GP 60-20

Inert Gas Systems

Copyright © 2016 BP International Ltd. All rights reserved.

This document and any data or information generated from its use are classified, as a
minimum, BP Internal. Distribution is intended for BP authorised recipients only. The
information contained in this document is subject to the terms and conditions of the
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organisation. None of the information contained in this document shall be disclosed
outside the recipient's own organisation, unless the terms of such agreement or contract
expressly allow, or unless disclosure is required by law.

7 March 2016
Engineering Technical Practice
Engineering
Inert Gas Systems

Table of Contents
Page
Foreword ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1 Scope .................................................................................................................................... 6
2 Normative references............................................................................................................. 6
3 Terms and definitions............................................................................................................. 7
4 Symbols and abbreviations .................................................................................................... 8
5 Order of precedence .............................................................................................................. 9
6 General.................................................................................................................................. 9
6.1 Permissible gases ....................................................................................................... 9
6.2 Health, safety, and environmental (HSE) .................................................................... 9
6.3 Procedures ............................................................................................................... 10
6.4 Testing ...................................................................................................................... 10
7 Gas properties ..................................................................................................................... 10
7.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 10
7.2 Nitrogen .................................................................................................................... 11
7.3 Carbon dioxide.......................................................................................................... 12
7.4 Products of combustion ............................................................................................ 13
8 Gas quality........................................................................................................................... 14
8.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 14
8.2 Purity ........................................................................................................................ 14
8.3 Oxygen content......................................................................................................... 14
8.4 Water dew point temperature .................................................................................... 15
8.5 Depressurisation rates .............................................................................................. 15
8.6 Composition .............................................................................................................. 15
9 Inert gas uses ...................................................................................................................... 16
9.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 16
9.2 Blanketing ................................................................................................................. 16
9.3 Purging ..................................................................................................................... 16
9.4 Pressurising, single and cyclical................................................................................ 18
9.5 Snuffing .................................................................................................................... 19
10 Explosive limits, oxidant limits, and purging limits ................................................................ 19
10.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 19
10.2 Vapour flammable limits ............................................................................................ 19
10.3 Lower oxidant concentration (LOC) limits.................................................................. 21
10.4 End points for purging ............................................................................................... 21
11 Permanent inert gas systems............................................................................................... 22
11.1 Site factors ................................................................................................................ 22
11.2 Commercial considerations ....................................................................................... 22

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11.3 Sources .................................................................................................................... 23

11.4 Purchased supplies................................................................................................... 23
11.5 Onsite nitrogen generation ........................................................................................ 31
11.6 Selection of nitrogen supply method ......................................................................... 39
12 System considerations ......................................................................................................... 40
12.1 Capacity.................................................................................................................... 40
12.2 Storage and distribution ............................................................................................ 40
12.3 Gas detection............................................................................................................ 42
12.4 Isolation of systems where inert gas is used ............................................................ 42
12.5 Other considerations ................................................................................................. 42
13 Temporary or portable inert gas systems ............................................................................. 43
13.1 System considerations .............................................................................................. 43
13.2 Overpressure protection ........................................................................................... 44
Annex A (Informative) Method to estimate inert gas volumes required for continuous purge
applications.......................................................................................................................... 46
A.1 Continuous purging with impure inert ................................................................................... 46
A.2 Example of continuous purging with impure inert ................................................................. 46
Annex B (Informative) Method to estimate inert gas volumes required for cyclic pressure purging
applications.......................................................................................................................... 48
B.1 Pressure purging (pressuring) with impure nitrogen ............................................................. 48
B.2 Example of pressure purging (pressuring) with impure nitrogen........................................... 49
Annex C (Informative) Method to estimate exclusion zone if pressurising with inert gas ............... 51
Annex D (Informative) Method to estimate lower explosive limit (LEL) and upper explosive limit
(UEL) at different temperatures and pressures and for different gas mixtures ...................... 52
D.1 Calculation of flammable or explosive limits at different temperatures and pressures .......... 52
D.2 Calculation of flammable or explosive limits using the Le Chatelier’s Law (mixing rule) ....... 52
Annex E (Informative) List of lower oxidant concentration (LOC) values for inert gas (nitrogen or
carbon dioxide), air, and flammable gas mixtures ................................................................ 55
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 58

List of Tables

Table D.1 - Gas mixture data for lower explosive limit in air (LELi) ................................................ 53
Table D.2 - Gas mixture data for lower explosive limit (LEL) and upper explosive limit (UEL) ....... 54
Table E.1 - Limiting oxidant concentrations (LOCs) for flammable gases if nitrogen or carbon
dioxide are used as diluents................................................................................................. 55

List of Figures

Figure 1 - Limits of flammability of methane-inert gas-air mixtures at 25°C (77°F) and atmospheric
pressure .............................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 2 - Commercial cryogenic nitrogen supply system sketch .................................................. 24
Figure 3 - Nitrogen cylinder configurations .................................................................................... 29

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Figure 4 - Process flow diagram (PFD) for pressure swing adsorption (PSA) system ................... 35
Figure 5 - Process flow diagram (PFD) for membrane system ...................................................... 38
Figure 6 - External inert gas supply system configuration ............................................................. 45

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Foreword

This is a restricted revision of ETP GP 60-20. This GP incorporates the following changes:

• Deletion of clause 9.4.2 Pressurisations that exceed 1,7 bar (25 psi)
• Deletion of clause 9.4.3 Leak testing with inert gas
Changes to this document are indicated by a bar in the left margin

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1 Scope

a. This GP provides requirements, recommendations, and permissions for engineering design,

construction, installation, and maintenance of inert gas systems.
b. This GP does not cover cryogenic air separation systems, steam generation systems, and
use of steam.

2 Normative references

The following documents are referenced in one or more requirements in this document. For dated
references, only the version cited applies. For undated references, the latest version of the referenced
document (including any amendments) applies.

BP
GP 12-25 Earthing (Grounding).
GP 24-10 Fire Protection - Onshore.
GP 24-23 Active Fire Protection - Offshore.
GP 30-35 Control Valves and Pressure Regulators.
GP 30-65 Control Panels.
GP 31-04 Analyser House Entry Procedures.
GP 42-10 Piping Systems (ASME B31.3).
GP 44-40 Isolation of Equipment for Maintenance and Emergency.
GP 44-70 Overpressure Protection Systems.
GP 44-80 Relief Disposal and Depressurisation Systems.

American Gas Association (AGA)

Plastic Pipe Manual for Gas Service.
Purging Principles and Practice.

American Petroleum Institute (API)

API RP 2016 Guidelines and Procedures for Entering and Cleaning Petroleum Storage
Tanks.
API Std 2217A Guidelines for Work in Inert Confined Spaces in the Petroleum and
Petrochemical Industries.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

ASTM A370 Standard Test Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel
Products.

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)

CFR 49 178.37 Title 49 - Transportation Chapter I - Pipeline and Hazardous Materials
Safety Administration, Department of Transportation, Part 178
Specifications for Packagings - Subpart C - Specifications for Cylinders
178.37 Specification 3AA and 3AAX Seamless Steel Cylinders.

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International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

ISO 9809-1 Gas cylinders - Refillable seamless steel gas cylinders - Design,
construction and testing - Part 1: Quenched and tempered steel cylinders
with tensile strength less than 1 100 MPa.
ISO 10418 Petroleum and natural gas industries - Offshore production installations -
Basic surface process safety systems.

National Board Inspection Code (NBIC)

NBIC ANSI/NB-23 National Board Inspection Code.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

NFPA 69 Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems.
NFPA 77 Recommended Practice on Static Electricity.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

29 CFR 1910.101 Compressed gases (general requirements).

3 Terms and definitions

For the purpose of this GP, the following terms and definitions apply:

Blanketing (or padding)

Technique of using an inert gas to maintain an inert atmosphere in the vapour space of a tank or
vessel.

Company responsible engineer

Company engineer responsible for the technical requirements of the item.

Inert gas
A gas that is non-combustible, non-contaminating, and nonreactive.

Inert gas system

An assembly of equipment and or distribution piping within the facility limits that provides a means
for supplying inert gas.

Inerting
Adding inert gas to a mixture of gases, making the combined mixture nonreactive (non-flammable).

Limiting oxidant concentration (LOC)

Minimum concentration of oxidant, usually oxygen, in a flammable gas-oxidant-diluent gas mixture
required to support combustion.

Lower explosive limit (LEL)

Minimum concentration of a particular combustible gas or vapour required to support its combustion
in air. Used interchangeably with lower flammability limit (LFL).

Pressurising
Addition of inert gas in to a fixed volume, increasing the system pressure and diluting the original
gas/vapour content. Cyclical pressurisations might be needed to achieve target dilution.

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Purge gas
Air, inert gas, or a combustible gas that is continuously or intermittently added to a system to displace
the original gas or vapour content or prevent the incursion of air into the system (flare purge).

Purging
Continuous flow of inert gas to mitigate a flammable or explosive mixture in an open system (does not
occur inside a confined space).

Snuffing
Use of inert gas to exclude oxygen and extinguish or prevent combustion.

Upper explosive limit (UEL)

Maximum concentration of a combustible gas or vapour that will burn in air. Used interchangeably
with upper flammability limit (UFL).

4 Symbols and abbreviations

For the purpose of this GP, the following symbols and abbreviations apply:

AE Analyser equipment.

FI Flow indicator.

FT Flow transmitter.

HAZOP Hazard and operability (study).

HSE Health, safety, and environmental.

JT Joule-Thompson.

LEL Lower explosive limit (used interchangeably with LFL).

LFL Lower flammability limit (used interchangeably with LFL).

LOC Lower oxidant (or oxygen) concentration.

LOPA Layer of protection analysis.

MAWP Maximum allowable working pressure.

MOC Management of change.

MSDS Material safety datasheet.

PD Positive displacement.

PDT Pressure differential transmitter.

PFD Process flow diagram.

PI Pressure indicator.

PIC Pressure indicating controller.

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PHA Process hazard analysis.

PPE Personal protective equipment.

PSA Pressure swing adsorption.

PSV Pressure safety valve.

PDT Pressure differential transmitter

RVP Reid vapour pressure.

SC Separation control

SIL Safety integrity level

SIS Safety instrumented system.

TIC Temperature indicator controller.

UEL Upper explosive limit (used interchangeably with UFL).

UFL Upper flammability limit (used interchangeably with UEL).

5 Order of precedence

a. In the event of a conflict between this GP and a relevant law or regulation, the relevant law
or regulation shall be followed.
b. Requirements in this GP that are more stringent than a relevant law or regulation shall be
followed, provided that these requirements achieve compliance with the law or regulation.
c. There are specific regulatory differences between the U.S. (Code of Federal Regulations
[CFR], NFPA, etc.) and the European Union (ISO, European Standards, etc.) in regulation
of the various aspects of inert gas purging. This GP addresses some of these issues but is
not all inclusive.

6 General

6.1 Permissible gases

Gases for purging and inerting may be:
a. Nitrogen.
b. Carbon dioxide (considered a greenhouse gas).
c. Products of combustion (a mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, and water vapour),
provided that the oxygen concentration will always be less than or equal to 80% of the
LOC on a moisture free basis.

6.2 Health, safety, and environmental (HSE)

a. Personnel who handle inert gases shall be trained to perform such handling in a safe and
reliable manner.
b. In the design and operation of any inert gas production or distribution system, precautions
shall be taken to prevent human exposure to the inert gas being used.

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c. Breathing apparatus shall be worn if there is a risk of exposure to an oxygen deficient

atmosphere.
d. If venting of inert gas poses an asphyxiation hazard:
1. Area access shall be restricted.
2. Warning signs shall be posted.
e. Management of safe entry into process analyser shelters in which an oxygen deficient
atmosphere could exist shall conform to GP 31-04.
f. If nitrogen or any other inert gas is to be used for instrument air backup or emergency:
1. Air user vents shall be placed in locations that will not have an associated
asphyxiation risk.
2. Plant and instrument air PSV discharges shall be routed to a safe location.

6.3 Procedures
a. All purging, inerting, leak testing, and other maintenance and commissioning activities that
use inert gas shall have written procedures developed by qualified, competent personnel.
The procedures shall be subject to review and approval by the entity engineering authority.
b. Specific area entry procedures shall be followed if potential exposure to inert gas can
exceed asphyxiation levels, including areas in which cold or heavy molecular weight inert
gas can settle (e.g., drains, trenches).
c. Venting of inert gases to atmosphere shall be performed safely in accordance with
Company approved written procedures.
d. Procedures shall be developed to prevent uncontrolled oxidation of pyrophoric materials
for equipment operating under conditions that might form pyrophoric materials (refer to
the clause on pyrophoric iron sulphide deposits in API RP 2016 and the clause on
pyrophoric hazards in API Std 2217A).

