DEMOCRACY

Democracy comes from two words, demos and kratos. Demos means people whereas ratos means
power or rule.

There are two types of democracies, direct and indirect.

Indirect democracy has declined for the following reasons:

a. Population: in countries with large populations, it is hard to have direct

democracies.
b. Education: not everyone in the country might be educated enough to
participate in complex matters of governance.
c. Historical context: often, democracies are shaped through historical
context. In this manner, a country might choose to have direct
democracy because its predecessor had the same.
d. Misrepresentation: in a hall, where people may make decision, the
voices of those who form the majority will always be louder. Herein,
comes the issue of minorities not being represented or heard.
e. Complex: the whole issue of indirect democracy is very complex, starting
from calculating the population to arriving at a consensus.
f. Geography: the size and diversity of the country could prevent direct
democracies.

1. Rule by the poor: it is termed as an “instrument of exploitation” by Marxist. Neo Marxists,

however, believe that rather than being an instrument of exploitation, democracy can also
be rule by the poor. Indian landscape, in this matter, is very different. Indians in this regard
are very different because a large section of the Indian society is middle class.
2. People + public officials: there are theoretical studies of politics and then there is practical
application of politics and there is a huge difference in both. Public administration and public
policy falls under democracy as an important part of it. Professional politicians carry
democracy forward by applying political theories in practice. They work for public. Leaders
provide mechanism for society to follow. Bureaucrats apply policies and carry them out.
Without proper implementation done by authorities, it will be hard to sustain democracy.
3. Equal opportunity and individual merit: equal opportunities are required for people to grow.
Merit helps people participate in democracy better as they are able to have a better say.
There is no privilege in democracy and hereditary privileges don’t play a role too.
4. A system of welfare: there should be redistribution of resources through welfare policies to
eradicate differences in the country. in 1951, land distribution amendment act was
introduced which served as a good example of the government’s welfare policies.
5. Decision making based on majority system: system of decision making based on the principle
of majority consensus is central for democracy. Majority consensus is required in parliament
to make any decision.
 6. Right to minority is always preserved in democracy: article 24 to 30 protect minority rights.
Democracies are often influenced by religious policies and this form of constitutional
safeguards prevent any sort of biased behaviour on part of the state.
7. A system of government that serves the interest of the people. People must form the basic
unit of this system.
8. Popular voting system: part of the applied politics. Some states follow the 50%+1 rule,
others follow two-thirds policy whereas India follows FPTP system.

THREE IMPORTANT QUESTIONS IN DEMOCRACY:

Who are the people?

Decisions in a democracy are taken by people. It is the people who contest as well as vote in
elections. It is the politicians who make the laws in the country and govern it. It is the bureaucrats
who inforce and form the laws. The word “people” must refer to the legal citizens of the country.

In what sense should the people rule?

This includes the extent to which people are allowed to participate in democracy. People are
allowed to form their political affiliations and contest in elections. People, however are subjected to
the laws of the land.

How far should popular vote be extended?

This is in regard to the age of voting rights granted. It also applies to whether the people should be
allowed to participate in governance through voting.

EVOLUTION OF DEMOCRACY

Samuel P Huntington published a book on the evolution of democracy. He wrote the book Clash of
Civilization.

First wave of democracy: 1826 -1922

This is the period when democracy was established as an ideology. USA was the first to introduce
the right to vote or suffrage for all its people. For the first time, the common man got the
opportunity to participate in the governance of their country. 29 countries of the West adopted
democracy during this period.

In 1922, Mussolini came to power and established a regime of fascism. This led to the first reverse
wave of democracy. This reverse wave lasted from 1922 till 1942.

Second wave of democracy: 1942-1962

This was a period of rapid decolonization. Almost 36 newly independent country came to adopt
democracy as a policy. Most western states were industrialized and the new countries had weak
economic systems.

