Engineering Failure Analysis 95 (2019) 226–238

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Failure analysis of a railway brake disc with the use of casting

T
process simulation
⁎
Peter Futáša, Alena Pribulováa, Gabriel Fedorkob, , Vieroslav Molnárc,
Andrea Junákovád, Vlastislav Laskovskýb
a
Faculty of Metallurgy, Technical University of Kosice, Letna 9, 042 00, Kosice, Slovak Republic
b
Faculty of Mining, Ecology, Process Control and Geotechnology, Technical University of Kosice, Letna 9, 042 00, Kosice, Slovak Republic
c
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies of Technical University in Kosice with a Seat in Presov, Bayerova 1, 080 01, Presov, Slovak Republic
d
Magneti Marelli Slovakia, 044 58 Kechnec, Slovak Republic

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: Software for modelling of industry processes is an integral part of production involving many
Failure analysis segments of industry. The use of simulation software in foundry industry is perceived as a tool for
Computer simulation visualization of ongoing processes in casting production. These tools eliminate defects and im-
Ductile iron perfections within the process before the production even begins which has a subsequent positive
Shrinkage
effect on quality increase and reduction of financial costs in product manufacturing. The paper
Gravity casting
deals with a solution of formation and occurrence of foundry defects such as shrinkage in the
Unidirectional freezing
casting produced from ductile iron with the use of simulation software. The casting of railway
brake disc and its 3D model were used in the experiments. The goal of the study was evaluation of
simulation results with regard to casting quality increase and decrease of shrinkage formation, as
well as decrease in manufacturing costs during casting production. The paper focuses on a
possibility of improving the utilization of liquid metal in the solidification of castings with the
help of simulation that compares basic as well as adjusted parameters of casting. Computer si-
mulation of casting uncovered the gating system elements' adjustments and technological mod-
ifications effect on the entire casting and on reduction or elimination of shrinkages incidence
along with the increase of liquid metal utilization during casting. These imply the reduction of
financial costs and increased efficiency in production of castings. The paper presents the results
of the simulation casting of the railway brake disc. Based on the results of these simulations, the
shape of gating system and position of casting in mould was modified and the number of feeders
has been reduced from 6 to 1. This technology modification saves the liquid metal and the casting
has been without shrinkages.

⁎
Corresponding author.

1. Introduction

Railway transport plays an important role in various types of logistic systems in a wide range of industrial fields. Its operation is
very closely linked with high demands on safety and reliability. To meet the demands, it is necessary to pay closer attention not only

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gabriel.fedorko@tuke.sk (G. Fedorko).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2018.09.005
Received 4 July 2018; Received in revised form 23 August 2018; Accepted 13 September 2018
Available online 13 September 2018
1350-6307/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Futáš et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 95 (2019) 226–238