6.4 Testing
a. Oxygen analysers, alarms, and trips in inert gas systems shall be verified as operating
correctly by testing and documenting on a periodic basis.
b. Analyser pre-shutdown alarms and trip activation alarms are considered safety related
alarms.

7 Gas properties

7.1 General
a. To use inert gases, safety precautions shall be taken to reduce the potential risk of
asphyxiation.
b. Inert gas shall not react chemically with the process fluid that the inert gas comes in
contact (e.g., carbon dioxide and water, especially under pressure, superheated steam, and
carbon).
c. Density of inert gas and its potential to segregate and or displace shall be considered in
selecting both the inert gas inlet and outlet or vent locations.
d. Effects on an inert gas system produced by changes in pressure or temperature should be
determined for each system (refer to 10).
e. Amount of inert gas required to render a flammable gas non-flammable depends on the
specific inert gas chosen. Figure 1 illustrates:

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1. Effect of some typical inert diluents on the flammability limits of methane.

2. That nitrogen is more effective than helium.
3. That carbon dioxide is more effective than nitrogen.

7.2 Nitrogen

7.2.1 Characteristics
MSDSs and literature, such as publication CGA P-12, shall be consulted for information on
nitrogen, both as a compressed gas and as a cryogenic liquid.

7.2.2 Storage and handling

a. From generation to use, liquid nitrogen shall be stored or contained in low temperature
tankage (Dewar’s), insulated piping, and valves.
b. The correct PPE shall be worn at all times if working with liquid nitrogen, including
laboratory settings.
c. If any liquid nitrogen is accidentally spilled, personnel should evacuate the affected area
until it has evapourated and dispersed.

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Figure 1 - Limits of flammability of methane-inert gas-air mixtures

at 25°C (77°F) and atmospheric pressure

Source: H.F. Coward and G.W. Jones, “Limits of Flammability of Gases and Vapors”

7.3 Carbon dioxide

7.3.3 State (solid, liquid, or gas)

a. Liquid carbon dioxide only occurs at pressures between triple point (5,178 bara
[75,100 psi], -56,4°C [-69,5°F]) and critical point (73,97 bara [1 073 psi], 31,1°C [88°F]).

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b. Below 5,178 bara (75,100 psi), carbon dioxide is either a solid or a gas, depending on its
temperature.

7.3.4 Low temperature effects

a. In using carbon dioxide, the user should recognise that due to potential JT cooling effects
low temperatures could be reached and solid carbon dioxide (undesired) could be formed,
depending on process conditions.
b. Metallurgy shall be specified for the minimum temperatures the process might attain.
c. Solid and depressurised liquid carbon dioxide produce low temperature hazards, including
frostbite or burns and low temperature material (embrittlement) issues.

7.3.5 Corrosion
Carbon dioxide will dissolve in water forming carbonic acid, that is corrosive to certain
materials (e.g., carbon steel).

7.3.6 Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice)

a. Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) has limited application as an inert gas but is used in many
cooling applications (e.g., cooling parts for assembly or disassembly, laboratory use, dew
point measurement with mirror type apparatus, and sand blast media).
b. If solid carbon dioxide is used, the correct insulation and ventilation shall be provided.
c. Below absolute pressure of 5,18 bar (75,129 psi) and temperature of -56,4°C (-69,5°F),
solid carbon dioxide sublimes directly to gas at a volume expansion ratio of 1:845. If
ventilation is not provided at temperatures greater than or equal to the sublimation
temperature (-78,5 C [-109 F] at atmospheric pressure):
1. There is a potential for asphyxiation.
2. In a closed system,pressures exceeding design containment values can be generated.

7.4 Products of combustion

7.4.1 Characteristics
Formation of trace components resulting from incomplete combustion can be minimised by
using catalytic combustion.

7.4.2 Usage
Products of combustion are sometimes used for inerting if:
a. High purity (99%+) inert gas content is not required.
b. Other sources of inert gas are not feasible.

7.4.3 Treatment
a. Only properly treated products of combustion that have dry oxygen concentrations within
the limits defined in 6 and 8 may be considered for inert gas use.
b. Properly treated products of combustion shall consist of cooling, removal of potential
contaminates, and compression (or blower) to achieve the end use requirements.
c. Contaminate removal can include removal of:
1. Particulates (soot).
2. Unburned hydrocarbons.
3. Moisture (to achieve the required dew point at pressure).

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4. Sulphur oxides (prevents sulphuric acid formation should any sulphur be in the fuel).

7.4.4 Source
a. Selection of the right combustion product source (one with large enough flow, burning
clean sulphur free fuel, with accurate excess air control, etc.) can minimise post treatment
requirements.
b. Turbine exhaust, due to its high exhaust oxygen (5%+) content, would require additional
oxygen removal (carbon bed mole sieve or afterburner).

7.4.5 Safety
Hardware for combustion product treatment (cooling, treating, and compression) should include
the following alarms or shutdowns, linked to the combustion device safety shutdowns:
a. Inlet high oxygen alarm or shutdown.
b. Inlet high temperature alarm or shutdown.
c. All four features.

8 Gas quality

8.1 General
Gas quality will be dependent on requirements for a given use or application. General
guidelines for inert gas quality are discussed in 8.2 through 8.6.

8.2 Purity
Gas systems should be designed to deliver greater purity than required for the given applications
to:
a. Account for the wear and tear of the system.
b. Allow the system to reliably generate the required quality for longer periods of time before
having to maintain, replace, or, in some cases, modify the system.

8.3 Oxygen content

a. Oxygen content of inert gas shall be set by its specific use, application, and situation.
b. High purity, commercial grade inert gases shall be used if very little oxygen (ppm levels)
content is required (e.g., sales gas line purging, refinery reactor shutdown or startup).
c. For other uses, applications, and situations that require only flammability suppression,
higher oxygen concentrations shall be allowable.
d. Flue gas
1. If flue gas is used, the oxygen content shall be controlled to be less than 5% in
accordance with paragraph 5.6.2.4 in API RP 2016.
2. Moisture removal might also be required if condensation would be detrimental to the
process and or equipment.
e. Lower levels of oxygen for special gases
1. Depending on the conditions, lower levels of oxygen might be required for special
gases, such as:
a) Hydrogen with nitrogen as the diluent, that has an LOCadjusted of 3%.
b) Carbon disulphide with nitrogen as the diluent, that has an LOCadjusted of 3%.

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2. LOCadjusted refers to 60% of actual LOC, that shall conform to the purging
requirement of NFPA 69.
f. Concentration or partial pressure of oxygen
1. Potential reactions with oxygen shall be considered in determining the concentration
or partial pressure of oxygen to be used.
2. Such a condition might exist for production systems full of iron sulphide or activated
(or mole sieve) carbon beds doped with metals in a reduced state (i.e., mercury
adsorbent beds).

8.4 Water dew point temperature

Water dew point temperature of the inert gas shall be at least 10°C (18°F) below the lowest
temperature expected, both in storage and usage, to prevent water condensation and potential
damage to equipment.

8.5 Depressurisation rates

Fast depressurisation rates from high pressure sources can have a large JT cooling effect that
could either:
a. Cause internal icing if moisture is present.
b. Exceed minimum low temperature metallurgical limits of the cylinder and distribution
piping, especially in sub-zero climates in which the storage tanks might be initially quite
cold (refer to 11.4.2.3a.13.).

8.6 Composition
a. Inert gas should not contain large amounts of contaminates greater than contaminates
found in the standard chemical composition of air (i.e., no additional hydrocarbons or other
flammable gases).
b. Inert gas source provided by an external party
1. If inert gas source is provided by an external party, a product purity guarantee should
be agreed on that states:
a) Maximum concentration values for contaminates.
b) Minimum inert gas purity requirement.
c) Delivery minimum and maximum rates, temperatures, and pressures.
2. Filtration, transfer metering (includes temperature and pressure measurement), and
oxygen sensors (2 minimum) should be provided to alarm (low level warning) and
shut in (high level warning) the inert gas supply, if the oxygen concentration exceeds
the contracted maximum.
c. Samples should be taken and analysed to validate the composition of the inert gas being
supplied, at a frequency commensurate with reliability of Supplier equipment.
d. Filters or similar equipment should be installed to make sure that there is no particulate
matter greater than required for the given application.
e. Inert gas purity or oxygen contamination might also depend on other system requirements,
such as taking equipment out of service and purging hydrocarbon gases into a flare system
that has an active flare gas recovery system (plant is still operational). In this instance, the
nitrogen purge rate may be limited to keep the recovered fuel gas heating value above
minimums or its oxygen content below recovered fuel gas maximum allowable, if it is
required to keep the flare gas recovery system operational.

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9 Inert gas uses

9.1 General
a. Inert gas systems shall be sized for the applications for which they will be used.
b. Continuous and intermittent uses shall be considered.
c. Applications include:
1. Blanketing.
2. Purging.
3. Pressurising.
4. Snuffing.

9.2 Blanketing
a. Inert gas is injected into the vapour space of a vessel or tank to provide an inert gas
atmosphere in that space.
b. Pressure of the vessel or tank is controlled by either:
1. Supplying inert gas to maintain the minimum pressure set point.
2. Venting the inert gas to atmosphere at the maximum pressure set point.
c. Exclusion of air (oxygen) from vapour spaces in atmospheric storage tanks and vessels
protects against:
1. Risks of fire and explosion.
2. Unwanted chemical reactions with the stored liquid.
3. Corrosion of the storage container.
4. Contamination (mould, pollen, dust, moisture, etc.).
d. Hydrocarbon vapours
1. Depending on the liquids vapour pressure, the venting inert gas might contain
hydrocarbon vapours.
2. For fixed roof gasoline tanks that vent to atmosphere, the hydrocarbon vent gas
content could range from 30% to 45% by volume (temperature and RVP dependent),
that is well above the LEL.
3. Refer to the following for additional recommendations:
a) Annex F, titled “Inert gas blanketing of tanks for flashback protection” in
BS EN ISO 28300.
b) GP 44-80, that recommends that flame arrestors are not to be used and is
consistent with API RP 2210 and OSHA 29 CFR 1910.106(b)(2)(iv)(f).

9.3 Purging

9.3.1 General
a. Purging can be performed by displacing either:
1. Air before the introduction of flammable materials.
2. Flammable gas before the introduction of air.
b. Only essential and properly air pack trained and equipped personnel shall be allowed in
areas where the atmosphere can become oxygen deficient during purging operations.

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c. To calculate approximate time required for ventilation, refer to Annex D in NFPA 69.
d. For inert gas purging, refer to API RP 2016.
e. Examples of continuous application include:
1. Instrument purges (refer to GP 30-65).
2. Oven and furnaces purges (refer to Annex A of NFPA 86 for sample problems of
purging applications).
3. Flare and vent purging and sealing (refer to GP 44-80, GN 44-070, and GN 44-003).
4. Compressor seals and seal oil and lube oil tanks (refer to GP 34-00).
f. Examples of intermittent application include:
1. Analyser purges (refer to GP 31-01).
2. Pigging gas lines (oxygen and or hydrocarbon vapour (refer to GP 43-50).
3. Inerting of piping (oxygen and or hydrocarbon vapour).
4. Inerting of vessels (oxygen and or hydrocarbon vapour).
5. Gas fired furnace startup and shutdown.
6. Reactor startup or shutdown and catalyst activation or regeneration.

9.3.2 Sources of ignition

a. If purging flammable gases to atmosphere, all potential sources of ignition shall be
mitigated prior to the commencement of the purging procedure.
b. Static electricity on materials that are conductors of electricity can be eliminated by
grounding all machinery, pipes, and other equipment where charges can accumulate (refer
to GP 12-25 and GP 44-40 for earthing [grounding] requirements).
c. Special procedures shall be used to mitigate static electricity on any purge vent plastic
piping (refer to AGA Purging Principles and Practice and Chapter VI, “Maintenance,
Operation and Emergency Control”, p.57, in AGA Plastic Pipe Manual for Gas Service).

