A VACUUM TUBE FOR AN ELECTROSTATIC GENERATOR

APPROVED:

iJ
Major Professor

Minor Prof e r/sbr

j jct-1-.cL.f
Director, of the Department- of Physic:

L
7
Dean of the Graduate School
A VACUUM TUBE FOR AN ELECTROSTATIC GENERATOR

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

By

John Reginald Pool, B. S

Denton, Texas

August, 1966
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS iv
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. CONSTRUCTION OF THE VACUUM TUBE 15
III. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS 31
IV. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . 46
Generating Voltmeter
Charging System
Gas Handling System
Corona Columns
Vacuum System
Vacuum Tubes •
APPENDIX 58
BIBLIOGRAPHY 77

in
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page
1. A Vacuum Tube with "Inverted Cone" Electrode
Configuration 59
2. (A) Cross Section of Corona Column with Vacuum
Tube Installed (B) Large Electrode (C) Small
Electrode. 60
3. Longitudinal Section of Corona Column with Vacuum
Tube Installed 61
4. Cement Applicators 62
5. Foil Cutting Tool 63
6. Installing the Positioning Jig 64
7. C-clamp Holding a Positioning Jig, Insulator,
Gasket, Electrode, and Jigging Block 65
8. Assembling Electrode-Insulator Subassemblies in
the Small Jig 66
9. Large Jig Holding the Vacuum Tube 67
10. Terminal Potential Versus BB Corona Current Prior
to Installation of Vacuum Tubes 68
11. Terminal Potential Versus Generating Voltmeter
Reading Prior to Alteration of the Signal Lead . 69
12. Terminal Potential Versus AA Corona Current Prior
to Installation of Vacuum Tubes 70
13. Vacuum Feed-Through Assembly 71
14. Electrostatic Generator with Vacuum System. 72
15. Determining the Pressure Differential across an
Evacuated Vacuum Tube 73

LV
Figure Page
16. A Representative Comparison of the Terminal
Potential Versus the BB Corona Currents while
Operating with and without Electron Loading. . .74
17. A Representative Curve of Terminal Potential
Versus BB Corona Current as Spontaneous
Electron Loading Occurs 75
18. Terminal Potential Versus Generating Voltmeter
Reading after Alteration of the Signal Lead. . . 76
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Since R. J. Van de Graaff (18) constructed his first

electrostatic generator at Round Hill, in 1931, this machine,
with the addition of an ion source and accelerating tube,
has become the most popular low energy accelerator ever
developed. This machine with its modifications is used not
only for low energy nuclear research but also for injecting
beams of ionized particles into many of the high energy
machines. The basic design of the original machine still
remains, and all Van de Graaff accelerators contain a
terminal for storing charge, a charging system to maintain
the potential of the terminal, an ion source, and an accel-
erating tube through which the ions accelerate from the
charged terminal to ground potential.
From the origin of the machine, two factors prevented
the Van de Graaff accelerators from obtaining their maximum
theoretical potential. The first factor was the leakage of
charge from the terminal to the atmosphere. To alleviate
this problem, the entire machine was placed in an enclosed
tank and tested first in a vacuum and secondly under pressure
of an electronegative gas. The second of these two solutions
proved to be the more successful, and all succeeding machines
have accepted this modification. The gases most commonly
used for this purpose have been sulfur hexafluoride or a
mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen (10).
The second factor which limits the operation of the
Van de Graaff as an accelerator is the accelerating tube.
The accelerating tube serves a dual purpose in the acceler-
ator; to accelerate the ions extracted from an ion source to
an energy corresponding to the potential of the terminal
and to focus the beam of ions during the acceleration.
Although this machine has been utilized as an accelerator
for more than thirty years, no one has designed an acceler-
ating tube which will permit a machine to operate at its
maximum theoretical potential. Much research has gone into
examining this problem, and many theories have been forwarded
as to the reasons why the accelerating tubes will not sustain
the potential gradients obtainable in the machine when the
tube is not in place.

The only method of, hopefully, developing an acceptable

vacuum tube is to incorporate what little knowledge has been
acquired from previous tubes, and to try to develop a better
tube by trial and error.
There are several existing criteria for building tubes,
and any new design should attempt to eliminate as many prob-
lems as possible by utilizing the previously gained knowledge.
Some of the problems which must be overcome are pumping
speed, shielding, focusing, electrical breakdown, sparking,
and electron loading. Some of the better tubes constructed
thus far possess one or a combination of features, each of
which serves to improve performance in one manner, but which
may possess accompanying disadvantages.
It has been found experimentally that the maximum
potential gradient an accelerating tube will sustain increases
roughly as the square root of the length of the tube (4);
thus very little is gained by using longer tubes. Faced with
this fact, scientists have constructed the tandem Van de
Graaff (1). This machine utilizes a positive terminal elec-
trically isolated from ground and charged by a charge carrying
belt similar to the conventional Van de Graaff, but here the
similarity ends. The ion source normally located in the
terminal is now located at ground potential. The negative
ions produced by this source accelerate through one of two
accelerating tubes to the positive central terminal. While
drifting through this terminal, the ions are stripped of
electrons in a charge exchange chamber and emanate from the
terminal with a net positive charge. They are again accel-
erated to ground by the same, potential through a second
accelerating tube. This machine is an energy multiplying
device since it utilizes one potential to accelerate a charge
to twice or more the energy obtainable through a single
acceleration.
 Besides the advantage of energy multiplication, one may
use shorter tubes, and thus eliminate many of the problems
associated with longer tubes while obtaining energies never
before obtainable using the Van de Graaff. The previous
maximum potential obtained by a single-ended machine at Los
Alamos was 9 MeV (10). The introduction of the tandem has
increased the maximum to above 20 MeV.

The majority of research that has gone into design and

construction of accelerating tubes has been performed by the
University of Wisconsin, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Los Alamos Laboratory and the High Voltage Engineering Company
(13). Little is known about the mechanism creating electrical
breakdown which can occur both inside and outside the tube;
these breakdowns include sparking, external breakdown, insu-
lator breakdown, pulsed internal breakdown, and possibly the
most serious—electron loading.
Varying design parameters has reduced most of the prob-
lems, but electron loading still remains a great hindrance.
Electron loading is a phenomenon in which a negative current,
mostly electrons, accelerates toward the high potential end
of the accelerating tube and a simultaneous flux of positive
ions accelerates toward the low potential end. The beam of
particles is not focused and completely fills the aperture
of the electrodes in the accelerating tube. Electron loading
is accompanied by X-rays created by the electrons striking
electrodes. The X-rays serve as an indicator of electron
loading, and one can determine the threshold potential for
electron loading by observing the potential at which these
X-rays begin (17). Several theories have been forwarded as
to the cause, but it is generally believed that no one
theory can fully explain the problem. It is caused by a
combination of factors. Needless to say, the problem is not
thoroughly understood.
The predominant cause of electron loading is believed
by most to be the electron-positive ion exchange (15). In
this process electrons from ionized particles created by the
high potential gradient, or a spark, accelerate up the tube
toward the high potential end. The electrons upon striking
electrodes along the path knock secondary positive ions from
the surface of the electrodes and create secondary photons.
These positive ions accelerate toward ground potential and
upon striking electrodes both the ions and photons release
electrons which accelerate toward the high potential end of
the tube, thus initiating the process again. It has been
shown, however, that this process is not self-sustaining.
If an electron striking an electrode releases "A"
positive ions and "B" photons and in turn each positive ion
and photon release "C" and "D" electrons respectively upon
striking an electrode, then for a self-sustaining reaction
clearly AC + BD > 1. These coefficients should be energy
dependent; therefore, a threshold potential for electron
loading should occur. It has been shown by experimenting
with electron-positive ion interactions that the coefficient
—4
"A" is approximately 10 (15) and "C" is approximately 3
depending upon the cleanliness of the surfaces investigated
(19). The electron-photon interaction has been shown to be
important in the multiplication process, but this problem
can be minimized by constructing metallic parts with metals
of low atomic number, thus reducing the energy of the brems-
strahlung photons (16).
By placing the tube in a magnetic field and bending
electrons out of the beam of negative particles which are
traversing the tube, it has been found that many negative
ions also exist, and that these negative ions play an impor-
tant role in the above reaction. It has been found that the
threshold voltage for breakdown does not depend on the elec-
trons striking the upper end of the tube (17).
It has been found that the electron loading threshold
potential increases and the electron loading current decreases
by operating the tube at a higher internal pressure (11, 17).
Best results in existing machines have been achieved using
—5
pressures as high as 2 or 3 x 10 mm with little interference
with the injected ion beam. When the mean free path is
greater than the electrode separation, there is a high flux
of electrons striking electrodes at energies high enough to
produce photons. As the pressure is increased, the mean free
path is decreased until it is less than the electrode separa-
tion. This greatly decreases the energy of the impinging
electrons, and thus decreases the bremsstrahlung radiation.
Another procedure used to eliminate electron loading is
back-biasing (7, 12), a process in which two electrodes
separated by intermediary electrodes are shorted along the
accelerating tube. This is performed at several intervals
along the tube and serves as a retarding potential for the
slowly moving electrons which enter into the loading process.
These high-potential and low-potential electrodes establish
non-uniform gradients in the local fields and deflect the
electrons causing them to leave the beam. The gradient of
back-biasing electrodes increases toward the high energy
end of the tubes in order not to affect the slow moving
heavier ions.