Second reverse wave in democracy was in 1958 to 1975. This reverse wave was because of the
spread of communism. Many countries joined communism such as the entry of CIS country into
USSR. This period ended in 1975 because of the growing importance of USA as a hegemonic power.
USA began gaining more country under their influence.
Third wave of democracy: 1974 to 1989

In 1979, Afghanistan was invaded. During this period, 58 states adopted democracy. This is a period
of collapse of USSR with the fall of Berlin wall in 1989. Most of the Sub Saharan African countries
began adopting democracy.

The third reverse wave of democracy started in 1980s. During this period, many extremist
sentiments were coming up in Middle East.

Since Huntington wrote this theory in 1980s, his dates of the third wave of democracy are not very
accurate. Consequently, he wrote no follow-up of forthcoming waves. Some philosophers have tried
explaining a fourth wave which is said to have started since 2001, when USA started its War on
Terrorism policy in Middle East.

GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY:

There were three periods in this phase: ancient, medieval and modern.

Ancient period starts from Greece. They were the first to speak on democracy. They practiced direct
democracy. They correlated direct democracy to population. They had the concept of city states.
Athens and Sparta however, practiced indirect democracy. Another example was the Roman Empire.
In the Roman Empire, the emperor was elected by the people.

In the medieval period, the phase of democracy is termed as a dark age. They followed feudal
system in most Western states.

In modern democracy, the period started from American Revolution. As a concept, it came from
Magna Carta. The French Revolution was also a milestone in this phase.

Some political scientist believe that post world war should also be counted as a phase of democracy
as this was when many countries attained independence and adopted democracy.

DEVICES OF INDIRECT DEMOCRACY

i. Plebiscite: here, public opinion is important

ii. Initiative: the voters suggest legislatures to form policies. Initiative has to be taken by
the common people.
iii. Referendum: The ultimate acceptance is by the voters and a majority is needed to make
a decision.
iv. Recall: if the voters are not satisfied with the performance of their representatives, then
they can recall that person.

THEORY OF DEMOCRACY

CLASSICAL THEORY OF DEMOCRACY

This is a liberal form of democracy. Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Bentham, JS Mil, James Mills are the
propagators of this theory. This started with the concept of city-states where direct democracy was
practiced. Both direct and indirect democracy come under it. Father of democracy is Locke. This
form also talks about individual democracy. Locke spoke on the natural rights, which are the rights
to life, liberty and property which were said through article 21, 19 and 31 respectively. Rousseau
said the best form of democracy is direct. Locke disagreed to this.

Features of classical democracy:

1. Consent of the people: state provides rights to people and people form the body of the
state.
2. Natural rights: life, liberty and property are the natural rights. This is against the ethics of the
divine theory.
3. One person-one vote: this is related with direct and indirect democracy. This is concerned
with the political rights of the people. The age of franchise, may however differ according to
the countries.
4. There is no substitute of democracy: this is not completely true as many states with
monarchy and dictators is surviving till date
5. Representative government
6. Accountability of executive to the legislature: not a perfect feature because it is only
applicable to the parliamentary system
PLURALISTIC THEORY OF DEMOCRACY:

It refers to the decentralization of power in a democracy. There’s distribution of office and its
powers in this system. Since society is diverse and consists of a lot of associations, this theory
becomes important.

Robert Dahl, Satori, Hunter, Laski and Banker spoke on pluralism.

In a plural society, multiculturalism becomes important and associations collaborate to run the
government.