to the operation of individual components and equipment, but also to the process of their actual production. The most important
elements that are exposed to extreme stress while being operated are brake discs of a railway wagon. They are a key factor for
ensuring safe operation, and are manufactured using technology of casting and subsequent machining of individual castings. One of
the main factors of brake disc proper functioning is casting quality of the initial semi-product.
Final quality of a railway disc brake casting is affected by many factors and foundry principles such as unidirectional freezing,
technology of feeding and chills/chilling. Other important accompanying phenomenon is the shrinkage of cast iron during casting
solidification process. This takes place from the point when casted iron is in liquid state until the ambient temperature is reached.
Shrinking or volume change occurring while in liquid state is called shrinkage, specific foundry property of the given material [1,2].
The issues are being dealt with by several authors, e.g. volume changes during ductile iron solidification were studied by Chen et al.
[3], Yeung et al. [4] and Falat et al. [5]. The actual shrinkage occurs in the interval of liquid - solid. Shrinkages, however, can be
prevented by replacing reduced volume of the melt with increased volume from another source – feeder. The issues of shrinkage and
feeding are further presented in [6–8]. When the process is deployed, the size of feeders is chosen based on the volume capacity of
casting and type of alloy. Subsequently, the shape and dimensions of the cast are crucial for selecting a suitable type of feeder and its
correct positioning on the cast so that the metal is refilled into the entire volume of the cast during volume shrinkage. An important
role in this process is played by a gating system and its connection to the casting.
The issue of gating and feeder system in ductile iron castings is described in [9]. A basic condition for prevention of volume
defects such as cast shrinkages and micro shrinkages is an appropriate shaping of the casts already in the process of their construction.
Solidification of ductile iron castings along with their construction were dealt with by Bjerre et al. [10].
Volume changes in casting during solidification interval, resulting in creation of shrinkages, are a physical phenomenon that
cannot be avoided. Shrinkage is a phenomenon concerning the reduction in size of casting during its transition from a liquid to a solid
state. This phenomenon also causes the formation of shrinkage cavities and porosity in the casting [11]. However, an appropriate
technological intervention can help the resulting shrinkage occur in an additional portion, in the feeder, which will help the cast
solidify properly. Formation and elimination of shrinkages and micro shrinkages in ductile iron casting were dealt with by Siclari
et al. [12].
In order for shrinkage to be formed in the feeder, not in the casting, a positively unidirectional freezing needs to be ensured [13].
Solidification occurs in two stages. In its first stage, solidification front progresses from the surface towards the inside of the casting
along with smooth metal refilling from the feeder. The second phase has limited options of refilling the casting with molten metal
from a feeder in a two-phase zone. Positively unidirectional freezing takes place in the case when solidification fronts meet at an
angle ω, which is open towards a feeder [14]. Volume decrease in the solidification of metal can thus be almost completely com-
pensated, ensuring healthy solidification of the casting. If the angle ω is open away from the feeder, negatively unidirectional freezing
occurs. The solidification process was dealt with more specifically by Davis [15] and its further description is given in [16].
In the castings with various wall thickness, it is therefore important that the thicker and more massive casting parts were di-
rectional upwards, so that thicker parts could be equipped with feeders more easily ensuring positively unidirectional freezing. The
issue of solidification of ductile iron castings with different wall thickness was dealt with by several authors [4,17,18].
In the production of quality castings, the simulation of filling and solidification of castings is an integral part of production quality
[19]. Computer simulation of casting processes is a highly effective tool for optimizing processes and events that take place during the
filling of the mould cavity and casting cooling [20]. In the pre-production stage, flaws in castings such as shrinkages and micro
porosity can be prevented by simulation of filling and solidification. Adjustments of gating and feeder system along with techno-
logical adjustment of casting and casting parameters by means of a computer simulation can help to prevent such flaws. Computer
simulations had been employed in the research of several authors. Olofsson [21] dealt with the issue of the influence of chemical
composition on the mechanical properties of the casting during solidification. The effect of wall thickness on the microstructure and
mechanical properties was solved by Salanet [22]. Sarath [23] in article focuses on the use of castings for the casting of ductile iron.
The authors Jolly [24] and Strohmandl [25] deal with computer simulation of casting and its advantages in dealing with the removal
of defects in castings.Semi-product of a brake disc of railway wagon can also be classified as a quality casting.
The main problem in the manufacturing of railway wagon brake disc is the low utilization of liquid metal in the casting process
along with considerable incidence of shrinkages resulting in increased economic cost of production. The aim of the paper is to present
the possibilities of increasing the utilization of liquid metal in the casting process with the use of simulation which compares basic as
well as adjusted parameters of casting. The purpose of casting computer simulation is to identify how gating system elements'
adjustments and technological modifications impact the entire casting and reduce or eliminate the incidence of shrinkages while
increasing the utilization of liquid metal during casting. This also implies reduction in financial costs and increased efficiency of
castings production.

2. Material and methods

In the production of castings which are the initial semi-product of brake discs of railway wagons various processes occur that are
considered undesirable and can result in damaged castings. The issue is wide in scope and is subject to many completed studies and
presented works. Nevertheless, the research into this topic is always needed as it is often closely related to a specific product. The
method of computer simulation can be applied from a number of methods and procedures available for further research needs.
The paper presents an analysis followed then by solution of the issue of brake disc production process for a railway wagon, Fig. 1.
The disc brake being dealt with is a classic one used in many railway wagons. Its geometric 3D model with basic dimensions
shown in Fig. 2 was created with the use of CATIA V5R20 [26].

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Fig. 1. Casting of the railway wagon brake disc.

Fig. 2. Geometric 3D model of a railway wagon brake disc with basic dimensions.