A few of the other theories which have been proposed

for internal discharge are the Malter effect, electrical
surges, field emission, and colloidal particles. The Malter
effect (2) results from a positive charge accumulating on a
thin film of insulator, such as pump oil, overlying a con-
ducting electrode. This positive charge on the surface
lowers the potential barrier at the surface allowing elec-
trons to be pulled from the metal. Electrical surges in
corona currents down the corona columns can produce very
high instantaneous potential differences between electrodes
and can create electrical breakdown within the accelerating
tube. Field emission (9) is created by points which may
appear on metal surfaces caused by exposure to very high
electric fields. Electric fields may pull charged colloids
(4) or a "clump" of material from an electrode, accelerating
it toward an electrode of lower potential. Continual bom-
bardment of localized regions of an electrode by these
particles quickly heats the metal and thermionic emission
may occur. This condition can quickly initiate electrical
breakdown. Clean, oil-free systems, utilizing cold traps
and vapor-ion pumps, are rewarded with higher ultimate
potentials than dirty systems.

It is important in an accelerating tube that the beara

never be allowed to strike the side of the tube. Shielding
(13) is therefore another important factor that must be
incorporated into the design of a tube. If the beam is
allowed to strike the insulators, a charge may be deposited
on them. This accumulation of charge will cause transverse
displacement and/or defocusing of the beam as it moves down
the tube. Shielding is more necessary near the ion-source
end of the tube where the beam is moving at low velocity and
is remaining under the influence of the accumulated charge
for a longer period of time. This accumulation of charge
also creates a path for flash-over which may damage the inner
surface and may even crack the electrode.
 Accelerating tubes with fine subdivisions of insulators
provide better shielding than coarse subdivisions and take
advantage of the fact that short insulators can withstand
higher gradients than long insulators. However, there is
little evidence indicating that improvement in shielding is
significant when the insulator length is less than 1 inch.
Fine subdivisions also increase the probability of leaks
because of the greater number of seals that must be made
per unit length of tube.
When flat electrodes with a circular beam aperture are
used, shielding is achieved by constructing the electrode
and insulator assembly in a manner so that the ratio of the
radial distance "r" from the edge of the aperture to the
inside edge of the insulator and the electrode separation
distance "s" is approximately 3. This provides adequate
shielding from charge accumulation on the insulator walls.
Research has shown that a shielding ratio, r/s, of 1 is
inadequate. Tubes designed and in use with a shielding
ratio of approximately 2.5 have operated satisfactorily
with no beam deflection.
To develop a high shielding constant using a small
accelerating tube requires that the apertures in the elec-
trodes be small. These small openings act to capture
back-streaming electrons before they attain much energy.
In most tubes the aperture is used simultaneously for
 10

evacuating the tubes and for focusing the beams of ions. If

the aperture is made small, the pumping speed decreases,
resulting in a higher tube pressure. The increased pressure
causes scattering of the beam which strikes the electrodes
and creates a non-uniform gradient down the tube and may
initiate a violent discharge. A high pumping speed can be
obtained in tubes with large apertures; however, these tubes
allow secondary particles to gain high energies in passing
down the tube. The large openings also result in a lower
electron-loading potential. Some tubes with small apertures
have been successfully utilized with off-center pump holes
through the electrodes (14). In constructing these tubes,
the pump-out holes in each succeeding electrode are oriented
90°, eliminating the possibility of particles using these
holes as apertures for a secondary beam.

Many additional modifications of the vacuum tube have

been constructed and tested. These include the introduction
of the cusp-shaped electrode, at the University of Wisconsin,
the staggered electrodes, at High Voltage Engineering, and
the small aperture diaphragms, at various intervals along
the tube at Los Alamos. Independent studies have also been
carried out at various establishments on the other modifications
(5, 7). A more successful design appears to be one of sev-
eral constructed and tested by Associated Electrical
Industries Limited (3). This design incorporated stainless
 11

steel toroidal electrodes, which provided a more uniform

electric field throughout the porcelain insulators used in
fabricating the tube. The design incorporated electrodes of
varying aperture diaphragms supported by the toroidal elec-
trodes, forming an "inverted cone" configuration (Figure 1).
(All figures are in the appendix, pages 58 to 76). All
diaphragms with small apertures were provided with additional
pump-out holes. Electron loading and associated X-rays were
immeasurably small up to a potential of 3.7 MeV using the
tube possessing the "inverted cone" configuration while
installed in an electrostatic generator capable of attciining
5.5 MeV without accelerating tubes. The upper limit to the
voltage obtainable was established by the porcelain insulators
which were punctured through their volume after running at
3.7 MeV for several hours. There was also occasional elec-
trical breakdown. The "inverted cone" geometry broke the
chain of electron multiplication at the sudden discontinuities
in the electrode apertures.

Following four years of operation, the tube with

"inverted cone" electrode configuration was again tested
(8). The tube withstood 3.85 MeV as compared to 3.7 MeV in
its initial testing. Some electron loading was measured in
the later tests. A new tube of similar design, but employing
glass insulating walls, has operated up to 4.25 MeV without
electron loading.
 12

The Physics Department at North Texas State University

is presently constructing a tandem Van de Graaff accelerator

similar to the small tandem machine, constructed by R. G.

Herb at the University of Wisconsin, which incorporated

small aperture accelerating tubes that produced little elec-

tron loading. The electrostatic generator, including the

pressure tank, closed gas handling system, charging system,

corona column, and generating voltmeter, has been constructed

and tested. This machine at present has operated at an

estimated potential of 2.4 MeV (6) on the central terminal

under pressure of sulfur hexafluoride without the presence

of the accelerating tubes. Sparking prevents attaining

higher potentials on the terminal. Completion of the Van de

Graaff as an accelerator will require the addition of accel-

erating tubes, a charge exchange mechanism in the central

terminal, and an ion source.

The purpose of this study has been to construct two

accelerating tubes with small beam apertures for the Van de

Graaff, modifying the prototype tube designed and tested by

Wiley (20) , to design and construct a vacuum system for

evacuating the tubes, and to determine the characteristics

of the tube under operating conditions while installed in

the generator.
 CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Alvarez, L. W. , "Energy Doubling in D. C. Accelerators,"

The Review of Scientific Instruments, XXII (1951), 705.
2. Blewett, J. P., "Electron Loading in Ion Accelerating
Tubes II," The Physical Review, LXXXI (.1951) , 305A.
3. Chick, D. R., Hunt, S. E., Jones, W. M., and Petrie, D.
P. R., "A Van de Graaff Accelerator Tube of Very Low
Retrograde Electron Current," Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, V (1959), 518.
4. Cranberg, L., "The Initiation of Electrical Breakdown in
Vacuum," Journal of Applied Physics, XXIII (1952), 518.
5. f a n d Henshall, J. B., "Small-Aperture
Diaphragms in Ion-Accelerator Tubes," Journal of
Applied Physics, XXX (1959), 708.
6. Daniel, R. E., "Construction and Testing of a Charging
System and a Corona Column for an Electrostatic
Accelerator," unpublished master's thesis, Department
of Physics, North Texas State University, Denton,
Texas, 1962.
7. Firth, K., and Chick, D. R., "The "Screening1 of Neutral
Particles in High Voltage Ion Accelerator Tubes,"
Journal of Scientific Instruments, XXX (1953) , 167.
8. Hunt, S. E., Cheetham, F. C., and Evans, W. W., "The
Performance and Conditioning of 'Inverted Cone1 Van de
Graaff Accelerating Tubes," Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, XXI (1963), 101.
9. Jones, F. L., "Electrical Discharges and the Vacuum
Physicist," Vacuum, III (1953), 116.
10. Livingston, M. S., and Blewett, J. P., Particle Acceler-
ators , New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962, 30.
11. Mansfield, W. K., and Fortescue, R. L., "Prebreakdown
Conduction Between Electrodes in Continuously Pumped
Vacuum Systems," British Journal of Applied Physics,
VIII (1957), 73.

