Jatra; Burrakatha; Swang/Sang; Nautanki; Tamasha; Kathakali

Burrakatha
Burrakatha is the most popular form of narrative entertainment in the state of
Andhra Pradesh. In this theatrical form, a storyteller accompanied by his partner
gives recitals for two or three days. He sings dances and recites a story, before the
people of a village under the patronage of a village elder.

The term 'burra' refers to 'tambura', a stringed instrument worn across the right
shoulder of the performer. 'Katha' means a story.

The main performer (kathakudu) plays the tambura with his right hand as he
dances rhythmically forward and back on the stage while reciting a story. The
performer also wears over his right thumb, a hollow ring in the palm of his hand.
With the rings, he beats the basic tempo of the songs.

At regular intervals during the narration he responds to his co-performers, two

drummers who play two-headed earthen drums (dakki). The drums produce a
distinctly metallic sound to accentuate the songs and are regarded as an
indispensable ingredient of Burrakatha performance.

The drummer to the right of the performer is known as the 'rajkiya'. He comments
on contemporary political and social issues even if the story concerns historical or
mythological events. The drummer on his left, the 'hasyam', cracks jokes and
provides comic relief.

Performance begins in the evening with devotional songs in praise of various

celestial beings. Then the performer introduces the main story by establishing the
place, time and historical context of the action. During this the rajkiya and hasyam
repeat the refrain of the narrative.

When the introduction is concluded, the main plot begins in which all three
perfomers take an active role assuming various characters in the incidents, as well
as providing narrative bridges between incidents. Dance, recitation, song and
enactment of scenes provide variation within a strong narrative line. Generally a
story continues for two to three hours. A longer work may be serialized into several
consecutive evenings.

Burrakatha stories fall into three categories - mythological, historical and

sociopolitical. Although the form was originally improvised, today popular stories
have been written down and committed to memory by performers.

Swang
Swang is a popular Indian folk dance drama practiced in Rajasthan, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh and Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. Swang flourished with song
and it is considered as a rich performance with literary wealth. This dance drama is
dialogue-oriented rather than movement-oriented. It focuses on various
mythological and social topics. Amateurs or new artists personify this folk drama
and it is played either in the open or on the specially created platform.

History of Swang
It is believed that the founder of Swang is Kishan Lal Bhaat. Some artists also give
credit to Kavi Shankar Dass, a poet artiste, who belonged to Meerut.

Themes of Swang
Though artists of Naqaals also perform such similar art in Swang, the story is
presented with a more interesting way including caustic comments, particularly
related to current topics. Most of the dialogues that are used are traditional, but a
lot of slick improvisation can also be found in the performance. The body language
is a perfect foil that converts all the serious comments of the storyteller into
something-stupid yet extremely funny kind of performance. The humour is lusty and
seldom appeals to an urban audience at large. The recent themes of this drama are
health and hygiene, literacy, AIDS awareness and women's empowerment. Popular
mythological themes comprises of Bharthari, Harishchander, Raja Bhoj, Kichak
Badh, Draupadi Chir Haran, Jaani Chor, and Pingla Bharthri to name a few.

Performance of Swang
The play of Swang begins with a Puravaranga, which is an invocation to the
goddess Bhavani. For such a play, the stage is constructed in a circular manner
and then it is generally performed in the open ground or space. There are very few
people in the performance; a single performer performs many roles and the
costumes are changed on the stage itself. Male actors play all parts since no
women participants are allowed. Even the eunuch or the hijra is another essential
character in these plays, which has to perform in all Margi (classical) and desi (folk
Sanskrit) plays.

Music and dance is considered as an intrinsic part of this performance. Thus, at the
centre, the musicians occupy the place on the stage, often getting up to sing and
dance from that place itself. Scholars says that the main difference between
Nautanki and Swang is that the Swang is intended to arouse religious sentiments
for serious impact and the Nautanki is mainly a presentation of episodes depicting
love and valour.

