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Feldspar
The name feldspar derives from the German words Feld, "field", and Spath, "a rock that does not
contain ore." Feldspars are the most abundant mineral in the Earth's crust, making up more than
60% of both the continental crust and the oceanic crust. The feldspars are the most common
minerals in the Earth's crust. They consist of three endmembers:

KAlSi3O8 - Orthoclase (or), NaAlSi3O8 - Albite (ab), and CaAl2Si2O8 - Anorthite (an)

KAlSi3O8 and NaAlSi3O8 form a complete solid solution series, known as the alkali feldspars
and NaAlSi3O8 and CaAl2Si2O8 form a complete solid solution series known as the plagioclase
feldspars.

The general formula for the feldspars is XAl(Al,Si)Si2O2, where X is potassium, sodium,
calcium, or barium. The Al occupies some of the tetrahedra. All the X ions are big, much larger
than iron or magnesium, which are too small to occupy the voids in the structure fully.
The feldspars have a framework structure, consisting of SiO4 tetrahedra sharing all of the corner
oxygens. However, in the alkali feldspars 1/4 of the Si4+ ions are replaced by Al3+ and in the
plagioclase feldspars 1/4 to 1/2 of the Si4+ ions are replaced by Al3+.

This allows for the cations K+, Na+, and Ca2+ to be substituted into void spaces to maintain
charge balance. Compositions of natural feldspars are shown in the diagram below based on the
3 components -NaAlSi3O8, - Albite (ab), KAlSi3O8 - Orthoclase (or) and CaAl2Si2O8.

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Compositions of natural feldspars. From Stephen A. Nelson

The plagioclase feldspars are a complete solid solution series between Ab and An, and can
contain small amounts of the or component. Names are given to the various ranges of
composition:

Albite - ab90 to ab100

Oligoclase - ab70 to ab90
Andesine - ab50 to ab70
Labradorite - ab30 to ab50
Bytownite - ab10 - ab30
Anorthite - ab0 to an10

In thin section, plagioclase commonly shows the characteristic albite polysynthetic twinning.
This twinning is the most characteristic identifying feature of plagioclase, and makes its
identification easy when present.
Although some cross-hatched twinning may also occur in plagioclase, it is always very simple
with only one or two cross twins per grain. Thus, be careful not to identify plagioclase as
microcline. The cross-hatched twinning in microcline is always much more complex.

The Alkali Feldspars form a complete solid solution between ab and or, with up to 5% of the an
component. The high temperature more K-rich variety is called Sanidine and the more Na-rich
variety is called anorthoclase. The potassium feldspars (KAlSi3O8) differ in the ordering of Al-Si
tetrahedra. At high temperatures the tetrahedra are randomly mixed (although Al-O-Al links

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never occur) and the lattices are therefore of high symmetry. They have long range order even if
on a local scale the lattice is disordered.

Sanidine is the highest temperature variety and is completely disordered, orthoclase forms below
about 800°C and is partially ordered, and microcline forms below about 600°C and is highly
ordered. The complete ordering of Al in microcline breaks down the mirror plane symmetry and
microcline becomes triclinic.

Amphiboles - W0-1X2Y5Z8O22(OH,F)2
Amphibole, from the Greek amphibolos, meaning "ambiguous", was named by the famous
French crystallographer and mineralogist René-Just Haüy (1801) in allusion to the great variety
of composition and appearance shown by this mineral group. There are 5 major groups of
amphibole leading to 76 chemically defined end-member amphibole compositions according to
the British mineralogist Bernard E. Leake. Because of the wide range of chemical substitutions
permissible in the crystal structure, amphiboles can crystallize in igneous and metamorphic rocks
with a wide range of bulk chemistries.

Amphiboles constitute the most chemically complex group in nature, but they possess the
distinctive arrangement of atoms know as the "double silicate chain". Along the chain,
successive tetrahedra share two and three oxygen ions, respectively, so that the chemical formula
for the infinite chain is (Si4O11)6-. The chain are elongated along c direction, with the bases of the
tetrahedra nearly in the bc plane.

Double silicate chain. From Stephen A. Nelson.

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The general formula for amphiboles is:

W0-1X2Y5Z8O22(OH,F)2

W = Na1+ or K1+ in the A site with 10 to 12 fold coordination.

X = Ca2+, Na1+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, in an M4 site with 6 to 8 fold coordination
Y = Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Al3+ or Ti4+ in an M1 octahedral coordination site.
Z = Si4+ and Al3+ in the tetrahedral site.

The structure is characterized by several cationic sites, called A, M4, M1, M2, M3 e Z

A: 12-fold A site is occupied by K

M4: 8-fold M4 sites is occupied by X cations (Ca2+, Na1+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Fe3+ )
M1,M2,M3: are octahedral site and containing Y cations (Mg2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Al3+, Ti4+)

The principal classification of amphiboles is based on the chemistry of the X cations.

If X sites is occupied by Ca we have Calcium amphiboles:

• Tremolite Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2 – Ferroactinolite Ca2Fe5Si8O22(OH)2

• Hornblende Na0-1(Ca,Na)2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+, Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH)2
If X sites is occupied by Na we have Sodium or alkali amphiboles:

• Glaucophane Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2
• Ferroglaucophane Na2Fe2+Al2Si8O22(OH)2
• Riebeckite Na2Fe2+Fe2+Si8O22(OH)2
• Magnesioriebeckite Na2Mg3Fe3+Si8O22(OH)2
• Arfvedsonite Na3Fe2+Fe3Si8O22(OH)2

If X sites is occupied by Ca and Na we have Calcium-Sodium amphiboles:

• Richterite Na(Na,Ca)Mg5Si8O22(OH)2

If X sites is occupied by Fe, Mg, Mn we have Iron-magnesium amphiboles:

• Antophyllite Mg7Si8O22(OH)2
• Cummingtonite Mg7Si8O22(OH)2 - Grunerite Fe7Si8O22(OH)2

The amphiboles differ chemically from the pyroxenes in two major respects. Amphiboles have
hydroxyl groups in their structure and are considered to be hydrous silicates that are stable only
in hydrous environments where water can be incorporated into the structure as (OH)-. The
second major compositional difference is the presence of the A site in amphiboles that contains
the large alkali elements, typically sodium cations and at times potassium cations. The pyroxenes
do not have an equivalent site that can accommodate potassium. The presence of hydroxyl
groups in the structure of amphiboles decreases their thermal stability relative to the more

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refractory (heat-resistant) pyroxenes. Amphiboles decompose to anhydrous minerals (mainly
pyroxenes) at elevated temperatures.

