first in
the order of the command but love of neighbor comes first in the
order of action. He would not first recommend your neighbor to
you and then God in order to teach you this love in the two
300
 rn. X · READINGS

precepts, but first God then neighbor.

Since you do not yet see God, you would merit to see Him
by loving your neighbor. By loving your neighbor you purify
your eyes for seeing God, as John clearly states: «If you do not
love your neighbor, whom you see, how will you be able to love
God whom you do not see?» (I John 4:20). Thus you are told,
«Love God». If you should say to me, «Show me whom I should
love», what will I respond if not that which John himself says,
«No one has ever seen God» Uohn 1:18)? But lest you consider
yourself to be completely excluded from seeing God, he says,
«God is love. The one who abides in love abides in God» (I
John 4: 16). Therefore, love your neighbor and look within
yourself for the source of this love. There, to the extent you are
able, you will see God.

The fight between the

cock and tbe turtle
symbolizes the eternal
struggle between good
{cock) and evil (turtle).
History is a struggle
between opposing free-
doms, or, according to
Augustine, a stmggJe
between two loves: love
of God to the denial of
self or love of self to tbe
denial of God (Aquileia,
4th cent. mosaic).
3(11
CH X · READINGS

Begin, then, to love your neighbor. «Share your bread with

the hungry and bring the homeless poor into your dwelling; if
you see someone naked, clothe him and turn not away from your
own kin» (Is. 58:7). What will you obtain if you do these things?
«Then will your light shine forth like the dawn» (Is. 58:8). Your
light is your God. He is your «dawn» because he will come to
you after the night of the world. He knows neither rising nor
setting, but remains forever.
By loving your neighbor, by having a care for him, you will
proceed along your way. And where will this way lead if not to
the Lord God, to Him whom we must love with our whole heart,
our whole soul and our whole mind? We have not yet come
close to the Lord, but our neighbor we have with us. Help along,
then, the one with whom you are traveling so that you may come
to Him with whom you wish to remain.
(Treatues on John 17, 7-9)
3. For you I am a bishop,
together with you I am a Christian
(Augustine)

The ministry of the Apostles and of their successors, the

bishops, azded by the priests and deacons, carries on the
work of Christ, «the Anointed One sent by the Father»
(John 10:36), «the Good Shepherd who lays down his life
/or the sheep» (John 10: 11). The goal of this consecration
and mission is to form all Christians into a priestly people.
The ministerial priesthood (bishops, priests, deacons) is
thus at the service of the common priesthood of all the
baptized. The latter is a dignity which all share in
common; the former is an additional task of service and
responszbility. Augustine gives a beautiful expression to
these sentiments in this sermon on the anniversary of his
episcopal ordination.
302
 Ol X - READINGS

Ever since this burden, for which I must render a difficult

accounting, has been placed on my shoulders the concern of my
position [as bishop] has disturbed me. Nevertheles, I am all the
more concerned by thoughts of this nature when the anniversary
of my ordination renews the memory of that day and so places it
before my eyes that I seem to be going to take up afresh today
that burden which I already accepted several years ago. What
indeed is feared in that office except that what is a danger in
regard to our honor may be more pleasing to us than what is
fruitful in regard to your salvation. May I thus be helped by your
prayers that the Lord may condescend to carry this burden with
me as though it were his own. When you pray, pray likewise for
yourselves. For what is this burden of mine about which I am
now speaking if not you? Pray for me, indeed, as I pray, that you
may not be a heavy burden. In fact, the Lord Jesus would not
call his burden light unless he carried it with the one who bears
it. Bear me up, then, so that, according to the Apostle's precept,
we may carry one another's burdens and thus fulfill the law of
Christ (cf. Gal. 6:2). If Christ does not carry this burden with us,
we will fall ; if he does not carry us, we will fall.
Although I am terrified by what I am for you, I am consoled
by what I am with you. For you, I am a bishop; with you, I am a
Christian. The former is a title of an office which has been
undertaken, the latter is a title of grace. The first is a danger, the
second salvation. Furthermore, we are tossed about as though in
a great ocean by the tempest of our responsibilities. However,
when we recall by whose blood we have been redeemed, it is as
though we enter into a safe harbor by the tranquillity of this
recollection. Precisely as we struggle in this office we find rest in
our common good.
It consoles me more that I have been redeemed with you
than that I have been placed over you. I will seek to make my
service to you all the more bountiful, as the Lord has
commanded, lest I show myself ungrateful for the redemption by
303
Christ, tbe Good Sbepberd, is depicted witb tbe face of a youtb. He bolds a
sbepberd's note in bis rigbt band and carries tbe lost sbeep on bis shoulders.
Mosaic of tbe 4tb century (Aqulleia, paleocbrNian besilica).
 CH. X · READINGS

which I have merited to become your servant.

I must indeed love the Redeemer. I am aware of what he said
to Peter, «Peter, do you love me? Tend my sheep» (John 21:17).
He asked this once, again, and a third time. Love was first asked
for then the burden imposed since, where love is greater, the
't
I burden is lesser. Aid us by your prayers and your obedience that
we may rejoice not so much in being set over you as in serving
you. 4
(Sermon 340, 1)

4. Those outside the church

are our brothers whether they wish to be or not
(Augustine)

Dialogue <<indicates an attitude of honesty, esteem,

sympathy and good will on the part of those who enter
into it. It precludes an a priori condemnation, offensive
and traditional polemics and the vanity of useless
conversation. If its primary purpose is not that of
obtaining the immediate conversion of one's partner
because of respect for his dignity and freedom, it
nevertheless has his welfare in mind and seeks to bring
him to a fuller communion of sentiment and conviction.
Dialogue supposes the interior disposition of one who
feels within himself the weight of the apostolic command,
of one who realizes that he is no longer able to separate
his own salvation /rom that of others, of one who

4
This idea is developed amply by Augustine in his Sermon on Pastors. «We
will have to render an account to God first of all for our own life as Christian~.
but then we will have to answer in a special way for the exercise of our ministry
as pastors» (Serm. 46, 2).

305
CH X - READINGS

continually seeks to place the message with which he has

been entrusted in the arena of human discourse». 5
Therefore, brothers, we exhort you most of all to show this
charity not only towards one another but also to those who are
outside our communion, whether they be pagans who do not
know Christ or Christians separated &om us who profess their
faith in the head while separated from the body. 6 Let us grieve
for them, brethren, as though for our own brothers. They are our
brothers whether they wish to be or not. They will only then
cease to be our brothers when they will have ceased to say, «Our
Father».
Let them say, «Why do you seek us? Why do you want us?»
We will answer, «You are our brothers». Let them say, «Go
away. We have nothing in common with you». We absolutely do
have something in common: We profess one Christ, we ought to
be united in one body under one head.
I therefore entreat you, brethren, through the very depth of
that love by whose milk we are nourished and by whose bread
we are fortified; I entreat you through Our Lord Jesus Christ
and through his meekness. It is now time that we employ great
charity in their regard and overflowing mercy in beseeching God
on their behalf, that He finally grant them a sober understanding
to look and see that they have nothing at all to say against the
truth. Nothing is left to them except the infirmity of animosity
which is all the weaker the more strength it considers itself to
have. I entreat you on behalf of the weak, of those who reason
according to the flesh , of those who are crude and carnal, of
those who nevertheless are our brothers and celebrate the same
sacraments. Even though they do not celebrate them together
with us, they are the same. They respond with the same Amen
which, even though they do not say it together with us, is the
same. Pour out the depth of your love to God on their behalf.
(Commentary on the Psalms, Psalm 32, 29)