SWANG (DANCE DRAMA)

Template:Infobox music of Swang (also spelt Svang, Hindi: सससससस) or Saang

(Hindi: सससस) is a popular folk dance drama or folk theatre form in Rajasthan,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. Swang incorporates
suitable theatrics and mimicry (or nakal) accompanied by song and dialogue. It is
dialogue-oriented rather than movement-oriented. Religious stories and folk tales
are enacted by a group of ten or twelve persons in an open area or an open air
theatre surrounded by the audience.
Tradition credits Kishan Lal Bhaat for laying the foundation of the present style of
Swang about two hundred years ago. Since women did not participate in the
dance-drama form, men have traditionally enacted their roles.
FEATURES
The stage may consist of a clear circular open area, or at the most, a wooden
platform about three and a half metre in length. There are no elaborate stage
arrangements similar to modern dramatic performances. There are no backdrops,
curtains or green-rooms. Typically, there are no microphones or loudspeakers
either. An hour or so before the show, the musicians of the orchestra begin to sing
religious or other songs connected with the play in order to create the proper
atmosphere for the play. The 'Guru' then appears and the artistes touch his feet to
evoke his blessings. The play opens with a song ('bhait' or offering) in praise of
Bhawani, the Goddess of Knowledge:
Ay re bhawani baas kar maira ghat ka parda khol Rasna par basa kara bhai shudh
shabd much bol
(Oh Goddess Bhawani, open the doors of knowledge to me. Live on my tongue so
that all I speak is pure.)
With a brief introduction about the play, the performance starts. It consists mainly of
mimicry, from which the name of the theater form derives (swaang means disguise
or impersonation). Also featured prominently are long question and answer
sessions between the actors. Much of the dialogue is improvised and the actors
must be able to trade quotations, puns, proverbs and songs at the drop of a hat.
There is much singing and dancing and there is always a clown character called the
makhaulia (jester). Swang theatre is traditionally restricted to men, who also play
the female roles, the latter often involving elaborate make-up and costumes. But
female troupes are not altogether unknown. Towards the end of the 19th century,
all-women Swaang troupes performed in western Uttar Pradesh and the adjoining
Khaaddar area of Haryana. All parts in these troupes were played by women.
Sardari of Kalayat (Jind), Natni of Gangaru, and Bali of Indri (Karnal) were some of
the leaders of such troupes.
A single presentation of swaang may continue for up to five or six hours. There is
much song and music, especially the famous Haryanvi style of singing known as
Raagani.
THEMES
Swang themes draw variously from themes of morality, folk tales, lives of inspiring
personalities, stories from Indian mythology and in recent times, more current
themes like health and hygiene, literacy, AIDS awareness and women's
empowerment. In temple based religious theatre, Indian epics and Puranas are the
major source material for characters, while the community-based secular theatre is
of lighter variety. Several themes may be mixed together - mythological love,
popular history, and religious themes, all with overtones of secular values. All
dramas typically end with the victory of good over evil.
Popular mythological themes include Prahlad Bhagat, Gopi Chand, Bharthari,
Harishchander, Raja Bhoj, Kichak Badh, Draupadi Chir Haran, and other tales from
old literature. Also popular are Punjabi romances like Pooran Bhagat, Heer Ranjha,
etc. Historical and semi-historical themes include Raja Rissalu, Amar Singh Rathor,
Sarwar Neer, Jaswant Singh, Ramdevji, etc. Other popular tales include romances
like Sorath, Nihalde, Padmavat, etc.
HISTORY
The origin of swang is traced to Kishan Lal Bhaat, who some two hundred years
ago is said to have laid the foundation of the present style of folk theatre. Another
view gives credit for this to Kavi Shankar Dass, a poet artiste, who belonged to
Meerut. Another notable early pioneer was Ali Bux of Rewari, who successfully
staged plays titled Fasanai, Azad and Padmawat. For music and song, these early
Swaang drew on khayals and chambolas. The stage was most elementary, the
actors performed from a central place among the audience. The light was provided
by mashals (Roman torches).
In Haryana the most celebrated artiste is Dip Chand Bahman of village Sheri
Khanda in Sonepat. He is popularly styled as the "Shakespeare' or 'Kalidas of
Haryana'. Semi-literate, he had a spark, a touch of genius. He polished the style of
Ali Bux and gave a new color to this folk art. Dip Chand's style of performance
incorporated elements from music, dance, pantomime, versification, and ballad
recitation.
During the First World War, when Dip Chand's capacity for improvisation and
adaptation was at its peak, the British Government made him a 'Rai Sahib' and
granted him other favours.
Hardeva polished his Chambola style and made some changes to Haryanvi ragni
(folk song). Bjae Nai, a disciple of Hardeva, mixed both the styles of folk music. Pt.
Nathu Ram, another well known Swaangi coached a number of talented pupils,
which included Maan Singh, Bulli, Dina Lohar and Ram Singh.
Pt. Ramkishan Vyas of Narnaund (Hissar), formerly known as 'Vyas ji', is a celebrity
in the field of Haryanvi Saangs and Raagnis. He invented various concepts in
presenting the raagnis to the public e.g. Soni and others. In addition, he was
appointed Counseller and Consultants by Rohtak Aakashvani & Kurukshetra
Aakashvani. Haryana Government has also declared that the dominant universities
of Haryana ( Kurukshetra University, Maharishi Dayanand University, etc.) would
include his autobiography and raagnis in their curriculum. In 1998, The Government
of India has honored this renowned poet by the award from Rohtak Aakashwani for
his incredible support to the rise of Haryanvi Lok Sahitya.His younger son,
Satyanarayan Shastri is also continuing their task to rise the Haryanvi Lok Sahitya
by his writing. Satyanarayan Shastri is a renowned singer of 'Ragnis' at aakashvani
since 1983. Lakhmi Chand of Jatti Kalan (Sonipat) is known as Surya Kavi (Sun
Poet) in Haryanvi Raagnis. important Swang staged by him included Nal Damyanti,
Meera Bai, Satyavan Savitri, Poorjan, Seth Tara Chand, Puran Bhagat and Shashi
Lakarhara.

