Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

3.1 Introduction

Geophysical exploration is carried out on earth’s surface to investigate the distribution

of groundwater sources by estimating a few physical parameters including resistivity,

conductivity, density, magnetism, elasticity, etc. (Balasubramanian, 2007). It includes

the interpretation of collected signatures of these parameters of subsurface formation

which helps in detecting the abnormalities of geophysical properties.

Geophysical methods have got many applications in groundwater investigation and

water quality assessments. Electrical methods are useful for the characterisation of

aquifers and hydrogeological studies (Maillet, 1947; Zohdy, 1965; Van and Cook,

1966; Kelly, 1977; Niwas and Singhal, 1981; Mazac et al., 1985; Huntley,1986;

Onuoha and Mbazi, 1988; Mbonu et al., 1991; Sakthimurugan and Balasubramanian,

1991; Mohammed-Aslam and Balasubraminan, 2002; Mohammed-Aslam and

Balasubramanian, 2010; Mohammed-Aslam et al., 2010). Groundwater occurs within

fractures, joints and voids below the ground surface. The magnitude of the inherent

resistivity is taken into consideration in geoelectric methods (Omosuyi, 2010). A

reliable method for assessing the potential for dynamic water resource to delineate the

potential water areas (Mohammed-Aslam, 2010). Geophysical tools used for

exploration of groundwater is one of the method of electrical resistivity, wherein the

electric current is passed from the ground, through the rocks to measure the resistivity

offered by the materials. This measurement helps in understanding location of

aquifers, vertical and horizontal thickness of their formations, depth to water table

estimation, delineation of fractured zone and fresh basement rocks, weathered rocks

and lithostratigraphic conditions etc.

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

Rao and Negi (2003) conducted electrical resistivity survey for locating potential

zones of groundwater through identifying the occurrences of aquifers. The lithological

data can be compared with the resistivity formations for hydrogeological studies

(Anjaneyulu et al., 1992). They have conducted resistivity profiling using Wenner’s

configuration to know the difference of salinity intrusion in shallow aquifers. Using

Schlumberger configuration of resistivity method, the thickness of various layers of

sand, clay and sandy clay were determined. By integrating electrical resistivity

measurements with lithological data of existing wells, it is possible to delineate the

location of fresh/salt water aquifers (Ayolabi et al., 2013).

Tizro et al. (2010) interpreted the lithologs and resultant vertical electrical sounding

(VES) data to carry out the hydrogeological studies in Iran. Geophysical and

hydrogeological explorations were carried out by them to estimate aquifer properties.

An integrated approach of combining litholog data, geological drilling, VES,

Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI), and sub-surface resistivity logging to demarcate

potential groundwater resources and occurrence of zeolites in Deccan traps was

attempted by Kumar et al., (2010)

In this study, an attempt was made to evaluate the geo-electrical properties of

different formations in parts of Markandeya river sub-basin. The area of study is

geologically characterized by the Deccan Traps and Badami formation (Radhakrishna

and Vaidyanadhan, 2011). The Deccan traps are predominantly made up of lava flows

of basic composition and have been defined as the ‘greatest volcanic formation’ (Loÿc

Vanderkluysen et al., 2011). The Deccan trap flows are generally horizontal in

attitude and are believed to have erupted sub-aerially through fissures in the earth’s

crust. The Deccan traps are essentially basaltic and dark coloured or melanocratic in

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

nature. These are mainly composed of olivine and pyroxene (Kumar et. al., 2010).

The electrical surveying conducted in this region provides the characteristics of the

geoelectrical layers.

3.2 Geophysical methods

Geophysical component is essential for all the groundwater studies as it gives a better

idea regarding the structure of earth’s subsurface. They are mainly five types of

geophysical techniques namely, electric, electromagnetic, seismic, magnetic and

gravity methods.

3.2.1 Electrical method

The electrical method investigates the resistivity of objects induced by the electric

field (Jansen, 2011; Rao et al., 2014). The electric properties of the geological

formations present in an area determine the intensity and distribution of the electric

current. The electric properties such as resistivity, dielectric permeability, magnetic

permeability keeps changing with respect to the lithology, depth and quality of the

groundwater. Several field setups are followed for geoelectrical investigations.

Broadly, they are called as resistivity profiling and vertical electrical sounding.

Resistivity profiling was undertaken to obtain the lateral variability of electrical

properties in the subsurface.