Casting is the initial semi-product used to manufacture a break disc. The process of pouring lies in gradual filling of the mould
cavity with molten metal in which an important role is played by gating system, Fig. 3. Gating system's integral part are the feeders,
which ensure refilling of the loss of the melt in the process of metal solidification and shrinkage. The shrinkage results in linear and
volume changes that eventually give rise to recesses.
Avoidance of formation of shrinkages in the casting can be ensured by reducing the volume of melt and replacing it with an
increased volume from different source – the feeder. Shrinkage formation is accompanied by a negatively unidirectional freezing
when the melt is closed in solidified part of the casting, i.e. the feeder had solidified before the actual casting. Positively unidirec-
tional freezing needs to be ensured in the process – that is the feeder is to solidify the last.

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Fig. 3. Gating system.

Fig. 4 presents a geometric 3D model of the railway brake disc casting with gating system without feeders (A) and with 6 feeders
(B) in which foundry defects (Fig. 5) and volume shrinkages occurred during solidification. Fig. 5 shows the shrinkages, which has
been seen after removed the feeders.
When a casting undergoes shrinkage, it can seriously undermine the integrity of the entire device and may eventually break under
stress.
Foundry defects were caused by incorrect construction of a model device. Other negative phenomenon associated with casting
production was increased costs of production due to low utilization of liquid metal. All given factors had serious impact on final
quality of the casting resulting in damage, therefore, the failure analysis had to be carried out to solve the issue with the use of
computer simulation methods.
The requirement to conduct simulations resulted from high mechanical stress on railway brake disc during its operation, where
minimum occurrence of internal defects in the volume of the casting is required. The occurrence of these causes deterioration of
mechanical properties and jeopardizes functionality.
To analyse and study the process of casting and solidification of the railway brake disc casting in the mould, four simulation
calculations were performed as presented in Fig. 6, which illustrate the processes taking place during casting and subsequent soli-
dification of the casting.
The main characteristics of the original version of a railway disc brake with 6 feeders and a modified version with 1 feeder are
documented in Table 1. Crude weight of the casting includes its net weight and the weight of gating system and feeders. The crude
weight of casting was determined from a geometric 3D model of the railway disc brake with gating system and 6 feeders (Fig. 4)
based on the specifications of the type of material and specific gravity.
EN-GJS 500–7 – ductile cast iron used for machine components which are mechanically and dynamically loaded. Its approximate
composition is as follows: C 3.40% ÷ 3.85%, Si 2.30% ÷ 3.10%, Mn 0.10% ÷ 0.40%, S max.0.01%, P max. 0.05%, Mg 0.045 ÷
0.065%. Chemical composition is the exclusive right of its manufacturer [27]. The standard for cast iron only defnes its mechanical
properties and its structure.
The size of feeders was calculated from the volume of hot spots in castings. The most important and critical part of the rising
system is the riser neck. The system is based on solidification behaviour of iron with graphite and while graphite is being formed,
there is an expansion that should be used for self-feeding of the casting. The expansion is always connected with a pressure increase
within the system which, in turn, has to be controlled. If the pressure creates a mould deformation, there is a volume increase that has
to be again compensated for, or porosity will be found in the casting [28,29].

Fig. 4. Geometric 3D model of the railway brake disc casting with gating system without feeders (A) and with 6 feeders (B).

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Fig. 5. Foundry defects in castings after removal of feeders.

Fig. 6. Types of simulation of the railway disc brake casting.

Table 1
Main characteristic of original and modified versions of the railway disc brake.
Material Specific weight [kg.m−3] Net weight of casting [kg] Crude weight of casting [kg]

Original version with 6 feeders EN-GJS 500–7 7100 42.6 60.73

Modified version with 1 feeder 46.16

The general formula (1) for calculation of the riser neck is:

Mn = f . Ms (1)

Mn – Modulus of riser neck,

Ms – Modulus of the significant segment of the casting,
f – factor related to the casting modulus.
The block scheme of simulation of railway disc brake casting process is in Fig. 7, from which it can be seen that the entire process
of analysis and simulation is divided into two basic parts. The entire process is carried out in successive steps which smoothly follow
one another.
In the first phase there is a 3D model created, which is transferred to the simulation software. The simulation network „ meshing
“is created in simulation software. In processing there are input parameters for simulation of filling and solidification are specified:

- casting material,
- moulding material,
- casting temperature,
- temperature of mould and air in mould,
- metal flow rate,
- humidity of the moulding material.