9.3.3 Purge vents

9.3.3.1 Flammable vapours

a. If feasible, flammable vapours shall be vented into a flare system that can safely dispose of
the flammable vapours and the inert gas that is used for displacement.
b. Addition of fuel gas into the flare might be required to maintain the heating value of the
gas mixture to flare greater than 11 250 kJ/m3 (300 BTU/scf) in accordance with
GP 44-80.
c. If it is not feasible to safely vent flammable vapours and inert gas mixtures into a flare
system, atmospheric venting shall be allowed, in accordance with the following:
1. Vent point shall be located in a safe location, and the high points shall minimise
potential exposure and aid dispersion.
2. Dispersion modelling of venting gas
a) Dispersion modelling of venting gas shall be performed to define the maximum
exclusion zone if either a flammable mixture or asphyxia risk (oxygen
concentration equal to or less than 19,5% by volume) could exist (the modelling
can also help in establishing safe purging rates).
b) Dispersion modelling shall be performed using CIRRUS or PHAST software.

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c) Dispersion modelling shall conform to GP 44-80.

3. Potential ignition sources
a) Potential ignition sources within the exclusion zone that have the potential for a
flammable gas mixture shall be eliminated before the purging or venting process
can commence.
b) Elimination of ignition sources should include portable electronics that do not
have the correct electrical classification (Class I).
4. Vent points shall be properly grounded. Plastic vent pipe and or extensions, due to
their static electricity sparking potential, should not be used.
5. Access to the gas dispersion or asphyxia zone shall be restricted until all venting has
been completed and a long enough time has passed to allow dispersion to safe levels,
verified by testing.

9.3.3.2 Measurement
a. A means to measure the flammable gas or oxygen concentration of the venting gases shall
be provided to determine if purging has been completed.
b. Sample probes that are exposed directly to the flowing gas stream shall be:
1. Constructed of conductive materials (i.e., stainless steel tubing).
2. Earthed (grounded).
c. Sample probes exposed to the venting gas stream shall not consist of plastic, rubber, or
other nonconductive material.
d. Metallic probes may be connected to nonconductive materials (e.g., flexible rubber tubing)
to complete the connection to the analyser, provided that:
1. Gas flow in the nonconductive materials is low less than 0.005 m3/min ( 0,2 ft3/min).
2. Probe is not exposed externally to the main vent flow.

9.3.3.3 Vent pipes

a. Continuous, displacement purging
1. For continuous, displacement purging, vent pipes shall be placed or selected to enable
the space to be purged completely.
2. Pressurised purging might be required if displacement purging cannot achieve desired
results.
b. Venting flammable materials to atmosphere
1. To prevent flashback, if venting flammable materials to the atmosphere in any wind
condition, the inert gas purge flowrate should be large enough to maintain the vent
gas exit velocity greater than or equal to the flame velocity of the flammable material
being vented.
2. For light, saturated hydrocarbons (natural gas constituents), the vent gas exit velocity
should be greater than or equal to 0,5 m/s (1,6 ft/s). A listing of flame speeds for other
flammable compounds can be found in Annex D in NFPA 68.

9.4 Pressurising, single and cyclical

a. To decrease concentration of oxygen or flammable material below LOC or LEL, inert gas
shall be added to a depressurised closed system.
b. Reduction in concentration is directly proportional to the absolute pressure ratio.

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c. Cyclical pressurisations might be needed to achieve the target dilution. A method to

determine the number of cycles is provided in Annex B.
d. After the desired concentration or maximum pressure is reached, the gas mixture shall be
carefully vented.
e. Maximum pressurisation pressure shall not exceed the lesser of either:
1. MAWP.
2. 95% of lowest PSV settings.

9.5 Snuffing
a. Inert gas can be used to extinguish or prevent combustion.
b. The hazards of exposing personnel to inert gas shall be reviewed.
c. Inert gas extinguishing systems shall conform to NFPA and GP 24-10, GP 24-23, and
GP 44-80.
d. Examples of snuffing applications include:
1. Snuffing of atmospheric vent stacks.
2. Fire suppressant (CO2).
3. Leaking flanges (to render small atmospheric leaks non-flammable until permanent
repairs can be made).

10 Explosive limits, oxidant limits, and purging limits

10.1 General
a. Primary variables of inert gas systems
1. LEL, UEL, and LOC are pressure, temperature, and composition dependent.
2. LEL, UEL, and LOC are not single point values.
3. In fixed compositions, increasing pressure typically increases the UEL, with only a
minor effect to the LEL (at pressures less than 34,5 bar [500 psi]).
4. In fixed compositions, increasing temperature increases the UEL and decreases the
LEL and LOC.
b. A method to estimate the LEL and UEL at other temperatures and pressures is provided in
D.1.
c. Relative density between the inert gas and gases to be inerted shall be considered if
designing injection and venting locations.
d. For purging less dense gas (e.g., methane):
1. A low inert gas injection point coupled with a high vent point would be the more
effective (use less inert gas) design.
2. Conversely, for purging more dense gas (e.g., gasoline vapour), a high inert gas
injection point coupled with a low vent point would be a more effective design.

10.2 Vapour flammable limits

10.2.1 General
Both the LEL and UEL of a flammable gas and gas mixture shall be known for all inerting
conditions.

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10.2.2 Individual compounds

a. Both the LEL and UEL for individual compounds in atmospheric air have been determined
experimentally and are available in a number of reference sources.
b. ISA TR12.13.02 (formerly USBM Bulletin 680) provides limits for:
1. Saturated hydrocarbons and derivatives.
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons.
3. Aromatics and derivatives.
4. Inorganic combustibles.

10.2.3 Mixtures

10.2.3.1 Flammable gas mixtures

The LEL for most flammable gas mixtures, containing only flammable gases (no inerts), can be
determined from the individual LEL values for each flammable gas using Le Chatelier’s mixing
rule (refer to D.2.a., as an example).

10.2.3.2 Alkane (saturated) hydrocarbon vapours, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide

Estimating the UEL from individual component UELs using Le Chatelier’s mixing rule, as
noted in 10.2.3.1, only applies to alkane (saturated) hydrocarbon vapours, hydrogen, and carbon
monoxide (refer to D.2b., as an example).

10.2.3.3 Alkene or unsaturated hydrocarbon vapours

a. For alkene or unsaturated hydrocarbon vapours and other gas mixtures, the UEL shall be
determined experimentally.
b. If experimental data is not available, the highest individual constituent UEL can be used to
represent the mixture.

10.2.3.4 Mixtures that contain inert gas

a. To determine the LEL and UEL if inert gas is present, the gas composition is normalised to
an air free basis if any oxygen is present.
b. Next, individual inert compounds are paired with a combustible compound that can be
treated as a binary pair, allowing the use of published binary LEL or UEL values.
c. The mixtures LEL or UEL can then be calculated following Le Chatelier's mixing rule
(refer to D.2f., as an example).

10.2.3.5 Limits for mixtures

ISA TR12.13.01 (formerly USBM Bulletin 627) includes limits for a wide variety of mixtures,
such as:
a. Acetylenic hydrocarbons.
b. Aromatic hydrocarbons.
c. Alicyclic hydrocarbons.
d. Aldehydes.
e. Ketones.
f. Sulphur compounds.

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10.2.3.6 Uncertainty in calculation

a. From a realistic point of view, there is always the potential that actual conditions might not
correspond precisely with those that have been derived, even though the best known data
and the most justifiable methods are used.
b. In conducting any purging operation, a good rule to follow is to purge too much rather than
too little.

10.3 Lower oxidant concentration (LOC) limits

a. LOC shall be known at all operating conditions.
b. Determination of the LOC for the system shall be based on the worst credible gas mixture
case that yields the smallest LOC.
c. At constant temperature, an increase in pressure results in a decrease in LOC to prevent
ignition. At constant pressure, an increase in temperature has a similar effect on the LOC.
d. Extent of oxidant reduction shall be determined by testing whether conditions vary more
than 15 % from the test conditions under which the data were obtained.
e. LOC will vary depending on process conditions (e.g., flammable gas, diluent, temperature,
pressure). Table C.1(a) in NFPA 69 provides LOC values for different flammable gases if
using nitrogen or carbon dioxide as the diluent, at atmospheric temperature and pressure. A
slightly modified version of Table C.1(a) is provided in Annex E.

10.4 End points for purging

10.4.1 Purging flammable gases out of system with inert gas before introducing air
a. Purging flammable gases out of the system using inert gas shall not be considered
complete until the flammable gas content being vented is 20% below its LEL.
b. The dilution effect of purging with inert gas may be used in determining the LEL of the
gas mixture being vented, provided that:
1. The mixture composition is being measured.
2. Higher flammable gas concentrations or pockets do not exist within the system (i.e.,
there is good internal mixing or plug flow purging conditions).
c. Additional purging with inert gas to further reduce the flammable gas concentration might
be required, depending on the desired final state of the system.

10.4.2 Purging air out of system with inert gas

a. Adjusted lower oxidant concentration (LOC)
1. Purging air out of the system using inert gas before introducing flammable gas shall
not be considered complete until the oxygen content remaining in the system is
reduced by 2 percentage points below the LOC of the mixture.
2. The purging process in a. is known as the adjusted LOC, with specific values for
nitrogen or carbon dioxide purged mixtures provided in Annex E.
3. Additional purging with inert gas to further reduce the residual oxygen concentration
might be required, depending on the desired final state of the system.
b. Higher temperatures would also require a further reduction in the adjusted LOC. This
additional reduction could be determined experimentally or estimated by determining the
oxygen concentration required to produce the same or lower adiabatic flame temperature
as the adjusted LOC (measured at 1 atm and ambient room temperature, assume 20°C
[68°F]).

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c. Higher pressures would also require a further reduction in the adjusted LOC. This
additional reduction could be determined experimentally or estimated by determining the
oxygen concentration required to produce the same or lower oxygen partial pressure as the
adjusted LOC (measured at 1 atm and ambient room temperature, assume 20°C [68°F]).

10.4.3 Purging flammable gas and or air from a pipeline

a. Purging flammable gas from a piggable pipeline.
1. Purging flammable gas from a pipeline can be accomplished by using isolation pigs
to separate the flammable gas from the inert gas and then the inert gas from air
(requiring two isolation pigs).
2. The volume of inert gas separating the flammable gas from air is dependent on:
a) Displacement line diameter.
b) Length.
c) How well the pigs seal at the interface.
3. More specific details on pipeline pigging can be found in GP 43-50.
b. Purging flammable gas from a non-piggable pipeline
1. Purging flammable gas from a non-piggable pipeline is similar to piggable pipelines,
but larger inert separation volume, along with higher turbulent flow velocities, is
required to minimise interfacial mixing.
2. More specific details around purging a pipeline without pigs can be found in the
research report RR 85-120 titled, “The Purging of Natural Gas Pipelines”, by T. K.
Perkins and J. A. Euchner.

11 Permanent inert gas systems

11.1 Site factors

a. Availability of reliable supplies from an external source, either in cylinders, truck, or piped
from an adjacent plant, should be considered.
b. For offshore or remote locations, onsite generation might be the most economic option.
c. Depending on the size of the facility, more than one generator or supply point might be
needed to satisfy application requirements.
d. Distance from supply to users should be considered in locating the supply.
e. Site environmental regulations (e.g. carbon dioxide emissions) shall be considered.
f. If inert gas is to be supplied and not generated onsite, the storage capacity is determined by
delivery system (truck size and frequency of delivery) and consumption rate.

11.2 Commercial considerations

a. The cost of installation, operation, and maintenance (full lifecycle cost) of an inert gas
generating system versus Supplier purchased systems (compressed inert gas cylinders or
low pressure liquid storage) shall be evaluated by Company responsible engineer.
b. Nitrogen generation systems should take feed from the plant and instrument air supply
system to prevent duplicating similar, highly reliable (2 × 100%) black start capable
equipment, especially offshore where weight and space is a stronger consideration than
onshore.

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c. Use of purchased supplies or supplemental storage for peak demands to supplement the
continuous supply system should be considered, especially for large, infrequent peak
demands.

11.3 Sources
a. Nitrogen for use as an inert gas can be supplied from one or more of the following sources:
1. Commercially supplied cryogenic liquid nitrogen (i.e., Dewar storage vessels and
vapourisers).
2. Commercially supplied high (69+ barg [1000+ psig]) pressure gaseous nitrogen
a) Individual cylinders.
b) Large truck or trailer mounted cylinders.
3. Commercially supplied moderate pressure gaseous nitrogen (i.e., over the fence
pipeline from a nearby air separation plant).
4. Onsite nitrogen generators
a) Membrane units.
b) PSA.
b. Carbon dioxide can be supplied from one or more of the following sources:
1. Commercial (moderately pressurised) liquid.
2. Commercial pressurised gas cylinders (gas and liquid).
3. Commercial solid or dry ice (block, sheet, or pellet).
4. Commercial pipeline.
5. Onsite combustion or exhaust gas.