The spacing between the electrodes remains fixed in an electrical profiling, but the

whole array is moved along a line fixed during the investigation. This provides some

other information about subsurface resistivity lateral changes. .Vertical electrical

sounding (VES) is extensively used due to its simple computation and cost-effective

nature (Oyedele and Olayinka, 2012; Ojoina, 2014). It provides detailed information

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

about the vertical layers of subsurface materials corresponding to their respective

thicknesses and resistivity values through the estimation of resistivity variation across

the depth. Two inner electrodes are used to compute the potential difference created

during the investigation while electricity is passed. The electrical resistance obtained

is a function of intensity of the current and the resultant potential difference. The

measurement of electrical resistance of a subsurface material is dependent on the

water content, pore space interconnectivity and degree of saturation. Normally, three

types of arrangements are followed for carrying out VES. They are Wenner’s,

Schlumberger and Dipole arrays.

Figure 3.1 Electrode Arrangement of different arrays (A and B current electrodes; M

and N are potential electrodes)

The Wenner’s array is commonly used in horizontal electrical profiling. In Wenner’s

array, all the four electrodes (A, B, M and N) have to be moved for each new

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

measurement. The four electrodes are placed at equidistant from each other in line

(Figure 3.1) in this method.

The Schlumberger electrode array has an edge over the Wenner’s array and dipole

array While conducting the VES method, . In this method, four electrodes are placed

from a common midpoint in a line. The potential electrodes are placed close together

and the outer current electrodes are placed at distance (Figure 3.1). The advantage of

the Schlumberger electrode array is that for a few consecutive measurements, only the

outer current electrodes are moved compared to potential electrodes. These inner

electrodes are moved when noise level in data is increased.

In dipole array method, two set of paired electrodes are located relatively close to one

another (Figure 3.1). For the electrode dipole array is to preserve an equal distance

between the potential and current electrodes (with electrode spacing ‘a’), only with

the distance between the potential and current electrodes as an integer multiple of

distance ‘a’. There is no need to locate the electrodes along a common line of survey.

VES carried out using Schlumberger array gives better resolution with less time

consumption compared to the Wenner and dipole arrays (Vasantrao et al., 2017).

3.2.2 Seismic method

Seismic method of geophysical exploration measures the seismic waves reflected or

refracted by the earth’s subsurface and hence there are two kinds of seismic

techniques namely, seismic refraction and reflection methods. Both the methods need

a controlled source of seismic waves and by measuring the time taken by the seismic

waves to reach the receiver. In the seismic refraction method, a small shock wave is

created at the ground surface by the impact of heavy instruments or by small

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

explosions and then by estimating time required by the resulting shock, or sound wave

to propagate known distances which in turn depends on the medium through which

the waves passes (Balasubramanian, 2007). A case study conducted in New England

(Haeni, 1986) using seismic refraction determined the depth of water table, saturated

thickness of the aquifer and depth of underlying bedrock. The seismic waves can get

reflected or refracted at any interface depending upon the change in velocity as these

waves follow the laws of propagation just like light rays.

3.2.3 Electromagnetic method

Electromagnetic method is based on principle of a conductor in which the magnetic

fields always accompany the flow of electric current through it. The difference in

conductivity is mainly due to the pore spaces, organic matter content, soil moisture

and degree of soil-water saturation (McNeill, 1990). This geophysical method utilizes

the interaction between the electrical and magnetic fields and their simultaneous

interaction with the subsurface matter to measure the properties of electrical

conductivity or the magnetic permeability. There are mainly two types of

electromagnetic methods, the frequency domain and time domain methods, each

having appropriate usage towards a particular groundwater problem (Lange et al.,

2007). These methods can be used to map salt water intrusion and groundwater

quality (Nowroozi et al., 1999; Ayolabi et al., 2013; Gopinath et al., 2017).

3.2.4 Magnetic method

Magnetic method is based on the detection of earth’s magnetic field. It measures the

magnetic susceptibility contrast that exists between an anomalous body and its

surrounding rock material using instruments, known as magnetometers. The magnetic

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

anomaly exists mainly because of the magnetite and other ferromagnetic minerals.

The magnetic method has wide applications like locating faults, dikes that form

aquifer boundaries and delineation of salt domes in poor magnetic sediments

(Nabighian et. al., 2005).

3.2.5 Gravity method

In gravity method, the gravitational fields are measured at different points over the

specific area to relate differences in density distribution across the subsurface

formations. It is widely used for prospecting mineral resources, oil, gas and

groundwater especially in the sedimentary terrain.