Tamasha

Tamasha is a form of Marathi theatre that is accompanied by a lot of singing and

dancing. The word has its origins in the Persian language where it means a show
or a theatrical performance. In its Marathi equivalent, it means fun or play. It is
usually performed by local or travelling theatre groups across Maharashtra. The
traditional form of Tamasha has been highly influenced by various Indian forms of
song and dance such as Kaveli, Kathak, Ghazals, Lalit and Kirtan. It is also
believed that this dance form has been derived from the ancient forms of Sanskrit
drama – Prahsana and Bhana. There are two main branches of Tamasha – Dholki
Bhaari and Sangeet Bhaari. The latter involves a lot more music and drama in
comparison to drama. In addition, there are many other forms of this dance like
Dashavatara, Pawada and Gavalana. The Mahar and Kolhati groups in
Maharashtra are known to perform Tamasha. Today, there are around 10,000
artists and over 450 dance troupes who are involved in its performance. This form
of satirical theatre makes fun of almost anyone, be they saints or politicians.
History of Tamasha
The history of the Tamasha dance can be traced back to the 16th century when it
was believed to have originated as an entertainment form for the Mughal troops
deployed in the Deccan Plateau. Later in 18th century, it acquired a distinct form
during the late Peshwa period of the Maratha Empire. With the development of the
textile industry in Bombay during the 19th century, a lot of people migrated to the
city from the rural areas in search of employment. Accompanying them were the
rural Tamasha groups too. Soon a number of local theatre groups too came into
existence that enjoyed the patronage of the mill workers living in Girgaum. The
performers generally belonged to the lower castes like Kolhati, Mang, Mahar and
Bhatu. The religious reformers of the late 19th century used Tamasha as a way to
criticize the existing caste system.
Performance and Costumes
Typically, the main elements of Tamasha include garish dances, loud humor and
suggestive lyrics. Its performance does not require any kind of a special setting or
stage and it begins with the entry of the musicians. Usually, two percussionists
known as a dholkiwala and a halgiwala enter the scene. They both contribute to the
musical background of the performance and announce the beginning of the show.
They are then joined by two more musicians, a manjriwala and a tuntune player.
Finally, the lead singer takes his place on the stage.
Once all the performers have taken their places on the stage, a song or Gana
invoking Lord Ganesha is sung. This is followed by the Gavalana which is
equivalent to the Krishnalila describing the different episodes in Lord Krishna’s life.
Tamasha also involves a lot of acrobatics that is contributed by the female
performers. The acrobatics have strong resemblances to other Maharashtrian
dance forms. The Yaman, Bhairavi and Pilu are the popular ragas used in the
musical score accompanying the dance. This highly charged performance finally
ends on a moral note speaking about the victory of the good over the bad. A ritual
that is similar to an Aarti concludes the performance.
There are no special costumes used in Tamasha. The attire worn by the performers
known as Gammat, Phada etc depict the day-to-day wear of the various
communities in Maharashtra.