306
 0~. X . READINGS

5. AU the members of the church must foUow Jesus Christ

(Augustine)

All members of the church are called to holiness, all are

called to the fullness of Christian lzfe and the perfection of
charity. This holiness contributes to a more humane style
of lzfe in the secular sodety as well. 7

«If anyone wishes to come after me, let him deny himself,
take up his cross and follow me» (Mt. 16:24). The thing which
the Lord has commanded, that if anyone wants to follow him let
him deny himself, seems hard and difficult. But what he
commands is not hard and difficult because he helps one to carry
out what he commands. It is true what is said in the psalm,
«Because of the words of your mouth I have kept to the difficult
path» (Ps. 16:4). That is also true which he said himself, «My
yoke is easy and my burden light» (Mt. 11:30). Whatever is hard
in the commandments, love renders easy.
What does, «Let him take up his cross» mean? Let him bear
whatever is annoying and thus follow me. Indeed, when anyone
will have begun to follow my precepts and way of life, he will
have many opponents, many who seek to stop him, many who
attempt to dissuade him. These will come from among the very
ones who appear to be followers of Christ. It was those who
were accompanying Christ who forbade the blind man to cry
out. Therefore, whatever the threats, the promises or the
prohibitions may be, tum them into the cross if you want to
follow me. Bear them, carry them and do not fall.

5
Paul VI, Ecc/esiam suam 46.
6
They recognize the same head (Jesus Christ) but are separated from the
body (the church).
7
Vatican Council IT, Lumen Gentium 40.

307
 0 L X - READINGS

But in this world, holy, good, reconciled, saved; in this world

which needs to be saved, for now it is saved by hope, «by hope
we have been saved» (Rom. 8:24); in this world which is the
church and which follows Christ, he has said to all, «If anyone
wishes to come after me, let him deny himself» (Mt. 16:24).
This is not something which virgins must hear but not
spouses, or widows but not those who are married, or monks but
not married couples, or the clergy but not the laity. Rather, let
the whole church, the entire body, with all its members
distinguished and disposed according to their own duties, follow
Christ. Let the entire church follow Christ, the church which
alone is his, which is the dove, the bride, which has been
redeemed and endowed with the blood of her bridegroom. In
this church there is a place for the chastity of the virgin, the
continence of the widow and the modesty of the married couple.
Let these members, each of whom has his own place
according to his state in life, follow Christ in keeping with their
own station and manner of life. Let them deny themselves and
not presume anything regarding themselves. Let each one take
up his cross; that is, bear in the world whatever the world may
inflict for the sake of Christ. Let them love him who alone does
not disappoint them, who alone can neither deceive nor be
deceived. Let them love him, because that which he promises is
true. But because he does not give it now, faith wavers. Be firm,
persevere, endure. Bear this delay and you have born your cross.
(Sennon 96, 1, 4, 9)

The Confessions arose out of Augustine's meditation on

the mystery of man's lzfe and /rom the keen recollection of

Jesus Christ as depicted in a precious illumination of the 11th century. The

secret of Augustine's conversion lay in his enc:ounter with Christ, •the Way,
the Truth and the Life• (Bibl. Ap. Vat., Vat. gr. 756, fol. 12).

309
CH. X · READINGS

his own past. By recalling and meditating on his own

experience, Augustine brought new depth to the colloquy
between God and man and exemplified in his own
journey the path which every person must follow. If the
Confessions reveal a strong personality, they neverthless
unfold in an atmosphere of an intense faith which
recognizes the constant presence of God in man.

6. I hunger and thirst for you

(Augustzne)

Having then been admonished to turn my attention upon

myself, I entered into the most intimate part of my being with
you as my guide. I was able to do this because you were my
helper. I entered and with the eye of my soul saw everywhere an
unchangeable light above that very eye of my soul and above my
mind. It was not this ordinary light visible to all flesh nor was it a
light of this same kind but merely stronger, as though it were
shining so very much more brightly as to be able to penetrate
everywhere by its strength. It was not like this but was something
else, completely different from all these things. Nor was it above
my mind like oil on top of water or heaven above the earth, but
it was above me because it made me and I was below it because I
was made by it. Whoever knows the truth knows this light and
whoever knows this light knows eternity. Love knows it.
0 eternal truth, true love and lovable eternity! You are my
God and I yearn for you day and night. When I first carne to
know you, you lifted me up so that I might see that something
existed which I did not see and that I was not yet such a one as
to be able to see it. You, shining brightly within me, beat back
the weakness of my vision and I trembled with love and dread. I
found that I was far from you in a region unlike yours, as though
I were hearing your voice from on high. «I am the food of those
310
 01 X - READINGS

who are full-grown. Grow, and you will eat of me. You will not
transform me into yourself like bodily food, but you will be
transformed into me».
I tried to ftnd a way of obtaining the strength sufficient to
enjoy you but I did not find it until I embraced the «mediator
between God and men, the man, Jesus Christ» (I Tim. 2:5),
«who is above all things, God forever blessed» (Rom. 9:5). He
was calling me and was saying, «I am the way, the truth and the
life» Oohn 14:6). I embraced that food, which I was too weak to
take, mingled with our flesh. «The Word became flesh» Oohn
1: 14) so that your wisdom, through which you created all things,
might become the milk for our infancy.
(Confessions 7, 10, 6; 7, 18, 24 )

ln the treatise On the Trinity, patnstic Trinitarian

doctrine achieves its finest expression. The brilliance of
Augustine's insight zs further dignified by the humility
with which he approaches the mystery of God.

7. In no other matter does one err more dangerously,

search more laboriously or fmd more fruitfully
(Augustine)

Wherefore, as the Lord our God assists us, we will undertake

as much as we are able to give that account they demand: both
that the Trinity is the one, only and true God and how the
Trinity is called, believed and understood to be the Father, Son
and Holy Spirit of one and the same substance or essence. In this
way, these people may not be deluded by our protestations but
in trutli' may experience that both that highest good does exist
which is discerned by the most thoroughly purifted minds and
that it is not able to be discerned or comprehended by them for
31 1
CH X - READINGS

the very reason that the feeble acuity of the human mind does
not focus in so sublime a light unless it has been nourished and is
sharpened through the justice of faith.
But first it must be demonstrated according to the authority
of the Sacred Scriptures whether faith is of this nature.
Subsequently, if God will have granted and assisted us, perhaps
we will gratify those garrulous pedants who are filled more with
pride than ability and thus are suffering from a rather grave
illness, so that they may find something about which they are not
able to doubt and, on this account, in that matter they have been
unable to discover, they may be conquered by their own minds
rather than by the truth itself or by our arguments. Then, if there
is any love or fear of God in them, let them return to the
beginning and rule of faith since they will have experienced how
wholesomely the medicine of the faithful has been deposited in
the holy church. Thus it is that fidelity which has been preserved
heals the weak mind for the perception of unchangeable truth
lest undisciplined temerity plunge it into the impression of
noxious falsehood. It will not annoy me to search wherever I find
myself at a loss, nor will it embarrass me to learn wherever I am
tn error.
Consequently, whoever reads this, let him proceed along with
me where he is equally certain, let him seek with me where he is
equally at a loss. Where he recognizes his own error, let him
come back to me and where he recognizes mine, let him call me
back. Therefore, let us together enter onto the path of charity as
we journey towards Him of whom it is written, «Constantly seek
His face» (I Chron. 16: 11; Ps. 104:4). I will have entered into
this acceptable, pious and secure undertaking before the Lord
our God along with all who read the things I will write; and of
all my writings, especially in these whose object is the unity of
the Trinity, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. In no other question
does one err more dangerously, search more laboriously or find
more fruitfully. (On the Trinity 12,4-3,5)
312
 Chapter XI