3.3 Methodology

Resistivity survey primarily aims at measuring the electrical resistivity of different

formations for understanding the groundwater condition. Schlumberger configuration

has been followed in this study to characterise the geo-electrical layers. Vertical

electrical sounding has been conducted at 61 locations (Figure 3.2a) covering all the

geological formations (Figure 3.2b). The locations were selected based on the

geological setting, land use and accessibility. The spacing of electrode (AB/2) was

kept at different intervals starting from 1.5 m to 100 m distance in the present study.

The apparent resistivity has been computed based on the field observation made with

respect to resistance values obtained during the VES. Apparent resistivity was

calculated for the Schlumberger configuration as Equation 3.1.

( ) ( )

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

Where

AB - distance of current electrodes,

MN - distance of potential electrodes,

R - Resistance and

- 3.14

Vertical electrical sounding (VES) was performed to understand the profound

variation in the formation hydrogeological behaviour at particular location.

Aquameter-CRM (Anvic Systems) was used in this study to conduct the VES surveys.

This is the instrument with an intelligent microprocessor technology for extracting

sub surface information. The instrument utilises 4 watt power and has a capacity of

500 m penetration in to the subsurface of the earth. The key features of this instrument

are auto setting to earth current, long durable rechargeable battery power and digital

display. This instrument can also be used in other applications such as geological and

geotechnical mapping, Environmental study, pipe line survey and mining.

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

Figure 3.2 Location map (straight lines represent the cross section used for

Pseudo cross-section)

3.4 Data processing

The field derived data were processed in IPI2WIN open source software and curve

matching was performed. The input data required for this software include the half

current electrode and potential electrodes spacing, and the resistance values, type of

electrode arrangement. Apparent resistivity values resulted from the iteration were

modelled for obtaining the true resistivity values of the geo-electrical layers. The

iterative process uses a set of random model parameters to calculate a sequence of an

apparent resistivity values. The observed field values were used to calculate ‘ a’ and

subsequent attempts were made in improving the layer parameters. When the error

between the observed and calculated value is less, the resultant model was used to

generate an output. The parameters extracted through curve matching have been used

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

for inversion and the best fit results were obtained, rather than using arbitrary initially

assumed values. This technique produce a very good automated fit and reduce the

number of iterations, and model run time as observed from the results (Figure 3.3 -

3.10 and Table 3.2). Adequate care was taken to keep RMS error below 5 percent. All

graphs obtained were classified as per the standard classification scheme available

and inferences were made accordingly.

3.5 Data interpretation

The vertical electrical field data can be interpreted both qualitatively and

quantitatively with the help of master curves. The field data that is obtained with

shorter current electrode separation is found to be more reliable than that of longer

ones.

Iso-apparent resistivity maps are analyzed in order to qualitatively interpret the VES

data (Venugopal, 1998; Aravindan, 1999). The ascending and descending types are

the simplest form of sounding curves while taking into account the groundwater

aspects. It is characterized in an ascending type curve by the presence of top soil or

weathered fragments, followed by a hard compact basement, namely resistant

basement. The descending type curve is characterized by a compact top layer

followed by a thick clay layer or a salt water acquifer known as the conductive

basement (Selvam, 2016).

Two methods are generally employed for the quantitative interpretation of VES

curves. They are empirical and analytical methods. Using these two methods, it’s

possible to determine the resistivity and thickness of the layers. Curve matching

technique was used in the analytical methods. For different types of thickness and

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

resistivity combinations of the field data, the resultant sounding curve was adjusted to

the same modulus of the set of theoretical master type curves, which were estimated

for horizontal, isotropic and homogenous layers of the earth surface (Marescot, 2005)

The observed curve is then matched with master curve to find out the best fit position

for computing the thickness and resistivity of the layer.

Table 3.1a Resistivity values of the earth materials

Resistivity values of the earth materials (Mooney, 1980)

Resistivity materials - Low < 100 Ohm m

Resistivity materials - Medium 100-1000Ohm m
Resistivity materials - High >1000Ohm m
Resistivities-Regional Soil
Wet 50-200 Ohm m
Dry 100-500 Ohm m
Arid 200 - 1000 Ohm m
Sometimes - low as 50 ohm mm if the soil is saline.
Water
Water – Soil 1-100 Ohm m
Water – Rain 30-100 Ohm m
Water – Sea Order of 0.2 Ohm m
Ice 10^5 - 10^8 Ohm m
Rock Type- Below Water Table
Metamorphic and Igneous 100-10000 Ohm m
Sediments- Consolidated 10-1000 Ohm m
Sediments- Unconsolidated 1-100 Ohm m
Ores
Massive sulphides 10^-4 - 1 Ohm m
Non-metallic Order of 10^10 Ohm m

