A local oscillator is a device that generates a sinusoidal signal with a frequency such that the

receiver is able to generate the correct resulting frequency, or intermediate frequency (IF), for further
amplification and conversion into audio detection. There is one local oscillator in a single
conversion superheterodyne receiver where heterodyning or mixing is used to generate beat
frequencies, which may be the sum or the difference of two frequencies. The local oscillator is
usually adjustable and in step with the increment or decrement in the receiver frequency. For
instance, if the receiver is tuned to 1,455 kilohertz (kHz) as radio frequency input (RF-in), the local
oscillator frequency (LOF) may be set to 1,910 kHz for a so-called high side injection. The two
signals are fed to an electronic device known as the mixer, which derives LOF - RF-in = IF or 455
kHz, which suggests why amplitude modulation (AM) broadcast receivers have about four stages of
low-power amplifiers tunable to 455 kHz.

The most common way to add message into a radio frequency carrier is a process called AM, where
the average peak amplitude of the carrier is made proportional to the message. When a radio
frequency carrier has been generated, the secondary winding of an audio transformer in series with
the carrier current produces AM when message or modulation is fed to the primary winding. A direct
conversion receiver uses a local oscillator tuned to the incoming radio frequency. Using homodyne
detection, the LOF and RF-in are mixed, producing a low-pass filtered output, which is the message
in AM. On the other hand, there are receiver designs that require dual conversion and use two local
oscillators and two intermediate frequencies.

Frequency modulation (FM) broadcast receivers may use phase-locked loop detection for converting
FM back into audio. The message is proportional to the instantaneous deviation of the FM signal
from the carrier rest frequency, thus a phase-locked loop that maintains lock on the FM signal will
generate a steering voltage with an alternating current (AC) component proportional to the message;
this is phase-locked loop detection. In heterodyne detection, the local oscillator may be tuned to a
slightly different frequency such as 1 kHz higher or lower than the incoming radio frequency. The
result is a 1 kHz audio at the detector output, which could drive a headset or a speaker for the
decoding of Morse code, a conversion of individual letters into a series of short and long bursts of
signals.

Article Details
 Written By: Geisha A. Legazpi
 Edited By: Lauren Fritsky
 Last Modified Date: 18 November 2018
 Copyright Protected:
2003-2018 Conjecture Corporation
 https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-local-oscillator.htm

In an AM or FM receiver, a Local Oscillator (LO) is used to mix its frequency with the
frequency of the station being received (tuned to or listened to).
When 2 different frequencies are mixed together, the result is 4 different frequencies;
the 2 original frequencies, the sum of those 2 frequencies, and the difference between
those 2 frequencies.
What is being done in the receivers is that the local oscillator is always at a frequency
that is higher than the frequency of the station being received by the exact amount;
455kHz higher in AM receivers, and 10.7MHz higher in FM receivers. The tuner
resonant frequency and LO frequency are always changed together by the same amount,
so that this difference is always the same.
 If you are listening to a station operating at 90.1MHz for example, your tuning circuit is
set to 90.1MHz and the LO is set to 100.8MHz (10.7MHz higher).
These 2 are mixed, passed through a 10.7MHz filter (usually a 10.7MHz crystal
resonator), and then amplified a couple more times.

This process is called heterodyning, and the frequency resulting as the difference
between the two frequencies (the tuned/received and the LO frequency) is called
Intermediate Frequency (IF).
The radio receiver working on this principle is called heterodyne or often
superheterodyne (short for “supersonic heterodyne”) receiver; “heterodyne” here means
“generated by a difference”, and “supersonic” indicates frequencies above the range of
human hearing.

The whole point of generating and using this intermediate frequency (IF) is:
1. to make it easier to amplify the signal (lower frequencies are easier to amplify);
2. to make the multi-stage amplifier design easier, simpler and more reliable and stable,
as all of the subsequent circuits are tuned only once (in the factory or during a service)
for the single frequency, instead of needing to be tuned all at the same time if the
frequency they needed to amplify kept changing;
3. if the same tuned (input) frequency was going through all of the amplifier stages, its
amplified version would reach the input and create a positive feedback loop which
would make the receiver oscillate.

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-function-of-a-local-oscillator

Edin Fifić, ASEE Electronics, International School of Zenica (2016)

Updated May 1

What is an Oscillator

An oscillator provides a source of repetitive A.C. signal across its output terminals without
needing any input (except a D.C. supply). The signal generated by the oscillator is usually
of constant amplitude.