Pre-processing phase requires a thorough selection of a software tool for creating geometric model and its subsequent loading into
the simulation software. The use of inappropriate CAD software can later create problems with generating finite element mesh.
In the second phase, besides defining basic parameters for simulation calculation, it is also important to select the parameters of
finite element mesh. The finite element mesh, the size of elements in particular, significantly affects the quality of obtained results,

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Fig. 7. Block diagram of the railway disc brake simulation casting.

hardware equipment requirements, and the time needed to carry out calculation.

3. Theory/calculation

3.1. Selection of simulation software

Computer simulation method is nowadays one of the key engineering instruments in various sciences including metallurgy. Its
correct application, besides the appropriate software, requires sufficient professional experience and skills. Failure to meet this
condition, even with the use of highest quality software, makes the desired results impossible. Working with the simulation software
in the field of metallurgy requires defining of individual processes in accordance with reality. Simulation software and simulations
performed therein are able to visualize a very detailed progress of the component production or process which cannot be observed in
real conditions. They enable designers to look into ongoing processes, to determine with high precision the shortcomings and errors
that could occur in real production, and then modify them to ensure increased quality and reliability of simulated process.
Appropriate selection of casting simulation software depends on designer's experience and financial availability of the application
(software).
Simulation of filling and solidification of castings ranks among very specific problems for the solution of which there are spe-
cialized simulation tools, such as MAGMASOFT [30], NovaFlow&Solid [31], ProCasting [32], SIMTEC-WINCASTING [33].
The simulations were carried out in simulation software NovaFlow&Solid CV 4.6r42 version of Office NovaCasting. NovaFlow&
Solid CV features the options for setting geometry of the casting parts, hydrodynamic simulation of filling processes under different
technological modes with taking into account the presence of free surface and gas bubbles formation and finally simulation of
solidification processes while taking heat and mass transfer between different phases and casting-mould into account. On the basis of
obtained calculations, metal shrinkage, misruns and other casting defects are predicted [31].
Generally, the volume of metal decreases as the temperature falls because the shrinkage phenomenon of metal takes place and the
shrinkage cavity is created. The amount of solidification shrinkage is presumed according to the following procedure. The analyzed
area of the mould cavity is initially filled by moten metal whose volume is equal to the total volume of mould cavity (V). It denotes
that [34]:

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n n n
∑i =1 VL (i) = V , ∑i =1 VS (i) = 0, ∑i =1 Vshc (i) = 0, (2)
3
where n is the total number of nodes, VL(i), VS(i), Vshc(i) [m ] are the volume of liquid, solid and shrinkage cavity in the i-th node,
respectively.
During the cooling process, in the liquid state, the nodal temperature is controlled at each time step. Decreasing the temperature
in any node below the liquidus temperature (ΘL) starts the procedure of shrinkage cavity formulation. The amount of the cavity
depends on the value of solidification shrinkage coefficient (Sh). On the base of known of the solid fraction volume (Φ) at the moment
(.)t (previous step) and (.)t+1 (current time step) the volumetric increment of the solid phase in the i-th node is calculated in the
following way:
ΔVS (i) = (ΦtS+(i1) − ΦtS (i) ) V Lt (i) (3)
Actual nodal volume of the solid phase is calculated using the Eq. (4):
VSt +(i1) = ΔVS (i) + VSt (i) (4)
Total volumetric increment of the solid phase in the casting is obtained by the Eq. (5):
n
ΔVS = ∑i =1 ΔVS (i) (5)
The nodal volume of the liquid phase is actualized according to the Eq. (6):
V Lt +(i1) = V Lt (i) − ΔVS (i) (6)
The corrected content of the solid phase in each node is obtained from the Eq. (7):
VSt +(i1)
ΦtS+(i1) =
V(i) (7)
Global increment of the shrinkage cavity volume at current time step is determined according to the Eq. (8):
ΔVshc = ΔVS Sh (8)
Equations shown above are executed at each time step causing gradual incrementation of the shrinkage cavity volume in the
casting.
Algorithm of calculation of nodal air contents is realized in the following way [11] in four points:
i=1
check if ΔVa − ΔVl(i)(t + Δt) > 0, if condition in point 2 is fulfilled, following operations are realized:
ΔVa = ΔVa − ΔVl (i) (t + Δt )