11.4 Purchased supplies

11.4.1 Liquefied inert gas

11.4.1.1 Cryogenic liquid nitrogen

a. Due to the safety issues associated with liquid nitrogen, only personnel who have been
trained and certified in its handling shall be allowed to do so.
b. Liquid nitrogen
1. Liquid nitrogen and often the hardware needed to store and vapourise the liquid
nitrogen is typically provided by the Supplier.
2. Liquid nitrogen supply can be the most economical source for large nitrogen
requirements, both batch and continuous.
3. Nitrogen purity of commercially supplied liquid nitrogen is typically high (99,9% +).
c. Main components for liquid nitrogen storage and vapourisation
1. Figure 2 shows the main components for liquid nitrogen storage and vapourisation.
2. Dewar tanks consist of an inner vessel designed for specific internal pressure with a
complete vacuum on the outside.
3. The outer vessel is designed for an internal vacuum.
4. Both the inner vessel and outer vessel:
a) Shall be constructed of low temperature, high nickel content alloys.

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b) Are available in sizes up to 300 000 L (79 251 gal).

c) Have PSVs.
5. The inner tank shall have both pressure and level (inventory) indication and the outer
tank pressure (vacuum) indication.
d. External pressure raising coil
1. In lieu of a pump, an external pressure raising coil may be used, as shown in Figure 2.
2. An external pressure raising coil is typically a small air fin coil manufactured from
low temperature, high nickel alloy.
3. The pressure raising coil vapourises a small amount of liquid nitrogen to generate a
positive pressure in the vapour space at the top of the storage large enough to displace
the liquid nitrogen through the vapourisers and on to the users.
4. Storage tank size
a) Depending on the size of the liquid nitrogen storage tank, pressures of up to
15,6 bar (226 psi) can be attained in accordance with 1., 2. and 3.
b) For larger tanks, the pressure can be less than 9,7 bar (141 psi).
5. If supply pressure requirements exceed the values in 4.a) and 4.b), a liquid nitrogen
pump shall be required, along with higher pressure rated vapourisers.

Figure 2 - Commercial cryogenic nitrogen supply system sketch

e. Vapouriser
1. Vapouriser can be an ambient air fin tube type or a more conventional heat exchanger
that uses an available utility (hot oil, electricity, etc.).

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2. If steam and or hot glycol or water mixtures are used, the design shall prevent the
mixture from freezing (-196°C [-321°F]).
f. Ambient air fin tube type vapourisers
1. Ambient air fin tube type vapourisers will ice up and shall be designed to carry the
extra ice load.
2. A large enough vapouriser surface area shall be provided such that the nitrogen can
be fully vapourised and warmed to the specified delivery temperature at the expected
steady state buildup of ice on the vapouriser.
3. In very humid climates, air fin type vapourisers might not perform as desired due to
the reduced heat transfer capabilities.
g. Piping that is likely to be subjected to cold liquid or gaseous nitrogen temperatures shall be
constructed of metallurgy designed for low temperature operation. Refer to GP 42-10
(ASME B31.3) Chapter III for temperature limitations of different materials. Dewar piping
can also be used in areas where vapourisation of liquid nitrogen is not desired.
h. External insulation
1. External insulation, if used, shall be a non-combustible (under high oxygen
concentrations), nonporous cellular type, with a vapour sealing material applied over
the insulation.
2. The vapour barrier prevents ice buildup between the pipe and the insulation.
3. Using non-combustible insulation covers, the very slight risk of air condensation at
dew point (-191,6°C [-312,9°F] versus liquid nitrogen temperature of -196°C
[-321°F]) can result in pooling under the insulation. Evapouration of the liquefied air
without replenishment will lead to a high concentration of oxygen and associated fire
risk if using combustible insulation materials.
i. All liquid nitrogen tanks, piping (that contains cold nitrogen), and vapourisers shall sit on
non-combustible pads (i.e., concrete and not asphalt) such that, if air condensation and
puddle vapourisation were to occur, no combustion would take place.
j. Truck unloading stations
1. Truck unloading stations for liquid nitrogen should be drive through designs (lower
accident risk) with barricades to prevent damage from accidental impact.
2. Company fill (and vent) connections shall be properly labelled.
3. Pad areas that could potentially be exposed to condensed air puddles during
unloading activities shall be non-combustible.
4. The need for high nitrogen (or low oxygen) concentration alarms located near the
loading station should be reviewed.

11.4.1.2 Liquid carbon dioxide

a. Liquid carbon dioxide shall be handled only by personnel who have received safety
training to handle liquid CO2.
b. Figure 2 illustrates the fundamental equipment for vapourisation of a liquid and serves as a
guide for carbon dioxide liquid systems.
c. Storage
1. Carbon dioxide shall be stored in an insulated, pressurised storage unit.
2. Storage units typically operate at pressures of 17 bar to 21 bar (247 psi to 305 psi).
Saturation temperatures at these pressures range from -22,1°C to -15,6°C (-7,8°F to
3,9°F), respectively.

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3. Storage unit shall be maintained within the specified operating temperature and
pressure such that the liquid carbon dioxide stays in its liquid phase.
4. Suppliers should be consulted in the selection and configuration of storage tanks.
5. Liquid storage tanks are available with the following choices:
a) Insulated single wall vessels.
b) Double wall vacuum insulated units in vertical or horizontal orientations.
c) Sizes ranging up to 109 tonne (120 ton) capacities.
d) Small refrigeration units can be economical, given the temperature range for
liquid carbon dioxide.
d. Vapouriser
1. A vapouriser is generally provided to change the liquid carbon dioxide to a vapour,
that is drawn off to the use point.
2. Air fin vapouriser
a) A simple air fin vapouriser can be used.
b) Ambient air fin tube type vapourisers will ice up and shall be designed to carry
the extra ice load.
c) In very humid climates, air fin type vapourisers might not perform as desired
due to the reduced heat transfer capabilities.
3. Sufficient vapouriser surface area shall be provided so the carbon dioxide can be
fully vapourised and warmed to the specified delivery temperature, coupled with the
expected steady state buildup of ice on the vapouriser.
e. A pressure regulator controller shall be provided to maintain carbon dioxide gas delivery
pressure.
f. Piping
1. Piping likely to be subjected to cold liquid or gaseous carbon dioxide temperatures
shall be constructed of metallurgy designed for low temperature operation
(atmospheric liquid boil off into solid CO2 formation could reach temperatures as low
as -78.5°C [-109°F]).
2. Refer to GP 42-10 (ASME B31.3, Chapter III) for temperature limitations of different
materials.
g. Truck unloading stations
1. Truck unloading stations for liquid carbon dioxide should be drive through designs
(lower accident risk) with barricades to prevent damage from accidental impact.
2. Company fill (and vent) connections shall be properly labelled.
3. The need for high carbon dioxide concentration alarms located near the loading
station should be reviewed.
h. Storage tanks and delivery systems shall have pressure relief systems for protection from
overpressure situations. Consideration should be given to safe vent locations and designs.

11.4.2 Pressurised inert gas

11.4.2.1 Over the fence pipeline

a. For large, continuous inert gas requirements, pressurised inert gas is often purchased and
delivered by pipeline from a nearby source.

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b. The incoming inert gas line shall have an accessible isolation valve near the location where
the inert gas pipeline enters Company facility limits.
c. A nominal type filter should be placed downstream of the isolation valve to mitigate
particulates from the Supplier piping contaminating the Company system.
d. Flow measurement
1. A flow measurement station shall be installed on the incoming inert gas pipeline,
downstream of the isolation valve and filter, to validate usage and Supplier billings.
2. The flow measurement system should have near custody transfer accuracy, measuring
both temperature and pressure for flow correction.
e. Oxygen and pressure sensors
1. Multiple (two of each) oxygen and pressure sensors shall be located downstream of
the flow measurement station to monitor oxygen or contamination of the purchased
inert gas.
2. At specific levels of oxygen content and delivery pressure (set by the project specific
inert gas requirements), an alarm shall be energised.
3. If higher levels of oxygen or lower pressures than those detected in 2., an automated
valve closure shall be used to isolate Company inert gas system from the Supplier
pipeline.
f. Inert gas reserves (accumulator or bottles) shall be provided to enable a safe shutdown of
inert gas using equipment upon the loss of inert gas supply.
g. Pressure let down stations
1. Pressure let down stations shall have PSVs on the low pressure side to protect the
downstream lower pressure rated equipment.
2. PSVs shall be sized in accordance with GP 44-70, with vents routed to a safe
location.
h. Prior to beginning operations, a formal communications plan between Company operations
and the inert gas supplier shall be in place to notify each party of any planned or unplanned
events affecting supply or demand.

11.4.2.2 Large truck or trailer cylinders

a. Nitrogen gas supplied by large trucks or trailers is most often used for temporary use
(versus continuous) if the volume of nitrogen gas required is greater than many multiple
individual cylinders but less than the larger volume liquid transport trucks can deliver.
b. Overpressure protection
1. Truck or trailer nitrogen gas pressures are typically high (exceeding 69 bar
[1 000 psi]). Overpressure protection shall be provided in accordance with GP 44-70,
if the nitrogen source pressure exceeds the MAWP of Company equipment for which
it will be used.
2. Overpressure protection may be provided by the nitrogen gas supply truck or trailer,
provided that its delivery system conforms to GP 44-70 and has been verified by
Company before use.
3. Verification of overprotection delivery system in 2. shall include:
a) Reviewing the sizing basis of the PSV.
b) The pressure set point of the PSV being at or below the MAWP of the lowest
rated Company equipment to be exposed.

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c) Ensuring that the PSV has a calibration or test date within 1 yr for offshore
service (in accordance with API RP 14C and ISO 10418) and 3 yr for onshore
service (in accordance with NBIC ANSI/NB-23 for clean gas service).
c. Written procedures
1. Written procedures for nitrogen usage (purging, pressurizing, displacement, etc.) shall
be approved by Company responsible engineer before any work commences.
2. Deviations from the written procedures shall follow the Company MOC process
before implementation.
3. Safety aspects
a) Written procedures should include the safety aspects in controlling an accidental
release of nitrogen (ambient oxygen sensor, truck or trailer isolation [automated
or manual], access restrictions, control locations, etc.).
b) A safety analysis (HAZOP, LOPA, PHA, etc.) should be used in identifying all
safety aspects.

11.4.2.3 Individual cylinders

a. Nitrogen cylinders
1. Refer to 29 CFR 1910.101 for compressed gas general requirements.
2. Individual nitrogen cylinders are most often used if small volumes of nitrogen are
required, either on a continuous or temporary basis.
3. Standard size nitrogen cylinders contain approximately 6,3 scm (222 scf) of nitrogen
at a pressure of 165,5 bar (2 400 psi). Nitrogen purity is typically 99,9 + %.
4. Cylinders shall be clearly and properly labelled as containing nitrogen.
5. Nitrogen cylinders shall not be mixed with other cylinders containing a different gas
(e.g., carbon dioxide).
6. To prevent interchanging compressed nitrogen with compressed industrial grade air
or compressed breathing quality air, specific outlet fittings shall be used for specific
contents.
7. Connection to nitrogen cylinder
a) Connection to the nitrogen cylinder shall fit together properly (not too loose or
too tight).
b) Correct torque required for a gas tight connection will depend on:
1) Type of fitting to be connected (CGA 580 most common for nitrogen cylinders).
2) Material (brass or stainless steel).
3) Age.
4) Prior care, use, and cleanliness.
c) Suggested torque values can be obtained from CGA TB-14.
d) The correct connection will go together smoothly without using adapters or extra
force.
e) Newly made connections shall be tested for leaks shortly after making the
connection.
f) All fittings shall be tested for leaks on a regular basis.
8. Connections between the cylinder and facility (refer to Figure 3)

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a) Connections between the cylinder and facility shall conform to GP 42-10.

b) Depending on the nitrogen flow, these connections can be assembled
satisfactorily from pipe fittings.
c) Due to the exceedingly high pressures in the nitrogen cylinders, special high
pressure fittings shall be used on the cylinders.
d) If small bore piping or tubing is to be used, refer to GN 42-012 for guidance in
preventing most common modes of failure.