13
 14

12. McKibben, J. L., "Control of Current Loading and Sparks

in Ion Accelerating Tubes by Back-Biased Diaphragms,"
Bulletin of American Physical Society, I (1956), 61.
12. Michael, Irving, "The Development and Performance
of a New Electrostatic Accelerator," unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Department of Physics,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1958.
14. , Berners, E. D. , Eppling, F. J., Knecht,
D. J., and Herb, R. G., "New Electrostatic Accelerator,"
The Review of Scientific Instruments, XXX (1959), 855.
15. Trump, J. G. Van de Graaff, R. J., "The Insulation of
High Voltages in a Vacuum," Journal of Applied Physics,
XVIII (1957), 327.
16. Turner, C. M., "Ionization Loading of Electrostatic
Generators," The Physical Review, XCV (1954) , 599.
17. , "Electron Loading in Ion Accelerating
Tubes I," The Physical Review, LXXXI (1951), 305A.
18. Van Atta, L. C., Northrop, D. L., Van Atta, C. M. , and
Van de Graaff, R. J., "The Design, Operation, and
Performance of the Round Hill Electrostatic Generator,"
The Physical Review, XLIX (1936), 761.
19. Webster, E. W., Van de Graaff, R. J., and Trump, J. G.,
"Secondary Electron Emission from Metals under Positive
Ion Bombardment in High Extractive Fields," Journal
of Applied Physics, XXIII (1952), 264.
20. Wiley, Ralph, "A Vacuum Tube for an Electrostatic
Accelerator," unpublished master's thesis, Department
of Physics, North Texas State University, Denton,
Texas, 1963.
 CHAPTER II

CONSTRUCTION OF THE VACUUM TUBE

The vacuum tubes constructed at North Texas State

University are a modification of a design used at the
University of Wisconsin. A prototype section of this column
constructed and tested by Wiley (3) was found to possess
suitable characteristics although several modifications were
suggested. The tube is comprised of a series of metallic
electrodes separated by flat insulating discs concentrically
cemented together to form a vacuum-tight enclosure.
The insulating discs were secured from the Alite
Division of United States Stoneware Company, Orrville, Ohio.
These discs are composed of 96 per cent alumina material, a
composition commercially known as Alite 212. The insulators
measure 3/16 inch in thickness, possess an outer diameter of
1-1/4 inches, and a centered hole 5/8 inch in diameter.
The original electrodes (Figures 2B and 2C), locally
machined of cold-finished mild steel .0575 inch thick, possess
.1875 inch central holes which act to focus the ion beam
and to allow evacuation of the tube. The design incorporates
two different, roughly circular, electrode designs, one large
with flat outer edges, the other smaller with rounded outer
edges. The design is such that every third electrode is one
 16

of the large type, maintained at a separation of 3/4 inch.

Each electrode is designed with four 1/2 inch diameter
indentations drilled 1.031 inches radially from the center
of the disk and spaced at every 90° along the perimeter of
the electrode. Midway between two of these indentations
and .781 inch from the center of the disk is another hole
drilled and tapped to accept a 2-56 set screw. The purpose
of these different designs will be clarified.
The vacuum tube is designed for adaptation to the corona
column, which was designed by Gray (2) and constructed by
Daniel (1). This corona column consists of a Lucite tube
about which 27 aluminum corona rings are concentrically
attached every 3/4 inch. This is done by means of four rad-
ially extended aluminum stand-off pins which extend through
the wall of the Lucite cylinder as shown in Figure 2A.
Spherical brass balls 5/8 inch in diameter are screwed onto
the protruding ends of these pins on the inside of the Lucite
tube. Spring-loaded plungers for supporting the vacuum tube
extend radially inward from these brass balls.
The indentations drilled into each of the electrodes
are designed to be longitudinally aligned along the vacuum
tube and to allow clearance for the spring-loaded plungers
when the tube is inserted into the corona column. The
design is such that, when inserted, the plungers make contact
with the larger electrodes. By rotating the tube, these
 17

plungers are depressed by the taper between the indentations

and the flat on the outer edge of the large electrode. After
a 45° rotation, each plunger rests on the flat portion of the
large electrodes perimeter which holds the vacuum tube in
place, as illustrated in Figures 2A and 3.
During the interim between Wiley's tests on the proto-
type tube and the construction of the vacuum tubes, it was
noted that spots of oxidation were appearing on the previously
constructed mild steel electrodes which were to be used in
fabricating the tubes. To alleviate this problem, the elec-
trodes were nickel plated to a thickness of .00025 inch, which
gave the plated electrodes a thickness of .058 inch.

A preliminary test was performed to determine if this

plating would remain adhered to the surface when localized
heating occurred due to a flux of impinging ions. This was
done in conjunction with tests being performed on a von
Ardennes type duo-plasmatron ion source. First, a test
electrode was placed in a beam of hydrogen ions and later in
helium ions at an approximate energy of 30 kilovolts. The
shiny surface of the electrode was discolored with tints of
blue and gray; however, there was no sign of deterioration of
the surface. It was then decided to proceed with the con-
struction which incorporated this design modification.
As a continuation of preliminary testing, it was decided
to determine the properties of a vinyl-acetate cement and
 18

also to determine if it would be more suitable for construc-

ting the tube than the epoxy incorporated in the previous
test sections. Most of the troubles encountered during
original tests had been electrical breakdown in the epoxy.
In addition it was difficult to obtain seals which contained
no voids and which would be leak tight. When electrical
breakdowns occurred in the epoxy cement, it was believed
that they were initiated in these voids (3). It was hoped
that the presence of voids in the cement joints could be
eliminated by thinning the vinyl cement, which made it less
viscous than the highly viscous epoxy.

The cement procured for constructing the accelerating

tube was a vinyl alcohol-acetate resin which is a thermo-
plastic. The solution used is commercially known as T-24-9
and was obtained from the Palmer Products Company, Worchester,
Pennsylvania. The directions for use were taken from the
Union Carbide Technical Bulletin Number 224, Section XV,
entitled "Vinyl Alcohol-Acetate Resin Solutions."
When properly used, this cement provides an adhesive
comparable in shock resistance and strength to soft solder.
Proper application of the cement requires that surfaces be
cleaned carefully in order to remove all grease and dirt.
Toluene or ethanol is suggested for cleaning metal surfaces.
After cleaning, the adhesive is applied from solution to all
surfaces to be joined. If it is necessary, the adhesive can
 19

be thinned with any of the lower alcohols. To assure maximum

bonding strength, precautions should be taken to allow com-
plete removal of solvents from the cement. This can be
accomplished by a long air-dry using thin coats or by baking.
When using the cement on porous surfaces a forced dry at
200° to 300° Fahrenheit is satisfactory. After the cement
is dry, the coated pieces are assembled in a jig and sub-
jected to heat and pressure. For maximum bonding using a
temperature of 400° Fahrenheit, the cement joint must be
subjected to a pressure not less than 100 pounds per square
inch. Higher temperatures may be used to raise the resof-
tening point of the cement a few degrees. This is caused
by the occurrence of some degree of cross-linking. As scon
as the above mentioned conditions are reached, the assembly
should be cooled to 120° Fahrenheit, and the parts released.
When returned from the electroplating firm, the elec-
trodes were found to possess some surface graininess. This
graininess could possibly produce field emission when the
electrodes are installed in the vacuum tube. Each electrode
was polished on both sides by rubbing the electrode in a
circular motion on a flat glass plate over which had been
placed a film of water and pumice soap. The pumice soap
particles acted as a very fine grinding compound to remove
the surface irregularities. The electrodes were rinsed in
distilled water and allowed to dry. They were then placed
 20

in an atmosphere saturated with trichloroethylene vapor

which condensed on the cool electrodes. Being a hydorcarbon
solvent, the condensate washed any remaining traces of oil
contamination from the surfaces of the electrodes. The
electrodes were then ready for the application of cement.
Two aluminum cement applicators are used in applying
cement to the electrodes and insulators (Figure 4). The
cylindrical cement applicators are constructed with a raised
and hollowed annular ring for holding cement. The outer
diameter of the ring is 1-1/4 inches and the inner diameter
1 inch. An alignment probe extends from the center of the
applicator concentric to the annular ring, and it is designed
to fit into the central holes in the electrodes and insulators
This allows positioning of the applicators as the cement is
applied. The aluminum alignment probe on the electrode
cement applicator is .1875 inch in diameter, and the nylon
alignment probe on the insulator cement applicator is .625
inch. Nylon was used on the latter, because, upon inserting
and rotating an aluminum probe in the central hole of the
insulator, it was found that small pieces of aluminum adhered
to the inner wall of the central hole. These pieces of •
aluminum provided a conductive path across the insulator.

The actual assembly of the test section closely followed

i

the procedure incorporated in earlier test sections. A

small sample of the vinyl cement was placed in a beaker, then,
 21

ethyl alcohol was added until the viscosity was approximately

that of 30 weight motor oil. The vinyl cement was then
spread uniformly on the electrode cement applicator until a
large semi-circular mound of cement completely filled the
annular ring provided. With the electrode held horizontally,
the alignment probe on the applicator was inserted through
the beam aperture in the electrode from the bottom until the
applicator and electrode were flush. The entire assembly
was inverted, and the applicator was rotated approximately
360° to distribute the cement evenly. The applicator was
then lifted vertically; if there were accompanying streamers
of cement, it was taken as an indication that the cement was
too viscous. If the cement had not formed a perfectly annu-
lar ring with an outer diameter of 1-5/16 inches and an inner
diameter of 15/16 inch, the electrode was cleaned in isopropyl
and the process was repeated. Before applying cement to the
next electrode, the applicator was thoroughly cleaned in
isopropyl alcohol. It was found that any attempt to apply
cement without first cleaning the applicator was futile.