Tamasha is a form of theatre, which came into existence in the early 16th century in
Maharashtra, which includes the love songs i.e. 'Lavanis' due to which, this folk art,
was very popular among the common people. Not only during its inception, but
even today Tamasha happen to be one of the most awaited folk performances in
the Indian state of Maharashtra. Tamasha includes songs and dance along with
the musical instruments like the Dholki drum, 'Tuntuni' (a single string instrument),
'Manjira' cymbals, 'Daf' (a tambourine-like instrument with a single leather
surface), 'Halgi' (smaller Daf), the metal triangle called 'Kade', the 'Lejim' (an
instrument with a jangling sound), the Harmonium and 'Ghunghroos' (ankle bells).
Tamasha is associated and performed with two of the communities of Maharashtra,
viz: Kolhati and Mahar.

History of Tamasha
The history of Tamasha is quite different from the other folk forms in Maharashtra.
The interspersed poetry and narrative writing in Tamasha tells us of the existence
of many dance and music themes of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. One
can also find a strong influence of the Sanskrit Literature in writing and on
creativity of this Marathi folk art. Ram Joshi (1762-1812) is considered as the
originator of the Tamasha. He was familiar with the Sanskrit puranas, the recitation
and singing of the Kirtaniyas and also with the popular forms of common theatre
along the countryside. His association later with Moropant, an outstanding name in
contemporary Marathi writing, led to a transformation which resulted in the Lavani
singing for the popularization of the Aryas of Moropant. The poet singers in Lavani
were known as "Shahirs" had composed many narrative and love songs for
Tamasha. So, scholars still believe that Lavani is derived from Tamasha itself.

Besides, the ones stated above, there were two other forms of Tamasha, which is
important to mention in the context of the same. One was the ballad singing
tradition of the Pawada and the other was the theatrical form known as the
Dasavatara (ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu). This form is common to
Maharashtra, along with many other parts of India like Karnataka and it also
survives in the Goa and the Konkan region. Finally, there was one more form; this
was the Gavalana, which have been greatly used by most of the Vaishnavites saint
poets of Marathi literature.

Performance of the Tamasha

Tamasha can be performed, anywhere, without the construction of any special
stage like the village square, the courtyard of any house, an open ground or even
on an artificial stage. The overwhelming performance begins with the entry of the
musicians as in the other dance-drama forms. At the beginning two percussionists
named the dholkiwala and the Halgiwala enter in the scene. Here, while the
dholkiwala provides the basic rhythm by playing the usual metrical cycles on the
dholak, the Halgi provides the sharp accents and other piercing sounds, which add
up as the musical background of Tamasha. The musical compositions of the
Tamasha have a simultaneous use of the Raga and the incorporation of many folk
and indigenous melodies. Amongst the Hindustani Ragas used for Tamasha
Yaman, Bhairavi, and Pilu are common.

These two performers announce the beginning of the recital loudly accompanied by
two more instrumentalists, viz: the manjirawala and the tun-tuna player, who
sometimes also make their contribution in singing the lavanis. The entry of the
singer held at last and he acquires position in front of the group. There is also the
Surtya, the provider of the drone or the tonic who often joins in the singing. After the
drumming is over, the main musician enters and takes his position in the group, for
an invocation song called the Gana for Lord Ganesha. The Gana follows the
Gavalana or the Gaulaniare, which is a Marathi counterpart of the Krishnlila in the
Marathi religious literature. It is the one, in which different episodes of the life of
Lord Krishna are described, sung and enacted frequently.

Apart from the dance sequences, the movement enters into the Tamasha through
considerable acrobatic play, which is executed, by the Natucni (female actress),
Songadya and other characters. All this rich fare of elementary ritual, farce, satire,
sarcasm, dance and music concludes with something, which is similar to an Aarti.
Most of the times, the conclusion is always on a high moral note that the good wins,
evil perishes, truth is victorious and falsehood is self-destructive.

The costumes of the Tamasha players, who are called by various names like the
Gammat, Phada, are not fixed costumes, but they are the clothes, which depict the
different sections of the society in Maharashtra. In short content determined by the
nature of their performances and the chiselling of the conventions in the folk forms
like the Tamasha gave a new dimension to the theatre art in Maharashtra. Today,
Marathi drama and theatre, after evolving for years, now has become an
awareness weapon, which can challenge norms and often embraces rebellious
issues for the common man. A new, obscenity-free version of Tamasha has
evolved nowadays which is known as the Loknatya theatre.