John Chrysostom
Cyril of Alexandria

397 JOHN CHRYSOSTOM

bishop of Constantinople
404 final exile
407 death
408 Theodosius II emperor
412 CYRIL
bishop of Alexandria
431 Council of EPHESUS
Council of
444 Cyril's death
451
CHALCEOON

3 13
 CAESAREA

MEDITERRAN<= •
~N SEA

Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus and Constantinople are the cities which fonn
the scene for the decisive events in the history of Christianity at the end or the
4th and the beginning of the 5th century.
 CH. Xl . JOHN CHRYSOSTOM . CYRIL O F ALEXANDRIA

1. John Chrysostom, the monk-bishop of Constantinople

After the three great Cappadocians, the East again witnessed

the activity of two strong, although completely different
personalities: John Chrysostom and Cyril of Alexandria. Both
were actors in the decisive events of the history of Christianity in
the decades around the tum from the 4th to the 5th century.
John (345-407) was surnamed «Chrysostom», i.e. golden-
mouthed, on account of the oratorical brilliance which made
his writings and homilies the final masterpieces of ancient
Greek literature. He was born into a wealthy Christian family at
Antioch, the third city of the empire after Rome and Alexandria.
After a brief but intense monastic experience, he was ordained a
priest in Antioch (386-397), where the bishop, Flavian, conferred
on him the responsibility for preaching. This assignment was
exceptional for an age when the ministry of preaching was
normally reserved to the bishop (A similar privilege is known in
antiquity only for such giants as Origen and Augustine! ).
His preaching was laced through with profound biblical
meditations, far distant from references to the classical culture
which he had absorbed as a youth at the school of the famous
teacher Libanius. His ministry placed him in direct contact with
the people, to whom he addressed terse exhortations to Christian
conduct in order to dissuade them from the multiple temptations
of everyday life, from attending the circus and pagan spectacles
and from luxury and heresy. At a particularly dramatic moment
in the city's fortunes, when the inhabitants feared the furious
reprisals of the emperor for the desecration of the statues of the
imperial family during an uprising, Chrysostom spoke to the
people and offered them encouragement with his famous
homilies On the Statues. Fortunately, the episode was brought to
a peaceful conclusion.
In the meanwhile, Chrysostom's fame as a preacher had
spread to such an extent that he was brought to Constantinople
3 15
Roman aqueduct at Constantinople. This city, whicb had been founded in 658
B.C. witb tbe name Byzantium, was taken over in 323 by Constantine, wbo
made it tbe imperial capital. As a religious, cultural and economic center, tbe
• New Rome» played a prestigeous role in cburcb history.
 Cl I XI JOHN OlRYSOST0\1 - CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA

by subterfuge and enthroned in the episcopal see where Gregory

of Nazianzus had once presided. However, he soon proved a
bitter disappointment for those who had engineered his
episcopal election. Chrysostom possessed a rigid and
uncompromising nature and had already expressed his lofty
vision of the priestly mission in the memorable pages of his
dialogue On the Priesthood. This brought him into open conflict
with that part of the clergy (bishops and priests) and of the
court, especially the grand chamberlain, the eunuch Eutropius,
and the empress Eudoxia, who were ill-disposed to tolerate his
undertakings for reform in the church and his blazing ascetical
invective against luxury and against the insatiable thirst for
power. In a capital such as Constantinople, which was only
superficially Christian, such talk could only be taken as an open
challenge to the entrenched corruption.

2. Vanity of vanities

In contrast to the happy years at Antioch, the years of his

episcopate at Constantinople (397-404) were a slow crucifixion
for Chrysostom. When Eutropius, who had once wanted to
abolish the right of sanctuary in the churches, fell into disgrace
and sought refuge with the bishop, Chrysostom could have taken
a fine revenge. Instead, taking his point of departure from the
reversal of human fortunes in the pitiful figure of Eutropius, he
used the occasion for a splendid sermon in which he instructed
the people of Constantinople with the well-known biblical verse,
«Vanity of vanities, all is vanity».
It was this profound sense of conviction, matured in the years
of monastic training and of preaching on the Scriptures, which
gave Chrysostom the strength to face the misfortunes which were
about to befall him. As one of those men who can be broken but
never bent, his fate was sealed.
317
CH. Xl - JOHN CHRYSOSTOM - CYRIL O F ALEXANDRIA

Theophilus, the bishop of Alexandria, who could not bear to

see an Antiochene occupying the most prestigeous and politically
important see in the East, engineered the «Synod of the Oak»
which deposed Chrysostom and threatened him with exile.
Theophilus was supported by the empress, the Egyptian
episcopate and by others whose sole desire was to witness the
ruin of John Chrysostom. Although popular outrage caused him
to be recalled a first time, he was soon thereafter sent into his
final exile towards the mountains of Armenia from which he
never returned. Three years later, he died as a result of the
privation and strain he had suffered. It was only after his death
that his bitter fate was turned into glorification and acclamation.
Even in his most difficult trials he found the strength to write
many letters of encouragement and spiritual direction.

3. The conflict between Alexandria and Antioch

As has been seen, the architect of Chrysostom's ruin was

Theophilus, the bishop of Alexandria. In this circumstance, there
surfaced a dissension which troubled relations between
Alexandria and Antioch on various levels.
At Alexandria, a general orientation in theology had long
prevailed which emphasized the divinity of the Son of God and
the necessity of interpreting the Bible by means of an
allegorical-spiritual exegesis. To this was added the fact that the
bishops of Alexandria, well aware of the political importance of
their position (Egypt was the granary of the empire), had not
failed to make their superiority felt throughout the East. This
inevitably brought them into conflict with anyone who happened
to get in their way, even inadvertantly.
At Antioch, on the other hand, the interpretation of the Bible
was carried out preferably according to the canons of the literal
sense which gave more attention to the letter of the text. To this
318
 CH. Xl - JOHN GIRYSOSTOM - CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA

exegesis of a literal bent, to which allegorical flourishes were

alien, there corresponded a Christology which was more sensitive
to an appreciation of the humanity of the Son alongside his
divinity.
John Chrysostom is rightly considered to be a sign.i.ficant
representative of the Antiochene SchooL In his homilies he
always remains close to the literal sense of the biblical text he is
commenting and warns against daring theological speculations
and the controversies which can arise &om them. It is no
coincidence that he prefers the letters of Paul, the master of the
spiritual and moral life for Christians.
It is thus easy to understand how Theophilus did everything
in his power to get the best of Chrysostom who, in the end, was
overthrown by the slanders and the conspiracies plotted against
him in high places. But history repeats itself. The same attitude
of Theophilus with regard to John Chrysostorn can be found
again in Cyril of Alexandria, Theophilus' nephew and successor
(412-444), in a situation which was analogous in many respects.