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

Table 3.1b Hydrogeological significance of bulk resistivity values

Sakthimurugan and Balasubramanium (1991)

Bulk
Resistivity Characteristics of aquifer Authors
(ohm-m)
250 ppm chloride ion concentration (aquifer lime stone Stewart et.al.,
<20
and fine sand) (1983)
Stewart et.al.,
50-70 Principal determinant is Porosity
(1983)
Stewart et.al.,
20-30 Dominated by Pore fluid conductivity
(1983)
Stewart et.al.,
30-70 lithology and water quality influences together
(1983)
Stewart et.al.,
<10 salt water enriched sediments
(1983)
<1 Sand or Clay saturated with salt water: Gravely sand Zohdy et.al.,
15-600 with fresh water saturation (1974)
Arora and Bose
<5 Saline water with or without clay
(1981)
<19 Clay or clay assorted with weathered granite kankar
Singhal (1984)
64-81 weathered sandstone
<10 Saline sand
Balasubramanium
10-20 Clay with or without diffused water
et.al., (1985)
20-60 Fresh water

Processing of VES data resulted in identification of different combination of three

layer and four layer curves in the study area. Apparent resistivity curves can be

qualitatively used to assess the groundwater prospect of an area. Resistivity values

obtained for each layer has been classified as low, medium and high resistivity (Table

3.2 a and 3.2 b) in accordance with the observations made by Mooney (1980). Four

layer curves were found to dominate the study area, is indicative of the complex

hydrogeological setup prevailing in the region. Among the three layers resistivity

curves, ‘H’, ‘K’ and ‘A’ types were observed both in Deccan Trap basalts and Badami

formation. H type (26.22%) was dominated followed by K type (6.55%) and then A

type (4.92%) respectively. Seven combinations of four layer resistivity curves have

also been observed, where HA (14.75%) and HK ( 14.75%) types represents majority in

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

number, followed by KH (13.11%), QH (11.47%) and AK (4.92%) types respectively.

Single representations of QQ (1.64%) and KQ ( 1.64%) were also observed in this

study.

Table 3.2a Table showing resistivity and curve types

Resistivity layers
VES Station Curve type
Sl.no
ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 ρ4

1 Shaikh college 411 71 556 23364 HA

2 Godhihal 375 2898 340 96521 KH

3 Gughrunatti 54 7.55 48.7 - H

4 Kurihal 129 32.8 10.5 1073 QH

5 Devgiri 124 28.5 8.11 1099 QH

6 Mannikeri 10 6.18 172 - H

7 Bambarga 242 60.5 333 5.02 HK

8 Kadoli 4.02 9.03 8050 - A

9 Hindalga 5.13 3.38 7.91 8049 HA

10 Yaramal 105 12.9 101 0.773 HK

11 Yellur 16 2.52 6.43 3851 HA

12 Vadagaon 5.01 10.8 1.99 15.4 KH

13 Dhamane 5.19 4.39 129 - H

14 Savagaon 42.5 861 132 K

15 Hangarga 34.7 113 47 340 KH

16 Sulga 420 945 70.6 K

17 Kallehole 295 160 115531 H

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

18 Belgundi 954 339 597 60.7 HK

19 Beijgarni 242 327 116 29.5 KQ

20 Belvatti 225 259 15.1 75.8 KH

21 Banknur 73.5 120 389 6.04 AK

22 Bailur 6.89 9.03 105 A

23 Malaviwadi 1970 444 800 49.5 HK

24 Muttyanatti 165 83.5 26.9 4622 QH

25 Hullyanur 291 967 345 8980 KH

26 Sonatti 388 187 433 4345 HA

27 Jumnal 768 2442 9.35 K

28 Kenchanatti 57.2 7.08 112 853 HA

29 Gudgutti 8.68 114 12 73.6 KH

30 XYZ 92.8 8.33 5516 24.9 HK

31 Shindoli 165 48.5 238 H

32 Pant Balekundri 601 98.6 12.7 1711 QH

33 Sulebhavi 580 98.2 12.6 1805 QH

34 Karadiguddi 8.55 2.62 8.19 69.7 HA

35 Honnihal 84.2 42.1 8.14 50.1 QH

36 Mastamardi 769 300 145 0.458 QQ

37 Mutaga 27.8 16.7 8.31 36.7 QH

38 Khangaon 30.4 8.16 57.8 H

39 Tumarguddi 1168 205 625 H

40 Suladhal 6.15 23.6 11332 A

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41 Budihal 6.27 4.17 8.05 83.3 HA