Nautanki
The history of the Swang-Nautanki1 performative tradition goes back several
hundred years. In recorded form, we find references of Nautanki in a 16th century
book called Ain-e-Akbari written by Abul Fazal, a scholar at the court of Emperor
Akbar in India (Agrawal, 1976). Nautanki's origins lie in the folk performance
traditions of Bhagat and Raasleela of Mathura and Vrindavan2 in Uttar Pradesh3,
and Khayal of Rajasthan4 (Agrawal, 1976). Nautanki's history becomes clearer in
the nineteenth century with the coming of the printing press in India and publication
of Nautanki operas in the form of chap-books (Hansen, 1992).
In the late nineteenth century, Hathras and Mathura2 in western Uttar Pradesh, and
Kanpur and Lucknow2 in central Uttar Pradesh, became the two biggest centers of
Nautanki performance and teaching. The Hathras School developed first, and
performances by its artists in central Uttar Pradesh stimulated the development of
the Kanpur-Lucknow School of Nautanki. Both schools differ from each other with
respect to their performative form and technique. While the Hathrasi (literally
meaning 'of Hathras') School emphasizes singing more and is operatic in form, the
Kanpuri School centers itself more on prose-filled dialogues mixed with singing.
This style developed during colonial times (19th and early 20th centuries), when
India was under British rule. The Kanpuri style borrowed many elements of prose
dialogue delivery from Parsi Theater (a theater genre inspired by European theater
traditions), and mixed them with the Hathrasi singing to come up with its new style
of performance. Also, the singing style in the Kanpuri School is somewhat fast-
paced compared to the Hathrasi School.
Nautanki reached the pinnacle of its glory in the early 20th century when numerous
Nautanki performing troupes, known as mandalis (literally meaning 'groups') and
akharas (literally meaning 'wrestling arenas') came into existence. Nautanki
mandalis were called akharas due to the prevalence of the particular style of
singing in Nautanki that required a lot of physical power. The Nautankis staged by
these mandalis or akharas became the main source of entertainment in the small
towns and villages of northern India, and remained as such until television and
VCRs began to make inroads in the early 1990s.
Riding on its popularity, Nautanki progressed both in terms of form as well as
content, and its stage became bigger and more professional. Nautanki companies
like Natharam's mandali, catching the cue from big Parsi theater (an urban Indian
theater style) troupes such as Alfred Theater Company, started to present their
performances outside the core region of their audience. Some performances
occurred as far as Myanmar. Storylines of Nautanki ranged from mythology and
folklore to tales of contemporary heroes. Thus, while Nautanki plays such as Satya-
Harishchandra and Bhakt Moradhwaj were based on mythological themes, Indal
Haran and Puranmal originated from folklores. In the first half of the 20th century,
the contemporary sentiments against British rule and feudal landlords found
expression in Nautankis such as Sultana Daku, Jalianwala Bagh, and Amar Singh
Rathore.
The Nautanki tradition still has a strong hold over the imagination of people in rural
north India. Even after the rapid expansion of mass media such as television and
radio, a crowd of 10,000 to 15,000 people can easily gather at Nautanki
performances. Like many other folk forms of India, Nautanki's status has been
badly affected by the apathy of the political leadership, and the attitude of looking
down upon indigenous Indian artistic traditions by powerful urban-based elites
suffering from a post-colonial hangover5.
Nautanki: The Contemporary Scenario
At present, Nautanki is experiencing a dialectical tension. On one hand, it still holds
an important place in people's collective imagination, and on the other, it is
struggling to deal with changing audience aspirations, molded by cinema and
television. On top of this, Nautanki has failed to contemporize the subject matter of
its script (Sharma, 2004). One may ask the question: Why might a teenager in India
watch a Nautanki depicting the 350-year-old heroics of the famous historical warrior
Amar Singh Rathore? Times have changed and the context of these old Nautankis
is perhaps not as relevant for today's audiences. During colonial times, these
narratives had a specific function. Amar Singh Rathore, for instance, provided a
catharsis to the subdued sensibilities of a colonized nation by giving them hope.
People identified themselves with such heroes, and imagined themselves fighting
against the colonial authority and oppressive elements through them (Hansen,
1992). After gaining independence, this colonial context is no longer valid.
Audiences today want to watch Nautankis that mirror and discuss their own
realities, rather than those which depict narratives from a remote past. People
prefer to listen to stories woven around current issues that affect them; for instance,
the ill-effects of outdated social traditions like dowry, side effects of agricultural
pesticides, unemployment and poverty, and women's empowerment. In essence,
they want to make sense of the world around them (Burke, 1969). A community
performing art can help in this endeavor (Bakhtin, 1984). When a folk popular form
stops fulfilling its function, it ceases to be a popular form. This is a real danger that
Nautanki is facing in present-day India. So Nautanki has to keep up with the times.
It would be incorrect to put the full blame for not moving with the times on Nautanki,
or for that matter on any other indigenous performance tradition. The failure of
many of these traditions to keep up with the changing realities of society has been
a result, in many ways, of developments in India's high brow (Bourdieu, 1984)
culture, and attitudes of "the custodians of high art" towards the folk or ordinary
culture (Williams, 1958). The development of arts and theater in colonial, and
particularly in post-colonial India, has taken a path full of contradictions (Jain,
1967). On one hand, most people working in the field of performance in the post-
Indian independence years looked up to Western models of theater for inspiration,
or they at least sought the approval of the West for their efforts. Only a handful of
folks chose indigenous performance forms to make contemporary statements. On
the other hand, the upper and upper-middle classes adopted a kind of superficial
missionary zeal toward saving the indigenous folk forms. They used folk culture to
increase their cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1984), a way to distinguish themselves
from the so-called "ordinary" or common people. They looked at folk forms as
artifacts frozen in time, which they could use to decorate their houses, like old
paintings. Thus many times, the Indian elite, through government or private grants,
attempted to preserve folk forms. They wanted the "pure" folk art form, unspoiled by
any adulteration, to be used as an escape to a fantasy world away from their
everyday realities. Folk forms functioned as a toy, an amusement, a showpiece for
the high-brow elite. This situation continues.
What people from the so-called high-brow culture fail to fully realize is that folk or
popular arts cannot be preserved. They are ever flowing, ever changing
expressions of people, reflecting their contemporary realities. What can be done is
to provide these folk forms with equal opportunities and a level playing field in
relation to their urban counterparts, giving them opportunities to express
contemporary realities. In post-colonial India, folk forms have either been seen as
art forms incapable of intellectual expression, or they have been given a rare
species status. In both scenarios, community folk forms like Nautanki have been
neglected by those who control socio-economic and cultural capital. Unfortunately,
Nautanki artists and others associated with these forms either do not have enough
resources or educational capital to make a case for their art, or are so caught up in
their struggle for survival that they have time for little else.
In sum, if Nautanki or other similar community folk art forms are to survive (if not
thrive), they need opportunities to adapt in a changing context. They cannot survive
by continuing to portray outdated themes. If they are given this opportunity, it can
be a win-win situation. For instance, development agencies interested in
communicating social change messages would get a possibly effective medium to
reach rural audiences with contemporary themes.
Already some efforts have been made in this direction. Recently some performing
troupes have used Nautanki to grasp and incorporate Indian society's contemporary
concerns for social change and development (Brij Lok Madhuri, 2003). Brij Lok
Madhuri (BLM) is one such troupe. BLM was founded by renowned Nautanki singer
and actor Pandit Ram Dayal Sharma in the 1970s to promote the use of folk forms
for purposive social change. As a community art form, Nautanki is a more "real" and
live art form than television and video can ever be, and also closer to the culture of
rural and semi-rural people. Working with the Government of India and Johns
Hopkins Center for Communication Programs (JHU/CCP) from 1999 to 2004, BLM
created new scripts for Nautanki and other folk forms on pro-social messages such
as small family size, women's empowerment, dowry eradication, and HIV-AIDS
prevention. BLM trained over 150 folk troupes to perform these scripts in north
Indian villages (SIFPSA, 2003). By 2003, over 10,000 performances had been
given by these troupes in as many villages. This contemporary use is giving an
edge to Nautanki.
Recently, Nautanki has been introduced in America by Dr. Devendra Sharma, a
Nautanki artist, singer, writer, director, and scholar of communication and
performance. The participants in Dr. Sharma's productions are engineers, doctors,
and other members of the Indian diaspora living in America, who are given a rare
opportunity to connect with their cultural roots. At the same time, these
performances have exposed other communities in America to Indian culture. One
such Nautanki is Mission Suhani, an original Nautanki co-authored by Dr. Devendra
Sharma and Pandit Ram Dayal Sharma that communicates a contemporary and
controversial social issue concerning Indians and Indian immigrants in America.
This Nautanki critically examines the phenomenon of some Indian men who come
to America to study or work, but go back to India and get married, either because of
parental pressure or to get a big dowry (cash given to the groom's family by the
bride's side). Many of these men leave their wives in India and never bring them to
America, where they often have another wife or a girlfriend. One of the unique
aspects of this Nautanki is that it is bilingual (both in Hindi and English). This
protects the traditional operatic and artistic elements of Nautanki while also
effectively communicating the story and contemporary social issue to a diverse
audience. Contemporary Nautankis such as Mission Suhani involving global social
issues help to update Nautanki to emerging issues in contemporary society in India
and around the world.
1
I refer to Swang-Nautanki as Nautanki for the sake of convenience
2
Mathura, Vrindavan, Hathras, Kanpur, and Lucknow are all towns in Uttar
Pradesh
3
Uttar Pradesh is a state in north India
4
Rajasthan is a state in north India
5
Colonial after-effects on the psychology of Indian elites