Figure 3 - Nitrogen cylinder configurations

To safe location

To system

Pressure reducing regulator

(Self contained)

N2 N2 N2 N2

To safe location

To system

N2 N2 N2 N2

9. Pressure regulator
a) Cylinders shall be connected to a pressure regulator specifically designed for
nitrogen service.

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b) Pressure regulator shall have two gauges, the first reading the cylinders pressure
and the second reading the controlled or regulated pressure.
c) If multiple cylinders are manifolded together, a common pressure regulator can
be used (versus multiple individual regulators). However, multiple blocks of
cylinders shall be needed to prevent wasting nitrogen during empty cylinder
changeout (refer to Figure 3 for an example).
10. Handling and storage
a) To facilitate handling and storage, cylinders may be delivered as palletised
batches of 12 (referred to as “quads”). Quads shall be suitably manifolded and
valved, ready to connect with the Company distribution system.
b) Depending on the Supplier, other bottle counts or pallet sizes might be available.
11. Pressure safety valve (PSV)
a) A PSV shall be provided downstream of the pressure regulator to protect the
downstream equipment in the event the pressure regulator fails or leaks (leaks
are more common than failure).
b) PSV flow sizing basis shall conform to GP 44-70.
12. Random samples of gas might be taken from deliveries before use, depending on
reliability of supply.
13. Specific metallurgy and properties
a) Specific metallurgy and properties for nitrogen bottles shall be as defined in both
49 CFR 178.37 and ISO 9809-1.
b) Specific metallurgy and properties shall be required to pass a lateral expansion
ductility test (ASTM A370) at -50°C (-58°F) of 0,381 mm (0,015 in). Therefore,
nitrogen bottle temperatures shall not be allowed to drop below this temperature
during storage or use. Expansion cooling, depending on duration and bottle size,
can limit nitrogen bottle temperatures, before depressurisation, to (ambient)
temperatures greater than -18°C (0°F).
b. Carbon dioxide cylinders
1. Cylinders shall be clearly and properly labelled as containing carbon dioxide.
2. Carbon dioxide cylinders differ from nitrogen cylinders in that carbon dioxide
cylinders can contain different phases, depending on temperature and pressure, as
follows:
a) At atmospheric pressures above 74 bar (1 073 psi) and 31,1°C (88°F), the phase
would be dense.
b) At temperatures below 31,1°C (88°F), two phases (gas or liquid) would exist.
c) At temperatures below -56,4°C (-69,5°F), solid carbon dioxide can exist.
3. Configuration
a) Carbon dioxide cylinders are available in two configurations:
1) A top draw that discharges dense phase or gaseous carbon dioxide from the top of the cylinder.
2) A bottom draw that uses an internal dip tube to draw dense phase or liquid carbon dioxide from the
bottom of the cylinder.
b) Depending on the phase of carbon dioxide required, one of the above carbon
dioxide cylinder types shall be used.

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c) Inverting a top draw carbon dioxide cylinder shall not be performed to

preferentially discharge liquid carbon dioxide.
4. Labelling
a) Each carbon dioxide cylinder supplier shall label its cylinders as having dip
tubes (by paint and or label).
b) Carbon dioxide cylinders that have dip tubes do not have standard labelling. The
user should verify that the correct type of cylinder is ordered and used.
5. General requirements for compressed nitrogen gas cylinders shall also apply for
connections to carbon dioxide gas cylinders, including requirements regarding:
a) Specific outlet fittings.
b) Testing of connections.
c) Correct torque required for a gas tight connection.
d) Cylinder configurations.
e) Instrumentation.
f) Overpressure protection.
6. Temperature
a) Gas temperature will change as the pressure changes due to JT effect.
Depending on the magnitude of this change, a phase change to either liquid or
even solid can occur during depressurisation of a cylinder.
b) For standard size, top draw (gas) carbon dioxide cylinders, withdrawal rates
should be limited to approximately 1 m3/h [35 scfh] or less to prevent solid
carbon dioxide formation.
c) If higher rates are required than in b), bottom draw type carbon dioxide cylinders
having dip tubes should be considered.
7. Pressure regulators
a) Pressure regulators shall be designed specifically for carbon dioxide service and
can be different between top and bottom draw cylinders.
b) Pressure regulators on top draw type cylinders can have special design features
(electrical heating) to prevent freeze-up problems associated with high flows of
carbon dioxide during continued use.
8. Carbon dioxide cylinders shall not be mixed with other cylinders that contain a
different gas (e.g., nitrogen).
9. Random samples of gas might be taken from deliveries before use, depending on
reliability of supply.
10. Supplier should be consulted for specifics on cylinder sizes and cylinder group
configurations.

11.5 Onsite nitrogen generation

11.5.1 General
a. Onsite nitrogen is generally produced using one of the following methods:
1. Membrane separation technology.
2. PSA separation technology.
3. Standalone cryogenic air separation plant (to be addressed in a future GP).

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b. Both membrane and PSA nitrogen generation processes shall have dry, oil free and filtered
(for particulate removal), compressed air (refer to GP 60-30, that addresses the design of
compressed air systems).
c. A nitrogen receiver might be required to provide continued nitrogen supply to safely shut
down the equipment that uses nitrogen if the air or nitrogen generation system fails.
d. The volume of the nitrogen receiver, V, can be calculated by using the following equation:

 Pa 
V  tQ  
 P1  P2 
Where:
V = Nitrogen receiver volume, m3 (ft3).
t = Time, min.
Q = Nitrogen flow, actual m3/min (ft3/min).
Pa = Ambient pressure, kPa (psi).
P1 = Initial or normal operating nitrogen receiver pressure, kPa (psi).
P2 = Minimum final nitrogen receiver pressure, kPa (psi).
e. Minimum nitrogen receiver final pressure
1. The minimum nitrogen receiver final pressure will be defined by the end users during
shutdown.
2. High minimum nitrogen final pressures will result in large nitrogen receivers.
3. High initial pressures will result in smaller nitrogen receivers but would likely require
the addition of a nitrogen compressor. However, the initial nitrogen air receiver
pressure should not be increased beyond the next ASME B16.5 flange class rating,
due to a step change in vessel or piping costs, equipment weight (offshore installation
concern), and excessive nitrogen compressor power consumption.
4. Alternatively, bottled nitrogen could serve as nitrogen backup supply.
f. Pressure regulators
1. Nitrogen supply pressures will depend on the end users. Pressure regulators, located
downstream of the nitrogen receiver, shall be used to regulate the nitrogen supply
pressure to the end users.
2. Pressure regulator design shall conform to GP 30-35.
3. Pressure regulators are almost always accompanied by PSVs to protect downstream
equipment and end users from overpressure (refer to GP 44-70).
g. Meters
1. Flow meters that correct for flowing pressure and temperature shall be provided to
measure the nitrogen production rate.
2. Inlet air meters can also be provided to determine the nitrogen generation efficiency
to help track performance deterioration over time.
h. Both high and low pressure alarms on the nitrogen receiver shall be provided.

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Inert Gas Systems

11.5.2 Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) units

11.5.2.1 General
a. PSA units are designed to produce nitrogen from dry, oil and particulate free, compressed
air.
b. PSA nitrogen generation units can be used to generate high purity nitrogen, from 95% up
to 99.99+% (to 10 ppmv oxygen).
c. Figure 4 shows an example of simplified flow diagram for a PSA installation.

11.5.2.2 Carbon molecular sieve beds

a. Carbon molecular sieve beds are used to selectively adsorb oxygen while letting the
nitrogen pass through.
b. Two beds shall be required, such that one can be regenerated while the other is in service.
c. Regeneration
1. Regeneration of the carbon molecular sieve bed shall be automatic and nitrogen (or
oxygen) concentration dependent.
2. Regeneration of the carbon molecular sieve is performed by depressurising the bed
after it becomes saturated with adsorbed oxygen and venting the de-adsorbed oxygen:
a) To maximise carbon molecular sieve service life, venting and buildup of
pressures should be performed slowly, not to exceed 2 bar/min (30 psi/min),
b) Venting and buildup of pressure is usually managed by either:
1) Separate circuits.
2) Control of cycle speed of control valves that have the correct trim (not ball or full port valves).
3. To maximise service life of the equipment, regeneration cycles should be greater than
10 min.

11.5.2.3 Reliability or availability

a. PSA unit shall achieve the reliability or availability set by specific project specifications.
Specification might require two parallel (2 × 100%) units.
b. The time to perform expected maintenance on wear and consumable items (i.e., switching
valves, sieve replacement, filter elements) should be provided by the Supplier. This
information will help to validate availability and possibly in sizing the nitrogen receiver.
c. If parallel units are operational and maintenance is being performed, safe isolation
practices shall be followed in accordance with the safe practices listed in GP 44-40.

11.5.2.4 Air flow

Air flow shall:
a. Be downward through the carbon molecular sieve bed during adsorption operations.
b. Not cause movement or attrition of the top layer of bed material due to high velocity air
impingement.

11.5.2.5 Switching valves

a. Automated regeneration switching valves shall have some means (mechanical linkage,
position sensors, etc.) to either:
1. Validate the correct position of the valves before switching.

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2. Hold the sequence and alarm if not in the correct position (valve or actuator failure
indication and alarm).
b. Switching valves shall be:
1. Non-lubricated.
2. Can perform a minimum of 500 000 open and close cycles without maintenance.

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Figure 4 - Process flow diagram (PFD) for pressure swing adsorption (PSA) system

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11.5.2.6 Local panel

a. A local panel shall be provided to display:
1. Which carbon molecular sieve bed is operational.
2. Which carbon molecular sieve bed is undergoing regeneration.
3. The operating status of the switching valves (collectively if operational, individually
if failed).
b. Design of the local panel shall conform to GP 30-65.

11.5.2.7 Pressure drop

A means to continuously measure pressure drops across the carbon molecular sieve beds along
with inlet and outlet temperatures shall be provided.

11.5.2.8 Filtration
a. Particulate filtration might be required upstream of the PSA nitrogen generator if the
compressed air supply could contain particulates (supply pipe mill scale, etc.).
b. Filtration might also be required downstream of the PSA unit for areas where carbon
molecular sieve attrition fines could damage downstream end user equipment or processes
(seal purge, etc.).
c. Particulate filters, if used, shall be located such that filters are readily accessible for pulling
and replacing filter elements.
d. A means of measuring the pressure drop across the particulate filters shall be provided.

11.5.2.9 Carbon molecular sieve life

a. Expected carbon molecular sieve life should be provided by Supplier.
b. As the end of life is approached, some increase in cycling frequency is expected but should
not be limiting nor inhibit achieving the nitrogen (or oxygen) concentration specification at
design rates.

11.5.2.10 Carbon molecular sieve containers

a. Carbon molecular sieve containers shall have separate drain and fill nozzles (not part of the
air inlet, nitrogen outlet, or enriched oxygen outlet lines).
b. Carbon molecular sieve containers shall be arranged such that the carbon molecular sieve
can be drained and refilled without the removal of the containing vessel.
c. Expected maintenance and replacement schedules for valves being cycled between
operation and regeneration shall be provided by the Supplier. Routine maintenance items
shall be easily accessible.

11.5.2.11 Nitrogen or oxygen analysers

a. A minimum of two online nitrogen (or oxygen) analysers shall be used to regulate
regeneration cycle times, along with providing alarms and safety shutdowns, with the
requirement of providing an SIL greater than or equal to 2.
b. The initial alarm set point shall be at 90% of the maximum allowable oxygen operating
concentration and the automated shutdown set at the maximum allowable oxygen
operating concentration.

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c. For example, a system that has a minimum nitrogen concentration of 95 %, and a

maximum oxygen concentrations of 5 %, would have the following regeneration signal,
alarm, and shutdown set points:
N2 analyser O2 analyser
Regeneration signal 96% 4%
Alarm 95,5% 4,5%
Shutdown 95% 5

11.5.2.12 Operating parameters

a. Supplier proven operating parameters shall be honoured without extrapolation or
excursions.
b. Only proven or validated carbon molecular sieve material shall be used.

11.5.3 Membrane units

11.5.3.1 General
a. Membranes used shall be proven technology.
b. A schematic arrangement (PFD) for an inert gas system with the membrane unit is shown
in Figure 5.

11.5.3.2 Gas purity

a. Membrane separation can be used to generate nitrogen purity levels from 95% up to 99,9%
(0,1% oxygen). However, to attain high nitrogen purity, the efficiency suffers (~ 5:1
air/nitrogen ratio at 99% and higher).
b. Inert gas systems that require high nitrogen/very low oxygen concentrations should use
PSA nitrogen generation or commercial purchases.