42 Lagameshwar 6.21 3.81 2187 H

43 Ankalgi 5.55 3.8 41.3 H

44 Urabinatti 5.97 3.33 4.03 7.72 HA

45 Madwa 29.1 6.25 111 H

46 Telaginahatti 29.3 6.18 114 H

47 DhavattiArabhavi 7.78 2.91 8397 H

48 Aralikatti 427 305 1371 H

49 Yallapur 44.9 8.13 14.5 1134 HA

50 Hagedal 6.81 8.57 29.2 474 AK

51 Gutti 104 167 2701 21.4 AK

52 Shirur 16.2 8.02 240 H

53 Gajapatti 161 52.7 6462 H

54 Rajpatti 160 595 87 228 KH

55 Saroli 490 937 58.2 2157 KH

56 Patgutti 346 1964 4.05 K

57 Hajgoli 833 121 545 8.55 HK

58 Dhekholi 1406 316 408 2.09 HK

59 Shinoli 383 140 725 51.5 HK

60 Uchgaon 366 119 1001 30.2 HK

61 Gandhinagar 5.64 4.1 96.4 H

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Table 3.2 b Table showing Thickness and curve types

Thickness Geological

Curve formation

h1 h2 h3 type *
Sl.no VES Station
1 Shaikh college 0.932 1.99 55.1 HA DB

2 Godhihal 2.64 5.74 40.7 KH DB

3 Gughrunatti 4.42 11 H DB

4 Karihal 3.25 12.6 44.8 QH DB

5 Devgiri 3.73 15.8 33 QH DB

6 Mannikeri 1.78 2.04 H DB

7 Bambarga 7.14 14.9 46 HK DB

8 Kadoli 5.95 15.9 A DB

9 Hindalga 0.75 3.33 16.8 HA DB

10 Yaramal 0.93 9.78 20.4 HK DB

11 Yellur 0.75 0.773 6.71 HA DB

12 Vadagaon 3.16 0.872 3.55 KH DB

13 Dhamane 0.799 20 H DB

14 Savagaon 1.18 16.5 K DB

15 Hangarga 1.06 3.18 8.12 KH DB

16 Sulga 3.29 12.2 K DB

17 Kallehole 7.95 8.69 H DB

18 Belgundi 1.84 7.64 13.6 HK DB

19 Beijgarni 2.31 4.83 14.9 KQ DB

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

20 Belvatti 0.75 6.39 14.9 KH DB

21 Banknur 2.31 19.8 46 AK DB

22 Bailur 3.5 0.498 A DB

23 Malaviwadi 1.07 7.49 14.4 HK DB

24 Muttyanatti 2.23 6.5 61.6 QH DB

25 Hullyanur 0.75 1.56 4.83 KH DB

26 Sonatti 0.75 1.56 19.8 HA DB

27 Jumnal 5.94 28.8 K BG

28 Kenchanatti 0.75 0.681 12.7 HA BG

29 Gudgutti 1.6 1.46 7.32 KH BG

30 XYZ 1.8 3.55 4.15 HK DB

31 Shindoli 0.936 3.6 H DB

32 Pant Balekundri 0.919 12 35 QH DB

33 Sulebhavi 0.934 12 34.7 QH DB

34 Karadiguddi 0.75 1.07 7.81 HA DB

35 Honnihal 1.18 5.18 11.5 QH DB

36 Mastamardi 0.75 6.71 43.2 QQ DB

37 Mutaga 1.19 8.51 14.9 QH DB

38 Khangaon 2.95 11.3 H DB

39 Tumarguddi 0.974 6.55 H BG

40 Suladhal 7.15 14.9 A DB

41 Budihal 0.75 6.4 14.9 HA DB

42 Lagameshwar 0.75 12.2 H BG

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

43 Ankalgi 0.75 121.1 H BG

44 Urabinatti 0.75 6.4 14.9 HA BG

45 Madwa 0.75 6.39 H BG

46 Telaginahatti 0.75 6.39 H BG

47 DhavattiArabhavi 0.75 1.19 H BG

48 Aralikatti 0.75 10.9 H BG

49 Yallapur 1.79 4.89 60 HA DB

50 Hagedal 2.31 4.83 14.9 AK BG

51 Gutti 0.75 7.69 36.7 AK BG

52 Shirur 0.75 9.67 H BG

53 Gajapatti 7.84 47.6 H BG

54 Rajpatti 0.75 1.56 19.7 KH DB

55 Saroli 7.14 14.9 46 KH DB

56 Patgutti 9.44 14.1 K BG

57 Hajgoli 1.92 2.99 45.3 HK DB

58 Dhekholi 1.12 4.11 33 HK DB

59 Shinoli 2.32 4.83 14.9 HK BG

60 Uchgaon 1.17 2.11 14.6 HK DB

61 Gandhinagar 0.75 12.3 H DB

*Note: DB- Deccan Basalt; BG-Badami Group

Inferences from the interpretations made were enlightened depending upon the

geologic divisions of the study area and their significance in groundwater condition.

