1.

) Metropolitan waterworks and sewage systems (Philippines)

Metro Manila Water Supply System

The main sources of Metro Manila’s water supply are the Angat, Ipo, and La Mesa Dams. The water from
these dams are then processed by the La Mesa and Balara Treatment Plants, which converts it from a raw
state to clean and potable water.

The water from the Angat Dam, the major supply source for the metropolis, is funneled directly to Ipo Dam.
It then flows a distance of 6.4 kilometers to Bicti, after which it passes through five aqueducts—each about
16 kilometers long—to the La Mesa Dam and the La Mesa Portal. From the La Mesa Portal, 60% of the flow
goes to the nearby La Mesa Treatment Plant, out of which another 40% again travels a distance of 6.8
kilometers to the Balara Treatment Plant. The La Mesa Water Treatment Plant, with very minimal
electromechanical equipment, relies mostly on water’s hydraulic properties to backwash its filter and gravity
to convey raw water from the source into the plant and out into the distribution system.

It can only process 2,400 MLD (million liters per day) of raw water, while the Balara Treatment Plant, which
has a full production capacity of 1,600 MLD, can supply more than 6 million people throughout the metropolis.

When both Balara and La Mesa Treatment Plants are operation, the total processing capacity will be 4,000
mld. The La Mesa Water Treatment Plant serves the western half of Metro Manila, while the existing Balara
Water Treatment Plant supplies the eastern half.

How Water is Being Processed

1.) Screening

Surface water (water from Angat Dam and Ipo Dam) often contains large debris, such as sticks, logs,
leaves, fish, and trash. These objects can clog the water-treatment system and therefore must removed
before the water enters the treatment plant. As such, treatment facilities that use surface water have large
screens that cover the site of water intake. The debris is too large to pass through the holes in these
screens. So as the water enters the facility’s tunnels and aqueducts, the large debris is removed. These
screens, however, must be cleaned periodically to remove any objects that have become stuck and prevent
the screen from becoming clogged and impeding water flow into the facility.

2.) Pre-Chlorination (Disinfection)

This step effectively kills any organisms (pathogens) in the water that may maybe harmful to humans. This
is done through the addition of chorine, and is repeated after all other treatment sequences to ensure the
destruction such organisms.

3.) Rapid Mixing

As the first step in which the water is being treated, this involves intense vigorous mixing and promotes the
dispersion of coagulation chemicals (Aluminum Sulfate and Polymer) in the raw water.
A series of chemical reactions occur to begin the formation of a “floc”, which is a cluster of coagulative
chemicals and impurities, such as suspended solids and organic matter. The intensity of the mixing is then
reduced, allowing well-defined pinhead-sized particles of floc to begin to form.

4.) Flocculation

These small non-rigid particles are made to come in contact and agglomerate with one another by mixing
the water. When the agglomeration of the particles gets large enough, the aggregate will then settle in still
water by sedimentation.

The larger particles continue to combine, or flocculate, into much larger and heavier particles. These
particles become too heavy to float and begin to sink and settle. Other suspended particles that do not
agglomerate well by flocculation are removed from the water through the use of polymers.

After flocculation, the water is ready for the next step in the treatment process, sedimentation.

5.) Coagulation

Aluminum sulfate is added to the water entering the plant. The water is mixed, rapidly at first and then more
slowly as the process continues. Mixing causes lightweight particles in the chemically treated to clump
together, or coagulate, into much larger particles.

Coagulation is the process of gathering particles into a cluster or clot, often achieved by the addition of
special chemicals known as coagulants. The most common coagulant used in water treatment facilities is
aluminum sulfate (alum, Al2 (SO4) 3). Other Al and Fe salts, including polyaluminum chloride, ferric
chloride, and ferric sulfate, may be used as well. As this precipitate forms, other particles are caught in the
solid and form a mass.

6.) Sedimentation

Other suspended insoluble particles, such as sand and dirt, are often small enough to pass easily through
the screens. Therefore, these particles must be removed from the water by another process known as
sedimentation. When water is allowed to sit, heavy suspended particles, such as sand, will settle to the
bottom over time, as they are denser than water. The water, now free of the suspended impurities, can be
collected from the top without disturbing the layer of sediment at the bottom, which is eventually discarded.

7.) Filtration

Oftentimes, however, the particles generated by the previous precipitation reactions are too small to settle
efficiently by sedimentation. One strategy frequently employed to remove these solids is gravity filtration.

In this process, water containing solid impurities is passed through a porous medium, typically layers of
sand and gravel pieces. The solids formed from precipitation get stuck in the pores, and are thus removed
from the water as it passes through the porous medium. The water that remains at the bottom of the filter
no longer contains those solid impurities.
These gravity filters are essentially a pipe feeding into the under-drain, or the bottom layer where the clean
water is collected. By adding water to the filter through this pipe, clean water can be forced upward through
the filter to remove the solids that have collected in the filter. This process is used to clean the filter.

8.) Disinfection

In many water supplies, the most serious health threats are posed not by chemicals, but by infectious
organisms, such as bacteria, in the water. Chlorine (CI2) is a major disinfectant that is affordable and kills
most of the serious disease-causing bacteria in the water. Other methods are also employed to remove the
organisms, including through coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration.

Schematic Flow Process of a Water Treatment Plant

The processes of screening, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection work together to remove
the unwanted substances from our water supply, making it safe to drink and appropriate for other
uses. Once the water is treated, it is sent to storage reservoir and then distributed to household
consumers, businesses, and industries.

2.) Center for disease control and prevention (United States)

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the leading national public health institute of
the United States. The CDC is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human
Services and is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia.
Its main goal is to protect public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury,
and disability in the US and internationally. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying
disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on infectious disease, food borne
pathogens, environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, injury prevention and
educational activities designed to improve the health of United States citizens. In addition, the CDC
researches and provides information on non-infectious diseases such as obesity and diabetes and is a
founding member of the International Association of National Public Health Institutes.

Water Treatment

Community Water Treatment

Drinking water supplies in the United States are among the safest in the world. However, even in the U.S.,
drinking water sources can become contaminated, causing sickness and disease from waterborne germs,
such as Cryptosporidium, E. coli, Hepatitis A, Giardia intestinalis, and other pathogens.

Drinking water sources are subject to contamination and require appropriate treatment to remove disease-
causing agents. Public drinking water systems use various methods of water treatment to provide safe
drinking water for their communities. Today, the most common steps in water treatment used by community
water systems (mainly surface water treatment) include:
 Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation and flocculation are often the first steps in water treatment. Chemicals with a positive
charge are added to the water. The positive charge of these chemicals neutralizes the negative
charge of dirt and other dissolved particles in the water. When this occurs, the particles bind with the
chemicals and form larger particles, called floc.

 Sedimentation

During sedimentation, floc settles to the bottom of the water supply, due to its weight. This settling
process is called sedimentation.

 Filtration

Once the floc has settled to the bottom of the water supply, the clear water on top will pass through
filters of varying compositions (sand, gravel, and charcoal) and pore sizes, in order to remove
dissolved particles, such as dust, parasites, bacteria, viruses, and chemicals.

 Disinfection

After the water has been filtered, a disinfectant (for example, chlorine, chloramine) may be added in
order to kill any remaining parasites, bacteria, and viruses, and to protect the water from germs when
it is piped to homes and businesses.