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1 Bipolar Transistors
1.1 Transistor Fundamentals
1.2 Transistor Biasing
1.3 Transistor Operation
1.4 Transistor Testing Using an Ohmmeter
1.5 Transistor Configurations
1.5.1 Common Emitter Circuit
1.5.1.1 Static Values
1.5.1.2 Dynamic Values
1.5.1.3 Static Characteristic Curves
1.5.1.4 PNP Common Emitter Circuit
1.5.2 Common Base Circuit
1.5.2.1 Static Values
1.5.2.2 Dynamic Values
1.5.2.3 Static Characteristic Curves
1.5.2.4 PNP Common Base Circuit
1.5.3 Common Collector Circuit
1.5.3.1 Static Values
1.5.3.2 Dynamic Values
1.5.3.3 PNP Common Collector Circuit
1.6 Operating Point
1.7 Saturation and Cutoff Operation
2 Classes of Amplifiers
3 Transistor Coupling
4 Advanced Concepts
4.1 Static and Dynamic Gain
4.1.1 Common Emitter Gain Calculations
4.1.2 Common Base Gain Calculations
4.1.3 Common Collector Gain Calculations
4.2 Biasing Techniques
4.2.1 General Bias Circuits
4.2.1.1 Single-Battery Circuit
4.2.1.2 Fixed Bias
4.2.1.3 Emitter Bias
4.2.1.4 Self-Bias
4.3 Practical Transistor Amplifier
4.3.1 General Rules
http://coefs2.njit.edu/labmanuals/ece291/labs/six.html
Bipolar Transistors
The transistor has revolutionized the electronics industry. Discovered in 1948, its advantages have opened
many new possibilities for design engineers. The transistor has almost fully replaced the vacuum tube as a
basic amplifier. It has an extremely long life, minimal power and voltage requirements, and a small physical
size. The transistor is rugged and can withstand excessive vibration. A full understanding of the transistor
and its circuitry will enable you to become a very effective technician when dealing with electricity and
electronics.
Transistor Fundamentals
A ''transistor'' is a semiconductor that can be used for signal amplification. The characteristic curve of a
diode shows the nonlinear resistance property of this device. This makes a diode a good rectifier, but a
poor amplifier.
By definition, a transistor is a semiconductor device that can be used to control current flow. It is a three-
terminal device with two effective PN junctions joined with their like material mating regions made very thin.
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the formation of a transistor from two diodes.
Transistor Biasing
If a flow of current in the emitter-base circuit is desired, apply a forward bias to the emitter-base PN
junction, as shown in '''Figure 4'''. This would be a positive potential on the base with reference to the
emitter. When the value of the forward bias is large enough, forward current will flow due to the majority
carriers. The value of forward bias required is the same as would be expected from other diodes studied.
Transistor Operation
Now that all conditions have been met for current flow through the transistor, including the appropriate
supply polarities for biasing, the complete sequence of events for transistor conduction and its ability to
control current can be examined. '''Figure 7''' shows a PNP transistor with a forward bias applied to the
emitter-base junction and a reverse bias applied to the base-collector junction.
Testing will be the same as for the PN junction testing; only the emitter-base and base-collector junctions
are tested. A reading across the emitter-collector will be near infinity for a correct reading.
There are three different configurations in which to connect a transistor. Each of these has its own
particular characteristics. There are also different ways to bias transistors, which will be discussed. The
combination of these configurations and biasing techniques work together to produce the desired
transistor circuit response.
Transistor Configurations
When transistors are placed into circuits, they are in one of three configurations, known as ''common
emitter'', ''common base'', and ''common collector''. '''Figure 9''' shows the common emitter, or grounded
emitter, connection. The input signal is introduced into the base-emitter circuit, and the output signal is
taken from the collector-emitter circuit; thus, the emitter is common to both circuits.
Static Values
Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, the voltage at the output when the input voltage is zero is given by the
following equation:
VCC = VCE + ICRL
Where:
VCC=collector circuit battery voltage (volts)
VCE=collector to emitter voltage drop (volts)
IC =collector current (amps)
RL =load resistance (ohms)
Dynamic Values
When the AC input voltage is applied, the bias of the base-emitter junction varies, which varies how much
the transistor conducts. The result is an output that varies around the static (DC) output value.