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3.5.1 Resistivity variability and geological formation

Deccan basaltic terrains are generally characterised by the presence of shallow

aquifers. VES curves obtained in this terrain constitute 3 layered A, K and H curves

and 4 layered HA, HK, KH, AK, QH, and QQ curves. Parameters pertained to geo-

electric layers are given in Table 3.2. Top layer of the area comprises of either dry or

wet soils located in agricultural or barren lands with resistivity values that ranged

from 4.02 ohm m to 1970 ohm m. The top layer is followed by a probable crystalline

basaltic layer, the second layer, with values from 2.52 ohm m to 2898 ohm m and the

third layer comprises possibly of the fractured basalts/vesicular basalts with

occasional massive boulders having values from 0.452 ohm m to 115531 ohm m

(Karunanidhi et al., 2014) Third layer of 3 layered, and the fourth layers of 4 layered

VES surveys represent the basement or bed rock of this region.

Among the 44 VES surveys carried out at Deccan basalts, three layered formations

were reported from 12 locations and 32 locations with four layered formations.

Among the 12 three layered curves, 7 H, 3 A and 2 K types of curves were observed.

Whereas, in the four layered sequence, 8 HK, 7 KH, QH and HA types and single

points of QQ, KQ and AK types were noticed.

In the case of Badami Group (BG) of formation 17 surveys were carried out, which

resulted in identification of three layered sequences at 11 points and, four layered

sequences at 6 locations. H type of curves was observed at 9 places and K type curves

at 2 locations respectively. Four layered condition was noticed at 2 places for HA and

AK types and single points of KH and HK types respectively.

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3.5.2 Three layered curves

The H type of curve is the one which has lower central resistivity compared to other

resistivity values (ρ1 > ρ2 <ρ3). Land use practices along with the natural regional

variations in lithology, rainfall and physiography are the influencing factors in the

variations of resistivity top geoelectrical layer its thickness (Maury et al., 2019). In

Deccan basalts, it was found that the first layer resistivity value was in the range from

5.19 ohm m to 295 ohm m, whereas in the Badami Group, it was from 5.55 ohm m to

1168 ohm m. The thickness of this layer varied between 0.75 m to 7.95 m and 0.75 m

to 7.84 m for Deccan basalts and BG respectively. In H type of curves, the second

layer exhibited lower resistivity values than the first and third layer indicative of

highly weathered or fractured formation with water. The resistivity of second layer for

Deccan basalts showed the range from 4.1 ohm m to 160 ohm m, whereas in BG the

values varied from 2.91 ohm m to 305 ohm m. The thickness of second layer was in

the range from 2.04 m to 20 m and 1.19 m to 121.1 m respectively. Higher resistivity

values were recorded at the basement rocks.

(43.Ankalgi) (13. Dhamane)

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(53. Gajapatti) (61. Gandhinagar)

(17. Kallehole) (42. Lagmeshwar)

(52. Shirur) (46. Telaginahatti )

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Chapter 3 Geophysical Studies

(47. DhavattiArabhavi) (45. Madwa)

(06. Manikeri) (31. Shindoli)

(03. Gughrunatti)
(48. Aralikatti)

(38. Khangoan) (39. Tumarguddi)

Figure 3.3 H types of curves

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An ascending curve types are called as A types of curves. In this situation, the

resistivity of the layers are constantly found escalating as ρ 1 < ρ2 <ρ3. This type of

curves was observed only in Deccan basalts in the study. The first geoelectric layer

has very low resistivity values that ranged from 4.02 ohm m to 6.89 ohm m with

thickness of approximately 3.5 m to 7.15 m. Local variations could also be due to

variations in the intensity of irrigation and type of fertilizers used in each location

(Furriel et al., 2016). Second layer has shown apparent resistivity values from 9.03

ohm-m to 23.6 ohm-m with thicknesses from 0.498 m to 15.9 m approximately.

Occurrence of weathered basalts in Deccan basalts may be the reason for this range of

resistivity values. Third geoelectric layer has shown higher range of resistivity values

varying from 105 ohm m to 11332 ohm m with unknown thickness. Very high

resistivity values may be attributed to the massive crystalline basaltic formations in

the bed rock.