There is complete solid solution between Na and Ca end members and among Mg and Fe end
members, with partial substitution of Al3+ for Si4+ in the tetrahedral site, and partial substitution
of F for OH in the hydroxyl site.

Composition of the common amphiboles.From Stephen A. Nelson.

Actinolite is the solid solution between Tremolite [Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2] and Ferroactinolite

[Ca2Fe5Si8O22(OH)2] Cummingtonite - Grunerite is a solid solution between Anthophyllite
[Mg7Si8O22(OH)2] and Grunerite [Fe7Si8O22(OH)2].

All of the amphiboles except Anthophyllite are monoclinic, and all show the excellent prismatic
cleavage on (110). The angles between the cleavages, however are 56° and 124° making all
amphiboles easy to distinguish from the pyroxenes. Looking at faces that show only a single
cleavage trace would show inclined extinction, except in Anthophyllite.

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properties used to distinguish the amphiboles. From Stephen A. Nelson.

Bibliography

• Klein Cornelis: Mineralogia. Zanichelli 2004

• W. A. Deer, R. A. Howie, J. Zussman (1994): Introduzione ai Minerali che costituiscono le
rocce. Zanichelli editore.
• Optical Mineralogy : The Nonopaque Minerals by Phillips / Griffen
• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc

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• Stephen. A. Nelson

Hornbelnde

Basal section of Hornblende, Basal section of Hornblende,

Pergamon (Turkey). PPL
image , 10x (Field of view =
2mm)
Basal section of Hornblende,
Pergamon (Turkey). PPL
Pergamon (Turkey). PPL image
image , 10x (Field of view =
, 10x (Field of view = 2mm)
2mm)

Basal section of Hornblende and

Basal section of Hornblende,
Hungary. PPL image , 10x
(Field of view = 2mm)
Basal section of Hornblende
pyroxen crystals, Hungary. PPL
crystals, Hungary. PPL image
image , 2x (Field of view =
, 2x (Field of view = 7mm)
7mm)

Pyroxene: Structure and classification

Pyroxenes are the most significant and abundant group of rock-forming ferromagnesian silicates.
They are found in almost every variety of igneous rock and also occur in rocks of widely
different compositions formed under conditions of regional and contact metamorphism. The
name pyroxene is derived from the Greek pyro, meaning “fire,” and xenos, meaning "stranger",
and was given by Haüy to the greenish crystals found in many lavas which he considered to have
been accidentally included there.

Pyroxenes have a basic structural unit consisting of linked SiO4 tetrahedra that each share 2 of
their oxygens in such a way as to build long chains of SiO4. The basic structural group is thus
Si2O6 with. Pyroxenes have a general structural formula of:

XYZ2O6

where X = Na+, Ca2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, or Mg2+ filling octahedral sites called M2
Y = Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+ , Al3+, Cr3+, or Ti4+ filling smaller octahedral sites called M1
Z = Si4+ or Al3+ in tetrahedral coordination.

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The basic building blocks of the pyroxene structure are single chains of SiO4 tetrahedra. The
chains are infinitely long and run parallel to the z-direction. The chain repeats after every two
SiO4 tetrahedra. Two silicate chains are joined together via a ribbon of edge-sharing octahedral
sites (labelled M1) Together, these make a structural unit often referred to as an "I-beam".

Pyroxene silicate chains.

Viewed down the z-axis, we can see how these I-beams are joined together to form the rest of the
structure. The bases of the I-beams are held together by cation sites labelled M2. The M2 sites
are larger and more distorted than the M1 sites. The coordination number can vary from 6 to 8,
depending on the specific structure and the size of the cation occupying it.

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(A) Schematic projection of the monoclinic pyroxene structure perpendicular to thec axis. (B)
Control of cleavage angles by the I beams in the pyroxene structure.

The most important natural pyroxene minerals are formed from solid solutions involving Mg,
Fe2+, and Ca. The range of compositions can be represented by the pyroxene quadrilateral. There
are three important solid solutions contained within the quadrilateral: the orthopyroxene solid
solution (often referred to as hypersthene), the pigeonite solid solution, and the augite solid
solution.

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The nomenclature of Pyroxene

there is complete Mg-Fe substitution and small amounts of Ca substitution into the
Orthopyroxene solid solution series. Mg-rich varieties of orthopyroxene are called hypersthene,
whereas Fe-rich varieties are called Ferrosilite. There is also complete Mg-Fe solid solution
between Diopside and Ferrohedenbergite, with some depletion in Ca. The pure Ca endmember
Wollastonite (Ca2Si2O6) is not a pyroxene mineral. Although it has a structure based on chains of
SiO4 tetrahedra, the chains have a three-tetrahedra repeat, rather than a two-tetrahedra repeat.
Wollastanite belongs to a class of structures called the pyroxenoids.