After applying the cement, the electrode was placed horizon-

tally on a rack inside an oven for baking.
The same procedure as above was followed in applying
cement to the ceramic insulators, although the applicator-
insulator assembly was not inverted after insertion of the
alignment probe through the insulator. It was then verified
 22

that the applied cement had extended beyond the edge of the
insulator and had actually lapped slightly over the outer
edge. If the application were not suitable, the insulator
was washed in acetone and allowed to dry before using again.
The coated insulators were then placed horizontally on a
shelf in the oven. If a perfectly filled annular ring of
cement was not achieved in either of the above procedures,
it was taken as an indication that either the cement was too
viscous or that the surfaces were not properly cleaned.

In the oven, the insulators and electrodes were heated

to a temperature of 150° Celsius, as determined by a ther-
mometer placed partially through a hole in the top of the
oven. The purpose of this heating was to drive the solvents
from the cement leaving it hard and transparent. Two ports
at the top of the oven were then opened, allowing rapid cooling
to room temperature.
Four electrodes, two large and two small, and three
insulators were prepared by the above procedure in construc-
ting the test section. By measuring the average thickness
of the electrodes and the insulators, it was determined that
by cementing the electrodes directly to the insulators, the
test section would be .736 inch in length, .0135 inch less
than the required .7500 inch. It was decided that .003 inch
aluminum gaskets would be placed between each electrode and
insulator since no other thickness of aluminum was available.
 23

This technique was employed by Wiley (3) and acted not only
as a shim for obtaining the proper electrode spacing, but
also it minimized the flow of cement into the inner portion
of the tube. This reduced the outgassing of exposed cement
which could present a problem during evacuation. It was
decided to use the same gasket design previously incorpo-
rated, which was a washer shaped aluminum gasket .8125 inch
in outer diameter and .639 inch in inner diameter.

The foil cutting tool for the gaskets (Figure 5) con-

sisted of three steel concentric tubes, the intermediary
having an inner diameter of .639 inch and an outer diameter
of .8125 inch. The inner and outer thin walled tubes made
sliding contact with the intermediary tube. The bottom ends
of these tubes were tapered toward the intermediary tube to
form a cutting edge and the top edge of each tube was knurled
for gripping. The foil gaskets were cut, using a. soft wooden
board or a paper magazine as a backing. If a gasket became
wrinkled during cutting, it was flattened using a photo-
graphic print roller. After cutting, the foils were degreased
in the trichloroethylene vapor.

A gasket-insulator alignment jig constructed to assure

a concentric assembly was then placed through the central
hole of an electrode located on a jigging block. A gasket
and insulator were placed over the alignment jig trapping
the aluminum gasket between the annular rings of cement on
 24

both the electrode and insulator- Holding the insulator in

place, the alignment jig was then carefully replaced by a
second positioning jig (Figure 6) which was designed to hold
the above configuration during bonding. The entire assembly
was placed under pressure in a C-clamp (Figure 7). Three
subassemblies were prepared in this manner utilizing two
small electrodes and one large electrode. The entire assembly
was hung by means of the handle on the clamps from a rack in
the oven where it was heated to 150° Celsius.
After cooling to room temperature, the subassemblies
were removed from the C-clamp. Cement was then applied to
the insulators on all three subassemblies and to the elec-
trodes of the two small-electrode subassemblies. The three
subassemblies were again placed inside the oven supported by
the positioning jigs which had just been removed from the cen-
tral holes. They were then heated to 150° Celsius and allowed
to cool slowly to room temperature. At this time 1/4 inch,
2-56 set screws, which had been ground to produce a 70°
included point, were installed in the small-electrode subas-
semblies. This was done with the point protruding from the
insulator side of the electrode.
The electrode subassembly was then placed with the
coated insulator upward in the small jig (Figure 8), which was
constructed with four rods that fit the indentations in the
outer edge of the electrodes, holding them aligned during
bonding.
 25

The gasket-insulator alignment jig was placed through

the central hole of the insulator, and a gasket was dropped
in place. After carefully removing the alignment jig, a
small-electrode subassembly, coated electrode downward, was
placed in the jig, orienting the set screws 90° counter-
clockwise to the set screw hole in the large electrode. A
second gasket, the second small-electrode subassembly, a
third gasket, and the second, coated, large electrode,
cemented side downward, were installed. The assembly was
visually examined to insure that each set screw hole in
o
each electrode was oriented 90 counterclockwise to the hole
in the preceding electrode. An aluminum cylinder was then
placed on top of the electrode followed by the upper portion
of the jig, which was firmly bolted in place by four nuts on
the threaded alignment rods. The jig was placed in the oven
and heated to 200° Celsius and allowed to cool slowly to
room temperature.
The test section was removed from the jig and was found
to be .007 inch over the .7500 inch required. It was later
found that these sections were not completely compressed.
Visual examination showed all cement fillets to be acceptable,
Leak chasing proved the test section to be leak tight, and
the test section was installed in Wiley's (3) test system,
shorting across two of the insulators using small springs.
It was found that each insulator could withstand a potential
 26

of 40 kilovolts without breakdown in either the vinyl cement

or the insulator. This test section was in an atmosphere of
150 psig of SFg, with an internal vacuum on the order of 8 or
9 x 10~® mm of Hg.
It was then decided to continue construction of the
accelerating tube. The same procedure was used in con- •
structing the tube as that incorporated in building the test
section with some modifications. Twenty-seven three-electrode
subassemblies similar to the test section were built. In
constructing these, the second large electrode and the cement
on the uppermost insulator were excluded from each subassembly,
A variety of foil thicknesses .005 inch, .001 inch, .002
inch, and .003 inch was purchased for constructing gaskets.

The presences of bubbling in the cement between some

insulators and electrodes is not clearly understood. It is
believed that this bubbling was caused by vigorous agitation
during thinning, introducing small bubbles in the cement,
and possibly by too rapid a heating rate, during which the
outer surface of the cement hardened, trapping the bubbles
beneath the surface. These bubbles, although unsightly, did
not seem to prevent good vacuum seals. As construction of
the tubes proceeded and more rapid construction methods were
used, bubbling became more evident.
Some subassemblies were heated to temperatures in excess
of 240° Celsius. The cement on these subassemblies became
 27

colored with a spectrum ranging from light yellow to dark

brown, depending on the maximum temperature to which they
were exposed. This discoloration did not seem to affect the
vacuum seal; it did, however, appear to make the dark brown
cement invulnerable to solvents.
A piece was machined to fit the end of the tube, and an
insulator was concentrically bonded to this piece. This end-
piece was designed to allow attachment of the vacuum tube
to a vacuum system. Once the 27 three-electrode pieces were
completed, ground set screws were inserted in the remaining
large electrodes. Both ends of each subassembly were coated
with cement; however, the test section was coated on only one
end. The insulator on the special end-piece was coated with
cement, and all of the subassemblies were heated to 150°
Celsius.

The large gluing jig was assembled, and the subassemblies

placed in the jig beginning with the machined aluminum end-
piece. Gaskets of proper thickness to insure the .7500 inch
separation of the large electrodes were inserted, making sure
that the set screws were oriented 90° counterclockwise to
the set screw in the preceding electrode. The tube was
terminated with the original test section, leaving a large
electrode at the top of the tube. The jig was assembled,
placing the two alignment pieces at intermediate positions
on the four alignment rods along the jig; the top piece off
 28

of the smaller jig was placed on top of the tube, followed

by an aluminum cylindrical spacer and the top piece of the
large jig (Figure 9). The nuts on the threaded rods were
then tightened. The tube length was measured and was found
to be longer than the 21 inches required.
The entire assembly was placed vertically in a kiln..
The jig extended through the top of the kiln and asbestos
was placed around the upper portion of the jig leaving the
aluminum spacer and the top of the jig exposed. A ther-
mometer was forced through the asbestos into the kiln. Upon
reaching 200° Celsius, the kiln was turned off; the temper-
ature continued to rise to 240° Celsius. Knowing the pitch
of the threads on the threaded alignment rods, the nuts were
tightened while the kiln was hot, incurring very little
resistance, until the proper length of the vacuum tube was
attained. The tube was allowed to cool to slightly above
room temperature and removed from the jig. The jig developed
stresses during heating, making disassembly difficult. In
driving the end pieces and alignment pieces apart with a
rubber mallet, the tube broke in several places and had to
be repaired. The best procedure found for removing the
tube has been first to remove the nuts from each end of the
alignment rods and then to separately drive each rod out of
the jig, using a 3/8 inch steel rod and a rubber mallet.
 29