4 . Cyril of Alexandria: A Christian «pharaoh»

The style of government imposed by Cyril on the Egyptian

church called to mind that of the ancient pharaohs. With him
even more than with Theophilus, who had begun the process,
the Alexandrian Church attempted to obtain for itself a primacy
over all of Eastern Christianity by having recourse to any means,
including violence. The manner in which Cyril was connected
with the responsibility for the murder of the beautiful and
learned Hypatia, the famous teacher of philosophy and
mathematics among the pagans at Alexandria, or the arrogance
with which he brought about the destruction of the Jewish
colony at Alexandria speak clearly enough of the temperament of
the man, who stopped at nothing in order to achieve his ends. A
319
CH. XJ JOl iN CHRYSOSTOM · CYRJL OF ALEXANDRIA

person of strong character to the point of arrogance, Cyril was

endowed with a good education in theology which allowed him
to detect heresy at the slightest suspicion. He undertook to
refute the Arians and also composed extensive commentaries on
Scripture in which he gives evidence of a good theological and
patristic foundation. He likewise wrote a large work in which he
refuted point by point the work Against the Galileans, i.e. the
Christians, written more than seventy years previously by the
emperor Julian the Apostate. Julian had taken up again,
developed and extended the accusations of Celsus and Porphyry
against the Christian religion and his work was still circulating

Tbe beginning of a latin

translation of Cyril of
Alexandria's Commen-
tary on the Gospel of
John. Manuscript of tbe
IStb century (Bibl. Ap.
Vat., Vat. lat. 528, fol.
lr).
320
 CH. XJ · JOHN CHRYSOSTOM · CYRfL OF ALEXANDRIA

among pagans in Egypt without ever having received an

adequate refutation. Cyril undertook this project by making use
of the technique inaugurated by Origen of refuting direct
citations. Because of this, it is possible to read today a good
number of fragments from Julian's work, which otherwise has
been lost.

5. The Mother of God

Cyril has gone down in history above all as the victor at the
third ecumenical council, that of Ephesus in 431, and as the
implacable adversary of Nestorius.
Like Chrysostom, Nestorius also came from Antioch. Unlike
his illustrious predecessor in the episcopal see of Constantinople,
however, he did not hesitate in the course of his orations to
express bold novelties which disturbed the Christian world.
According to Nestorius, there are rwo natures in Christ, the
human and the divine. Up to this point, there is nothing unusual.
However, in Nestorius' view, the rwo natures are distinct to such
an extent that there is no contact at all berween the rwo.
Consequently, Mary could not strictly speaking be called
«Mother of God» according to the ancient and affectionate
expression of popular faith, but only «Mother of the man Jesus».
These conceptual inaccuracies, which were tending towards
real Christological errors, offered Cyril, who needed no further
invitation, a motive for intervening against Nestorius. He hurled
his 12 Anathemas of condemnation and unleashed a sad
controversy which ended in a tragic splitting of the Eastern
churches.
Cyril's position prevailed at the Council of Ephesus and the
divine maternity of Mary, the Theotokos (Mother of God) was
solemnly recognized amidst popular rejoicing. The followers of
Nestorius, excluded from ecclesial communion, continued as the
321
Ephesus. Tbe ruins of tbe double cburcb of Saint Mary. Tbe cburcb was
located at tbe center of tbe ancient city and incorporated parts or an earlier
ball. Tbe Council of Ephesus met here.
 CH XI }0!1]'; CHRYSOST0\1 CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA

autonomous Nestorian church which spread towards the Syriac

East. It prospered there and even penetrated the frontiers of
distant China. Centuries before Marco Polo, these Nestorians,
were the first Christians to arrive in China!

6. Towards Monophysitism

Once he had obtained the deposition of Nestorius, Cyril

entered into more reasonable discussions with the Antiochene
party and then withdrew into a long silence which lasted until his

Miniature of the 11th

century depicting events
of the Council or
Chalcedon (Bibl. Ap.
Vat., Vat. lat. 1339, fol.
9).

323
C H XJ JOII:\ CHRYSOST0:\1 L.l'RIL Or ALE..XAJ\'DRIA

death in 444. However, an equivocation latent in Cyril's own

Christology soon caused a new crisis to erupt. In Cyril's thought,
which did distinguish the two natures in the one person of
Christ, the divine nature of the Word was so dominant as to
almost absorb the human nature into itsdf. Cyril himself never
transgressed the limits of orthodoxy, but the same cannot be said
for his successors and supporters at Alexandria, who were
inclined toward this type of Christology by the ancient
spiritualizing tendency characteristic of the thought of the
Alexandrian School. They ended up adopting excessively rigid
formulations in which the human nature disappeared and was
completely taken up by the divine in such a way that the divine
nature appeared as the only nature present in Christ. This was
the origin of the charge of «monophysitism» 1 brought against
the heirs of Cyril.
The conflict blazed anew between the Monophysites, who
were particularly strong in monastic circles and at the imperial
court at Constantinople, and the defenders of the two natures. 2
At first the Monophysites had the upper hand at the notorious
«Robber Synod» of Ephesus in 449. Shortly thereafter, however,
thanks above all to the decisive intervention of Pope Leo the
Great, the situation was reversed. At the Council of Chalcedon
in 451 the definitive orthodox formula of the two natures in
Christ prevailed and it was defined that the divine and human
natures exist together but are distinct in the one person of
Christ.

1
From the Greek mone physrs, <<One nature>>.
2
Dyophysites (from the Greek duo physers, rwo natures.

324
 CH. XI READI'<GS

READING S

1. I beg you not to lose confidence

(john Chrysostom)

An opposition party headed by the Empress Eudoxia was

organized in Constantinople among the wealthy, who
considered themselves the targets of Chrysostom's
homilies. They succeeded in having him exiled a first time
in 403 and, definitively, in 404. The following selection is
a passage /rom the homily he preached before departing
for exile.

Many are the waves and severe is the storm, but we do not
fear drowning, for we stand upon a rock. Let the sea rage! It
cannot destroy the rock. Let the waves rise up! They have not
the power to sink the vessel of Christ. Tell me, what do we fear?
Death? «To me, life is Christ and death is gain» (Phil. 1:21).
Exile, you say? «The Lord's is the earth and its fullness» (Ps.
23 : 1). The confiscation of our goods? «We brought nothing into
the world, and it is clear that we will be able to take nothing out
of it» (I Tim. 6:7). The frightful things of this world I despise
and I laugh at its good things. I do not fear poverty, I desire not
riches, I am not afraid of death and I do not seek to live but for
your advantage. On this account I make mention of the present
situation and I encourage your love to remain steadfast.
Do you not hear the Lord saying, «Where two or three are
gathered together in my name, there am I in their midst» (Mt.
18:20)? Where such a crowd has been gathered together in love,
is he absent? I have his pledge, so I am not to rely on my own
strength, am I? I have his book with me. That is my staff, that is
my security, that is my peaceful harbor. Let the entire world be
325
Cl l XI READINGS

in turmoil. I hold to his word and read it. Those words are my
wall and my security. What are these words? «l am with you all
days, even until the end of the world» (Mt. 28:20).
Christ is with me, whom shall I fear? Let the waves rise up
against me, and seas and the rage of princes. These are less to me
than a spider's web. Indeed, but for your love, I would not have
declined to set out today. I always say, «Lord, your will be done»
(Mt. 26:42); not what this one or that one wishes, but what you
• v

The arrival of John C hrysostom's remains at Constantinople. 1be Basilica of

the Holy Apostles, destroyed in the 11th century, is visible in the background.
Miniature in the Meoologion of Basil D from the end of the lOth century
(Bibl. Ap. Vat., Vat. gr. 1613, fol. 353).