The pyroxenes can be divided into several groups based on chemistry and crystallography:

• Clinopyroxenes are monoclinic pyroxenes and are either calcic or sodic. Clinopyroxenes
include augite, diopside, pigeonite, hedenbergite, aegirine, jadeite and omphacite. Augite,
pigeonite and diopside can contain exsolution lamellae of orthopyroxene if cooled slowly.

• Orthopyroxenes are orthorhombic pyroxenes. They are low-Ca ferromagnesian pyroxenes. The
maximum birefringence of orthopyroxenes increases with Fe content. Orthopyroxenes consist of
a range of compositions between enstatite - MgSiO3 and ferrosilite -FeSiO3

All pyroxenes show perfect (110) cleavage. When viewed looking down the c-crystallographic

10
axis, the cleavages intersect at near 90° angles (the angles are actually 92 – 93° and 87 – 88°).
This 90 degree cleavage angle is most useful in distinguishing pyroxenes from amphiboles (in
amphiboles the cleavages are at 56° and 124°.

Opacitic Rim

Opacitic rim or reaction rim is a common structure of hydrated mineral in volcanic rocks such as biotite
or amphiboles. The amphiboles, during magma ascent, will decompose in response to the decrease in
water pressures in the melt during ascent. Usually the reaction rims on amphiboles consist of a complex
assemblage of minerals like clinopyroxene, plagioclase, magnetite and ilmenite. The process of opacitic
rim formations can be described as devolatilization process.

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The amphiboles or biotite crystals release its structurally bound water to the magma in response to the
decrease in water pressure in the magma as it ascends to the surface

Hornblende crystal with Opaciti

c rim. PPL image , 10x (Field of view = 2mm

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Pilotassitic Texture

Pilotassitic texture is typical of volcanic rocks, in which the microlites (mainly feldspar) in the
groundmass are arranged in sub parallel mode.

Photo

Olivine crystals in a basalt with Olivine crystals in a basalt with Olivine crystals in a basalt
pilotassitic groundmass. PPL image, pilotassitic groundmass. XPL image, with pilotassitic
2x (Field of view = 7mm) 2x (Field of view = 7mm) groundmass. PPL

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Sieve Texture
Plagioclase commonly exhibits a variety of disequilibrium textures in volcanic rocks, especially
in orogeny andesites. These textures often include combinations of complex zoning patterns and
resorption feature in plagioclase e that record changing physical conditions in magmatic system.
Sieve texture is common in plagioclase or in pyroxene crystals in extrusive volcanic rocks; It is
interpreted by some authors as the result of mixing processes(Nixon e Pearce, 1987). the above
interpretation are reinforced by the experiments of Tsuchiyama, 1985 (see diagram 1).

If the An % of the phenocryst (plagioclase 1 and 2) is less than the plagioclase (plagioclase 3) in
equilibrium with the melt (M), the corroded surface becomes very rough and finely indented to
form a sieve texture, which is filled with magma, and in which plagioclase (plagioclase 1 and
2)reacts to become more calcic.
If basic and acid magma mix, sodic feldspar in the acid magma dissolves, develops sieve texture
and the corroded parts react to become more calcic, when crystallization eventually resumes, the
Sieve texture is coated by euhedral growth of more calcic plagioclase. Calcic plagioclase in the
more basic magma simply continues to grow becomes more sodic (plagioclase 4).

It is also possible to achieve solution by decompression as magma rise toward the surface
(Pearce et al.,1987), in which case there should be no evidence that corrosion was accompanied
by change in the composition of the magma. In the case of feldspar, dissolutions takes place in
hydrous magma because the liquidus and solidus curves are depressed as pressure decrease and
volatiles are released.

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Diagram 1Results of mixing plagioclase crystals of various compositions with magma of
composition M that is in equilibrium with a plagioclase of composition 3. A): Crystals of
composition 1, mixed with M; crystals may melt, but in any case dissolve to give rounded
shapes. If M penetrate the dissolving crystals (1), or if partial melting occurs internally, sieve
texture is produced as (1) react with the melt to form more calcic rim (no more calcic than 3).
B): Crystals of composition (2) cannot melt completely and cannot simply dissolve in M, but
they will react during partial solution or melting, to give a sieve texture and more calcic rim (no
more calcic than 3). The former euhedral outline is preserved.
C): Crystals of composition (4) continue to grow with euhedral overgrowth of composition (3).
From Shelley

Bibliography

• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc

• David Shelley (1983): Igneous and metamorphic rocks under the microscope. Campman &
Hall editori.
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

15
 Photo

Sieve texture in clinopyroxene. Sieve texture in clinopyroxene. Sieve texture in clinopyroxene.

PPL image, 10x (Field of view XPL image, 10x (Field of view PPL image, 10x (Field of view
= 2mm) = 2mm) = 2mm)

Sieve texture in clinopyroxene. Sieve texture in clinopyroxene. Sieve texture in clinopyroxene.

XPL image, 10x (Field of view XPL image, 10x (Field of view XPL image, 10x (Field of view
= 2mm) = 2mm) = 2mm)

16
Spinifex Texture
One of the first names for spinifex texture in komatiite lavas was "crystalline quench texture".
Viljoen and Viljoen (1969a,b) used this term when they first recognized komatiite as a separate
rock type. They described spinifex as a texture characteristic of komatiite, and they noted that the
morphology of the dominant minerals resembled those of crystals that form when molten olivine
basalt is cooled rapidly.

Nesbitt (1971) formally introduced the term spinifex when he described and classified several
different types of skeletal crystals in komatiites from Australia and Canada. He too noted the
similarities between the skeletal or dendritic morphologies of olivine and pyroxene crystals in
natural spinifex textures and those in experimental charges and silicate slags. He was also first to
recognize what has come to be known as the spinifex paradox.