It was found that several gaskets along the tube had

shattered and had been partially forced from between the
electrodes and insulators. Directing a stream of hot air
from a 1/4 inch by 1-1/2 inch rectangular nozzle onto the
cement joint containing the shattered gasket softened the
cement and allowed separation of the tube at the specified
cement joint. The adhering cement and gasket were cleaned
from the surface using a razor blade. The electrode surface
was cleaned with ethanol and fresh cement was applied to
both surfaces, then allowed to dry in open air. The entire
tube was again placed in the large jig, replacing all gas-
kets and reheated in the kiln. Bubbling of the cement
appeared in each of these repaired joints.
After much repeated heating and repairing, the tube was
leak tight. A second tube was then constructed, using the
same procedure as before. Repeated heatings, however,
resulted in each of the tubes being slightly shorter than
desired but within the tolerances allowed. The tubes were
then subjected to tests under simulated operating conditions,
but in the absence of the ion source.
 CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Daniel, R. E., "Construction and Testing of a Charging

System and a Corona Column for an Electrostatic
Accelerator," unpublished master's thesis, Department
of Physics, North Texas State University, Denton,
Texas, 1962.
2. Gray, Thomas Jack, "Design and Testing of a Corona
Column and a Closed Gas Distribution System for a
Tandem Van de Graaff Voltage Generator," unpublished
master's thesis, Department of Physics, North Texas
State University, Denton, Texas, 1962.
3. Wiley, Ralph, "A Vacuum Tube for an Electrostatic
Accelerator," unpublished master's thesis, Department
of Physics, North Texas State University, 1963.

30
 CHAPTER III

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

The purpose in testing the accelerating tubes without

a beam is to determine the maximum potential the tubes will
sustain while under actual operating conditions and to
become familiar with the characteristics of the machine under
breakdown conditions in order that these conditions will be
readily recognizable in future operation of the accelerator.
The tubes were tested both individually and simultaneously
while being internally evacuated and externally pressurized
with sulfur hexafluoride at pressures of 20, 40, 60, and
80 psig.

To insure accurate data, a calibration was performed

on the BB end of the corona column at pressures of 20, 40,
60, and 80 psig. This calibration was performed utilizing
the calibration procedure and equipment used by Daniel (1).
Calibration is performed by placing a continuously variable
0-100 kilovolt potential across each of the 26 corona gaps
on the BB end of the corona column by means of a high-voltage
feed-through bushing which makes sliding contact between
adjacent corona rings. After the corona threshold potential
was obtained, the corona current was varied from one to
twenty microamperes in steps of one microampere, and the

31
 32

corresponding potential for each current was recorded.

This was performed for each of the 26 corona gaps at four
different pressures.
While the machine is in operation, one can read the
corona current on each end of the machine. Since the corona
gaps are in series, the terminal potential is taken as the
sum total of the potentials across each gap which has been
determined for a given current and pressure. It must be
assumed that the cumulative effect is not altered under
actual operation. A sum of the potentials across the corona
gaps for each corona current at each pressure was made, and
the results of these summations were plotted against the
corresponding corona currents (Figure 10). It was noted
during this calibration that for a given corona current the
terminal potential was generally higher than the potential
obtained by Daniel (1) under the same conditions. This was
expected since during continued operation the corona dulls
the corona points; thus the potential required to extract a
given current will increase with continued use. A comparison
of needle sharpness on the corona characteristics was made
by Gray (2). His data suggested that the needles become dull
with use.
It was found dxiring the calibration that the corona
characteristics of several gaps did not remain the same from
one pressure setting to another. A corona gap requiring
 33

consistently higher potentials than the column average during

one run might require a lower potential than the column
average during another run. This may be attributed to
changes in the corona spacing caused by movement of the corona
needles when contacts to the individual gaps were made.
Since the original construction, mechanical vibrations and
continual handling of the corona columns have caused many of
the components to become loose and easily moved. It was also
noted that the potential difference across some corona gaps
consistently differed as much as 20 kilovolts from accom-
panying gaps for a given corona current. This condition
could produce excessive potentials across corresponding por-
tions of the vacuum tube and cause failure of the insulator.
If possible one should determine if any correlation exists
between the position of ruptured insulators and the position
of these high potential gaps.

Once the BB corona calibration was completed, the

generating voltmeter and AA corona column were calibrated by
comparison with the BB calibration. Graphs were made of the
generating voltmeter reading versus the terminal potential
{Figure 11), and the AA corona current versus the terminal
potential (Figure 12) from the BB corona calibration curve
at the various pressures. Even though the generating volt-
meter calibration was a secondary calibration, it was used as
the standard since no new parameters were to be introduced
 34

which.would alter the relationship between the generating

voltmeter and the terminal potential. It should be noted
that the low signal-to-noise ratio in the generating volt-
meter encountered by Daniel (1) has been minimized by using
a shielded signal lead. The noise level has been reduced to
.006 volts as indicated by the generating voltmeter.

Although a calibration curve of the AA corona current

versus the terminal potential was obtained, very little reli-
ability should be expected from this curve. To gain access
to the central terminal, each corona ring on the AA end has
to be removed and replaced; this process conceivably alters
the individual corona gap spacing and the characteristics of
the corona column. The AA corona current is lower than the
BB for a given terminal potential due to the presence of an
additional corona ring on the AA end, producing a smaller
potential gradient down the column.

The vacuum system constructed for evacuating the vacuum

tubes was external to the pressure tank. It was composed of
two independent pumping assemblies to allow simultaneous
evacuation of the tube from both ends of the tank. To
allow each assembly to pump on the entire system, a tube with
O-rings on each end was placed in the central terminal to
make a vacuum connection between the large terminating elec-
trodes on each of the vacuum tubes. Attached to the opposite
end of each vacuum tube by means of set screws was a vacuum
 35

feed-through assembly (Figure 13). Each assembly passed

through the large tank flange and was constructed to seal
the insulating gas within the tank, to provide a vacuum
connection between the internal vacuum tube and the external
vacuum system, to provide pressure against the vacuum tube
for making a seal against the O-ring at the central terminal,
and to prevent stress from being placed on the vacuum tube
once in place.

Each feed-through assembly was attached externally to

a 1-1/2 inch evacuation tube approximately 2 feet long termi-
nated by a 2 inch tee (Figure 14); the opposite side of the
tee was sealed by a flange holding a Phillips' vacuum gauge.
The bottom of each tee was connected to a cold trap, which
was never utilized, followed by a chevron baffle and a
Consolidated Vacuum Corporation 2 inch diffusion pump charged
with their "Convelex 10" pump oil, which possesses a low
ultimate pressure, good resistance to cracking, and a high
operating temperature. To attain a temperature suitable for
operation, the pump was cooled by forcing compressed air at
30 psig through the cooling coils designed for use with water
cooling and by placing 94 volts a.c. across the heating
element. Any higher voltage setting resulted in melting of
the soft solder around the cooling coils nearest to the
heating element. All seals in the vacuum assemblies were
made with O-rings lightly coated with stop-cock grease. The
 36

diffusion pumps were backed by Welch "duo-seal" fore pumps,

and a Hastings vacuum gauge was placed between each diffusion
pump and fore pump.
Installation of the vacuum tubes requires that the
corona column be removed from the tank and rotated to a ver-
tical position. Then the tubes are inserted from the top.
The procedure has been to insert the second tube constructed,
designated tube number two, in the BB end of the corona
column, installing the vacuum feed-through assembly in the
large flange which remains affixed to the BB end of the
column. This assembly exerts pressure on the tube, which
maintains its position while the corona column is inverted.
The first tube constructed, designated tube number one, is
inserted and the bellows assembly portion of the vacuum
feed-through assembly is installed. The mechanical rigidity
possessed by the tubes is evident from the torque that must
be applied to them during installation. The corona column
is inserted in the tank, and the charging system installed,
followed by the installation of the vacuum system. When
testing only one accelerating tube, the same procedure was
followed, excluding installation of the second tube. A small
aluminum disc was used to seal the open end of the tube
inside of the central terminal. The disc was held in place
by the pressurized insulating gas. This arrangement allows
 37

utilization of only one-half the vacuum system, thus reducing

the pumping speed.
To determine the efficiency of the vacuum system and
the pressure gradient down the vacuum tube while being evac-
uated from only one end, an open-air experiment was performed
on one of the vacuum tubes. This experimental arrangement
(Figure 15) consisted of a vacuum tube attached to the vacuum
system normally utilized when the tube was installed in the
tank. An O-ring seal at the terminal end of the tube was
made against a flat plate which held a second Phillips'
vacuum gauge. It was observed that when the gauge directly
-7
over the diffusion pump read 10 rum of Hg, the gauge at the
-5
opposite end of the tube read 5.2 x .10 mm of Hg. It may
be assumed that the pressure at the central terminal would
be lower if both pumps were being utilized.
A majority of the information obtained concerning elec-
trical breakdown of the vacuum tubes and the reaction of the
machine to these breakdowns came from testing the tubes
individually. Each tube was installed and evacuated until
the Phillips' vacuum gauge indicated a pressure on the order
-7
of 10 mm of Hg; then the tank was pressurized to 20, 40,
60, or 80 psig of SFg. Each time a tube was installed after
accompanied
having been by X-rays.
open to the To eliminateits
atmosphere, these X-rays,
initial the termi-
operation was
nal potential was maintained at some low value and after some
 38

unpredictable length of time the X-rays would suddenly stop.