11.5.3.3 Feed air heaters

a. Feed air heaters might be required if air supply temperatures fall outside Supplier
recommended operating range.
b. Because membranes typically have highest flux at moderate temperatures (~50°C [122°F]),
the membrane should be sized for design flow at the lowest expected inlet air operating
temperature.

11.5.3.4 Carbon bed adsorber

a. If the air supply has the potential to be contaminated with hydrocarbons (e.g., the air
supply compressor is not an oil free type design), a carbon bed adsorber shall be required
upstream of the membrane unit.
b. Carbon bed adsorber shall have a safe means of replacing the adsorbent based on a specific
replacement schedule provided by Supplier.

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Inert Gas Systems

Figure 5 - Process flow diagram (PFD) for membrane system

To safe location
Air inlet Atmospheric
Hydrocarbon vent
PDT
removal *1 *5

PI SC
TIC Fine particulate
removal filter FI
Electric heater *4
Membrane unit *2

SC
SC

Membrane unit *2

SC
SC

Membrane unit *2

SC
SC

Membrane unit *2

SC
AE
*3 *3
Notes: PI AE
1. Required if hydrocarbon liquids/vapors present in inlet air.
2. Different configuration may be needed depending on quality of nitrogen desired.
To system
Membrane units illustrated as two stage in series.
3. PSV shall be routed to a safe location. The same atmospheric vent used for the
oxygen stream of the membranes may be used if appropriately sized. PI
4. Electrical heater only needed if feed air temperature outside optimal range.
5. Pressure reducer regulator only needed if air supply pressure not held constant. PI
FI
6. Back pressure regulator, in addition to controlling the pressure, serves as a max
flow controller. As flow increases, dP across membranes increases, reducing the N2 standby reserve
*6 N2 receiver
pressure coming out of membranes. The back pressure regulator will close in an
attempt to build up pressure, reducing flow.

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Inert Gas Systems

c. Carbon bed adsorber design and media replacement frequency shall achieve the reliability
or availability requirements set by the specific project specifications.

11.5.3.5 Filters
a. Filters shall be placed downstream of the carbon bed adsorber and upstream of the
membrane unit to capture any particulates.
b. Even if a carbon bed adsorber is not required (no hydrocarbon contamination), an inlet
filter should be considered to remove any residual particulate that might be present in the
feed air supply (e.g., air supply pipe mill scale).
c. An absolute type filter should have the maximum particle size based on the membrane
supplier requirement. A means to measure the pressure drop across the filter shall be
provided.

11.5.3.6 Future expansion

Ability to expand nitrogen generator capacity in the future should be considered.

11.5.3.7 Reliability or availability

a. Membrane unit shall achieve the reliability or availability requirements set by the specific
project specifications.
b. Reliability or availability might require 2 × 100% units.
c. If parallel units remain operational and maintenance or membrane replacement is being
performed, safe isolation practices shall be followed in accordance with safe practices
listed in GP 44-40.

11.5.3.8 Nitrogen or oxygen analysers

a. A minimum of two online nitrogen (or oxygen) analysers shall be used, along with
providing alarms and safety shutdowns, with the requirement of providing an SIL greater
than or equal to 2.
b. Initial alarm set point shall be at 90% of the maximum allowable oxygen operating
concentration.
c. Automated shutdown shall be set at the maximum allowable oxygen operating
concentration.
d. For example, a system that has a minimum nitrogen concentration of 95 %, and a
maximum oxygen concentrations of 5 %, would have the following regeneration signal,
alarm, and shutdown set points:
N2 analyser O2 analyser
Regeneration signal 96% 4%
Alarm 95,5% 4,5%
Shutdown 95% 5%

11.5.3.9 Outlet concentration

Ability to measure outlet concentration of each membrane unit shall be provided. Sample points
in both outlet streams of each membrane unit would satisfy this requirement.

11.6 Selection of nitrogen supply method

a. After the nitrogen purity and total flow requirements are known, a complete lifecycle cost
analysis should be performed to select the best method of nitrogen supply of either
purchase (gas or liquid) or onsite generation (membrane or PSA).

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b. In choosing a system, the following factors should be considered:

1. Required minimum nitrogen purity to achieve all end user requirements. High
nitrogen purity requirements should typically conform to purchased or onsite PSA
generated nitrogen.
2. Absolute and relative flowrates between continuous and batch or transient usage or
frequency requirements.
3. Specific site location and availability or transport cost of purchased nitrogen.
4. Lifecycle cost between PSA and membrane nitrogen generation units are comparable
with the membrane units being lighter and having fewer moving parts.
5. Reliability of membrane and PSA systems is very dependent on the quality of the
compressed air entering the nitrogen generation unit. A PSA unit would be preferred
over a membrane unit if the quality of the air supply is poor because frequent
molecular sieve replacement would be far less costly than frequent membrane
replacement.
6. To expand nitrogen production of a PSA system beyond its original design typically
requires the purchase of a complete PSA unit. However, expansion of a membrane
system can be achieved by simply adding additional membrane cartridges to operate
in parallel with existing units.
7. At high nitrogen purities (greater than 97%), PSA units have lower specific air
consumption.
8. If needed, purchased liquid nitrogen storage systems can provide significantly larger
storage reserves than onsite nitrogen generation systems.
9. For high purity nitrogen (oxygen contaminants levels less than 10 ppmv), purchased
nitrogen is the only viable option.

12 System considerations

12.1 Capacity
a. Inert gas systems shall have generation capacity for 100% of determined consumption rate.
b. Consumption rate shall include:
1. All continuous requirements (e.g., flare purge, seal gas), plus a 10% precautionary
margin.
2. All frequent batch usage requirements (e.g., blanketing), plus a 10% precautionary
margin.
3. At least one batch usage requirement that can coincide with continuous usage (e.g.,
pigging). Frequency, quantity, and criticality of the application should be considered.
c. Inert gas system shall deliver the pressure required for the specific application.
d. Inert gas system shall conform to the specific project reliability or availability
specifications.

12.2 Storage and distribution

12.2.1 General
a. Storage or supply requirements should consider:
1. Usage rates.
2. Supply availability.

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3. Pattern of demand.
b. Inert gas may be supplied by pipelines.

12.2.2 Storage
a. Compressed nitrogen should be stored in a cool, dry, ventilated area in tightly sealed
containers that are properly labelled (in accordance with OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1200).
b. Backup storage or standby reserves should be provided by:
1. Commercial cryogenic nitrogen.
2. Gas cylinders connected to the distribution system.
3. Onsite generation.
c. Onsite generation
1. Reserve nitrogen generated from membrane or PSA type nitrogen generators that is
stored in standard high pressure nitrogen cylinders not designed for water
condensation (wrong materials to prevent pitting corrosion) shall be dehydrated to a
water dewpoint 10°C (18°F) below the coldest ambient temperature at the higher
storage gauge pressure (124 bar to 165,5 bar [1 800 psi to 2 400 psi].
2. The process in 1. typically requires generating nitrogen from extremely dry air or
using a PSA dryer to dry the high pressure nitrogen to the specified water dew point.
d. Compressors within the system should be oil free.
e. Standby nitrogen reserves shall be provided to allow the safe shutdown of equipment (or
plant) in the event of unavailability or failure of the inert gas generation system or air
supply system.
f. Either regular nitrogen gas cylinders or a specially designed or installed pressure vessel
shall be used to store the compressed nitrogen gas.

12.2.3 Distribution
a. For distribution of utility nitrogen to multiple points of use, a ring main should be
considered.
b. All nitrogen containing vessels and piping shall be clearly identified to distinguish them
from other duties and systems.
c. Unique hose end fittings or connections shall be used for each utility to prevent cross
connection to an incorrect service (i.e., different end connections for plant water, air,
nitrogen, and steam).
d. Manifold piping shall:
1. Be sufficiently flexible to prevent stress from distortion during usage.
2. Be strong enough to contain the gas pressure up to the point of expansion into the
system that it might be introduced.
e. Protection shall be provided to prevent contamination of the inert gas supply system due to
reverse flow. The need for using check valves for temporary flexible connections shall be
assessed.
f. For systems that rely on automatic transfer to inert gas standby reserves, an SIS, with a
minimum SIL greater than 2, shall be provided if oxygen concentration falls outside
system requirements.

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12.3 Gas detection

a. All personnel designated to enter an exclusion zone during atmospheric venting shall wear
an air pack, unless other means (local gas measurements) deem the area safe to enter.
b. Air pack shall be inspected and tested before each use to verify it is safe to use for the task
that is to be performed. Use of temporary, remote gas monitors and automated vent valves
can reduce access requirements and associated risk.
c. Gas monitors and other temporary monitoring equipment shall achieve or exceed the
electrical hazardous area classification.
d. Gas monitors shall reliably conform to the gas concentration measurement requirements
over the entire range or duration of the venting process.
e. If testing for flammable vapours, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere should be
between 10% and 21% for the combustible gas indicator to operate properly. Refer to
API RP 2016 clause on oxygen, combustible gas, and toxic substance instruments for more
information.
f. An oxygen or flammable gas monitor shall be placed in the purge vents.
g. In addition to oxygen and or flammable gas monitors, monitors for gases hazardous to
health shall be provided, if such gases might be found in the system.
h. One of the following shall be achieved to safely monitor oxygen, flammable gas, and any
other gas that might pose a risk:
1. Place monitors at the exclusion zone boundary.
2. Have personnel that will be working near the exclusion zone boundary wear portable
monitors.
i. Monitors shall detect and alarm on:
1. Low levels of oxygen (less than 19 %) .
2. Combustible hydrocarbons vapours approaching their LEL.
3. Dangerous levels of hazardous gases (e.g., H2S and CO).

12.4 Isolation of systems where inert gas is used

a. Provision of positive system isolations shall conform to GP 44-40.
b. System should allow taking parts out of service without taking safety devices out of
service.
c. Ordinarily, check valves, regulators, pressure controllers, and similar types of flow control
equipment cannot provide the degree of shutoff required for positive isolation.
d. Blinds shall use gaskets designed for the inert gas, the working pressure and the mating
flange design (raised face, ring joint, etc.).
e. Blanks fitting inside the bolt circle complete with ring gaskets designed for the working
pressure of the line should be used.
f. Lubricated plug valves and ball valves can be used to provide positive isolation if valves
are designed to seal in both directions and do not leak.

12.5 Other considerations

a. Inert gas system designs should consider static charges that can develop if introducing inert
gases (refer to NFPA 77 for more information regarding static electricity).
b. GP 12-25 shall be followed to provide the correct bonding or earthing (grounding) of static
charges.

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Inert Gas Systems

c. A quantity of inert gas or oxygen monitors for safe operation shall be provided in
permanent installations.
d. Portable monitors should be used in accordance with safety procedures (refer to asphyxiant
gases clause in GP 30-85 for additional requirements).
e. Nitrogen and any other inert gas generation and storage facilities should be located in a
non-hazardous area.

13 Temporary or portable inert gas systems

13.1 System considerations

a. An approved plan for all temporary operations using inert gas systems (specific, written,
formal Company document) developed by qualified personnel and having undergone
safety analysis (HAZOP, LOPA, etc.) shall be available, reviewed, and understood by all
personnel involved before work commences.
b. Plan shall identify:
1. Inert gas supply system to be used.
2. All equipment involved.
3. System isolation requirements (valve positions, isolation blinds, vent or fill locations).
4. As built or current drawings noting isolation, purge, vent or fill points, pressure
specification breaks, valves, instrumentation, overpressure protection devices.
5. Temporary equipment requirements and required electrical classification (i.e.,
analysers) for this equipment.
6. Hazardous area or personnel exclusion zone defined.
7. Pressure rating of interconnect or temporary piping.
8. Contingencies plans, should something go wrong (O2 monitors, air packs, fire
protection or response, etc.).
c. Full pressure protection for Company equipment shall be provided if connections are made
to temporary, portable, third party inert gas supply systems that can over pressure
Company equipment.
d. A Management of Change (MOC) shall be completed for all temporary inert gas systems
which are used for purging and pressurising equipment. The Entity MOC process shall be
followed.
e. Temporary hoses and or piping
1. Temporary hoses and or piping used to connect the temporary, portable, third party
inert gas supply shall be either:
a) Rated and properly certified for the full pressure.
b) Protected by a properly sized PSV.
2. Rupture disks shall not be used as pressure protection devices for large inert gas
supply inventories (i.e., liquid nitrogen or trailered high pressure nitrogen gas).
f. An operator shall be available at all times to immediately shut in the inert gas supply at the
source, if one of the following occurs:
1. Inert gas supply is no longer needed (inerting procedure complete).
2. Delivery pressures start to exceed the test plan (possibly due to a stuck pig).
3. Loss of containment is observed (supply line break).