The wave shape and amplitude are determined by the design of the oscillator circuit and
choice of component values.

The frequency of the output wave may be fixed or variable, depending on the oscillator
design.

Types of Oscillator
 Fig. 1.0.1 Oscillator
(AC Source)
Circuit Symbol

Oscillators may be classified by the type of signal they produce.

 SINE WAVE OSCILLATORS produce a sine wave output.

 RELAXATION OSCILLATORS and ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS produce Square
waves and rectangular pulses.
 SWEEP OSCILLATORS produce sawtooth waves.

Sine wave oscillators can also be classified by frequency, or the type of frequency control
they use. RF (radio frequency) oscillators working at frequencies above about 30 to
50kHz use LC (inductors and capacitors) or Crystals to control their frequency. These
may also be classified as HF, VHF, and UHF oscillators, depending on their frequency.

LF (low frequency) oscillators are generally used for generating frequencies below about
30kHz and are usually RC oscillators, as they use resistors and capacitors to control their
frequency.

Square wave oscillators such as relaxation and astable oscillators may be used at any
frequency from less than 1Hz up to several GHz and are very often implemented in
integrated circuit form.

Sine Wave Oscillators.

Fig. 1.0.2 Frequency Control Networks

These circuits ideally produce a pure sine wave output having a constant amplitude and
stable frequency. The type of circuit used depends on a number of factors, including the
frequency required. Designs based on LC resonant circuits or on crystal resonators are
used for ultrasonic and radio frequency applications, but at audio and very low
frequencies the physical size of the resonating components, L and C would be too big to
be practical.

For this reason a combination of R and C is used to a control frequency. The circuit
symbols used for these frequency control networks are shown in Fig. 1.0.2

LC oscillators

Inductors and capacitors are combined in a resonating circuit that produces a very good
shape of sine wave and has quite good frequency stability. That is, the frequency does
not alter very much for changes in the D.C. supply voltage or in ambient temperature, but
it is relatively simple, by using variable inductors or capacitors, to make a variable
frequency (tuneable) oscillator. LC oscillators are extensively used in generating and
receiving RF signals where a variable frequency is required.

RC (or CR) oscillators

At low frequencies such as audio the values of L and C needed to produce a resonating
circuit would be too large and bulky to be practical. Therefore resistors and capacitors are
used in RC filter type combinations to generate sine waves at these frequencies, however
it is more difficult to produce a pure sine wave shape using R and C. These low
frequency sine wave oscillators are used in many audio applications and different designs
are used having either a fixed or variable frequency.

Crystal oscillators

At radio frequencies and higher, whenever a fixed frequency with very high degree of
frequency stability is needed, the component that determines the frequency of oscillation
is usually a quartz crystal, which when subjected to an alternating voltage, vibrates at a
very precise frequency. The frequency depends on the physical dimensions of the crystal,
therefore once the crystal has been manufactured to specific dimensions, the frequency
of oscillation is extremely accurate. Crystal oscillator designs can produce either sine
wave or square wave signals, and as well as being used to generate very accurate
frequency carrier waves in radio transmitters, they also form the basis of the very
accurate timing elements in clocks, watches, and computer systems.

Relaxation oscillators

These oscillators work on a different principle to sine wave oscillators. They produce a
square wave or pulsed output and generally use two amplifiers, and a frequency control
network that simply produces a timing delay between two actions. The two amplifiers
operate in switch mode, switching fully on or fully off alternately, and as the time, during
which the transistors are actually switching, only lasts for a very small fraction of each
cycle of the wave, the rest of the cycle they "relax" while the timing network produces the
 remainder of the wave. An alternative name for this type of oscillator is an "astable
multivibrator", this name comes from the fact that they contain more than one oscillating
element. There are basically two oscillators, i.e. ''vibrators'', each feeding part of its signal
back to the other, and the output changes from a high to a low state and back again
continually, i.e. it has no stable state, hence it is astable. Relaxation oscillators can be
built using several different designs and can work at many different frequencies. Astables
may typically be chosen for such tasks as producing high frequency digital signals. They
are also used to produce the relatively low frequency on-off signals for flashing lights.