When the input voltage is increasing, it aids the forward bias of the emitter-base junction. This causes an
increase in collector current and a corresponding decrease in the collector-emitter voltage drop, or VCE.
This causes the collector voltage to become less positive with respect to ground. Thus, when the input
voltage is increasing, the output voltage is decreasing. The input and output voltages in a common emitter
transistor circuit are out of phase by 180°.
Static Characteristic Curves
The relationship between the output voltage drop, or VCE, and the output collector current, or IC, in the
common emitter-base circuit is described using static characteristic curves. These are curves for DC, or
static operating characteristics with no AC signal applied. '''Figure 14''' shows typical common emitter static
characteristic curves.
Static Values
When the input voltage is zero, current flows as shown in '''Figure 18'''. IE flows through RE into the emitter;
IC flows from the collector through RL. These currents are produced by the combination of the bias batteries
VEE and VCC. Statically, VIN is equal to IERE VEE, which is some value of negative voltage. Statically, VOUT is
equal to VCICRL, which is some value of positive voltage. These static V IN and V OUT values are indicated as
dashed reference lines, as are the static values of IE and IC.
Figure 18: Common Base Transistor Circuit NPN
Dynamic Values
When an AC input voltage is applied to the forward-biased emitter-base circuit, the bias of this junction
varies. When the applied input voltage swings positive, it opposes the emitter-base circuit bias (VEE ).
When the AC voltage swings negative, it aids this bias. When the input voltage is increasing, the forward
bias decreases in the emitter-base circuit and IE decreases. When the input voltage is decreasing, the
forward bias increases and IE increases also. The change in emitter current directly affects collector
current. When IE decreases, IC decreases. The change in IC affects the voltage developed across RL. When
IC decreases, VRL decreases in amplitude and subtracts less from the effect of VCC. The result is that
VOUT increases. Conversely, when IC increases, VRL increases in amplitude and subtracts more from VCC.
VOUTtherefore decreases. These effects are shown in '''Figure 19'''. Notice that when the input voltage
increases, the output voltage increases. There is no phase reversal in a common base transistor amplifier.
The collector circuit biasing battery VCC causes the output voltage to be positive DC with an AC
component. The emitter circuit biasing battery VEE causes the input voltage to be negative DC with an AC
component. Input and output AC components are in phase.
Figure 19: Common Base Transistor Circuit NPN Voltage and Current Waveforms
Figure 23: Common Base Transistor Circuit PNP Voltage and Current Waveforms
Figure 25: Voltage and Current Waveforms for NPN Common Collector Transistor Circuit
Static Values
Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, the voltage at the output when the input voltage is zero is given by the
following equation:
VCC + VEC IERL = 0
Where:
VCC=Collector circuit battery voltage (volts)
VEC =Emitter to collector voltage drop (volts)
IE =Emitter current (amps)
RL =Load resistance (ohms)
Dynamic Values
When the AC input voltage is applied, the bias of the base-emitter junction varies. When the input voltage
is increasing, it aids VEE and increases the forward bias of the emitter-base junction. This causes an
increase in both collector current and emitter current, and a corresponding decrease in the emitter to
collector voltage drop VEC. This causes the emitter voltage to become more positive and the output voltage
to increase. Thus, when the input voltage is increasing, the output voltage is also increasing.
Conversely, when the input voltage is decreasing, the output voltage is decreasing. Thus, the input and
output voltages in a common collector transistor circuit are in phase.
Operating Point
The ''operating point'' of a transistor is the point on the static characteristic curve around which the AC
signal varies. The operating point is determined by the DC values of the collector current and the collector
voltage that are set by the bias voltage sources and the resistors in the circuit. The word ''quiescent'' refers
to the fact that it is determined with no AC signal applied. '''Figure 28''' is the dynamic transfer characteristic
curve for a transistor.