The fact that this effect was observed only during initial
operation of each tube suggests that the cause was due to
the presence of foreign matter inside of the tube. Once this
material was removed, the X-rays ceased.
The characteristics of the machine under optimum oper-
ating conditions were determined from several runs during
which breakdown was not observed. It was observed that the
sum of the corona currents exceeded the sum of the charging
currents by a small amount. It was also noted that the
corona current on the end of the machine in which the vacuum
tube was installed was actually greater for a given terminal
potential than it would have been had the tube not been pre-
sent (Figure 16). This increase in current was possibly due
to the corona points in the vacuum tube, which were designed
and installed as a protective device to prevent excess poten-
tials from occurring across the insulators. These corona
points, which were in parallel with the corona needles in the
corona column, underwent some discharge increasing the current
flowing down the corona column. This effect was not observed
at 40 psig but became pronounced as the tank pressure was
increased. Visual examination of the vacuum tubes verified
that these corona points did experience some discharge.

Three additional types of electrical breakdown occurred .

during the testing. These included a continuous breakdown
 39

accompanied by electron loading characteristics, violent

internal tube sparks, and violent tank sparks, all of which
are common problems with Van de Graaff accelerators.
Tank sparks occurred in the machine whenever the dielec-
tric strength of the insulating gas was exceeded and was
responsible for establishing the upper limit on the terminal
potential when operating the generator without vacuum tubes.
Tank sparks occurred frequently with the tubes installed
while operating at low SFg pressures and occasionally while
operating at higher pressures. These sparks produced a loud
resonating noise and a bright flash of light visible through
the tank ports. They completely discharged the central term-
inal but in no way affected the operating characteristics of
the vacuum tube. Following a tank spark, the charging system
quickly reestablished the terminal potential.
Tube sparks possessed all of the characteristics of
tank sparks but were followed by a large flux of X-rays
which increased in intensity as the charging system attempted
to reestablish the terminal potential. Tube sparks also
produced a gas load within the vacuum tubes, resulting in a
lower vacuum. If a large tube spark occurred while operating
-7
at an indicated vacuum of 10 mm of Hg, xt would usually
-4
lower the vacuum momentarily to about 10 mm of Hg; however,
a fairly rapid pumpout occurred and in less than a minute a
—7
vacuum of 2 or 3 x 10 could be reestablished. The increased
 40

tube pressure was a highly favorable condition for electron

loading which usually followed each tube spark; although on
a few occasions a sudden appearance of heavy electron loading
preceded a tube spark. If the charging potential was not
immediately decreased following a spark, additional sparking
and/or heavy electron loading would always occur producing
a gas load requiring several hours to evacuate.
Electron loading occurred under all operating conditions
and did not necessarily require a tube spark to initiate.
Electron loading appeared to be highly pressure dependent
and rarely self-initiated in a well evacuated vacuum tube.
Electron loading was recognized by one or a combination of
characteristics which did not always occur simultaneously.
During electron loading, it was noted that the sum of the
charging currents began to exceed the normally higher sum of
the corona currents. Also for a given terminal potential,
the corona current in the end of the machine in which the
tube was installed became equal to or lower than the current
it would draw had the tubes not been present (Figure 16).
This condition was opposite to that existing during opera-
tion without loading. One could usually observe the
transition of the corona current if a tube went into an
electron loading configuration (Figure 17). On occasion,
the tubes would suddenly go into heavy electron loading
which was characterized by a drop in all current meter
 41

readings except the up-charge reading. Apparently the

decrease in the corona current was caused by the electrons
in the loading process moving up the tube in parallel with
the corona current. At all times for an established termi-
nal potential, the charging currents reaching the central
terminal must equal the discharging currents. The electrons
in the loading process apparently constituted an unmeasured
portion of the discharging current, decreasing the measured
corona current required to establish the balance. When
testing the vacuum tubes individually during electron loading,
the electrons undoubtedly struck the upper end of the vacuum
tube and the aluminum disk making the vacuum seal at the cen-
tral terminal creating X-rays. By monitoring these X-rays
one could determine when loading was occurring; however,

there were occasions when evidences of electron loading

existed although no X-rays were detected.
During operation, a Model 404 Technical Manufacturing
Corporation 400 channel multichannel analyzer was utilized
in hopes of obtaining an additional estimate of the terminal
potential. It was postulated that the spectrum of the X-rays
produced by electron loading or a spark would have a sudden
drop in intensity at energies at or slightly below the energy
corresponding to the terminal potential. The spark spectrum
indicated X-rays of energies exceeding 4 MeV; these were
probably produced by 'stack up' or more than one X-ray
 42

entering the scintillation counter simultaneously, producing

a signal corresponding to the combined energies of the X-rays.
The spectrum taken with electron loading occurring at low
terminal potentials resembled an exponential decay possessing
no definite terminating point, while at higher terminal poten-
tials characteristic peaks appeared. The majority of these
peaks were in excess of 1 MeV. Since the energy level
for the possibly target materials found in the vacuum system
is much lower than this energy, these peaks were possibly due
to gamma radiation from some induced nuclear reaction.
The maximum potential obtainable across the vacuum tubes
was limited by tube sparking. It was found that if the tubes
were under electron loading a substantially higher potential
was obtainable than when loading did not occur. While
testing individually under optimum conditions, tube number
one on an average withstood 1.45 million volts and tube num-
ber two withstood 1.46 million volts. Under loaded conditions
each tube at one time withstood 1.74 million volts as deter-
mined from the generating voltmeter. Conditioning of a tube
\ was possible, but the gas load created by tube sparks coupled
\

with the "slow" pumping speed usually prevented much condi-

tioning. The largest electron locking observed immediately
followed tube sparks.
Under normal operating conditions no visible damage to
the tubes occurred; however, on two separate occasions an
 43

insulator on tube number one cracked when a tube spark

occurred. The method of repair has been to place a coating
of the vinyl cement over the cracked insulator, to replace
the entire column in the large jig, and to heat in the kiln
to 150° Celsius. This procedure seemed to have no effect on
the operating characteristics of the tube. On both occasions
during which the rupture occurred, the tube was being tested
individually under a heavy gas load accompanied by electron
loading. In both cases there appeared a sudden increase in
the corona currents followed immediately by a violent tube
spark, causing the tube to rupture. The sudden increase in
corona current was an indication that the electron loading
suddenly ceased. The rupture was created either by the surge
in corona which produced very high potentials across many of
the insulators, exceeding the dielectric strength of one, or
by mechanical stresses placed on the tube by the Shockwave
created by the tube spark.

The characteristics of the Van de Graaff while oper-

ating with either one or two tubes remain very nearly the
same. The most significant differences are the pumping
speed and decrease in electron loading. With both pumping
assemblies operating simultaneously on the two tubes, the
pumping speed was rapid enough to allow continuation of a
run following a tube spark without a decrease in terminal
potential. This allowed conditioning of the vacuum tubes.
 44

The more rapid pumping speed also aided in reducing the prob-
lem of electron loading. Although electron loading appeared
during the runs with both tubes, it was much harder to estab-
lish its presence. Another reason for a decrease in the
loading might have been the presence of the open beam aper-
tures on each end of the central terminal. Many of the
electrons associated with the loading process might possibly
have left one tube, traversed the central terminal, and
entered the second tube. This condition would produce an
oscillation of the electrons through the central terminal
and would reduce the number of collisions.
The maximum terminal potential obtained after condi-
tioning with the presence of both tubes under evacuation and
in the absence of any detectable electron loading was 1.64
million volts as determined from the generating voltmeter.
On a typical run without electron loading an average poten-
tial of 1.49 million volts was obtained before a tube spark
occurred. With electron loading, a potential of 1.64 million
volts was attained on two separate occasions.
 CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

Daniel, R. E. , "Construction and Testing of a Charging

System and a Corona Column for an Electrostatic
Accelerator," unpublished master's thesis, Department
of Physics, North Texas State University, Denton,
Texas, 1962.
Gray, Thomas Jack, "Design and Testing of a Corona
Column and a Closed Gas Distribution System for a
Tandem Van de Graaff Voltage Generator," unpublished
master's thesis, Department of Physics, North Texas
State University, Denton, Texas, 1962.