Spinifex texture is commonly found in the interior of komatiite flows, well below the upper
chilled crust. In the thickest units, large dendritic crystals appear to have crystallized at depths 10
or more meters below the surface of the flow. Under such circumstances, the loss of heat from
the interior of the flow is controlled by conduction through the upper solidified crust. In a typical
2-m-thick komatiite flow, the cooling rate during crystallization of the lower part of the spinifex
layer is only 1 to 3°C per hour. In thicker flows the rate is far lower. In contrast, the
morphologies of the olivine or pyroxene crystals in spinifex-textured lavas resemble those
produced experimentally at cooling rates never less than about 30°C/hr.

A factor that has been mentioned in many papers on spinifex texture, but has not received
sufficient attention, is the role of constrained crystal growth during solidification of the crust of a
komatiite flow. Constrained growth refers to the crystallization of parallel grains of olivine or
pyroxene in the downward-growing crust of a lava flow. The crystals compete with one another
for nutrients, the atoms of Mg, Fe and Si that are essential components of their crystal
frameworks. It is this competition that leads to the preferred, near-perpendicular orientation of
the olivine crystals in spinifex textures.

Erupted komatiite contains a small proportion of olivine phenocrysts that grew either during
ascent to the surface or during flowage on the surface. During cooling, some of these
phenocrysts become trapped in the crust that forms right at the top of the flow, others settle
towards to the base of the flow and become part of the lower cumulate layer. Olivine then
nucleates in the layer of crystal-free liquid just beneath the crust.

17
Fig.1: Three stages during the solidification of a spinifex-textured komatiite flow

The crystals that grow from these nucleii have highly skeletal morphologies, due to the high
cooling rate in the crust of the flow, and they are randomly oriented. As cooling proceeds, these
olivine grains continue to grow. Those with a near-vertical orientation are favoured because their
tips extend downwards into unfractionated nutrient-rich liquid; those with orientations closer to
horizontal find only nutrient-poor liquid or collide with other crystals, and they cease to grow
(Fig. 1).

The crystallization of olivine produces a residual liquid with a composition different from that of
the parental liquid, depleted in Mg and enriched in Si, Al, Ca and Na. Its density is less than that
of the parental liquid. As downward growth proceeds, this liquid is expelled and it accumulates
as a layer of low-density at the base of the crystal front. The growing tips of the spinifex crystals
are bathed in a liquid depleted in the components they require to grow (Fig. 1).

Faure and other research, have suggested that this situation provides an explanation for the
unusual habit of spinifex. They point out that the situation has certain parallels with the
accumulation of a zone of nutrient-poor liquid that surrounds rapidly growing crystals in
quenched liquids.

In such cases the rate of crystal growth exceeds the diffusion rate of the major elements within
the silicate liquid, and the elements expelled by the growing crystal accumulate in a layer around
the crystal. The skeletal or dendritic morphologies of such crystals result when the crystal sends

18
out protuberances – fine needles or plates - that penetrate the nutrient-poor layer. Faure et al.
suggest that an analogous phenomenon applies to the growth of spinifex crystals - their dendritic
habit is a consequence of their growth into the accumulated layer of nutrient-poor liquid.

Fig.2: Komatiite from Komati river (Africa). Note the Spinifex Texture. From James St. John.

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Eutaxitic Texture
Eutaxitic texture describes the layered or banded texture in explosive volcanic rocks. It is often
caused by the compaction and flattening of glass shards and pumice fragments. Ignimbrites are
typically characterized by fist-sized pumice fragments floating in a finer grained matrix but
many ignimbrites, however, are still hot when they are emplaced so that the pumice and ash
fragments are still plastic and malleable.

Thick, hot ignimbrites will often collapse under their own weight, thus fusing the fragments
together to generate a welded flow. In such cases the pumice fragments are compacted into dark,
glassy pancake shapes, called fiamme. A welded ignimbrite containing fiamme is said to have a
eutaxitic texture

Bibliography

• Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., Zussman, J. (1998) Rock-forming Minerals.

• Optical Mineralogy : The Nonopaque Minerals by Phillips / Griffen
• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

Photo

Rheomorphic structures (flow Rheomorphic structures (flow Rheomorphic structures (flow

structures) in a ignimbrite from structures) in a ignimbrite from structures) in a ignimbrite from
vulsini (Italy). PPL image , 10x vulsini (Italy). PPL image , 10x vulsini (Italy). PPL image , 10x
(Field of view = 2mm) (Field of view = 2mm) (Field of view = 2mm)

Rheomorphic structures (flow Rheomorphic structures (flow Rheomorphic structures (flow

structures) in a ignimbrite from structures) in a ignimbrite from structures) in a ignimbrite from
vulsini (Italy). PPL image , 10x vulsini (Italy). PPL image , 10x vulsini (Italy). PPL image , 10x
(Field of view = 2mm) (Field of view = 2mm) (Field of view = 2mm)

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Felsitic Texture
Felsitic texture is a microcrystalline texture of the ground-mass of acid extrusive rocks. The
groundmass of such rocks consists of minute crystalline formations, such as grains or fibers, and
finely dispersed vitreous material.

Volcanic glass is unstable and tends to change spontaneously (devitrify) from the glassy to the
crystalline state in periods of time that are relatively short by geologic standard. Geologically
ancient glasses are therefore very rare, and most glassy rocks are of Paleogene age or younger
(less than 65.5 million years old).

Devitrification commonly begins along cracks in the glass or around large crystals and may
spread outward until eventually the entire mass has been converted to fine crystals aggregate.
Devetrification results in a submicroscopic mixture of various rock mineral and their alteration
products. Usually individual mineral species are indistinguishable, but the jumbled aggregate is
faintly birefringente. In some cases mineral species can be recognized, and feldspar, clay
minerals, and various form of silica have been reordered as devetrification products.