Classes of Amplifiers
Amplifiers are normally designed to amplify either voltage, current, or power. They are classified according
to function. When transistor amplifiers are cascaded, all stages, except the last, are called ''current
amplifiers'', even though their current gain may be less than their voltage and power gains. When the
function of an amplifier is to supply power to a load, such as loudspeakers or motors, it is classified as a
''power amplifier''. The last stage in any case must be designed and modified according to the final use of
the signal.
Amplifiers are also classified according to their bias current, which determines the input and output signal
characteristics. '''Figure 31''' shows the characteristics of the three classes of amplifiers. A ''Class A''
amplifier is biased so that the output signal current flows during the entire cycle of the input signal.
The operating pointswings entirely on the linear portion of the static characteristic curve. Class ''A''
amplifiers are called ''small'' signal amplifiers.
A ''Class B'' amplifier is biased so that the output signal current flows during only half the input cycle. A
Class ''B'' amplifier is biased right at minimum base bias current (cutoff).
A ''Class C'' amplifier is biased below cutoff, so the output signal current flows during less than half of the
cycle of the input signal. A Class ''C'' amplifier is used for special applications, such as with a tuned circuit.
Class ''B'' and ''C'' amplifiers operate efficiently because output current is cut off during ineffective parts of
the signal cycle. Class ''B'' and ''C'' amplifiers are called ''large'' signal amplifiers.
Advanced Concepts
Static and Dynamic Gain
Transistor amplifiers are devices that use small inputs to control large outputs. The relationship between
the magnitude of the input and output signals is known as ''gain''. Gain is a unitless value and usually is
calculated for current, voltage, and power. Since transistor amplifiers have both static (DC bias) and
dynamic (AC) inputs and outputs, both static and dynamic gain can be calculated for any transistor
amplifier.
The dynamic current gain Ai for a common emitter transistor circuit equals the change in collector current
for a given change in base current with the collector to emitter voltage drop held constant. If an AC signal
is applied, Ai equals the ratio of the peak-to-peak variation of the collector current to the peak-to-peak
variation of the base current.
Example: Determine the static and dynamic current gain of a common emitter transistor circuit with the
following characteristics:
The current gain of a common emitter transistor circuit is high. Typical values of the static current gain
factor are 25 to 50, with values up to 40 attainable. The high current gain is the property that makes the
common emitter circuit so useful.
The resistance gain, RG, of a common emitter transistor circuit is considerably lower than that for a
common base transistor circuit. The input impedance is higher by a factor of about 7 (350 ohms versus 50
ohms), but the output impedance is lower by a factor of about 103 (1K ohm versus 1 megohm).
The voltage gain AV of a common emitter transistor circuit is somewhat higher than that for a common base
transistor circuit. This effect is partially cancelled by the smaller resistance gain.
The power gain AP of a common emitter transistor circuit is high due to the squaring of the current gain of
greater than one. Typical values of the power gain are 102 to 104.
The ''dynamic current gain'' Ai for a transistor is defined as "the change in output current for a given change
in input current."
For the common base transistor circuit, the dynamic current gain is the change in collector current for a
given change in emitter current with the collector to base voltage drop held constant.
Dynamic current gain can be determined directly from the static characteristic curves by noting the
change in output current for a small change in input current with the collector to base voltage drop held
constant. Another method of determining dynamic current gain is to apply an AC signal and compare the
peak to peak variation of the collector current with that of the emitter current.
Example: Determine the static and dynamic current gains of a common base transistor circuit with the
following characteristics:
Both the static and the dynamic current gains AI and Ai for the common base transistor circuit are always
less than unity. The lack of current gain is compensated for by an extremely high resistance gain. This
circuit typically has very low input impedance, ranging from 50 to 150 ohms, and very high output
impedance, ranging from 300 K ohms to 500 K ohms.
Since approximately the same current flows in the emitter and collector circuits, a very high load resistor
can be placed in the output circuit, resulting in a high voltage gain. Voltage gains up to 1,000 are possible;
as a result, power gains of 100 to 1000 are also attainable.
'''Table 1''' summarizes the characteristics of the three types of transistor circuits. '''Table 2''' summarizes
transistor circuit gain equations.