Kathakali is one of the oldest theatre forms in the world. It originated in the area of
southwestern India now known as the state of Kerala. Kathakali is a group
presentation, in which dancers take various roles in performances traditionally
based on themes from Hindu mythology, especially the two epics, the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata.
One of the most interesting aspects of Kathakali is its elaborate make-up code.
Characters are categorized according to their nature. This determines the colours
used in the make-up. The faces of noble male characters, such as virtuous kings,
the divine hero Rama, etc., are predominantly green. Characters of high birth who
have an evil streak, such as the demon king Ravana, are allotted a similar green
make-up, slashed with red marks on the cheeks. Extremely angry or excessively
evil characters wear predominantly red make-up and a flowing red beard. Forest
dwellers such as hunters are represented with a predominantly black make-up
base. Women and ascetics have lustrous, yellowish faces.
The technique of Kathakali includes a highly developed language of gesture,
through which the artist can convey whole sentences and stories. The body
movements and footwork are very rigourous. To attain the high degree of flexibility
and muscle control required for this art, a Kathakali dancer undergoes a strenuous
course of training, and special periods of body massage.
The dancers wear large head dresses, and the contours of the face are extended
with moulded lime. The extraordinary costumes and make-up serve to raise the
participants above the level of mere mortals, so that they may transport the
audience to a world of wonders.
The orchestra of a Kathakali performance includes two drums known as the chenda
and the maddalam, along with cymbals and another percussion instrument, the ela
taalam. Normally, two singers provide the vocal accompaniment. The style of
singing particular to Kathakali is called Sopaanam. The orchestra of a Kathakali
troupe is unique and provides not only the background to the dancing, but also
serves as a highly expressive special effects team. In the traditional village
ambiance, the percussionists also provide publicity for the event by playing outside
the venue for some hours before the start of the show.
A traditional Kathakali performance begins in the evening and continues throughout
the night, culminating at the auspicious hour of dawn, when Good finally conquers
Evil. Today, however, it has been modified for the proscenium stage, and urban
audiences can participate in this ritualistic theatre experience in the comfort of a
plush auditorium, within the span of a couple of hours.