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Inert Gas Systems

g. Local pressure gauge

1. A local pressure gauge shall be used to verify the inert gas supply pressure being
delivered to Company equipment.
2. The pressure range of the gauge should span the intended supply pressure and
maximum supply pressure, if it occurs (e.g., gauge should not fail).
3. If the system configuration does not allow locating the pressure gauge near the inert
gas supply shutin valve, one operator shall monitor the pressure gauge and be in radio
contact with the operator at the inert gas supply shutin valve.
4. A typical third party liquid nitrogen supply system connected to Company equipment
is shown in Figure 6.
h. Company responsible engineer shall verify that the inert gas supplier equipment is safe for
use and that all pressure protection devices have been maintained
i. Company will review the Supplier written procedures that Supplier is to follow prior to,
during, and after the inerting procedure.
j. Operational procedures shall be in place to mitigate static electricity on temporary
equipment (refer to NFPA 77 for more information regarding static electricity).

13.2 Overpressure protection

13.2.1 Company equipment

a. Full pressure protection for Company equipment shall be set to the lowest MAWP of the
equipment being inerted/tested.
b. Equipment capacity
1. Equipment capacity shall be sized based on Supplier limiting flow element.
2. For Figure 6, the limiting flow element could be either the pressure regulator
maximum flow (maximum Cv at the Supplier PSV set point as the inlet pressure and
Company PSV set point as the outlet pressure) or the liquid nitrogen PD pump
capacity if converted to gas flow through the vapouriser (whichever is limiting).
3. Capacity credit for existing PSVs may be taken, provided that PSVs cannot be
isolated from inert gas supply.

13.2.2 Vendor equipment

a. A vendor overpressure protection shutdown system should be included to trip the pump in
an over-pressurization scenario. The shutdown system shall be tested for each new
setpoint.
b. Liquid nitrogen pump and vaporization systems shall have a low temperature pump shutoff
on the temporary equipment to protect the system from cold temperature. The shutdown
system shall be tested as part of the equipment site inspection.
c. Leaks of cryogenic liquids onto unprotected steel decks or other structural members shall
be prevented to protect from brittle fracture.

13.2.3 Temporary or portable equipment

Temporary or portable equipment overpressure protection shall conform to GP 44-70.

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Inert Gas Systems

Figure 6 - External inert gas supply system configuration

Pressure
specification
break
Vaporizer

*4
To safe location To safe location
*6
*5
PI PI
*2 To system
*3
PIC *1 Connection Isolation
to BP valve
system

Positive
displacement Supply
pump shut in
valve

Centrifugal supply pump Third party supply

(Present in some installations)
Notes:
Notes: 1. A second pressure reducing regulator is present if the desired delivery pressure cannot be achieved with a single
regulator.
1. A second pressure reducing regulator is present if the desired delivery pressure cannot be achieved with a single regulator.
2. Temporary piping. This may be a flexible hose that is fit for the specific service.
2. Temporary piping. This may be a flexible hose that is fit for the specific purpose.
3. PIC to shutdown PD pump and centrifugal pump in case of overpressure.
3. PIC to shutdown PD pump and centrifugal pump in case of overpressure.
4. Upstream of the specification break, equipment is managed by supplier. Downstream of the specification break,
4. Upstream of the specification break, equipment is managed by Supplier. Downstream of the specification break, equipment is managed by Company.
equipment is managed by BP.
5. PSV sized to protect Supplier
5. PSVequipment
sized to only. Thesupplier
protect set pressure of this PSVonly.
equipment is generally
The setgreater than that
pressure ofofthis
the PSV
Company system due
is generally to the variety
greater of services
than that of theSupplier
BP may provide.
6. PSV sized to protect blocked
system flow condition.
due to the variety of services supplier may provide.
6. PSV sized to protect blocked flow condition.

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Inert Gas Systems

Annex A
(Informative)
Method to estimate inert gas volumes required for
continuous purge applications

A.1 Continuous purging with impure inert

a. The following volumetric flowrate equation assumes:

1. Uniform mixing within the vessel.
2. Constant temperature and constant pressure.
b. Under these conditions, the mass or volumetric flowrate for the exit stream (or streams) is
equal to the inlet stream.
c. The volumetric quantity of inert gas required to reduce the oxidant concentration from C1
to C2, Qvt, can be calculated using the following equation:

 C  Co 
Qv t  Vln  1 
 C2  Co 
Where:
Qv = Volumetric flowrate.
t = Time.
V = Volume of the system.
C0 = Inlet oxygen concentration.
C1 = Oxygen concentration of the system at time 0.
C2 = Oxygen concentration of the system at time t.

A.2 Example of continuous purging with impure inert

a. A storage vessel containing 100% air is to be inerted with nitrogen until the oxygen
concentration is below 1,25% volume. The vessel volume is 28 m3 (1 000 ft3). If using
99%+ nitrogen, how much nitrogen can be added? What should the flowrate be if this
activity was to be completed in 60 min?
Where:
t = 60 min.
V = 1 000 ft3.
Co = 1% volume.
C1 = 21% volume.
C2 = 1,25% volume.

b. The solution can be calculated using the following equations:

 C  Co 
Qv t  V ln  1 
 C2  Co 

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Inert Gas Systems

 21  1 
Qv t  1 000 ft 3ln  
 1,25  1 

Qv t  4 382,03 ft 3

c. A total of 4 382,03 ft3 of 99% volume nitrogen is needed to successfully complete the
purge.

4 382,03 ft 3
Qv 
60 min

ft 3
Qv  73,04
min

d. A flowrate of 73,04 ft3/min is needed to complete the purge in 1 h.

Note: This calculation assumes ideal mixing, which is rarely the

case. Hence, an additional amount of inert gas is always
needed, especially for purging operations that have not
been performed before. After a few of the same purging
operations have been completed, the actual amount needed
for the purge is better understood, and the amount extra
needed can then be reduced with confidence.

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Annex B
(Informative)
Method to estimate inert gas volumes required for
cyclic pressure purging applications

B.1 Pressure purging (pressuring) with impure nitrogen

a. The following equations assume:

1. Ideal gas behaviour.
2. Pressure limits PH and PL are identical for each cycle.
3. Uniform mixing before each depressurisation from PH to PL.
b. The oxygen concentration, yj, after j purge cycles, can be calculated using the following
equation:

j
P 
y j   L  y o  y oxy   y oxy
 PH 
Where:
j = Number of pressuring cycles needed to achieve yj.
yj = Oxygen concentration.

c. Oxygen concentration, yj, can be determined using the following equation:

 y  y oxy 
ln  j 
y y 
j  
o oxy

P 
ln  L 
 PH 

d. The quantity of inert gas used, Δninert, for this inerting operation can be calculated using the
following equation:

n inert  jPH  PL V
Rt
Where:
j = Number of pressuring cycles.
yo = Initial oxygen concentration (mole fraction) of the system.
yj = Oxygen concentration (mole fraction) of the system after the jth cycle.
yoxy = Oxygen concentration (mole fraction) of the inert gas used.
PL = Lower pressure (absolute) of the pressuring activity (usually atmospheric).
PH = Higher pressure (absolute) of the pressuring activity.
Δninert = Quantity of inert gas used in j cycles.

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Inert Gas Systems

V = Volume of system being purged.

t = Temperature (absolute) of system during purge.
R = Ideal gas law constant.

B.2 Example of pressure purging (pressuring) with impure nitrogen

a. Use pressure purging (pressuring) to reduce the oxygen concentration within a 3785 l (
1 000 gal ) vessel (initially containing air) to 3% volume.
b. Determine the number of purges and total nitrogen required if using impure nitrogen (2%
volume oxygen), pressurising to 488 kpa ( 65 psi) at a temperature of 24°C (75°F).
Where:
yo = 0,21.
yj = 0,03.
yoxy = 0,02.
PL = 100 kpa (14,7 psi).
PH = 550 kpa (79,7 psi).
V = 3.786 m3(133,7 ft3).
t = 297° K ( 535°R)
c. The minimum number of purges required can be calculated as follows:

 y  y oxy 
ln  j 
y y 
j 
o oxy 

P 
ln  L 
 PH 

 0,03  0,02 
ln  
 0,21  0,02 
j
 14,7 psi 
ln  
 79,7 psi 

j  1,74 cycles

d. The number of cycles, j, in c. equal 2 cycles that are able to achieve final oxygen
concentration of 3% or less. The total nitrogen needed can then be calculated for
j = 2 cycles, as shown in the following equations.

V
n inert  jPH  PL 
Rt

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Inert Gas Systems

 
 
 133,7 ft 3

n inert  279,7 psi  14,7 psi 
 10,73 psi 
 lbmole  R 535 R  
3
ft  

   

n inert  3,03 lbmole

e. To complete this task successfully, 3,03 lbmole of inert gas (98% N2, 2% O2) is needed.

Note: This calculation assumes ideal mixing, which is rarely the

case. Additional cycles and, hence, additional inert gas,
might be needed.

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Inert Gas Systems

Annex C
(Informative)
Method to estimate exclusion zone if
pressurising with inert gas

a. The method in d. is provided to determine a safe exclusion zone distance, if a sudden loss
of containment occurs if pressures exceed 1,72 bar (25 psi).
b. This method is valid for calculation of stored energies that do not exceed 50 MJ.
c. More rigorous methods are available, if needed.
d. Calculate the stored energy of the system using the following Baker equation:

PV  P k 
k 1

E  b 1  a 
k  1  Pb 
 
Where:
E = Stored energy, J.
k = Heat capacity ratio (usually 1,4 for nitrogen at moderate pressures), dimensionless.
Pa = Pressure at end of event (usually atmospheric), Pa.
Pb = Containment pressure at release (burst pressure), Pa.
V = Containment volume under pressure, m3.
e. If the calculated stored energy is less than or equal to 50 MJ, calculate the exclusion zone
that limits the peak pressure wave to 50 mbar (0,7 psi) or less (refer to GP 48-50) using the
following equation developed from the method outlined in the NFPA Fire Protection
Handbook:

D  0,17834E0,333 61
Where:
D = Offset distance, m.
E = Stored energy, J.

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Inert Gas Systems

Annex D
(Informative)
Method to estimate lower explosive limit (LEL) and
upper explosive limit (UEL) at different temperatures and pressures
and for different gas mixtures

D.1 Calculation of flammable or explosive limits at different temperatures and

pressures

a. The effect of increasing temperature on the LEL and UEL can be estimated from the
following empirical equations:

 0,75t  t ref  
LEL T  LEL ref   
 Hc 


 0,75 t  tref
UELT  UELref  

Hc 
 
Where:
LELT = Lower explosive limit at the temperature of interest, vol%.
LELref = Lower explosive limit at the reference temperature (usually 25°C), vol%.
UELT = Upper explosive limit at the temperature of interest, vol%.
UELref = Upper explosive limit at the reference temperature (usually 25°C), vol%.
t = Temperature of interest, °C.
Tref = Reference temperature (usually 25°C), °C.
∆Hc = Heat of combustion at the reference temperature (usually 25°C), kcal/gmole.
b. The effect of increasing pressure on the LEL and UEL can be estimated from the following
empirical equations:

LEL P  LEL ref  0,31 ln P

UELP  UELref  8,9 ln P

Where:
LELP = Lower explosive limit at the pressure of interest, vol%.
LELref = Lower explosive limit at the reference pressure (usually 1 atma), vol%.
UELP = Upper explosive limit at the pressure of interest, vol%.
UELref = Upper explosive limit at the reference pressure (usually 1 atma), vol%.
P = Pressure of interest, atma.

D.2 Calculation of flammable or explosive limits using the Le Chatelier’s Law

(mixing rule)

a. For those mixtures that experimental data is not found, the explosive limits can be
calculated using Le Chateliers’s Law (mixing rule), as shown in the following equations:

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Inert Gas Systems

1
LEL mix , % 
 y 
 i 
 LEL i 

1
UEL mix , % 
 y 
 i 
 UELi 
Where:
Yi = Normalised mole fraction of flammable component, i, in the flammable portion of the gas
mixture (non-combustibles not included).
LELi = Lower explosive limit of component, i, in air.
UELi = Upper explosive limit of component, i, in air.
b. Estimate the LEL in air (LELi) for the gas mixture in Table D.1.