Table 1: Summary of Transistor Circuit Characteristics
Biasing Techniques
As previously stated, to attain a flow of current in the emitter-base circuit, forward bias must be applied to
the emitter-base PN junction. This would create a positive potential on the base with reference to the
emitter. When the value of forward bias is large enough, forward current will flow due to the majority
carriers. The value of forward bias required is the same as would be expected for the diodes studied in
other articles.
Single-Battery Circuit
For simplification, two voltage sources have been used in all circuits discussed. One source is used for the
forward biasing of the emitter-base junction; the other for the reverse biasing of the collector-base junction.
Two batteries are unnecessary, however, and the CE amplifier in '''Figure 43''' uses only one.
Figure 43: This Circuit Converts the CE Amplifier to a Single Power Source
There is no question about the reverse bias of the collector-base junction because the collector is
connected through RC to the most negative point of the circuit, which is the negative supply terminal. The
most positive point in the circuit is the ground, which is connected directly to the positive terminal of VCC.
RF and RB form a resistance voltage divider connected directly across VCC. The voltage at B is less
negative than the negative terminal of VCC by the amount of the voltage drop across RF. It is certainly
negative in respect to the emitter, which is at ground or the most positive point in the circuit. Now, you can
see that the emitter-base junction is forward-biased. By selecting the proper values for RF and RB, the
desired forward bias voltage and current can be established. The series combination of RF and RB must be
large enough so that current drain from the supply battery will be small and long life will be assured.
Fixed Bias
'''Figure 44''' shows the fixed bias method. Notice that RB has been omitted. This circuit sets essentially a
constant base current and is very sensitive to variations in the circuit. By the proper selection of R F, the
required forward bias voltages and base current may be set up.
Figure 44: Fixed Bias Method of Connecting a Transistor
Emitter Bias
Emitter bias is the better method of biasing transistor circuits (see '''Figure 45'''). This type of bias is less
sensitive to changes in transistor characteristics than base bias.
Self-Bias
The self-bias schematic is shown in '''Figure 46'''. This circuit differs from the fixed bias method in that
bias resistor RF is connected to the collector rather than VCC. This method provides a more
stable operating point than fixed biasing, and only one power source is needed.
General Rules
The first step is to determine the circuit design requirements. For example, a 500μV sine wave that needs
to be amplified to 75 mV would require a common-emitter circuit.
The first rule of thumb is that the ratio of collector resistor resistance to emitter resistor resistance should
equal the voltage gain of the circuit.
A typical initial value for RE is 100 Ω. This sets a value for RC at:
The second rule of thumb is that at quiescent operation, the collector resistor should drop approximately
half of the supply voltage. This would require a supply voltage (VCC) of 12V.
This 0.4 mA must also flow through RE, yielding a voltage drop of:
Now is the time to select the bias resistors for the circuit. The values selected must bias the transistor
above the turn-on point. Also, for temperature stability reasons, the bias current should be 10 times the
input signal current.
To determine the input signal current, we must work backwards. A collector current of 0.4 mA was
calculated earlier. By looking at the transistor specification sheet, we could determine the transistor’s β =
50, a typical value.
Knowing this necessary value for input current, the bias
current can be determined as around 80 µA.
Since our transistor is to be an NPN silicon transistor, VBE Z 0.7 V at turn-on. Additionally, there is 0.04 V
between the emitter and circuit common due to the voltage drop across R E, yielding a base-to-circuit
common voltage drop of approximately 0.704 V. The transistor must be biased above this point for
quiescent operation. A typical value is between 0.1 and 0.2 volts of forward bias above the turn-on point.
Choose a value just under 0.2 V. This will yield a bias voltage value of about 0.9 V.
With 80 µA of bias current and 0.9 V of base common voltage drop:
Since this is to be an AC amplifier, the last item to be determined is the emitter bypass capacitor value.
This circuit must amplify signals from 500 Hz to 15 Hz.
Under worse case conditions, XC should be about 0.1X R. This condition occurs at the low frequency end;
in this case, 500 Hz.
Rearranging the formula for XC, the value for C can be calculated:
This value is close to the standard value of 27 μf, so a 27 μf capacitor around RE can be installed. '''Figure
47''' shows a common emitter circuit with all of the calculated values shown.
Figure 47: Single-Stage Amplifier