Kathakali Dance

Kerala is the home of several traditional dance and dance - drama forms, the most
notable being Kathakali.

Kathakali, as a dance form popular today, is considered to be of comparatively

recent origin. However, it is an art which has evolved from many social and
religious theatrical forms which existed in the southern region in ancient
times. Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam andRamanattam are few of
the ritual performing arts of Kerala which have had a direct influence on Kathakali in
its form and technique. Legend has it that the refusal of the Zamorin of Calicut to
send his Krishnattam troupe to Travancore, so enraged the Raja of Kottarakkara,
that he was inspired to compose the Ramanattam.
In the temple sculptures in Kerala and the frescoes in the Mattancheri temple of
approximately the 16th century, dance scenes depicting the square and rectangular
basic positions so typical to Kathakali are seen. For body movements and
choreographical patterns, Kathakali is also indebted to the early martial arts of
Kerala.

Basic standing position of a female character

Basic standing position of a male character

Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories, which are
mostly adapted from the Indian epics. It is a stylised art form, the four aspects of
abhinaya - angika, aharya,vachika, satvika and
the nritta, nritya and natya aspects are combined perfectly. The dancer expresses
himself through codified hastamudras and facial expressions, closely following the
verses(padams) that are sung. Kathakali derives its textual sanction
from Balarama Bharatam andHastalakshana Deepika.
The attakkathasor stories are selected from the epics and myths and are written in
a highly Sanskritised verse form in Malayalam. Many Malayalam writers have also
contributed to the vast repertoire of Kathakali literature.