Sweep oscillators

A sweep waveform is another name for a saw-tooth wave. This has a linearly changing
(e.g increasing) voltage for almost the whole of one cycle followed by a fast return to the
wave’s original value. This wave shape is useful for changing (sweeping) the frequency of
a voltage-controlled oscillator, which is an oscillator that can have its frequency varied
over a set range by having a variable ‘sweep’ voltage applied to its control input. Sweep
oscillators often consist of a ramp generator that is basically a capacitor charged by a
constant value of current. Keeping the charging current constant whilst the charging
voltage increases, causes the capacitor to charge in a linear fashion rather than its
normal exponential curve. At a given point the capacitor is rapidly discharged to return
the signal voltage to its original value. These two sections of a saw-tooth wave cycle are
called the sweep and the fly-back.

In electronics, a local oscillator (LO) is an electronic oscillator used with a mixer to change the
frequency of a signal. This frequency conversion process, also called heterodyning, produces the
sum and difference frequencies from the frequency of the local oscillator and frequency of the input
signal. Processing a signal at a fixed frequency gives a radio receiver improved performance. In
many receivers, the function of local oscillator and mixer is combined in one stage called a
"converter" - this reduces the space, cost, and power consumption by combining both functions into
one active device.
 Contents

 1Applications
 2Performance requirements
 3Types of LO
 4Unintended LO emissions
 5See also
 6References

Applications[edit]
Local oscillators are used in the superheterodyne receiver, the most common type of radio
receiver circuit. They are also used in many other communications circuits such as modems, cable
television set top boxes, frequency division multiplexing systems used in
telephone trunklines, microwave relay systems, telemetry systems, atomic clocks, radio telescopes,
and military electronic countermeasure (antijamming) systems. In satellite television reception,
the microwave frequencies used from the satellite down to the receiving antenna are converted to
lower frequencies by a local oscillator and mixer mounted at the antenna. This allows the received
signals to be sent over a length of cable that would otherwise have unacceptable signal loss at the
original reception frequency. In this application, the local oscillator is of a fixed frequency and the
down-converted signal frequency is variable.

Performance requirements[edit]
Application of local oscillators in a receiver design requires care to ensure no spurious signals are
radiated. Such signals can cause interference in the operation of other receivers. The performance
of a signal processing system depends on the characteristics of the local oscillator. The local
oscillator must produce a stable frequency with low harmonics. [1] Stability must take into account
temperature, voltage, and mechanical drift as factors. The oscillator must produce enough output
power to effectively drive subsequent stages of circuitry, such as mixers or frequency multipliers. It
must have low phase noise where the timing of the signal is critical.[2][3] In a channelized receiver
system, the precision of tuning of the frequency synthesizer must be compatible with the channel
spacing of the desired signals.

Types of LO[edit]
A crystal oscillator is one common type of local oscillator that provides good stability and
performance at relatively low cost, but its frequency is fixed, so changing frequencies requires
changing the crystal. Tuning to different frequencies requires a variable-frequency oscillator which
leads to a compromise between stability and tunability. With the advent of high-speed digital
microelectronics, modern systems can use frequency synthesizers to obtain a stable tunable local
oscillator, but care must still be taken to maintain adequate noise characteristics in the result.