Table D.1 - Gas mixture data for lower explosive limit in air (LELi)

vol% yi (combustible basis) LELi UELi

Methane 88 0,88 5,0 15,0
Ethane 8 0,08 3,0 12,5
Propane 3 0,03 2,1 9,5
i-butane 0,3 0,003 1,8 8,4
n-butane 0,7 0,007 1,8 8,4

1
LEL mix , % 
 y 
 i 
 LEL i 
c. Substitution of yi and LELi into the equation for gas mixtures provides the following
equations:
1
LEL mix , % 
0,88 0,08 0,03 0,003 0,007
 
5 3 2,1 1,8 1,8

LEL mix , %  4,49 vol %

d. Estimate the UEL in air (UELi) for the gas mixture in D.1, as follows:

1
UEL mix , % 
 y 
 i 
 UELi 

e. Substitution of yi and UELi into the equation for gas mixtures provides the following
equations:

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Inert Gas Systems

1
UEL mix , % 
0,88 0,08 0,03 0,003 0,007
 
15 12,5 9,5 8,4 8,4

UELmix , %  14,41 vol %

f. Estimate the LEL and UEL for the gas mixture in Table D.2.

Table D.2 - Gas mixture data for lower explosive limit (LEL) and
upper explosive limit (UEL)

% + vol Combinations Yi Added inert LELi UELi

chosen (3) % vol
Methane 7,44 77,44 C1 + 9N2 0,864 4 10,41% 4,9 (1) 12,7 (1)
Ethane 7,04 7,04 C2 + 3,0 CO2 0,100 4 29,88% 4,1 (2) 4,7 (2)
Propane 2,64 C3 0,026 4 --- 2,1 9,5
2,64
i-Butane 0,264 0,264 iC4 0,002 6 --- 1,8 8,4
n-Butane 0,616 0,616 nC4 0,006 2 --- 1,8 8,4
CO2 3,0 --- --- --- --- ---
N2 9,0 --- --- --- --- ---
Notes:
1. From ISA TR12.13.01, Figure 28.
2. From ISA TR12.13.01, Figure 29.
3. Combinations intentionally selected to obtain the most conservative values.

g. Substitution of yi and LELi into the equation for gas mixtures is shown in the following
equations:

1
LEL mix , % 
0,864 4 0,100 4 0,026 4 0,002 6 0,005 2
 
4,9 4,1 2,1 1,8 1,8

LEL mix , %  4,57 vol %

h. Substitution of yi and UELi into the equation for gas mixtures is shown in the following
equations:

1
UEL mix , % 
0,864 4 0,100 4 0,026 4 0,002 6 0,006 2
 
12,7 4,7 9,5 8,4 8,4

UELmix , %  10,72 vol %

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Inert Gas Systems

Annex E
(Informative)
List of lower oxidant concentration (LOC) values for inert gas (nitrogen
or carbon dioxide), air, and flammable gas mixtures

Table E.1 - Limiting oxidant concentrations (LOCs) for flammable gases if

nitrogen or carbon dioxide are used as diluents

Adjusted LOC Original LOC

(Vol% O2 above which deflagration (Vol% O2 above which deflagration can
can take place) in accordance with take place)
7.2.3 in NFPA 69

Gas or vapour N2 air mixture CO2 air mixture Reference (3) N2 air mixture CO2 air mixture

Methane 10,0 12,5 1 12,0 14,5

Ethane 9,0 11,5 1 11,0 13,5
Propane 9,5 12,5 1 11,5 14,5
n-Butane 10,0 12,5 1 12,0 14,5
n-Butyl acetate 9,0 - 9 9,0 -

Isobutane 10,0 13,0 1 12,0 15,0

nPentane 10,0 12,5 1 12,0 14,5
Isopentane 10,0 12,5 2 12,0 14,5
n-Hexane 10,0 12,5 1 12,0 14,5
n-Heptane 9,5 12,5 2 11,5 14,5

Ethanol 8,7 - 9 8,7 -

Ethylene 8,0 9,5 1 10,0 11,5
Propylene 9,5 12,0 1 11,5 14,0
1-Butane 9,5 12,0 1 11,5 14,0
Isobuylene 10,0 13,0 4 12,0 15,0

Butadiene 8,5 11,0 1 10,5 13,0

3-Methyl-1-butene 9,5 12,0 4 11,5 14,0
Benzene 10,1 12,0 1,7 11,4 14,0
Toluene 9,5 - 7,9 9,5 -
Styrene 9,0 - 7 9,0 -

Ethylbenzene 9,0 - 7 9,0 -

Vinyltoluene 9,0 - 7 9,0 -
Divinylbenzene 8,5 - 7 8,5 -
Diethylbenzene 8,5 - 7 8,5 -
Cyclopropane 9,5 12,0 1 11,5 14,0

Gasoline
(73/100) 10,0 13,0 2 12,0 15,0
(100/130) 10,0 13,0 2 12,0 15,0
(115/145) 10,0 12,5 2 12,0 14,5

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Inert Gas Systems

Adjusted LOC Original LOC

(Vol% O2 above which deflagration (Vol% O2 above which deflagration can
can take place) in accordance with take place)
7.2.3 in NFPA 69

Gas or vapour N2 air mixture CO2 air mixture Reference (3) N2 air mixture CO2 air mixture

Kerosene 8,0 (150°C) 11,0 (150°C) 5 10,0 (150°C) 13,0 (150°C)

JP-1 fuel 8,5 (150°C) 12,0 (150°C) 2 10,5 (150°C) 14,0 (150°C)
JP-3 fuel 10,0 12,5 2 12,0 14,5
JP-4 fuel 9,5 12,5 2 11,5 14,5
Natural gas 10,0 12,5 1 12,0 14,5
(Pittsburgh)

n-Butyl chloride 12,0 - 3 14,0 -

10,0 (100°C) - 3 12,0 (100°C) -
Methylene chloride 17,0 (30°C) - 3 19,0 (30°C) -
15,0 (100°C) - 3 17,0 (100°C) -
Ethylene dichloride 11,0 - 3 13,0 -
9,5 (100°C) - 3 11,5 (100°C) -

1.1.1- 12,0 - 3 14,0 -

Trichloroethane
Trichloroethylene 7,0 (100°C) - 3 9,0 (100°C) -
Acetone 9,5 12,0 4 11,5 14,0
n-Butanol NA 14,5 (150°C) 4 NA 16,5 (150°C)
Carbon disulfide 3,0 5,5 4 5,0 7,5
Carbon monoxide 3,5 3,5 4 5,5 5,5

Ethanol 8,5 11,0 4 10,5 13,0

2-Ethyl butanol 7,5 (150°C) - 4 9,5 (150°C) -
Ethyl ether 8,5 11,0 4 10,5 13,0
Hydrogen 3,0 3,2 4 5,0 5,2
Hydrogen sulphide 5,5 9,5 4 7,5 11,5

Isobutyl acetate 9,1 - 9 9,1 -

Isobutyl alcohol 9,1 - 9 9,1 -
Isobutyl formate 10,5 13,0 4 12,5 15,0
Isopropyl acetate 8,8 - 9 8,8 -
Isopropyl alcohol 9,5 - 10 9,5 -
Methanol 8,0 10,0 4 10,0 12,0

Methyl acetate 9,0 11,5 4 11,0 13,5

Propylene oxide 5,8 - 8 7,8 -
Methyl ether 8,5 11,0 4 10,5 13,0
Methyl formate 8,0 10,5 4 10,0 12,5
Methyl ethyl 9,0 11,5 4 11,0 13,5
ketone
n-Propyl acetate 10,1 - 10 10,1 -

Page 56 of 59 GP 60-20
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Inert Gas Systems

Adjusted LOC Original LOC

(Vol% O2 above which deflagration (Vol% O2 above which deflagration can
can take place) in accordance with take place)
7.2.3 in NFPA 69

Gas or vapour N2 air mixture CO2 air mixture Reference (3) N2 air mixture CO2 air mixture

n-Propyl alcohol 8,6 - 9 8,6 -

UDMH (dimethyl 5,0 - 6 7,0 -
hydrazine)
Vinyl chloride 13,4 - 7 13,4 -
Vinylidiene 15,0 - 7 15,0 -
chloride
Source: NFPA 69
Notes:
1. Refer to 7.7.2 in NFPA 69 for the required oxygen level in equipment.
2. Data were determined by laboratory experiment conducted at atmospheric temperature and pressure. Vapour-air-inert gas
samples were placed in explosion tubes and ignited by electric spark or pilot flame.
3. References:
1. G.W. Jones, M.G. Zabetakis, J.K. Richmond, G.S. Scott, and A.L. Furno (1954).
2. H.F. Coward and G.W. Jones (1952).
3. J.M. Kuchta, A.L. Furno, A. Bartkowiak, and G.H. Martindill (1968).
4. L.G. Britton (2002).
5. M.G. Zabetakis (1965).
6. M.G. Zabetakis and B.H. Rosen (1957).
7. Unpublished data, Dow Chemical Co.
8. Unpublished data. Dow Chemical Co., 2002.
9. Unpublished data, U.S. Bureau of Mines.
10. U.S. Bureau of Mines.

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Inert Gas Systems

Bibliography

BP
[1] GN 42-012, Avoidance of Failure in Small Bore Piping and Instrument Tubing Systems.

[2] GN 44-003, Flare Purge Gas Rates and Flashback Protection.

[3] GN 44-070, Relief Systems Project - Technical Handbook.

[4] GP 30-85, Fire and Gas Detection.

[5] GP 32-20, Site Inspection, Testing and Commissioning of Plant.

[6] GP 34-00, Machinery.

[7] GP 31-01, Analyser Systems.

[8] GP 43-50, Piping, Pig Launchers, and Receivers.

[9] GP 48-50, Major Accident Risk (MAR) Process.

[10] GP 60-30, Plant and Instrument Air Systems.

American Petroleum Institute (API)

[11] API RP 14C, Recommended Practice for Analysis, Design, Installation and Testing of Basic Surface
Safety Systems for Offshore Production Platform.

[12] API RP 2210, Flame Arresters for Vents of Tanks Storing Petroleum Products.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

[13] ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings: NPS 1/2 through NPS 24.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

[14] ASTM E681, Standard Test Method for Concentration Limits of Flammability of Chemicals (Vapors
and Gases).

British Standards Institute (BS)

[15] BS EN ISO 28300, Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries. Venting of atmospheric and
low-pressure storage tanks.

Compressed Gas Association (CGA)

[16] CGA P-12, Safe Handling of Cryogenic Liquids.

[17] CGA TB-14, Torque Guidelines for Sealing CGA Valve Outlet Connections.

Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU)

[18] ESDU 82030 F, Fire hazard properties: flash points, flammability limits and autoignition
temperatures.

Page 58 of 59 GP 60-20
7 March 2016
Inert Gas Systems

Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA)

[19] Engineering Data Book.

International Society of Automation (ISA)

[20] ISA TR12.13.01, Flammability Characteristics of Combustible Gases and Vapors.

[21] ISA TR12.13.02, Investigation of Fire and Explosion Accidents in the Chemical, Mining, and
Fuel-Related Industries.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

[22] Fire Protection Handbook.

[23] NFPA 12, Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems.

[24] NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting.

[25] NFPA 86, Standard for Oven and Furnaces.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

[26] 29 CFR 1910.106 , Flammable and Combustible Liquids.

[27] 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.

Other
[28] Coward, H. F. and Jones, G. W., Limits of Flammability of Gases and Vapors. U.S. Bureau of
Mines, Bulletin 503, 1952.

[29] G.W. Jones, M.G. Zabetakis, J.K. Richmond, G.S. Scott, and A.L. Furno (1954).

[30] J.M. Kuchta, A.L. Furno, A. Bartkowiak, and G.H. Martindill (1968).

[31] L.G. Britton (2002).

[32] M.G. Zabetakis (1965).

[33] M. G. Zabetakis and B.H. Rosen (1957).

[34] T. K. Perkins, J. A. Euchner, The Purging of Natural Gas Pipelines, ARCO RR 85-120.

[35] Unpublished data, Dow Chemical Co.

[36] Unpublished data. Dow Chemical Co., 2002.

[37] Unpublished data, U.S. Bureau of Mines.

[38] U.S. Bureau of Mines.

[39] Zhao, F., Experimental measurements and modeling prediction of flammability limits of binary
hydrocarbon mixtures, Texas A&M University, 2008.

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