Va (i) (t + Δt ) = Va (i) (t + Δt ) + Vl (i) (t + Δt )

Vl(i) (t + Δt) = 0

fl(i) (t + Δt) = 0

fa(i) (t + Δt) = Va(i) (t + Δt)/V(i)

if condition in point 2 is not fulfilled, following operations are realized:

Va(i) (t + Δt) = Va(i) (t + Δt) + ΔVa(i)

Vl(i) (t + Δt) = Vl(i) (t + Δt) − ΔVa(i)

ΔVa = 0

fl(i) (t + Δt) = Vl(i) (t + Δt)/V(i)

fa(i) (t + Δt) = Va(i) (t + Δt)/V(i)

i=i+1
if ΔVa > 0 return to point 2, else procedure is finished and the next time step is analyzed.
Procedure showed in points 1–4 executed at each time step causing gradual incrementation of fair volume in the casting.
Shrinkage cavity appears as the consequence of that process.

3.2. Input values for simulation of casting

Input values for simulation of casting are shown in Table 2.

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Table 2
Input values for simulation of casting.
Casting material EN-GJS-500-7

Moulding material Silica sand

Casting temperature [°C] 1390
Temperature of the mould [°C] 25
Temperature of air in the mould [°C] 25
Metal flow rate [kg.s−1] 0.5
Humidity of the moulding material [%] 3

3.3. Pre-processing of original version simulation of casting with a gating system without feeders

The first simulation (original version) served as a reference one to compare with the following simulations. Fig. 8 shows a
geometric 3D model of the railway disc brake with a gating system without feeders. In this simulation, we tried to detect the
occurrence of shrinkages in the casting due to the placement of feeders.

3.4. Pre-processing of original casting version simulation with gating system and six feeders

Since geometric 3D casting model in Fig. 8 traced the existing state and related shortcomings in form of shrinkages occurrence in
the volume of the casting, a different geometric 3D model was created using 6 exothermic feeders. Fig. 9 shows a 3D geometric model
of the railway disc brake with gating system and six feeders which is currently being used in the disc brake reduction.

3.5. Pre-processing of modified version simulation of the casting with gating system without feeders

Geometric 3D model of the railway disc brake with gating system without feeders in Fig. 10 shows the adjustments made to the
gating system and the casting. The casting has been rotated by 180° so that the thinnest cross sections are at the bottom, and the
thicknest cross section is at the top, to achieve positively unidirectional freezing. The gating system has three inlet notches, while the
original version had four ones. The notches were also made shorter compared with the original version.

3.6. Pre-processing of modified version simulation of the casting with gating system with one feeder

Since the geometric 3D model with modifications made in gating system and the casting (Fig. 10) traced the modified version of
the casting with related shortcomings in form of shrinkages occurrence in the volume of the casting, other geometric 3D model was
created with the addition of an exothermic feeder. Fig. 11 shows a geometric 3D model of the modified version of the railway disc
brake with gating system and an exothermic feeder.

4. Results and discussion

Based on presented geometric 3D models, simulation experiments were carried out as in scheme in Fig. 6 with the following

Fig. 8. Geometric 3D model of the railway disc brake with a gating system without feeders.

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Fig. 9. Geometric 3D model of the railway disc brake with gating system and 6 feeders.

Fig. 10. Geometric 3D model of the railway disc brake with gating system without feeders.

results.

4.1. Simulation of the original version of casting with a gating system without feeders

The results of the first simulation experiment are shown in Fig. 12 with final occurrence of shrinkages after solidification of liquid
metal and the solidification process of the original version of the casting with a gating system without feeders. Most of the shrinkages
occur in the volume of the casting itself, which is unacceptable for production of quality castings and can be fixed with the use of
feeders. The amount of the liquid phase begins to decrease in the direction from the top of the casting downward.