Shri Krishna with Radha

Makeup for Vellathadi

Kathakali is a visual art where aharya, costume and make-up are suited to the
characters, as per the tenets laid down in the Natya Shastra. The characters are
grouped under certain clearly defined types like
the pacha, kathi, thadi, kari or minukku. The face of the artist is painted over to
appear as though a mask is worn. The lips, the eyelashes and the eyebrows are
made to look prominent. A mixture of rice paste and lime is applied to make
the chutti on the face which highlights the facial make-up.

Kathakali dance is chiefly interpretative. The characters in a Kathakali performance

are broadly divided into satvika, rajasika and tamasika types. Satvika characters
are noble, heroic, generous and refined. In pacha, green colour dominates
and kirita (headgear) is worn by all. Krishna and Rama wear special crowns
decorated with peacock feathers. The noble characters like Indra, Arjun and the
Devas are some of the pacha characters.
 Shri Krishna with Duryodhan

Kalasam
The kathi type depict anti-heroes. Though they are of the rajasika category, they
are sometimes great warriors and scholars such as Ravana, Kamsa and Sisupala
to name a few. The moustache and the small knob called chuttippu fixed on "the
tip of the nose and another in the centre of the forehead, is peculiar to
the kathi character. The characters of the thadi (beard) category are
the chuvanna thadi, (red beard), vellathadi (white beard) and the karutha
thadi (black beard). Vellathadi or the white bearded character is generally that of
Hanuman, the dancer also wears the costume of a monkey. Kari are characters
whose make-up have a black base, they wear black costume depicting a hunter or
forest dweller. Apart from these, there are minor characters like minukku which are
the women and sages. Kathakali costumes and make-up are elaborate and
designed so as to give a super human effect. The make-up of Kathakali can be
classified into the teppu, chuttikuthu and uduthukettu. The teppud done by the
actor himself. Each character has a distinct teppu. The second stage is done by
experts who specialise in make-up. The wearing of huge bellowing skirts is
called uduthukettu.
A simple stage is used. A large oil-fed lamp is placed in front of the stage and two
people hold a curtain called Tirasseela on the stage, the main dancers stand
behind it before the performance.
In no other dance style is the entire body used so completely as in Kathakali. The
technical details cover every part of the body from facial muscles to fingers, eyes,
hands and wrists. The facial muscles play an important part. The movement of the
eyebrows, the eye-balls and the lower eye-lids as described in the Natya Shastra
are not used to such an extent in any other dance style. The weight of the body is
on the outer edges of the feet which are slightly bent and curved.

Kalasams are pure dance sequences where the actor is at great liberty to express
himself and display his skills. The leaps, quick turns, jumps and the rhythmic co-
ordination make kalasams, a joy to watch.
A Kathakali performance begins with the kelikottu, calling the audience to attention
followed by the todayam. It is a devotional number performed where one or two
characters invoke the blessings of the gods. Kelikottu is the formal announcement
of the performance done in the evening when drums and cymbals are played for a
while in the courtyard. A pure nritta piece known as the purappadu comes as a
sequel to this. Then the musicians and drummers hold the stage entertaining the
audience with an exhibition of their skills in melappada. Tiranokku is the debut on
the stage of all characters other than the pacha or minukku. Thereafter, the play
or the particular scene of the chosen play begins.

Musicians

Kathakali music follows the traditional sopana sangeet of Kerala. It is said to be

the ritual singing of the Ashtapadis on the flight of steps leading to the sanctum
sanctorum. Now, Kathakali music also uses Carnatic ragas-
the raga and talaconforming to the bhava, rasa and dance patterns (nritta and
natya). The orchestra which is also used in other traditional performing arts of
Kerala, normally comprises
the Chenda, Maddalam, Chengila, Ilathalam, Idakka and Shankhu.

Ilakiattam is that part of the performance when the characters get an opportunity to
demonstrate their excellence inabhinaya. For the most part of the performance the
dancers engage themselves in chodiattam which means acting in strict conformity
to the words in the padams sung by the accompanying musicians.
Thanks to the service done by the poet Vallathol, this classical dance form received
a new impetus and today many innovations are also being made to suit the needs
of a changing society.