45
 CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSIONS

Generating Voltmeter
The generating voltmeter has proven to be the only
reliable indicator of the terminal potential. The gener-
ating voltmeter reading is not dependent on conditions
existing in the vacuum tubes, as are the corona currents
which have previously been used in determining terminal
potentials. It would be desirable to have a digital a.c.
voltmeter or an a.c. voltmeter with a linear scale easily
readable to three-place accuracy instead.of the Ballentine
a.c. voltmeter currently used, which possesses a logarithmic
scale that is difficult to read at the higher values. A
calibrated oscilloscope could be used; however, there is a
d.c. component associated with the signal from the generating
voltmeter due to the capacitance between the stator of the
voltmeter and the central terminal. The significant 24 0
cycle a.c. component of the signal is superimposed on top of
the d.c. signal, which increases with the terminal potential,
creating an inherent drift in the signal trace which must be
continually corrected, making the oscilloscope troublesome to
use.

46
 47

Due to the production of X-rays by the Van de Graaff

after installation of the vacuum tubes, it became necessary

to move the machine controls from beside the generator to a

shielded area several feet away. Upon resuming testing, it

was noted that the generating voltmeter reading for a given

terminal potential was significantly lower than previous

readings. A measurement of the resistance of the signal lead

excluded the possibility of a resistive drop in the signal.

It was found that the capacitive reactance of the shielded

signal lead was responsible for the loss in signal intensity.

It would be advisable to establish immediately a new

and very accurate calibration of the generating voltmeter.

This would be desirable at this time since BB corona cali-

bration data have just been acquired and since the previously

used generating voltmeter calibration curves are invalid

because of the new signal lead. For analyzing data obtained

on tube number one, at the new location, a correlation

between the new generating voltmeter readings and the old

readings was made, by assuming that the BB corona currents and

the corresponding terminal potentials remained the same while

operating in each, position during runs in the absence of

electron loading. A generating voltmeter calibration curve

was obtained (Figure 18). It was noted that the voltmeter

readings at the tyo positions differed by a constant deter-

mined by the tank pressure. At 40 psig, the new voltmeter

 48

reading was determined by multiplying the old reading by .806,

and at 60 psig the reading was multiplied by .847.
Future operators of the machine should be aware of the
most common difficulty encountered with the generating volt-
meter. The electric motor used to drive the rotor blades
on the generating voltmeter is characterized by a very rapid
slowing once turned off. The rotational inertia of the rotor
blades often unscrews the threaded shaft supporting the
rotor from the motor shaft, allowing the rotor to drop
slightly and extend inside the tank. As the potential is
increased, sparking occurs to the protruding shaft. Under
the above circumstances the signal from the generating volt-
meter will be d.c. with spikes due to the sparking, which can
be observed with an oscilloscope. A prism should be placed
inside one of the observing ports to allow visual examination
of the rotor blades in case trouble occurs. The operator
should also become familiar with the sound associated with
the whirling blades of the rotor and should be able to deter-
mine when this sound is present during operation.

From the reliability of the data obtained from the gener-

ating voltmeter, it is believed that this component of the
Van de Graaff is suitable for future operation, although a
more accurate a.c. voltmeter should be installed and a cali-
bration should be obtained.
 49

Charging System
Because a sag has developed in the Lucite corona
column support, the brushes through which the pellet string
passes have become misaligned. Aluminum shims have been
placed under several of the brushes in an attempt to rees-
tablish alignment, but the problem still exists. Due to
the flexibility of the pellet string, this misalignment has
not presented any problem.
A high-frequency vibration is created by the pellet
string passing through the brushes along the corona column.
This vibration is transferred throughout the machine and
tends to loosen any screws or nuts not firmly secured. This
vibration has caused unscrewing of the corona set screws
along the vacuum tubes, the brass balls and plungers along
the inside of the corona column, and the set screws on the
charging brushes. The corona set screws on the vacuum
tubes have been coated with clear fingernail polish, alle-
viating this problem. The brass balls and plungers pose a
problem which is difficult to solve unless the corona col-
umns are completely reassembled, coating the screws with a
bonding agent. The brushes should be checked and cleaned
frequently to minimize the risk of shorting the brushes or
of the pellet strings pulling the brushes from their supports,
The pellet string to date has operated for 55.8 hours.
The original split pellet used in connecting the ends of the
 50

string was broken and replaced with a modified design. The

nylon cable has become frayed at the base of the male por-
tion of the split pellet, and at one point between two
pellets on the string one of the nylon lines comprising the
nylon cable has become severed. These are the only signs
of wear. It is difficult to estimate when repairs should
be made on the male half of the split pellet. If the string
breaks at this point, the results could be catastrophic.

Since the pellet string continually stretches, repairs can

be made on the present pellet.string if necessary without
reducing the length below the operational minimum. Each time
the pellet string has been removed from the tank it has been
wiped with a clean lint-free rag to remove any accumulated
oil and dirt. Each time the pellet string has been installed,
it has been lightly coated with 30 weight motor oil. This
cleaning and oiling makes a definite difference in the amount
of force required to move a pellet string through the
brushes and helps to minimize the possibility of breakage.

During operation, the up-charge current still exceeds

the down-charge current even though the resistors in the cen-
tral terminal have been changed in accordance with the
suggestion made by Daniel (2). If a matched up-charge and
down-charge is desired, additional resistance can be added.
The up-charge current is very stable, is determined by the
charging potential, and is independent of conditions existing
 51

along the corona columns or within the vacuum tubes; however,

the down-charge current is susceptible to these conditions.
The charging system is, therefore, not always stable; this
can be observed from occasional oscillations occurring in
the down-charge current.

Gas Handling System

The gas handling system has performed satisfactorily
during the present series of experiments; however, some modi-
fications should be made to facilitate more rapid pumping
speeds at low gas pressures. A 3/4 inch by-pass with valve
should be installed around the small regulator at the
entrance to the surge tank. The orifice on the pressure
regulator is too small, and once the gas pressure falls below
approximately 25 pounds, the rate of gas flow through the
regulator becomes lower than the evacuation rate of the com-
pressor, and the compressor has to be stopped frequently to
allow gas to flow into the surge tank. The by-pass valve
could be throttled at the lower gas pressures, maintaining
pressure in the surge tank and preventing its evacuation.
This would greatly decrease pumping time.
The gas used in testing has not been dehumidified since
testing began. There have been no unusual operating charac-
teristics to indicate a need for dehumidification.
Leaks have been found at the pipe joints in the gas
handling system and gas losses have been observed from both
 52

the storage tank and the Van de Graaff tank when under pres-

sure. Losses could be reduced by placing valves at both

inlets to the Van de Graaff tank, preventing leakage through

the gas handling system.

Corona Columns

The calibration of the BB corona column brought out

the fact that the present corona columns fail to establish

uniform potential gradients between the central terminal and

ground. This fact can be illustrated by observing the dif-

ferences in the potential across the 26 corona gaps at a

typical gas pressure and corona current. It was also noted

during the calibration that the coronas are highly unstable

and produce continual voltage fluctuations across succeeding

corona rings.

The weight of the corona columns and central terminal

has produced a sag in the corona column. When the vacuum

tubes are installed in the corona columns, they both possess

a downward slope toward the central terminal. When installed,

it is impossible to look through the beam apertures of the

vacuum tubes and see out the opposite end; however, some

light can be seen entering from the opposite aperture. It

may be necessary to eliminate this sag and align the accel-

erating tubes if a beam is to be injected into the accelerator.

Until present experimentation, it has been common pro-

cedure to estimate the terminal potential from the calibration

 53

of the BB corona current and the terminal potential. This

procedure is acceptable as long as the vacuum tubes are
not installed. Installation of these tubes alters the char-
acteristics of the corona columns, and there no longer exists
a correlation between the corona currents and terminal poten-
tial. While operating the machine without electron loading,
it has been noted that the corona currents are higher than
if the tubes were not installed, and with electron loading
the corona currents drop below this value. This is seen as
an indication of the presence of electron loading and becomes
more evident when operating at higher tank pressures. It
is evident that the generating voltmeter provides the most
reliable means of determining the terminal potential.

