220 TOOL DESIGN Tool ‘travel Tool FIGURE 4-9 Formation of a discontinuous chip, Tool travel ‘Smooth surface FIGURE 4-10 Formation of a continuous chip. higher cutting speeds, as low cutting speeds sometimes cause certain ductile materials to pile up ahead of the tool and come off in small lumps similar to discontinuous chips. It is often referred to as an “ideal” chip because it produces excellent surface finish, the power consumption is low, friction between chip and tool is low, and excessive heat is mot generated, It does create a chip-disposal problem, and this is usually taken care of by incorporating chip breakers behind the cutting-tool edge. Figure 4-10 shows the formation of a continuous chip, and Fig. 4-11 shows a photograph of one. BUE chip Although continuous chips are sometimes considered ideal, they are often difficult to obtain when machining the usual ductile materials, More often than not, ductile materials appear to be “gummy” and tend to adhere to the face and flank of the tool, This is the result of high friction between the face of the tool and the chip. The metal piles up on the tool point until it appears to resemble a cutting edge and is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a “false cutting edge.” More correctly, it is referred to as.a built-up edge (BUE), and the result is a continuous chip with a built-up edge. BUE chip is common to most metal-cutting operations (Figs. 4-11 and 4-12). [tis associated with ductile materials being machined at speeds in the high-speed-steel eutting range (usually below the carbide cutting range). The built up edge is a glob of work material that adheres to the face of the tool as the chip shears past it, It is the result of high resistance to the sliding of the chip up the tool face. This high friction causes some of the chip metal to shear away from the body of the chip and remain more or lessDESIGN OF CUTTING TOOLS 223 FIGURE 4-11 Basie chip types: (a) discontinuous, (b) continuous, (c) built-up edge. (Cincinnati Milaeron, Ine.) Tool iets travel / Toot / FIGURE 4-12 Formation of a continuous chip with a built up edge, tooth plain mill.’ ‘The primary advantage of orthogonal cuiting is the two-dimensional nature of the patterns of deformations and stresses. The many variables involved in metal cutting can thus be studied under the simplest geometrical configuration. Its main use is ' ‘The student should nate the distinction: plane milling refers to a flat surface with reference to which the workpiece is located; plain milling refers to the simplest type of machine or accessory, such asa plain milling cutter or plain indexing.226 TOOL DESIGN FIGURE 4-15 “LASS Schematic diagram of force system acting in orthogonal cutting with a continuous chip. [From ASTME, “Toot Engineers Handbook,” 2d ‘ ed., F. W. Wilson (ed.), MeGraw- ill, New York, 1959, by permis- [ sion.) N= Warkpiece = and at the shear plane. At the tool face, the foree components F and N aet on the chip. F, known as the friction foree, represents the frictional resistance met by the chip as it slides over the face of the tool. N is known as the normal foree. The ratio of F to N is the coefficient of frietion between chip and tool. The force components acting at the shear plane are F, and F,,. F, represents the force required to shear the metal on the plane of shear and is known as the shearing force, F,, acts normal to the shear plane and results in a eompressive stress being applied to the plane of shear. The mean shear stress on the shear plane, which is equal to the mean shear strength of the metal being cut, can of course be obtained by dividing F, by the area of the shear plane, Correspondingly, the compressive stress on the shear plane is found by dividing F,, by the atea of the shear plane. ‘The total work done by the cutting tool in removing metal, as determined by the value of the force component F., is actually derived from two sources. It is the sum of “@. the work used in overcoming friction as the chip slides over the tool face and the work consumed in shearing the metal on the shear plane. From the geometry of Fig. 4-15, equations can be derived from whieh various mechanical quantities can be calculated if certain quantities are known or readily measured. The quantities that are known or readily measured are the shear angle @, the rake angle @ of the tool, the force components F, and F,, the chip eross-sectional area Ao, and the cutting speed V. The equations for making such calculations from these known quantities are summarized in Table 4-2. The following quantities can be calculated. Coefficient of Friction 1 The coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool is a ‘measure of the resistances to sliding encountered by the chip as it passes over the face of the tool. It is equal to the tangent of angle 7 of Fig. 4-14. This coefficient of friction can