Bibliography

• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc

• David Shelley (1983): Igneous and metamorphic rocks under the microscope. Campman &
Hall editori.
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

Photo

Quartz crystals in a Rhyolite Quartz crystal in a Rhyolite Plagioclase crystal in a

with felsic (devitrified) with felsic (devitrified) Rhyolite with felsic
groundmass. Antarctica. XPL groundmass. Antarctica. XPL (devitrified) groundmass.
image, 10x (Field of view = image, 10x (Field of view = Antarctica. XPL image, 10x
2mm) 2mm) (Field of view = 2mm)

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Glomerophyric Texture
Glomeroporphyritic or Glomerophyric is a term used to describe a porpyritic texture in which
phenocrysts are clustered into aggregates called glomerocrysts or crystal clots.
Glomeroporphyritic textures are common and often included plagioclase and pyroxenes in basic
rocks. They form by a processes known as synneusis, where accumulation of crystals occurs by
surface tension and fixing by interpenetration due to crystal growth.

Glomerocrysts are an important consideration in crystal fractionation by crystal settling since the
density of the glomerocryst is an average of that of its constituent phases. Formation of
glomerocrysts may in part explain the settling of plagioclase in basic intrusions in which
plagioclase crystals are less dense than the surrounding magma. The glomerocryst play an
important role in the fractionation process, being heavier than the individual crystals of which
they consist, they are more prone to sinking in the magma. this is governed by the law of stokes:

V = 2R2 (de - di)g /9η

Where V = sedimentation velocity; R = radius of crystals; di = density of crystals; de = density of

magma g = acceleration of gravity. η = viscosity of magma.

In the basalt of Hawaiian lava lake, described by Kirkpatrick (1977), all phenocrysts occurs in
glomeroporphyric clots. He ascribed the texture to heterogeneous nucleation so that plagioclase,
for example, nucleates on pre-existing plagioclase, pyroxene or olivine.
Helz (1987) suggested, for euhedral crystals of olivine in the kilawea basalt, the mechanism of
synneusis; crystals that accidentally collide are likely to stick together if they touch in
crystallographic continuity.

It may be difficult to distinguish glomerophyre from xenoliths, especially from cognate xenoliths
which represent disrupted cumulates of crystals from the same or closely related magma.

Bibliography

• Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., Zussman, J. (1998) Rock-forming Minerals.

• Optical Mineralogy : The Nonopaque Minerals by Phillips / Griffen
• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

Photo

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Pyroxene glomerophyre in a
Basalt. PPL image , 10x (Field glomerophyre in a Basalt. XPL
of view = 2mm)
Pyroxene and plagioclase
glomerophyre in a Basalt. XPL
image , 10x (Field of view =
2mm)
Pyroxene and plagioclase Pyroxene and plagioclase
glomerophyre in a Basalt. XPL
image , 10x (Field of view = image , 10x (Field of view =
2mm) 2mm)
Pyroxene and plagioclase
Pyroxene and plagioclase
glomerophyre in a Basalt. XPL
glomerophyre in a Basalt. PPL
image , 10x (Field of view =
image , 10x (Field of view =
2mm)
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Ophitic Texture
Ophitic texture, a variant the Poikilitic texture, is one where random plagioclase laths are
enclosed by pyroxene or olivine. If plagioclase is larger and encloses the ferromagnesian
minerals, then the texture is subophitic and the laths typically impinge on one another to form
sharp angles. Note that the change from intergranular through subophitic to ophitic textures in
basaltic rocks results from slower cooling and slower nucleation rates.

This textural sequence is typically found at the margins toward the center in diabasic or doleritic
rocks (basaltic dikes) or from the chilled surface to depth of basaltic flows. If the cooling rate is
very fast, the interstitial material between plagioclase laths may be quenched to glass to form an
intersertal texture.

Bibliografia

Le informazioni contenute in questa pagina sono tratte da:

• Ron H. Vernon (2004): A pratical guide to rock microstructure. Cambridge editore
• Rocchi S. (1993): Meccanismi di cristallizzazione e strutture delle rocce ignee. SEU Pisa.
• David Shelley (1983): Igneous and metamorphic rocks under the microscope. Campman &
Hall editori.

Photo

Augite Crystals with Augite Crystals with Augite Crystals with

plagioclase inclusions. plagioclase inclusions. plagioclase inclusions.
Patagonia. XPL image , 10x Patagonia. XPL image , 10x Patagonia. XPL image , 10x
(Field of view = 2mm) (Field of view = 2mm) (Field of view = 2mm)

24
25
Skeletal Texture
Skeletal is a term used to describe the habit of euhedral to subhedral crystals in igneous rocks
containing crystallographically orientated hollows and gaps. typically the voids within skeletal
crystals are filled with groundmass materials.
Skeletal crystals form under large supercooling and indicate disequilibrium. They form by
preferential growth of the corners of crystals, a diffusion controlled growth process. Skeletal
morphologies are relatively common in olivine and plagioclase crystals in volcanic rocks.
Skeletal olivine crystals are sometimes called hoppers. Dendrite and paralllel growth crystals are
other crystal habits associated with large supercooling.

In a poly-component system (such as a silicate melt), if low-temperature components not wanted

by the growing crystal cannot diffuse away into the liquid fast enough, they become concentrated
in a narrow zone adjacent to the interface, especially if their diffusion rates (D) in the liquid are
very low at the temperature concerned. The concentrated "impurity" components effectively
lower the equilibrium freezing temperature (liquidus), which reduces the degree of
supersaturation for the crystallizing mineral at the interface.