Unintended LO emissions[edit]
Detection of local oscillator radiation may disclose the presence of the receiver, such as in detection
of automotive radar detectors, or detection of unlicensed television broadcast receivers in some
countries.
Local oscillator and mixer[edit]
The signal is then fed into a circuit where it is mixed with a sine wave from a variable frequency
oscillator known as the local oscillator (LO). The mixer uses a non-linear component to produce both
sum and difference beat frequencies signals,[12] each one containing the modulation contained in the
desired signal. The output of the mixer may include the original RF signal at fRF, the local oscillator
signal at fLO, and the two new heterodyne frequencies fRF + fLO and fRF − fLO. The mixer may
inadvertently produce additional frequencies such as third- and higher-order intermodulation
products. Ideally, the IF bandpass filter removes all but the desired IF signal at fIF. The IF signal
contains the original modulation (transmitted information) that the received radio signal had at fRF.
Historically, vacuum tubes were expensive, so broadcast AM receivers would save costs by
employing a single tube as both a mixer and also as the local oscillator. The pentagrid converter tube
would oscillate and also provide signal amplification as well as frequency shifting.[13]
The frequency of the local oscillator fLO is set so the desired reception radio frequency fRF mixes to fIF.
There are two choices for the local oscillator frequency because the dominant mixer products are
at fRF ± fLO. If the local oscillator frequency is less than the desired reception frequency, it is
called low-side injection (fIF = fRF − fLO); if the local oscillator is higher, then it is called high-side
injection (fIF = fLO − fRF).
The mixer will process not only the desired input signal at fRF, but also all signals present at its inputs.
There will be many mixer products (heterodynes). Most other signals produced by the mixer (such
as due to stations at nearby frequencies) can be filtered out in the IF amplifier; that gives the
superheterodyne receiver its superior performance. However, if fLO is set to fRF + fIF, then an incoming
radio signal at fLO + fIF will also produce a heterodyne at fIF; the frequency fLO + fIF is called the image
frequency and must be rejected by the tuned circuits in the RF stage. The image frequency is
2 fIF higher (or lower) than the desired frequency fRF, so employing a higher IF frequency fIF increases
the receiver's image rejection without requiring additional selectivity in the RF stage.[dubious – discuss]
To suppress the unwanted image, the tuning of the RF stage and the LO may need to "track" each
other. In some cases, a narrow-band receiver can have a fixed tuned RF amplifier. In that case, only
the local oscillator frequency is changed. In most cases, a receiver's input band is wider than its IF
center frequency. For example, a typical AM broadcast band receiver covers 510 kHz to 1655 kHz (a
roughly 1160 kHz input band) with a 455 kHz IF frequency; an FM broadcast band receiver covers
88 MHz to 108 MHz band with a 10.7 MHz IF frequency. In that situation, the RF amplifier must be
tuned so the IF amplifier does not see two stations at the same time. If the AM broadcast band
receiver LO were set at 1200 kHz, it would see stations at both 745 kHz (1200−455 kHz) and
1655 kHz. Consequently, the RF stage must be designed so that any stations that are twice the IF
frequency away are significantly attenuated. The tracking can be done with a multi-section variable
capacitor or some varactors driven by a common control voltage. An RF amplifier may have tuned
circuits at both its input and its output, so three or more tuned circuits may be tracked. In practice,
the RF and LO frequencies need to track closely but not perfectly.[14][15]

Local oscillator radiation

Further information: Electromagnetic compatibility

It is difficult to keep stray radiation from the local oscillator below the level that a nearby receiver can
detect. The receiver's local oscillator can act like a low-power CW transmitter. Consequently, there
can be mutual interference in the operation of two or more superheterodyne receivers in close
proximity.
In intelligence operations, local oscillator radiation gives a means to detect a covert receiver and its
operating frequency. The method was used by MI-5 during Operation RAFTER.[18] This same
technique is also used in radar detector detectors used by traffic police in jurisdictions where radar
detectors are illegal.
A method of significantly reducing the local oscillator radiation from the receiver's antenna is to use
an RF amplifier between the receiver's antenna and its mixer stage.

Local oscillator sideband noise

Local oscillators typically generate a single frequency signal that has negligible amplitude
modulation but some random phase modulation. Either of these impurities spreads some of the
signal's energy into sideband frequencies. That causes a corresponding widening of the receiver's
frequency response, which would defeat the aim to make a very narrow bandwidth receiver such as
to receive low-rate digital signals. Care needs to be taken to minimize oscillator phase noise, usually
by ensuring that the oscillator never enters a non-linear mode.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superheterodyne_receiver

Local Oscillator
The local oscillator excite a frequency for mixing with the incoming
signal to get the intermediate frequency.
Most radar receivers use megahertz intermediate frequency (IF) with a value
between 30 and 75 megahertz. The IF is produced by mixing a local
oscillator signal with the incoming signal. The local oscillator is, therefore,
essential to efficient operation and must be both tunable and very stable. For
example, if the local oscillator frequency is 3,000 megahertz, a frequency
change of 0.1 percent will produce a frequency shift of 3 megahertz. This is
equal to the bandwidth of most receivers and would greatly decrease
receiver gain.
The power output requirement for most local oscillators is small (20 to
50 milliwatts) because most receivers use crystal mixers that require very
little power.
The local oscillator output frequency must be tunable over a range of several
megahertz in the 4,000-megahertz region. The local oscillator must
compensate for any changes in the transmitted frequency and maintain a
constant 30 or 75 megahertz difference between the oscillator and the
transmitter frequency. A local oscillator that can be tuned by varying the
applied voltage is most desirable.
The exiting frequency is either higher or lower than the incoming frequency.
An RF amplifier stage ahead of the converter stage provides enough
selectivity to reduce the image-frequency response by rejecting these
unwanted signals and adds to the sensitivity of the receiver.
http://www.radartutorial.eu/09.receivers/rx05.en.html