326
 CH XI READII"GS

wish. This is my tower, this is my immovable rock, this is my

unfailing staff. If God wants something to come to pass, let it
come to pass. If He wants me to be here, I am grateful.
Wherever He wants me to be, I give thanks.
Wherever I am, there also are you; and wherever you are,
there am I. We are one body, and the body cannot be separated
from the head nor the head &om the body. Although we are
separated by location yet are we united by love, and not even
death will be able to divide us. Even if my body should die my
soul would live and be mindful of my people.
You are my fellow citizens, you are my fathers, my brothers,
my children, my members, my body. You are my light which is
sweeter to me than this light of the day. What can the rays of the
sun give me that is like unto your love? Its rays are hdpful to me
in this present life but your love is weaving me a crown for the
life to come.
(Homily before exile J.J)

2. Many have tried to suppress the message of the cross

(john Chrysostom)

«The message of the cross is foolishness to those who are

destined for destruction, but /or us who are destined /or
salvation, it is the powero/God» (1 Cor. 1: 18).

The cross has exercised its persuasion through ordinary men

and has won over the whole world. It was not a message of
chance matters but spoke of God and of true religion, of the
evangelical manner of life and of the coming judgment. It turned
all into philosophers, even rude and ordinary men.
See how the foolishness of God is wiser than men and his
weakness stronger than men. How is it stronger? It ran its course
327
 CH. XI · READINGS

through the whole world and overcame all people. Tens of

thousands tried to extinguish the name of the Crucified, but
instead they had the opposite effect. The name flourished and
grew ever stronger while its enemies perished and were
destroyed. The living who were fighting against a dead man were
powerless. Therefore, when a Greek says that I am a fool, he
shows that he is even more of a fool, whereas I, who am
considered by him to be a fool, appear wiser than the wise. If he
should ever call me weak, he onJy shows that he is weaker still.
Those things which tax collectors and fishermen 3 were able to
bring about by the love of God, all the philosophers, rhetors,
rulers and simply the whole world, which is caught up in a
thousand things, cannot even imagine.
It was this Paul had in mind as he said, «The weakness of
God is stronger than men» (I Cor. 1:25). It is clear that this
preaching is divine. From where else did it occur to twelve
ordinary men who were living along lakes and rivers and in
deserts to undertake such deeds as these? Where did it occur to
these men, who had scarcely ventured into a city or a public
square, to draw themselves up for battle with the world? The
one who wrote down their deeds shows that they were frightened
and timid. He did not try to make excuses for them or cover up
their weaknesses, which is the greatest proof of the truth.
What does he say about them? When Christ was seized they
fled, after all the miracles they had seen. The one who stayed
behind, who was the leader of the others, denied him. How is it

3
I.e. the Apostles.

John Cbrysostom inspired by Christ as be preaches. The words or the bishop

of Constantinople are like a stream or abundant water to satisfy the people's
thirst. Miniature of the Utb century (Bibl. Ambr., Al72 Sup., rol. 263v).

329
CH XI . READf:-.IGS

that they, who did not bear the attack of the Jews when Christ
was still alive, take on the whole world when he is dead and
buried and, as you say, did not rise and speak to them and
inspire them with courage? Did they perhaps way to themselves,
«What is this? He was not able to save himself but he will shield
us. He was not able to defend himself when he was alive but he
will extend us a hand now that he is dead. When he was alive he
did not even subject one nation to himself but we will convince
the whole world merely by speaking his name». How would
there be any reason not just for doing this but even for thinking
it?
It is clear, therefore, that unless they had seen him risen and
received a mighty proof of his power, they would not have taken
so great a risk.
(Homily 4 on I Connthians 34 ) 4

3. A Christian's light cannot remain hidded

(john Chrysostom)

Nothing is colder than a Christian who does not work for the
salvation of others.
You cannot plead poverty here, for the widow throwing in
the two small coins will accuse you. 5 Peter said, «Silver and gold
I have not» (Acts 3:6). Paul was so poor that he was often

4
J ohn Chrysostom dedicated innumerable homilies to the explanation of
many of the books of the Bible. Worthy of particular admiration are the ca. 250
homilies on the letters of St. Paul. The simple tone, convincing style, precise
images and acute observations lend a persuasive force and special attraction to
his wo rds.
s Cf. Lk. 21:2-4.
6
The twelve Apostles.

330
 Cll XI - READINGS

hungry and lacking the necessary nourishment.

You cannot plead humble birth, for they 6 too were obscure
and from obscure families. You cannot put forward your lack of
education, for they were illiterate. You cannot plead weakness,
for Timothy was such a one who suffered &equent illnesses.
Everyone is able to be of service to his neighbor if only he is
willing to do his part. Do you not see the trees which bear no
fruit, how strong and stately, smooth and tall they are? But if we
had a garden, we would prefer to have pomegranates and fruitful
olive trees far more than these. The former kind are for pleasure,
not utility, and any usefulness they have is small. Such as these
are people who care only about themselves. Rather, these people
are fit only for burning, while the trees are at least useful for

Tbe representation or the parable or the ten virgins and the bridegroom (d.
Mt. 25:1-13) in an illumination or tbe Codex or Rossano (6tb cent.). Tbe
parable is an invitation to Christian vigilan<:e (Pboto Pont. Comm. Arch.).

331
CH. XI · READINGS

construction and protection. Such were the foolish virgins who

were chaste, discreet and self-controlled but were of service to
no one. 7 On this account they are given over for burning. Such
are the ones who have not nourished Christ. See that none of
them is accused of personal sins, of adultery, of perjury or
anything of that sort at all; but of not being of service to anyone
else. Such was the man who buried the talent. 8 His life was
blameless, but he was not of service to anyone else.
How can such a person be a Christian? Tell me, if leaven
which has been mixed with flour would not make the entire mass
rise, would it then be leaven? If perfume did not fill its
surroundings with its &agrance, how would we call it perfume?
Do not say, «It is impossible for me to influence others». If
you are a Christian, it is impossible for this not to happen. Just as
the things making up one's nature are not contradictory, so is it
in this matter, for it belongs to the nature of the Christian.
Do not be offending God. If you say that the sun is not able
to shine, you offend Him. If you say that a Christian is not able
to be of service, you have offended God and called Him a liar. It
is easier for the sun not to give heat and not to shine than for a
Christian not to give forth light. It is easier for light to be
darkness than for this to happen.
Do not say that this is impossible, for it is the contrary which
is impossible. Do not be offending God. If we arrange our own
affairs well, these things will certainly come and will follow as a
natural consequence. It is not possible for a Christian's light to
lie hidden. So resplendant a lamp cannot be concealed.
(H omily 20 on the Acts ofthe Apostles, 4)

7
The reference is to Jesus' parable on the different conduct of the ten
virgins awaiting the bridegroom (cf. Mt. 25: 1· 13).
8
The reference is to another ofJesus' parables (cf. Lk. 19: 11·28).
332
 CH. Xl · READINGS

4. Adorn the church but do not neglect the poor

(john Chrysostom)

In his unceasing pastoral activity, John Chrysostom was

continually alert to the necessities of the social, economic
and religious problems of his time. His condemnation of
every type of abuse, of social discrimination and of
injustice was often expressed in the very strongest of
terms.