In most minerals, the crystal has a higher concentration of the higher-temperature melting
components (like Anorthite for plagioclase), so that the expelled lower-temperature melting
components (like albite for plagioclase) concentrates at the interface.
The accumulation of "impurity" components around the crystal means that the supersaturation of
the melt increases with increasing distance from the interface until reaches a steady value (see
diagram 1). Further crystal growth is only possible in liquid further away from the interface,
where liquid of normal composition is available.

26
Diagram 1: Composition gradients in melt adjacent to a growing crystal when diffusion is not
fast enough to eliminate gradient. From Kirkpatrick (1981)

A planar crystal is unstable under this conditions, and change into a collection of projections or
Spike; the reason is that if a part of the interface advance ahead of the rest, it encounters liquid
that is poorer in impurity components, and richer in nutrient components, and so it can continue
to grow. The projections or Spike may originate at small protuberance on planar crystal, like on
the corner, this is due to the larger ratio of melt volume to crystal surface area at the corner
(where there is a lower concentration of impurity components).
Skeletal, dendritic and spiky crystals (plagioclase, olivine, pyroxene, magnetite) occurs in
quenched volcanic rocks, including submarine basalt and Komatites. Lofgren (1974) and
Donaldson (1976) have found that the shape of plagioclase crystals, grown experimentally from
the melt, vary considerably with degree of undercooling (Δ T). they range from tabular at small
Δ T to skeletal to dendritic and finally to spherulitic (Δ T about 400 degree).

27
Diagram 2: Sketch showing development of secondary spike in response to accumulation of
impurity components around primary spike. from Vernon

Bibliography

• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc

• David Shelley (1983): Igneous and metamorphic rocks under the microscope. Campman &
Hall editori.
• Vernon, R. H. & Clarke, G. L. (2008): Principles of Metamorphic Petrology. Cambridge
University Press
• Shelley D (1992): Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks under the Microscope: Classification,
textures, microstructures and mineral preferred orientation
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

Etruscan Furnace Slag

28
Skeletal pyroxene crystals in a
Etruscan Furnace Slag,
Campiglia Marittima
(Livorno), Italy. PPL image,
10x (Field of view = 2mm)
Skeletal pyroxene crystals in a
Etruscan Furnace Slag,
Campiglia Marittima
(Livorno), Italy. PPL image,
10x (Field of view = 2mm)
Skeletal pyroxene crystals in a
Etruscan Furnace Slag,
Campiglia Marittima
(Livorno), Italy. PPL image,
10x (Field of view = 2mm)
Skeletal pyroxene crystals in a
Etruscan Furnace Slag,
Campiglia Marittima
(Livorno), Italy. PPL image,
10x (Field of view = 2mm)
29
Skeletal pyroxene crystals in a
Etruscan Furnace Slag,
Campiglia Marittima
(Livorno), Italy. PPL image, 2x
(Field of view = 7mm)
Skeletal pyroxene crystals in a
Etruscan Furnace Slag,
Campiglia Marittima
(Livorno), Italy. PPL image,
10x (Field of view = 2mm)
Poikilitic Texture
Poikilitic texture refers to crystals, typically phenocrysts, in an igneous rock which contain small
grains of other minerals. In igneous rocks Poikilitic texture is widely used to determine order of
crystallization; if one mineral is enclosed by another then the enclosed grain must have been the
first to crystallize. This may sometime be true , but it is certainly not always so.

McBirney and Noyes (1979) show that this texture may be originated as a result of differing
nucleation and growth rates, so that a single crystal (like pyroxene) nucleate and growth to a
large size (low nucleation rate) in contrast to several other minerals (like feldspars) with higher
nucleation rate which necessarily remain relatively small and became successively entrapped in
the pyroxene.

In many Poikilitic texture the enclosed crystals are randomly arranged, in other may be
concentrated In zone and in some case crystals have a specific crystallographic relationship to
the host. One of the best known is the arrangement of plagioclase and mica enclosed in K-
feldspar. Most commonly the (010) faces of plagioclase and the (001) faces of mica are aligned
parallel to the principal faces of K-feldspar.

The smaller enclosed crystals are known as chadacrysts, whilst the larger crystals are known as
oikocrysts. The most common poikilitic texture involves plagioclase laths enclosed by augite and
is known as an ophitic texture (elongate crystals enclosed by another mineral). It is often found
in dolerites and gabbros.

The term subophitic is sometimes used to descibe an ophitic texture where chadacrysts are not
entirely enclosed by the oikocryst.

Devolopment of Poikilitic texture by simultaneous growth but different nucleation rates of

Pyroxene and Plagioclase. From Shelley

30
Bibliography

• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc

• David Shelley (1983): Igneous and metamorphic rocks under the microscope. Campman &
Hall editori.
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

Photo

Phlogopite crystals with Phlogopite crystals with Phlogopite crystals with

Pyroxene inclusions in a Pyroxene inclusions in a Pyroxene inclusions in a
Madupite rock. Leucite hills Madupite rock. Leucite hills Madupite rock. Leucite hills
(USA). PPL image, 10x (Field (USA). PPL image, 10x (Field (USA). PPL image, 10x (Field
of view = 2mm) of view = 2mm) of view = 2mm)

Phlogopite crystals with Phlogopite crystals with Phlogopite crystals with

Pyroxene inclusions in a Pyroxene inclusions in a Pyroxene inclusions in a
Madupite rock. Leucite hills Madupite rock. Leucite hills Madupite rock. Leucite hills
(USA). PPL image, 10x (Field (USA). PPL image, 10x (Field (USA). PPL image, 10x (Field
of view = 2mm) of view = 2mm) of view = 2mm)

31
Trachytic Texture
Trachytic is a texture of extrusive rocks in which the groundmass contains little volcanic glass
and consists predominantly of minute tabular crystals, namely, sanidine microlites. The
microlites are parallel, forming flow lines along the directions of lava flow and around
inclusions. Trachytic texture occurs in rocks that are rich in alkalies; hence the vitreous mass of
the rocks has a relatively low viscosity.