In radio reception using the superheterodyne principle the incoming signal is changed in
frequency by the converter stage of the receiver to a new and lower frequency known as the
intermediate frequency. The electron tubes used in the converter stage have been
characterized in the past by poor performance as compared with that of tubes used for
amplification. This paper describes a new principle whereby frequency conversion may be
accomplished with substantially improved performance over that available from conversion
methods heretofore used. The principle of conversion herein described is to reverse the
phase of the signal output periodically at a rate which differs from the signal frequency by
the intermediate frequency. This may be done either by continuous variation of phase or by
continuous variation of tube transconductance from positive to negative. The result is a
conversion transconductance which is twice as high as had heretofore been believed ideal.
Furthermore, if the phase-reversal rate is made by any integral multiple of an applied local-
oscillator frequency, equally good conversion is obtained at a harmonic of the local
oscillator without spurious responses at any other harmonic than the one chosen. An
electron tube with a multihumped characteristic has been devised as a means to this end
since the transconductance characteristic will then vary from positive to negative as the
control voltage is varied. An analysis of such a tube is carried out in detail, including the
effect of fluctuation noise.

E.W. Herold
RCA Laboratories, Radio Corporation of America, Princeton, New Jersey
April 1946 https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/1697050/references#references

The Superheterodyne Receiver

Author: J.B. Hoag

The essential idea of the superheterodyne receiver is to change the radio frequency of the
signal to a lower, fixed value, where the amplifying circuits can be designed to have great
stability and gain, and proper selectivity and fidelity. These circuits constitute
the intermediate frequency (i.f.) amplifier. They operate at a frequency above (super)
audibility, say at 455,000 cycles per second. The change of frequency just before the i.f.
amplifier is accomplished by a beat or heterodyne circuit, called a frequency-converter. This
contains a local-oscillator and the first-detector or mixer. The sequence of circuits in a
"superhet" is shown in Fig. 32 G.
 Fig. 32 G. Superheterodyne reception of phone signals

The r.f. amplifier ahead of the converter is sometimes called the preselector. Figure 32 H
shows the action of the circuit when receiving a c.w. signal.
 Fig. 32 H. Superheterodyne reception of c.w. signals

As an example, assume that the incoming signal frequency is 1,500 kHz, and that the local
oscillator is adjusted to 1,955 kHz. Then the intermediate frequency will be 455 kHz, which
is the difference or beat-frequency between 1,955 and 1,500. If a signal at 1,600 kHz is to
be received, the r.f. stages are tuned to this new value and the local-oscillator is adjusted to
2,055 kHz. The i.f. will be the same as before, i.e., 455 kHz. The i.f. amplifier can,
therefore, be built to operate on this one frequency (including the band of frequencies in the
immediate neighborhood). Once the i.f. stages have been properly "aligned", they can be
sealed in a shielding metal can and left untouched from then on.

Suppose that two transmitting stations simultaneously delivered equal-strength r.f. signals
to the converter stage, and that the carrier frequency of one is 1,500 kHz, that of the other
2,410 kHz. Then, with the local oscillator set at 1,955 kHz, a beat-note of 455 kHz (1,955 —
1,500) would be produced by one station and a beat-note of 455 kHz (2,410 — 1,995)
would be produced by the other. With an i.f. amplifier set at 455 kHz, both stations would
"come in" in equal strength at the same time and a jumble of sounds would come out of the
loudspeaker. If it is intended that only one signal be received at a time, say the lower, at
1,500 kHz, then the other at 2,410 kHz (or image frequency) must be eliminated. This is
accomplished by means of the preselector. The preselector furnishes selectivity and
eliminates undesired signals whose frequencies differ appreciably from that at resonance;
the i.f. amplifier rejects frequencies which differ but slightly from that at resonance.

The image frequency always differs from the desired signal frequency by an amount equal
to twice the intermediate frequency. If equal strength signals (desired and image frequency)
are applied to the converter, the ratio of the output voltages is called the signal-to-image-
ratio, or image-ratio. Within limits, the higher the i.f., the higher the image-ratio. Practically
all good preselector circuits give high image-ratios.
Spurious reception can be had from beats with harmonic frequencies of both the received
signal and the local oscillator. Proper preselector circuits and good shielding, especially in
the converter stage, to prevent stray pick-up, will eliminate these undesired effects.

For very high frequencies, the incoming frequency is sometimes reduced with a converter to
a lower r.f. (1.5, 5, or 10 MHz.) and this, after amplification, is again lowered to the usual
455 kHz. The receiver is then called a double superheterodyne or double-detection receiver.

http://www.vias.org/basicradio/basic_radio_33_06.html