Do you wish to honor the body of Christ? Do not neglect

him when he is naked. Do not honor him here inside with silken
robes but neglect him outside as he is perishing of cold and
nakedness. The one who said, «This is my body», and
established the fact by his word, is also the one who said, «You
saw me hungry and did not give me to eat», and <(As much as
you did not do for one of these least ones, you did not do to
me». 9 The body of Christ in the Eucharist has no need of
garments but of a pure soul; the body of Christ outside needs
much care.
Let us learn how to become wise and to honor Christ as he
wishes. The most agreeable honor for a person being honored is
the honor he desires, not that which we think best. Peter thought
he was honoring Christ when he refused to let him wash his feet,
yet what resulted was not honor but its opposite. Thus, render
him the very honor which he himself prescribed by spending
your wealth on the poor. God has no need of golden vessels but
of golden souls.
Now in saying this, I am not hindering you from making such
votive offerings as these. I am insisting that. along with these and

9
Cf. Mt. 25:3 1-46.

333
CH XI · READINGS

before these, you give alms. He accepts the former but is much
more pleased with the latter.
In the former instance, only the one who offers the gift
receives some benefit; in the latter instance, the one who receives
benefits, too. In the former instance the matter can be a cause of
ostentation, but alms are all kindness. What use is it to Christ if
his table is loaded with golden vessels but he himself is perishing
of hunger? First, fill him when he is hungry, then also adorn his
table with what remains. Do you fashion a gold cup but not give
a cup of cold water? What good is that? Do you prepare his
table with cloth of gold but not provide him with the necessary
covering? What gain is to be had from this? Tell me, if you saw
someone lacking the necessary food and failed to satisfy his
hunger but only surrounded his table with gold, would he then
be grateful to you or would he not rather be angry? If you saw
him wrapped in rags and stiff from the cold and failed to give
him a cloak but set up gold columns and said you were doing it
in his honor, would he not say he was being mocked and
consider it the very worst of insults?
Consider this with regard to Christ when he comes by as a
beggar or a stranger needing shelter. You fail to take him in but
you adorn the foundations and the walls and the capitals of the
columns. You fashion silver chains for the lamps but do not even
wish to see him chained in prison. When I say these things, I am
not hindering you from being zealous to provide these ornaments
but I am urging you to provide other things along with them and
to provide them before the ornaments. No one has ever been
accused for not providing ornaments. Those who do not provide
for their neighbor, however, are threatened with hell and
unquenchable fire and torments with the demons. Do not
decorate this house and neglect your suffering brother. He is
more truly a temple than this building.
(Homily 50 on the Gospel of Mallhew 3-4)

334
 CH. Xl · READINGS

5. Love and harmony in the family

Uohn Chrysostom)

Let the men listen to this, let the women listen to this: The
women, so that they may display a great affection for their
husbands and prefer nothing to their salvation; the men, so that
they may have much kindness for their wives and do all things as
though they were united in one soul and one body. This is true
marriage when there exists so great a harmony between them, so
great a bond, when they are bound fast by love. Just as the body
is not at odds with itself and the soul not at variance with itself,
just so is it necessary that husband and wife not be set against
one another but be united. Then countless good things will be
able to flow to them. Wherever there is such a oneness of mind,
there is the companionship of all good things, there is peace,
there is love, there is spiritual joy. There is never found strife,
enmity and love of contention. All these evils are cleared away,
since the very root of good, I mean harmony, puts them to flight.
(Homily 45 on Genesis, 2-3)

6. As the Father has sent me, I also send you

(Cyril of Alexandria)

Jesus defines his mzsszon with the words, «l must

announce the Good News of the Kingdom of God» (Lk.
4:43) and entrusts the same responsibility to the Apostles:
«Go and proclaim the Good News». Indeed, the Savior's
words are addressed to all Christians. «The responsibility
of evangelizing all peoples constitutes the essential mission
of the church ... Evangelizing is, in fact, the church's own
grace and vocation, it is her most profound identity. She
exists to evangelize, that is, to preach and teach, to be the
335
The face of Christ at the center of tbe cross in a 6th century mosaic. • God did
not send His Son into tbe world to condemn tbe world but that through him
the world might be saved• (John J : 17). (Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare in Classe).
 CH. XI . READINGS

channel of the gt/t of grace, to reconcile sinners with God

and to continue the sacrifice of Christ in the Mass, which
is the memorial of his death and glorious resurrection». 10

With these words, Our Lord Jesus Christ ordained the guides
and teachers of the whole world and the stewards of his divine
mysteries. He orders them to shine like stars and to illumine not
only the territory of the Jews, which was fixed by the ordinance
of the Law from Dan to Beersheba as was written, but every land
under the sun and those people scattered and dwelling in all
directions. It is true then what Paul has said, «No one takes this
honor to himself but the one who is called by God» (Heb. 5:4).
Our Lord Jesus the Christ has called them to a most glorious
apostolate above all the other disciples.
These blessed disciples, whom the Lord says that he sent just
as the Father had sent him, became the pillars and foundations
of the truth. He likewise displayed the dignity of their mission
and the glory commensurate with the authority given to them,
and in that, it seems, gave an indication of the path of the
apostolic mission.
If he thus considered it necessary to send out his own
disciples just as the Father had sent him, was it not necessary
that they, whom he desired to become imitators of the same
deeds, see for the accomplishment of what great work the Father
had sent the Son? Therefore, he explained the nature of his own
mission to them in various ways. On one occasion he said, «I
have not come to call the righteous but sinners to
repentance». 11 And on another occasion he said, «I have come
down from heaven not to do my own will but the will of the one
who sent me» Uohn 6:38). Again, «God did not send His Son

10
Paul VI, Evangelzi nun/zandz 14.
II Cf. Mt. 9:13.
337
CH XI READINGS

into the world to condemn the world but that the world might
be saved through him» Uohn 3: 17).
Therefore, summing up the ministry of their mission in a few
words, he says that he is sending them just as the Father sent
him. He said this in order that they might see that they were to
call sinners to repentance, to heal those who were sick in body or
spirit and in the administration of these matters to seek in no
way their own will but the will of the one who sent them. To the
extent it was in their power, they were to save the world by their
teaching.
We will find the holy disciples striving to excel in all these
things. Little effort is required to establish this fact for the one
who looks just once into the Acts of the Apostles or the Letters
of Saint Paul.
!Commmtary on John's Gorpe/12 20, 2])

7. Praise to Mary, the Mother of God

The third ecumenical council, which met at Ephesus at

Pentecost in 431, proclaimed the real union of the two
natures (divine and human) in jesus Christ and, as a
consequence, Mary's divine maternity Mary can rzghtly be
called <<Mother of God» (Theotokos in Greek) since she
IS the mother, m hts human nature, of the one who is
God. The following text is taken /rom a homily given at
the Council of Ephesus, on Mary, the Mother of God.