Trachytic texture is especially characteristic of trachytes and rocks similar to trachytes. Trachytic
textures are often attributed to flow orientation, however, there is little evidence to support this.
Macroscopic trachytic textures visible with the naked eye are sometimes called trachytoid
textures.

Bibliography

• E. W. M. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc

• David Shelley (1983): Igneous and metamorphic rocks under the microscope. Campman &
Hall editori.
• Vernon, R. H. & Clarke, G. L. (2008): Principles of Metamorphic Petrology. Cambridge
University Press
• Shelley D (1992): Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks under the Microscope: Classification,
textures, microstructures and mineral preferred orientation
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

Photo

Trachytic Texture in a
Trachytic Texture in a Trachyte Trachytic Texture in a Trachyte
Trachyte from Italy. XPL
from Italy. XPL image, 10x from Italy. XPL image, 10x
image, 10x (Field of view =
(Field of view = 2mm) (Field of view = 2mm)
2mm)

Trachytic Texture in a
Trachytic Texture in a Trachyte Trachytic Texture in a Trachyte
Trachyte from Italy. XPL
from Italy. XPL image, 10x from Antarctica. The green
image, 10x (Field of view =
(Field of view = 2mm) crystals are Aegirine. PPL
2mm)

32
 image, 2x (Field of view =
7mm)

Trachytic Texture in a Trachytic Texture in a Trachyte Trachytic Texture in a Trachyte

Trachyte from Antarctica. The from Antarctica. The green from Antarctica. The green
green crystals are Aegirine. crystals are Aegirine. PPL crystals are Aegirine. PPL
PPL image, 2x (Field of view = image, 10x (Field of view = image, 10x (Field of view =
7mm) 2mm) 2mm)

33
Vitrophyric Texture
This is variety of inequigranular porphyritic texture in which larger crystals known as
phenocrysts are embedded in a glassy ground mass.

Bibliography

• E. W. M. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc

• David Shelley (1983): Igneous and metamorphic rocks under the microscope. Campman &
Hall editori.
• Vernon, R. H. & Clarke, G. L. (2008): Principles of Metamorphic Petrology. Cambridge
University Press
• Shelley D (1992): Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks under the Microscope: Classification,
textures, microstructures and mineral preferred orientation
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

Photo

Vitrophyric Texture in an Vitrophyric Texture in an Vitrophyric Texture in an

Andesite (Plagioclase and Andesite (Plagioclase and Andesite (Plagioclase and
magnetite crystals). PPL magnetite crystals). PPL magnetite crystals). PPL
image, 2x (Field of view = image, 2x (Field of view = image, 2x (Field of view =
7mm) 7mm) 7mm)

Vitrophyric Texture in an Vitrophyric Texture in an

Vitrophyric Texture in an Andesite (Plagioclase and Andesite. XPL image, 2x
Andesite. XPL image, 2x magnetite crystals). PPL (Field of view = 7mm)
(Field of view = 7mm) image, 2x (Field of view =
7mm)

34
Vitrophyric Texture in an Vitrophyric Texture in an Vitrophyric Texture in an
Andesite (Plagioclase and Andesite (Plagioclase and Andesite (Plagioclase and
magnetite crystals). PPL magnetite crystals). PPL magnetite crystals). PPL
image, 2x (Field of view = image, 2x (Field of view = image, 2x (Field of view =
7mm) 7mm) 7mm)

35
Intersertal Texture
Intersertal is a textural term used to denote that the angular spaces between larger crystals is
occupied by glass, or glass and small crystals. The glass may be devitrified or altered to other
phases.

Bibliography

• Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., Zussman, J. (1998) Rock-forming Minerals.

• Optical Mineralogy : The Nonopaque Minerals by Phillips / Griffen
• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

Photo

Spaces between crystals Spaces between crystals Spaces between crystals

occupied by glass in a Basalt. occupied by glass in a Basalt. occupied by glass in a Basalt.
PPL image , 10x (Field of view XPL image , 10x (Field of PPL image , 10x (Field of view
= 2mm) view = 2mm) = 2mm)

Spaces between crystals Spaces between crystals Spaces between crystals

occupied by glass in a Basalt. occupied by glass in a Basalt. occupied by glass in a Basalt.
XPL image , 10x (Field of PPL image , 10x (Field of view XPL image , 10x (Field of
view = 2mm) = 2mm) view = 2mm)

Spaces between crystals Spaces between crystals

occupied by glass in a Basalt. occupied by glass in a Basalt.
PPL image , 20x (Field of view PPL image , 20x (Field of view
= 1mm) =

36
Hyalopilitic Texture
Hyalopilitic texture is a texture of volcanic rocks in which the groundmass consists of small
microlites of feldspar (sub-parallel to each other) embedded in glass.

Bibliography

• Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., Zussman, J. (1998) Rock-forming Minerals.