Dahl, Satori and Laski gave the following features of Pluralism:

1. In society, individual is important.

2. Mutual consultation among associations should be there which would lead to exchange of
views.
3. Decentralization: this is related with distribution of power. This is mentioned in the 73rd and
74th amendment of the Indian Constitution.
4. Group’s competition: different groups have different interests and this brings in a great deal
of competition. If interest steps in, so does competition.
5. Politics of consensus: competition can often lead to violent methods and hence consensus
becomes important to control violence in governance.
6. State is not the supreme authority. It merely acts as a coordinator.
7. Well-defined organizational structure is very necessary. Without powerful structure, it
becomes very difficult to manage different associations.
8. Election-process: elections is a means to an end of violent society
9. There should be an interaction between ruled and ruler.
Demerit of pluralistic society:
 ▪ Decision making takes more time since so many associations have to be consulted and
consented.
▪ Without central authority, no organization can become powerful, including the state.
▪ This gives less importance to individuals and undermines their existence.
▪ This theory is too utopian and impractical.
▪ This is an underestimation of state.
▪ This may lead to misrepresentation of the marginalized sections of the society
▪ Group interest does not equate public interest.

MARXIST THEORY OF DEMOCRACY:

Economy plays important role in society. Democracy becomes an instrument of exploitation. It leads
to the dictatorship of capitalist.

Marxism is only applicable to the industrialized society. This is because there is class division in the
industrialized society. With class consciousness, the proletariat revolts against the rich. This leads to
transition period which is the period of transition of power and leads to the dictatorship of the
proletariat. Post transition, there is a classless and stateless society.

First there is a negative connotation attached to democracy. After shift of power, democracy
becomes good.

Demerits of Marxist form of democracy:

o Covers only one dimension: only gives importance to economy whereas society also plays an
important part
o Dictatorship of proletariat: it is not practically possible.
o Stateless society is impossible. Without authority, regulation and governance becomes
difficult.
o Dictatorship is arbitrary, even if its by the proletariat. It is not good for the society in any
form.
ELITE THEORY OF DEMOCRACY:

This theory of part of development is a relevant. This theory is heavily criticized.

Italian sociologist Pareto and Robert Michels wrote on this theory.

It is a societal concept. It says that society is divided in two groups: elites and ruled. Elitist are able to
govern because they are capable of doing so. If people from ruled class become able to govern, then
they become elites. Thus, shift and movements are possible.

i. Elites are a small minority, according to Pareto. Pareto observed that in every society,
there is a minority which effectively rules and excercises power and influence.
ii. There are some extraordinary characteristics of the elites:
a. Intellectual ability
b. Administrative ability
c. Military power
d. Moral authority
They are unique and have a privileged position. They have their own comfort zone.

iii. According to Mosco, there is limited participation in governance. The ruled are not
involved in governance. It is only the elites who take the decisions amongst themselves.
 iv. According to Robert, there is Oligarchic Political System: elites come together, form a
group and then take decision. In the true sense, people are not involved in decision
making. This system is persistent to any country in the present day. The iron law of the
oligarchy is that even within the elites, there is a hierarchy of power.

Demerit of Democracy:

a. Question of ability: it cannot be guaranteed that all elites have all the required abilities. They
may be incapable of governing.
b. Less participation in decision making: the ruled should also have the power to participate in
governance.
c. Identity politics: there will soon be quarrels based on struggle of identity
d. Impractical: shift from ruled to ruler is not easy
e. Opposed by liberals and Marxist: against the main ethics of democracy and participatory
democracy
f. Passive role of the individual: individual are not an active unit which is contrary to normalcy
of democracy
g. Amongst the abilities listed for the elites, why science and commerce hasn’t been included,
is one of the criticism raised.
Challenges of a democratic country:

According to the western countries, democracy is the best way of any government. Theory of
democracy comes from these western countries. However, in practice, democracy is not easy to
apply.

1. Inequality: social and political inequality. There is unequal distribution of resources.

2. Caste inequality: this is unique to the case of India
3. Gender inequality
4. Illiteracy: if people are illiterate, then people cannot participate in the democracy well. They
do not know of their rights and duties
5. Communalism: communal policies interfere in the working of a secular country like India
6. Terrorism: terrorist are usually defined as people who violently oppose the existing
government
7. Corruption: transparency does not exist in a government when there is corruption