I see the joyful assembly of the saints u who have eagerly

come together when they were called by the holy and ever-virgin

11
The bishops assembled for the council.

338
 t H XI RFADINGS

Mary, the Mother of God. Although I was laboring under much

g rief, the presence of the holy fathers has transformed this into
joy. Now have the sweet words of the psalmist David been
fulfilled for us: «What is so good and so pleasant as when
brothers dwell together in unity?» (Ps. 132:1).
We greet you, therefore, holy and mystical Trinity, who have
gathered us all together in this church of Mary, the Mother of
God.
We greet you, Mary, Mother of God, the venerable treasure
o f the whole world, inextinguishable lamp, crown of virginity,

Madonna and Child in

a 13th century fresco.
Mary's divine maternity
was solemnly pro-
claimed at the Council
of Ephesus in 431 (Su-
biaco, Sacro Speco).

339
CH. XI READINGS

scepter of orthodoxy, indestructable temple, vessel of him who

cannot be contained, mother and virgin. Because of you, he is
called in the holy gospel, «Blessed, who comes in the name of
the Lord» {Mt. 21:9).
We greet you, who held in your holy, virginal womb the one
who cannot be contained. Because of you, the Trinity is
worshiped and adored. Because of you the cross is venerated and
adored through the whole world. Because of you heaven rejoices,
the angels and archangels delight and demons are put to flight.
Because of you, the devil, the temptor, has fallen from heaven,
and fallen creation is taken up to heaven. Because of you, every
creature possessed by the madness of idolatry has come to the
knowledge of the truth, holy baptism has been imparted to
believers and the oil of gladness is poured out. Because of you,
churches have been established through the whole world and the
nations are brought to repentance.
What more needs to be said? Because of you, the
Only-Begotten Son of God has shone as a light on those who sit
in darkness and the shadow of death (cf. Lk. 1:79), prophets
prophesied and the Apostles preached salvation to the nations.
Because of you the dead are raised and kings rule through the
grace of the Holy Trinity.
Who is there who is able to speak of Mary, worthy of all
praise? She is both mother and virgin. What wonder!
Astonishment overwhelms me! Who has ever heard of a builder
who constructed a temple for himself and was prohibited from
dwelling in it? Who has ever been embarrassed to have invoked
his own servant as mother?
Behold now, the universe rejoices. Let us tremble and
worship the undivided Trinity. Let us praise the ever-virgin
Mary, who is the holy church, and her Son and spotless
Bridegroom. To him be glory for ever and ever. Amen.
!Homd\' 4 at the Counal of Ephesus)
3~0
 Conclusion

The death of Augustine (430) and the Council of Chalcedon

(451) brought the golden age of patristic literature to a close.
From that time on, Christian thought and spirituality would
return to the school of the Fathers to continually deepen their
understanding, but their permanent foundations had already
been laid. After the middle of the fifth century, a period of
systemization of tradition began characterized by a lack of
originality which only rarely was interrupted by the brilliance of
great spiritual writers. Successive generations in both East and
West continued to look to the Fathers as the founders and
irreplaceable guides of Christian life and thought, even though
the widening split between the Latin and Greek halves of the
ancient Roman Empire produced an inevitable impoverishment
in the overall economy of the Christian experience.
If it is true- as indeed it is- that a return to the Fathers is
a necessary condition for ecumenical relations between East and
West, the recognition on the part of a Protestant theologian, who
recently did not hesitate to speak of «the contemporary
importance of the Fathers of the Church», is yet more
significant.
341
 Index

Foreword pag. 7

Table of Contents 9

Introduction 11

1. Who are the Fathers of the Church? 11

2. Patristic literature 11
3. Geography and chronology 13
4. Recent discoveries 14
5. Bibliographical information 15
6. Reading guide 16

Part One: The Fathers of the Church in the Age of the

Persecutions

Chapter 1: The Apostolic Fathers, tbe immediate successors

to the work of tbe Apostles

1. Who are the «Apostolic Fathers»? 20

2. The letter of Clement of Rome and the origins of the
Roman primacy 20
3. The Didache: The oldest ecclesiastical constitution 21
4. The Letter of Barnabas: A sharp anti-Jewish polemic 22
5. The Shepherd of Herrnas and the problem of penance 23
343
6. Ignatius of Antioch: Vivid reflections on a religious
experience of suffering 25
7. Conclusion 27

Readings
1. The church must not be rent and tom by strife and discord
(Clement of Rome) 29
2. Charity as the heart of relations within the church (Clement
ofRome) 32
3. The way of light (The Letter of Barnabas) 33
4. The way of death (The Didache) 35
5. The Eucharist (The Didache) 36
6. Founded on an unshakeable faith (Ignatius) 38
7. The unity of the church around the bishop (Ignatius) 41
8. «l proclaim to all that I am dying willingly for God.»
(Ignatius) 43

Chapter D: The Apologists present the reasons for their

faith

1. Who are the Apologists? 49

2. The accusations against the Christians 49
3. The polemic against the pagans 50
4. Justin, the man of dialogue 51
5. Tatian's harsh polemic 54
6. Other second-century Apologists 55
7. Melito of Sardis and the beginnings of «political theology» 55
8. The apology «To Diongerus»: The Christians are the «soul
of the world» 58
9. Conclusion 59

Readings
1. Give to Caesar that which is Caesar's Uusrin) 61
2. The emperor is not God (Theophilus of Antioch) 63
< l\llntism: washing, rebirth, illumination Uustin) 63
344
4. The celebration of the Eucharist Gustin) 67
5. It was Nero and Domitian who decided to accuse the
Christians (Melito of Sardis) 69
6. Jesus Christ, the Passover of our salvation (Melito of
Sardis) 71
7. The Christians in the world (The Letter to Diognetus) 73
8. Charity (The Letter to Diognetus) 76

Chapter ill: The anti-Gnostic reaction and the defense of

Apostolic Tradition (lrenaeus of Lyons -
Hippolytus of Rome)

1. Gnosticism: One of the graver crises for early Christianity 79

2. Some Gnostic doctrines 80
3. lrenaeus of Lyons, the man of Tradition 82
4. The first «theology of history» 85
5. Irenaeus, a man of the church 85
6. The enigma of Hippolytus of Rome 87
7. Christian heresy, the offspring of pagan philosophy 87
8. Bible and lirurgy 88

Readings
1. The church preserves the faith, adheres to it and transmits
it faithfully (lrenaeus) 91
2. The gospel, foundation and pillar of our faith (Irenaeus) 93
3. The Roman Church, the principal witn~ to Tradition
(Irenaeus) 94
4. The Holy Spirit dwells in God's crearures (lrenaeus) 95
5. Where the church is, there also is the Spirit of God; where
the Spirit of God is, there is the church (Irenaeus) 97
6. Jesus Christ is the Redeemer of man (lrenaeus) 97
7. Adam and Christ, Eve and Mary (Irenaeus) 99
8. The Word who became flesh makes us like unto God
(Hippolytus of Rome) 102
9. No one can serve two masters (Hippolytus of Rome) 103