• Optical Mineralogy : The Nonopaque Minerals by Phillips / Griffen
• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

Photo

Small microlites of plagioclase Small microlites of plagioclase Small microlites of plagioclase

(sub-parallel to each other) in a (sub-parallel to each other) in a (sub-parallel to each other) in a
Basalt. PPL image , 10x (Field Basalt. PPL image , 10x (Field Basalt. PPL image , 10x (Field
of view = 2mm) of view = 2mm) of view = 2mm)

Hornblende-bearing Andesite Hornblende-bearing Andesite Hornblende-bearing Andesite

with Hyalopilitic groundmass. with Hyalopilitic groundmass. with Hyalopilitic groundmass.
PPL image , 10x (Field of view PPL image , 10x (Field of view PPL image , 10x (Field of view
= 2mm) = 2mm) = 2mm)

Hornblende-bearing Andesite Hornblende-bearing Andesite Hornblende-bearing Andesite

with Hyalopilitic groundmass. with Hyalopilitic groundmass. with Hyalopilitic groundmass.
PPL image , 10x (Field of view PPL image , 10x (Field of view PPL image , 10x (Field of view
= 2mm) = 2mm) = 2mm

37
Fiamme
Fiamme, from the Italian word for flames, are a structure found in welded tuff and Ignimbrite.
Fiamme are small, dark lenses of glassy material thought to represent bits of pumice that were
softened and compressed into the tuff during this welding episode. A tuff with fiamme is said to
have flame structure. A single "flame" is a fiamma, and a fiamme-bearing tuff may be called a
piperno (or peperine).

Some fiamme represent fragments of volcanic ejecta, often pumice lapilli that have been
flattened by compaction and/or shear. Some fiamme are formed from flattened hot, relatively
low viscosity, high porosity fragments of volcanic glass or pumice.

Bibliography

• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc

• David Shelley (1983): Igneous and metamorphic rocks under the microscope. Campman &
Hall editori.
• Vernon, R. H. & Clarke, G. L. (2008): Principles of Metamorphic Petrology. Cambridge
University Press
• Shelley D (1992): Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks under the Microscope: Classification,
textures, microstructures and mineral preferred orientation
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

Photo

Ignimbrite with fiamme. PPL Ignimbrite with fiamme. PPL Ignimbrite with fiamme. PPL
image, 2x (Field of view = image, 2x (Field of view = image, 2x (Field of view =
7mm) 7mm) 7mm)

Ignimbrite with fiamme. PPL Ignimbrite with fiamme. PPL Ignimbrite with fiamme. PPL
image, 2x (Field of view = image, 2x (Field of view = image, 2x (Field of view =
7mm) 7mm) 7mm)

38
Ignimbrite with fiamme. PPL Ignimbrite with fiamme. PPL
image, 2x (Field of view = image, 2x (Field of view =
7mm) 7mm)

39
Spherulites
Spherulitic aggregate (Spherulites) are radiating arrays of fibrous (needle-like, acicular) crystals
that are common in glassy felsic volcanic rocks. Early descriptions of spherulites are by Cross
and Iddings in 1891 and by Harker in 1901. Spherulites are typically two-mineral aggregates
(mainly quartz and feldspar), formed by initial Spherulitic growth of one mineral and later
crystallization of a second mineral from the liquid or glass between the fibres.

Each fibre has the same crystallographic axis parallel to its length, and each has an orientation
slightly different from that its neighbors. Thus, in contrast to dendrites, spherulites are aggregate
of separate crystals, rather than branched single crystals. A dark "extinction cross" is common in
spherulites observed in crossed polars, because many fibres (each with one of the principal
optical vibration direction parallel to its length) are parallel ore approximately parallel to the
vibration direction of the polarizer and analyzer.

spherulites form during so-called devitrification processes ("de-glassing" processes) in obsidan, a

natural glass. During devitrification the glass slowly crystallizes to minerals like cristobalite and
feldspars. The photo shows a close-up of a partially devitrified black obsidian from the island
Lipari, Italy, with lots of small spherulites in it. It has been estimated that such structures grow
within days to weeks (Watkins et al., 2009).
In many felsic glassy rocks, flow line and structures pass undisturbed through spherulites,
indicating that the spherulites grew after development of the flow structures, probably in solid
glass (devetrification).

However, evidence of slight deformation of flow structures around some spherulites has been
observed, indicating that spherulites may grow in viscous silicate melt. Spherulites
crystallization in melts is also suggested by experiments on the crystallization of plagioclase
(Lofgren, 1974).

Spherulitic aggregates typically nucleate on existing crystalline material; Once a radial growth
habit is established, growth continues uniformly in all directions, this is probably because the
crystals grow in a homogeneous material, such as a liquid or a glass.

If growing spherulites impinge on one another, polyhedral boundaries between them are formed.
Incomplete radiation of spherulites results in fan, bow-tie and plumose aggregate; axiolitic
spherulites result from fibres radiating or projecting out from a line or plane, probably owing to
water penetrating along a crack and promoting crystallization of the adjacent glass. The focus of
nucleation for Spherulitic growth may be an existing phenocrysts, forming partly spherical
shapes if phenocrysts are small. In other case spherulites are centred on cavities, large cavities
are called lithophysea and are common in Rhyolite.

40
Spherulites morphologies

41
Growth of spherulites (a) cause the progressive and constant filling of the space (b and c). in d
you can see the areas that belong to individual spherulites; The boundaries between the
spherulites are straight lines, and the spherulites assume a polygonal shape. From Amir
Chossrow Akhavan

Spherulites in a devitrified obsidian. From Amir Chossrow Akhavan

Bibliography

• E. WM. Heinrich (1956): Microscopic Petrografy. Mcgraw-hill book company,inc

42
• David Shelley (1983): Igneous and metamorphic rocks under the microscope. Campman &
Hall editori.
• Vernon, R. H. & Clarke, G. L. (2008): Principles of Metamorphic Petrology. Cambridge
University Press
• Shelley D (1992): Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks under the Microscope: Classification,
textures, microstructures and mineral preferred orientation
• Cox et al. (1979): The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks, George Allen and Unwin, London.

>
Photo

Spherulites (brown) in a Spherulites (brown) in a Spherulites (brown) in a

Ignimbrite from New Zeland. Ignimbrite from New Zeland. Ignimbrite from New Zeland.
PPL image, 2x (Field of view = PPL image, 2x (Field of view = PPL image, 2x (Field of view =
7mm) 7mm) 7mm)

43