(22. Bailur) (08. Kadoli)

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(40. Suldhal)

Figure 3.4 A – Type Curves

K-types of curves show a high-resistivity layer between low-resistivity layers.

Aquifuge above the potential layer or, quality variations in the water at different

layers may results in this type of formations. In Basaltic terrain, probably it may be

exhibited by a low layer of back cotton soil, followed by massive un-fractured basalts

and then vesicular basalts at the bottom. Total of 4 curves of this type were identified

in Deccan basalts and BG formations. First layer resistivity value was in the range

from 42.5 ohm m to 768 ohm m with 1.18 m to 9.44 m layer thickness respectively.

(27. Jumnal) (14. Savagaon)

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(56. Patgutti) (16. Sulga)

Figure 3.5 K – Type Curves

3.5.3 Four Layered Curves

Four layered curves include combinations of A, Q, H and K types of basic curves.

Such curves were observed more in Deccan basalts compared to BG of formations.

Different combinations of curves including HK, KH, QH, HA, KQ, AK and QQ curve

types were noticed within the area under consideration (Figure 3.6 to 3.12).

(58. Dhekeholi) (23. Malaviwadi)

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(30. unknown) (07. Bambarga)

(18. Belgundi)
(57. Hajgoli)

(59. Shinoli)
(60. Uchgaon)

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(10. Yarama)

Figure 3.6 HK – type curve

(20. Belvatti) (02. Godhihal)

(29. Gudgutti) (15. Hangarga)

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(25. Hullyanur) (12. Vadagaon)

(54. Rajpatti) (55. Saroli)

Figure 3.7 KH – Type Curves

(41. Budihal) (09. Hindalga)

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(34. Karadiguddi) (28. Kenchanatti)

(26. Sonatti) (11. Yellur)

(01. Shaikh college)

(44. Urabinatti)

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(49. Yallapur)

Figure 3.8 HA – Type Curves

(50. Hagedal)
(21. Banknur)

(51. Gutti)

Figure 3.9 AK – Type Curves

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(05. Devgiri ) (04. Kurihal)

(33. Sulebhavi) (24. Muttyanatti)

(32. Pant Balekundri) (35. Honnihal)

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(37. Mutaga)

Figure 3.10 QH – Type Curves

(19. Beijgarni)

Figure 3.11 KQ – Type Curves

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(36. Mastamardi)

Figure 3.12 QQ Type curve

3.5.4 Iso-Resistivity Maps

Vertical variations of resistivity with depth can be spatially understood using iso-

resistivity maps. Spatial variability of iso-resistivity maps corresponding to AB/2 at

15, 30, 40, 60, 80 and 100 m were generated. Figures from Figure 3.13 to Figure 3.18

show the iso-resistivity maps for different depths of electrode spacing. Iso-resistivity

maps have revealed the progressive depth wise variations in the values of resistivity

of this terrain. Generally the higher values are observed in the Central part of the

basin. The horizontal spreads of higher resistivity values were found progressively

increasing in consistent with increase in depth of AB/2 spacing. Spatial

inhomogeneity in the basin due to heterogeneous behaviour at different depths was

clearly visible which can be attributed to the variations in their geophysical properties.

The geological control with respect to Deccan basalts and BG were depicted based on

the variability of resistivity values.

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Figure 3.13 Iso - Resistivity Map for AB/2=15m

Figure 3.14 Iso - Resistivity Map for AB/2=30m

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Figure 3.15 Iso - Resistivity Map for AB/2=40m

Figure 3.16 Iso - Resistivity Map for AB/2=60m

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Figure 3.17 Iso – Resistivity Map for AB/2=80m

Figure 3.18 Iso – Resistivity Map for AB/2=100m

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3.5.5 Resistivity Pseudo Cross Sections

Resistivity pseudo cross sections have been generated at along seven lines as A - B, C

- D, E - F, G - H, I - J, K - L and M - N (Figures 19 to Figure 25).