4.2. Simulation of the original version of the casting with a casting gating system and six feeders

The goal of the second simulation experiment was to eliminate the occurrence of shrinkages in the volume of the casting using 6
exothermic feeders in the process of casting. The results are shown in Fig. 13.
Fig. 13 makes it clear that feeders maintain the metal in its volume in the liquid state despite continuing solidification of the metal
in the casting, thus ensuring continuous input of the liquid metal into the parts of the casting that are being shrunk. Since the casting
is placed in the direction promoting negatively unidirectional freezing, six feeders need to be used. Such a production method is not
effective due to the number of feeders used and decreasing efficiency of liquid metal utilization in the mould.

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Fig. 11. Geometric 3D model of the railway disc brake with gating system and an exothermic feeder.

Fig. 12. Occurrence of shrinkages and development of the liquid phase in the original version of the casting with a gating system without feeders.

Fig. 13. Occurrence of shrinkages and development of liquid phase in the original version of the casting with a gating system and 6 feeders.

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Fig. 14. Occurrence of shrinkages and development of the liquid phase in a modified version of the casting with gating system without feeders.

4.3. Simulation of a modified version of the casting with gating system without feeders

The third simulation experiment focused on simulation of shrinkages formation and simulation of liquid phase in a modified
version of the casting with a gating system without feeders. Its final results are presented in Fig. 14. Minimum amount of shrinkage in
the volume of the casting can be fixed with the use of a feeder. Progress of the liquid phase indicates the direction of solidification of
the casting in the mould from its bottom upwards.

4.4. Simulation of a modified version of the casting with a gating system with one feeder

The last simulation experiment (Fig. 15) focused on elimination of shrinkages occurrence and development of liquid phase in a
modified version of the casting with a single feeder. Obtained results show that the placement of the casting and modification of
gating system had a positive impact on reduction of shrinkages and liquid metal utilization in the mould.
The above mentioned modified version of simulation results in:
- Positively unidirectional freezing which naturally reduces the tendency of shrinkages occurrence, and a transfer of shrinkage
into a feeder,
- Reduction in the number of feeders, reduction in the amount of ingates and their length thus increasing the utilization of liquid
metal in the mould.
The summary of simulation results is presented in Table 3.
Efficiency of metal in the original configuration with feeders is equal to 70.14%. This means that 29.86% of metal in the mould is

Fig. 15. Occurrence of shrinkages and development of the liquid phase in a modified version of the casting with a casting gating system and 1
feeder.

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Table 3
Results of the casting simulations.
Original version Modified version Difference

Efficiency of liquid metal in the mould [%] 70.14 92.29 22.15

Crude casting weight [kg] 60.74 46.16 14.58
Number of feeders 6 1 5
Shrinkages volume [%] 2.50 1.90 0.59
Number of ingates 4 3 1

unused and must be recycled. The crude weight saving in modified version compared to the original version is 14.58 kg. The modified
version of casting increased the utilization of liquid metal in the mould by 22.15%. The volume of shrinkages in modified version of
casting decreased by 0.59%, while the modified version of the casting has reduced the number of feeders by 5 and the number of
ingates by one.

5. Conclusions

The technological modification of production of railway brake disc included changing the casting position, changing the form of
gating system and the number of feeders. Changing the casting position caused:

- Positively unidirectional freezing which naturally reduces the tendency of shrinkages occurrence, and a transfer of shrinkage into
a feeder,
- changing the number of feeders from 6 to 1 and changing the number ingates led to an increase efficiency of liquid metal in mould
by 22.5%,
- there has been a reduction in casting weight of 14.5 kg, which is a very significant saving of metal.

This result is a highly positive fact manifested in the increased financial efficiency of the entire production process. The
knowledge gained with the help of individual simulation experiments enabled the description and visualization of processes oc-
curring in manufacturing of the brake disc casting. Based on the lessons learned was then designed and immediately tested the
procedure eliminating all identified shortcomings.
The obtained semi-product already did not incorporate any unwanted elements, so the castings produced this way can then be
used to manufacture brake discs which increase the safety and reliability of railway transport. At the same time, the obtained
knowledge will be possibly applied in further investigation of the casting process and production of castings of the same type.

Acknowledgments

This work is a part of the following projects: VEGA 1/0073/17, VEGA 1/0063/16, VEGA 1/0703/16, KEGA 018TUKE-4/2016.

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