Vacuum System
The vacuum system constructed for evacuating the vacuum
tubes has operated satisfactorily. The small beam aperture
is responsible for the slow pumping speed observed and not
the vacuum system. To improve the performance of the vacuum
system and provide localized diffusion pump cooling facili-
ties, several modifications should be made.
It has been suggested that oil vapors from the diffusion
pumps diffuse into the vacuum tubes and are responsible for
much of the electron loading (1). Pump oil might be respon-
sible for the breakdown accompanying the initial operation
 54

of the Van de Graaff with the vacuum tubes installed. To

alleviate the possibility of pump oil playing a role in
electron loading, the cold traps should be utilized. The
cold traps would also help attain lower pressures.
Modification of the cooling system on the diffusion
pumps should be made in accordance with a local design
successfully tested. To alleviate the necessity of a con-
tinual supply of compressed air for cooling, the modification
incorporates a small blower to force air through special
cooling coils installed in place of the present cooling coils.
A voltage regulator is used to obtain a suitable operating
temperature.
It has been noted since the conclusion of experimenta-
tion that the Phillips1 vacuum gauges are not accurate for
_7
measuring pressures in the range of 10 mm of Hg. This was
determined from observing the pressure reading on a vacuum
system containing a Phillips' gauge and a recently purchased
ionization gauge. This fact does not have any direct bearing
on the experiments performed since the pressure gradient down
the tubes was so large; the gauges were used only for a rela-
tive vacuum measurement.
The Vacuum Tubes
It is evident from experimentation why the problems of
electrical breakdown are so vaguely understood. There are
 55

too many uncontrollable parameters associated with the oper-

ation of a machine.
The vacuum tubes constructed will consistently sustain
a potential of 1.45 million volts, which corresponds to a
potential gradient down the BB corona column of 892 kilovolts
per foot, a value comparable to the better accelerators in
existence. After conditioning, these tubes have sustained
potentials as high as 1.64 million volts, corresponding to
a gradient of 1.01 million volts per foot. Failure of the
machine to attain higher potentials cannot be traced to
either of the tubes; each has very similar operational char-
acteristics .
When operating with either one or both tubes installed,
electron loading is frequently present. It is not always
easy to establish when loading is occurring, and loading is
less prevalent when the tubes are installed simultaneously.
Electron loading is highly dependent on tube pressure and
increases with tube pressure. Electron loading is usually
initiated by a tube spark which produces a gas load, increasing
the tube pressure. The beam aperture in the vacuum tubes is
too small to provide a rapid pumping speed under operating
conditions incurred.
The corona points installed in the vacuum tubes draw
current during operation. Although this was not supposed
to occur it might act to establish a more uniform potential
 56

gradient down the tubes and stabilize the corona column

currents.
Rupture of an insulator occurred twice on tube number
one while it was being tested individually. The first punc-
ture was repaired by coating the insulator with a light coat
of vinyl cement and heating. The repair did not seem to
affect the operational characteristics of the tube. The
second rupture occurred at the same insulator as the first.
Both cracks were created by a tube spark immediately fol-
lowing what appeared to have been sudden termination of
electron loading.

The vacuum tubes are mechanically rigid and withstand

moderate mechanical shock and considerable torque without
breakage. They are easily constructed and repaired, although
much time and care are required for construction.
Although much data were acquired during the series of
experiments, some of the conclusions about the operational
characteristics of the vacuum tubes and the generator are^
drawn from a few isolated instances, but none from an inci-
dent which occurred only once unless specifically stated.
Much more research needs to be performed before one can •
determine if the tubes are suitable for use. It is felt
that because of the time and expense required to build
tubes with large apertures, and since an ion source will
soon be available for the accelerator, experimentation on
the present tubes should be continued.
 CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Blewett, J. P., "Electron Loading in Ion Accelerating

Tubes II," The Physical Review, LXXXI (1951), 305A.
2. Daniel, R. E., "Construction and Testing of a Charging
System and a Corona Column for an Electrostatic
Accelerator," unpublished master's thesis, Department
of Physics, North Texas State University, Denton,
Texas, 1962.

57
APPENDIX
 59

GJSp-O

Pig. 1 — A vacuum tube with "Inverted cone" electrode

configuration.
 60

Fig. 2 — ( A ) Cross section of corona column with vacuum

tube installed (B) Large electrode (C) Small electrode
 61

' "siV
11

Pig- 3 Longitudinal section of corona column with

vacuum tube installed.
62

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 63

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m J

Fig. 7—C-clamp holding a positioning jig, insulator,

gasket, electrode, and jigging block.
 66

Fig. 8--Assembling electrode-insulator subassemblies

in the small jig.
67

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0 I 2 S 4 6 6 7 I 9 10 II 12 18 14 16 I© IT IS I© EO 21 22
BB CORONA CURKKNT (JUA)

Fig. 10—Terminal potential versus BB corona current

prior to installation of vacuum tubes.
 69

2.3

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GENERATING VOLTMETER ( A X . VOLTS)

Pig. 11—Terminal potential versus generating voltmeter

reading prior to alteration of the signal lead.
 70

8 0 PSIG

60 PSI6

1 | I | I [l-[~| | 1 | 1 | 1 | I [-l-fl-f+l1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 ! 1 ! | ! | 1 1 l-f

0 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 IE 12 IS 14 15 !G I? 19 2 0 Si 22.
AA CORONA CURRENT (MA)

Pig. 12 Terminal potential versus AA corona current

prior to installation of vacuum tubes.
 71

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 72

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 74

OPERATI M© CONDITIONS

X - HQ TUBE
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• - WITH LOADING

r i.s

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BB CORONA CURRENT (HA)
Fig. 16—A_ renreripntpshi vp r-nmnGrJi cnn ^-p
 75

2«0

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OPERATING CONDITIONS

O - WITH TUBE
X - WITHOUT TUBE

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B0 CORONA CURRENT (|4 A>

Fig. 1 7 — A representative curve of terminal potential

versus BB corona current as spontaneous electron loading occurs
 76

2. 3

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6 0 P8IQ
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§.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 6.0 5.5 6.0

GENERATING VOLTMETER (A.O. VOLTS)

Fig. 18—Terminal potential versus generating voltmeter

reading after alteration of the signal lead.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Livingston, M. S., and Blewett, J. P., Particle Accelerators,

New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962.

Articles

Alvarez, L. W., "Energy Doubling in D. C. Accelerators,"

The Review of Scientific Instruments, XXII (1951), 705,

Blewett, J. P., "Electron Loading in Ion Accelerating Tubes

1 1
T h e Physical Review, LXXXI (1951), 305A.

Chick, D. R., Hunt, S. E., Jones, W. M., and Petrie, D.

P. R., "A Van de Graaff Accelerator Tube of Very Low
Retrograde Electron Current," Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, V (1959), 518.
Cranberg, L., "The Initiation of Electrical Breakdown in
Vacuum," Journal of Applied Physics,
, and Henshall, J. B., "Small-Aperture
Diaphragms in Ion-Accelerator Tubes," Journal of
Applied Physics, XXX (1959), 708.

Firth, K., and Chick, D. R., "The 'Screening' of Neutral

Particles in High Voltage Ion Accelerator Tubes,"
Journal of Scientific Instruments, XXX (1953), 167.

Hunt, S. E., Cheetham, F. C., and Evans, W. W., "The

Performance and Conditioning of 'Inverted Cone' Van de
Graaff Accelerating Tubes," Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, XXI (1963), 101.
Jones, F. L., "Electrical Discharges and the Vacuum
Physicist," Vacuum, III (1953), 116.

Mansfield, W. K., and Fortescue, R. L., "Prebreakdown

Conduction Between Electrodes in Continuously Pumped
Vacuum Systems," British Journal of Applied Physics,
VIII (1957), 73.
McKibben, J. L., "Control of Current Loading and Sparks in
Ion Accelerating Tubes by Back-Biased Diaphragms,"
Bulletin of American Physical Society, I (1956), 61.

77
 78

Bernsrs, E. D., Eppling, F. J., Knecht,

D. J., and Herb, R. G., "New Electrostatic Accelerator,"
The Review of Scientific Instruments, XXX (1959), 855.
Trump, J. G. Van de Graaff, R. J., "The Insulation of High
Voltages in a Vacuum" Journal of Applied Physics,
XVIII (1957), 327.
Turner, C. M., "Ionization Loading of Electrostatic
Generators," The Physical Review, XCV (1943), 599.
"Electron Loading in Ion Accelerating Tubes
I," The~Physical Review, LXXXI (1951), 305A.
Van Atta, L. C., Northrop, D. L., Van Atta, C. M., and Van
de Graaff, R. J., "The Design, Operation, and
Performance of the Round Hill Electrostatic Generator,"
The Physical Review, XLIX (1936), 761.
Webster, E. W., Van de Graaff, R. J., and Trump, J. G.,
"Secondary Electron Emission from Metals under Positive
Ion Bombardment in High Extractive Fields," Journal
of Applied Physics, XXIII (1952) , 264.

Unpublished Materials
Daniel, R. E., "Construction and Testing of a Charging
System and a Corona Column for an Electrostatic
Accelerator," unpublished master's thesis, Department
of Physics, North Texas State University, Denton,
Texas, 1962.
Gray, Thomas Jack, "Design and Testing of a Corona Column
and a Closed Gas Distribution System for a Tandem Van
de Graaff Voltage Generator," unpublished master's
thesis, Department of Physics, North Texas State
University, Denton, Texas, 1962.
Michael, Irving, "The Development and Performance of a New
Electrostatic Accelerator," unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Department of Physics, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1958.
Wiley, Ralph, "A Vacuum Tube for an Electrostatic Accelerator,"
unpublished master's thesis, Department of Physics,
North Texas State University, 1963.