Figure 3.19 Pseudo Resistivity Cross section of A and B (Station 57 and 20

respectively)

Dekheoli Beijgar
ni

Figure 3.20 Pseudo and Resistivity Cross section of C and D (Station 58 and 19
respectively)

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Gandhinagar Sulga Vadagaon Dham

Figure 3.21 Pseudo and Resistivity Cross section of E and F (Station 61, 16, 14, 12
and 13 respectively)

Manikeri Kadoli Shindoli Mastmardi

Figure 3.22 Pseudo and Resistivity Cross section of G and H (Station 06, 08, 31 and
36 respectively)

Figure 3.23 Pseudo and Resistivity Cross section of I and J (Station 02,03,27,25 and
35 respectively)

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Figure 3.24 Pseudo and Resistivity Cross section of K and L (Station 56, 39 and 34
respectively)

Hegdal Ankelgi Dhavatti Arabhavi

Figure 3.25 Pseudo and Resistivity Cross section of M and N (Station 50 and 47
respectively)

The depth wise variations of the apparent resistivity were further highlighted by

constructing seven pseudo resistivity sections across the basin. They were created

from the individual one dimensional inversion of the VES data at the relevant

locations across the profile constructed. These pseudo-sections were made to a

maximum AB/2 spacing of 100m. The prepared pseudo sections helped in visualizing

the overall trend of the variability of apparent resistivity between the VES location of

consideration in the cross section made. These images generally provide general

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distribution of conductive and resistive features, allowing the apparent resistivity

information to be generalised on its lateral scale, but not on the actual.

Along the profile A-B which includes Hajgoli (A) and Belevatti (B), the apparent

resistivity range from 63.1 to 736 ohm m (Figure 3.17). The total length of section

(distance between the points) is 5km. Along C-D, which was generated using

Dhekholi (C) and Beijgani (D) stations showed values in range of 100 to 774 ohm m

(Figure 3.18). Length of the profile is 5.73km. Cross section E-F includes 5 stations

viz. Gandhinagar (E), Sulga, Savgaon, Vadagaon and Dhamane (F) with apparent

resistivity value ranged from 2.68 to 517.9 ohm m (Figure 3.19). Length of this

section is 9.81km. Stations Manikere (G), Kadoli, Shindoli and Mastmardi (H)

constitute section G-H, where apparent resistivity value ranged from 5.99 to 359 ohm

m (Figure 3.20). Length of the profile is 19.35km. Godhihal (I), Gughrunatti, Sonatti,

Hulynanur and Honnihal (J) were used to generate cross section I-J, where apparent

resistivity values found ranging from 17.8 to 1778 ohm m (Figure 3.21). Section

length of cross section is 13.98km. Section K-L includes Patagutti (K), Tumarguddi

and Karadiguddi (L) with a section length of 11.23km where apparent resistivity

value ranges from 10 to 1000 ohm m (Figure 3.22). Along the section M-N includes

stations Hagedal (M), Ankalgi and Arbhavi-Dhavahatti (N) (Figure 3.23). Apparent

resistivity values showed the range from 3.46 to 58.8 ohm m with a section length of

5.73km.

3.6 Conclusions

An attempt was made to understand the potential of VES for the identification of

locations for characterization of geo-electrical layers in the parts of Markandeya river

sub-basin. Using Schlumberger’s electrode configuration, 61 VES surveys were

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carried out. The resistivity of first layer was ranging from 4.02 to 1970 ohm m with

varying thickness from 0.75 to 7.95 m in Deccan basalts. This was followed by

second layer with resistivity range ranged from 2.52 to 2898 ohms m and thickness

between 0.4 to 20 m. The resistivity at Third layer was ranging from 1.99 to 115531

ohm m pertain thickness of 3.55 to 61.6 m and the resistivity at 4th layer was ranging

from 0.458 to 96521 ohm m.

The resistivity was varying between 5.52 to 1168 ohm m at first layer pertaining with

thickness varying from 0.75 m to 9.84 m in part of Badami Group. The second layer

resistivity was ranging from 2.912 to 2442 ohm m, having the thickness between 0.68

to 121.1 m. The resistivity at third layer was varying between 4.03 to 8397 ohm m,

with thickness ranges from 7.32 to 36.7 m. From the different curve types obtained,

H and KH types of curves are considered as far as groundwater occurrence is

concerned. In the study area, 16 number of H curves and 8 number of KH type curve

were observed.

Pseudo-cross section and resistivity sections generated across the basin along 7

stretches gave implications on the possible subsurface conditions across the basin.

This helped in understanding the horizontal extension of identified subsurface layers

from soundings and possible influence of the same in groundwater conditions.

The iso-resistivity represents the areas of similar resistivity values in the study area.

Spatial variability of measured resistivity in different layers from all the 61 VES

locations was mapped to understand the vertical variations of resistivity with respect

to depth. Spatial variability was categorized into 3 classes i.e. high (>1000 ohm m),

medium (100-1000 ohm m) and low (<100 ohm m). This representation confirmed

that, the lower resistivity values (<100 ohm m) was dominantly spread at depth of

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60m. This can be further interpreted as the possible depth to groundwater occurrence

in the basin, which is essential for the water resources management.

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