345
Chapter IV: The School of Alexandria: The encounter
between faith and culture (Clement · Origen )

1. The School of Alexandria 109

2. Clement of Alexandria, the true H ellenist of the Church
Fathers 109
3. Gospel and culture: The «true Gnostic» and «Christian
humanism» 110
4. What rich man will be saved? 113
5. Origen : The torment of perfection 114
6. The Bible, the foundation of theology and spirituality 115
7. The apologist 119

Readings
1. Moderation in the use of material goods (Clement of
Alexandria) 121
2 . It is contemptible that one Lives in luxury while the majority
are needy (Clement of Alexandria) 123
3 . Those who share in the sufferings of Christ will share also
in his consolation (Origen) 125
4. The sacrifice of Abraham is a figure of the sacrifice of
Ch rist (Origen) 127
5. The Kingdom of God is in our midst (O rigen) 130
6. Ch ristians and their homeland (Origen) 134

Chapter V: The beginnin~ of Christian literature in latin

(Tertullian · Cyprian)

1. The first attempts 137

2. Latin apologetics 139
3. Tertullian: From Catholicism to Montanism 141
4. Tertullian, a master of literature and doctrine 142
5. Cyprian, champion of the church's unity 145
6. The conllict with Rome 148

Readings
346
1. The Apostles preached the same faith everywhere
(Tertullian) 149
2. The spiritual riches of Christian marriage (Tertullian) 152
3. What will God deny to prayer made in spirit and truth?
(Tertullian) 154
4. One cannot have God as a Father who does not have the
church as a mother (Cyprian) 157
5. Our peace and fraternal harmony is the greatest sacrifice
we can offer to God (Cyprian) 159
6. You have given all Christians a shining example of unity
and constancy (Cyprian) 162
7. The Proconsular Acts of the martyrdom of the bishop
Cyprian 164

Part Two: The Fathers of the Church in the Christian Empire

Chapter VI: Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea in the

«Constantinian Revolution•

1. Lactantius, the «Christian Cicero>> 170

2. Christ, the teacher of justice 170
3. Providence in nature and history 172
4. Eusebius and «political theology» 173
5. The first «history of the church» 175
6. The apologist and scholar 177

Readings
1. The world was created by God so that man might be born
(Lactantius) 179
2. Justice demands that we acknowledge God and recognize
others as brothers and sisters (Lactantius) 180
3. Peace and pluralism in the church (Eusebius) 184
4. The charity and benevolence of the Roman Church
(Eusebius) 188
5. «I can show you the trophies of the Apostles» (Eusebius) 189

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Chapter VD: Athanasius: Tbe Arian Crisis and tbe rise of
monasticism

1. Lights and shadows of the founh century 194

2. The Arian Crisis and the Council ofNicea 195
3. Athanasius, the champion of the faith 197
4. The beginnings of monasticism 199
5. Politics and theology 201

Readings
1. A pope defends freedom before the tribunal of the
Christian emperor 204
2. He became a man out of love for us (Athanasius) 210
3. We possess the love of the Father, the grace of the Son and
the communion of the Spirit (Athanasius) 213
4. How Anthony's vocation to the monastic life came about
(Athanasius) 215

Chapter VITI: The Cappadocian Fathers: Humanism and

asceticism (Basil - G regory of Nazianzus -
Gregory of Nyssa)

1. Three pillars of orthodoxy 220

2. Basil the Great: bishop, monk and theologian 220
3. Basil, the man of the church and man of culture 223
4. Gregory of Nazianzus, the theologian turned poet 225
5. Gregory of Nyssa and the foundations of mystical theology 229
6. The end of Arianism 232

Readings
1. The Spirit gives us the guarantee of life (Basil) 234
2. We have different gifts according to the grace of God
which has been given us (Basil) 235
3. Poor in love, in humaneness, in faith and in hope (Basil) 237
4. He asks for my human nature as alms so that I may become

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 rich out of his divine nature (Gregory of Nazianzus) 239
5. We bear in ourselves that divine character by which and for
which we were made (Gregory of Nazianzus) 242
6. I must embrace my body as a friend (Gregory of
Nazianzus) 243
7. Evil is born from man's will (Gregory of Nyssa) 244
8. The Christian is another Christ (Gregory of Nyssa) 246
9. Salvation consists in being completely united in love
(Gregory of Nyssa) 248

Chapter IX: Three Western Fathers: Hilary, Ambrose and

Jerome

1. Hilary of Poi tiers before his exile 252

2. Hilary during and after his exile 252
3. Ambrose of Milan, a master of spirituality and liturgy 255
4. The defender of the poor and of the liberty of the church 257
5. Jerome, the apostle of the Roman patriciate 261
6. Scholar and polemicist 264

Readings
1. Give us the light of understanding, efficacy of preaching,
true faith (Hilary) 265
2. The Holy Spirit, the Father's gift in Christ (Hilary) 267
3. Open your mouth to God's word (Ambrose) 269
4. Jesus Christ has reconciled the world to God through his
blood (Ambrose) 272
5. Penance obtains Christ's mercy for us (Ambrose) 274
6. The church is not at the mercy of the state (Ambrose) 275
7. Our only profit is that we are joined together by the love
of Christ Gerome) 278
8. To be ignorant of the Scriptures is to be ignorant of Christ
Gerome) 279
9. God's word is a source of joy Oerome) 281
10. «May you never disparage anyone>> Oerome) 281

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Chapter X: Augustine of Hippo, the brilliant servant of the
faith

1. August ine's conversions 286

2. The Doctor of Grace 287
3. The shepherd of souls 29 1
4. The mystery of the Trinity 293
5. The City of God 294
6. The end of classical civilization 296

Readinfl,S
1. The earthly city is founded on love of self, the city of God
on love of God (Augustine) 297
2. The two precepts of love must never be erased from your
hearts (Augustine) 300
3. For you I am a bishop, with you I am a Christian
(Augustine) 302
4. Those outside the church are our brothers whether they
wish to be or not (Augustine) 305
5. All the members of the church must foUow Jesus Christ
(Augustine) 307
6. I hunger and thirst for you (Augustine) 310
7. In no other matter does one err more dangerously, search
more laboriously of find more fruitfully (Augustine) 311

C hapter XI: John Chrysostom and Cyril of Alexandria

1. John Chrysostom, the monk-bishop of Constantinople 315

2. Vanity of vanities 317
3. The conflict between Alexandria and Antioch 318
4. Cyril of Alexandria: A Christian «pharaoh» 319
5. The Mother of God 321
6. Towards Monophysitism 323

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Readings
l. I beg you not to lose confidence Uohn Chrysostom) 325
2. Many have tried to suppress the message of the cross Uohn
Ch rysostom) 327
3. A Ch ristian's Light cannot remam hidden Uohn
Ch rysostom ) 330
4. Adorn the church but do not neglect the poor Uohn
Ch rysostom ) 333
5. Love and harmony in the family Uohn Chrysostom) 335
6. As the Father has sent me, I also send you (Cyril of
Alexandria) 335
7. Praise to Mary, the Mother of God 338

Conclusion 341

Index 343

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