Power

 Quality  and  Harmonics  Analysis  (FIEC05967)  

   Disturbances  

Síxifo  Falcones,  PhD.  

FIEC-­‐ESPOL  
 Typical  Power  Disturbances  [3]    
•  An  interrupQon  is  defined  as  a  reducQon  in  line-­‐voltage  
or  current  to  less  than  10  percent  of  the  nominal,  not  
exceeding  60  seconds  in  length.    
•  Voltage  fluctuaQons  are  relaQvely  small  (less  than  ±5  
percent)  variaQons  in  the  rms  line-­‐voltage.  These  
variaQons  can  be  caused  by  cyclo-­‐converters,  arc  
furnaces,  and  other  systems  that  draw  current  not  in  
synchronizaQon  with  the  line  frequency.  Such  
fluctuaQons  can  result  in  variaQons  in  the  lighQng  
intensity  due  to  an  effect  known  as  “flicker”  which  is  
visible  to  the  end  user.    
 Typical  Power  Disturbances  [3]    
•  A  voltage  “imbalance”  is  a  variaQon  in  the  
amplitudes  of  three-­‐phase  voltages,  relaQve  
to  one  another.    
•  Another  common  power-­‐quality  event  is  
“notching,”  which  can  be  created  by  recQfiers  
that  have  finite  line  inductance.  The  notches  
show  up  due  to  an  effect  known  as  “current  
commutaQon.”    
 an inverse to sag (dip). The category long-duration variation has been added to deal with the limits in
ANSI C84.1-2006 [B2]. The category noise has been added to deal with broadband conducted phenomena.
The category waveform distortion is used as a container category for the harmonics, interharmonics, and dc
Principal  Phenomena  Causing  ElectromagneQc  
in ac networks phenomena in IEC 61000-4-7:2002 [B14] as well as an additional phenomenon from
IEEE Std 519™-1992 [B24] called notching. Table 2 shows the categorization of electromagnetic
Disturbances  as  Classified  by  the  IEC  [3]  
phenomena used for the power quality community.

Table 1 —Principal phenomena causing electromagnetic disturbances

as classified by the IEC
Group Examples
Conducted low-frequency phenomena Harmonics, interharmonics
Signal systems (power line carrier)
Voltage fluctuations
Voltage dips and interruptions
Voltage imbalance
Power-frequency variations
Induced low-frequency voltages
DC in AC networks
Radiated low-frequency phenomena Magnetic fields
Electric fields
Conducted high-frequency phenomena Induced continuous wave (CW) voltages or currents
Unidirectional transients
Oscillatory transients
Radiated high-frequency phenomena Magnetic fields
Electric fields
Electromagnetic fields
Continuous waves
Transients
Electrostatic discharge phenomena (ESD) —
Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP) —

The phenomena listed in Table 1 can be described further by listing appropriate attributes (see
IEC 61000-2-5:1995 [B12]). For steady-state phenomena, the following attributes can be used:
Principal  Phenomena  Causing  ElectromagneQc  
Disturbances  as  Classified  by  the  IEC  [3]  
•  For  steady-­‐state  phenomena,  the  following  a_ributes  can  be  used:    
–  Amplitude  
–  Frequency  
–  Spectrum  
–  ModulaQon    
–  Source  impedance    
–  Notch  depth    
–  Notch  area    
•  For  nonsteady-­‐state  phenomena,  other  a_ributes  may  be  required:    
–  Rate  of  rise    
–  Amplitude    
–  DuraQon    
–  Spectrum    
–  Frequency    
–  Rate  of  occurrence    
–  Energy  potenQal    
–  Source  impedance  
 IEEE Std 1159-2009

Categories  and  Typical  CharacterisQcs  of  Power  

IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality

System  
TableE lectromagneQc  
2 —Categories Phenomena  
and typical characteristics of [4]  
power system electromagnetic phenomena (see note)

Typical spectral Typical voltage

Categories Typical duration
content magnitude
1.0 Transients
1.1 Impulsive
1.1.1 Nanosecond 5 ns rise < 50 ns
1.1.2 Microsecond 1 s rise 50 ns – 1 ms
1.1.3 Millisecond 0.1 ms rise > 1 ms
1.2 Oscillatory
1.2.1 Low frequency < 5 kHz 0.3–50 ms 0–4 pua
1.2.2 Medium frequency 5–500 kHz 20 s 0–8 pu
1.2.3 High frequency 0.5–5 MHz 5 s 0–4 pu
2.0 Short-duration root-mean-square (rms)
variations
2.1 Instantaneous
2.1.1 Sag 0.5–30 cycles 0.1–0.9 pu
2.1.2 Swell 0.5–30 cycles 1.1–1.8 pu
2.2 Momentary
2.2.1 Interruption 0.5 cycles – 3 s < 0.1 pu
2.2.2 Sag 30 cycles – 3 s 0.1–0.9 pu
2.2.3 Swell 30 cycles – 3 s 1.1–1.4 pu
2.3 Temporary
2.3.1 Interruption >3 s – 1 min < 0.1 pu
2.3.2 Sag >3 s – 1 min 0.1–0.9 pu
2.3.3 Swell >3 s – 1 min 1.1–1.2 pu
3.0 Long duration rms variations
 1.2.1 Low frequency < 5 kHz 0.3–50 ms 0–4 pua
2.2 Momentary
1.2.2 Medium frequency 5–500 kHz 20 s 0–8 pu
2.2.1 Interruption
1.2.3 High frequency 0.5–5 MHz 0.55 cycles
s –3s 0–4 pu < 0.1 pu

Categories  and  Typical  CharacterisQcs  of  Power  

2.2.2 Sag
2.0 Short-duration root-mean-square (rms) 30 cycles – 3 s 0.1–0.9 pu
2.2.3 Swell
variations 30 cycles – 3 s 1.1–1.4 pu
2.3 Temporary2.1 Instantaneous

System  ElectromagneQc  Phenomena  

2.1.1 Sag
2.3.1 Interruption
2.1.2 Swell
2.3.2 Sag2.2 Momentary
>3 s – 1 min
>3 s – 1 min
[4]  
< 0.1 pu
0.1–0.9 pu
0.5–30 cycles
0.5–30 cycles
0.1–0.9 pu
1.1–1.8 pu

2.3.3 Swell2.2.1 Interruption >3 s –– 31s min

0.5 cycles < 0.1 pu1.1–1.2 pu
2.2.2 Sag 30 cycles – 3 s 0.1–0.9 pu
3.0 Long duration rms
2.2.3 variations
Swell 30 cycles – 3 s 1.1–1.4 pu
3.1 Interruption, sustained
2.3 Temporary > 1 min 0.0 pu
3.2 Undervoltages
2.3.1 Interruption >3 s –>1 1
minmin < 0.1 pu0.8–0.9 pu
3.3 Overvoltages2.3.2 Sag >3 s –>1 1
minmin 0.1–0.9 pu
1.1–1.2 pu
2.3.3 Swell >3 s – 1 min 1.1–1.2 pu
3.4 Current overload
3.0 Long duration rms variations
> 1 min
4.0 Imbalance3.1 Interruption, sustained > 1 min 0.0 pu
4.1 Voltage3.2 Undervoltages > steady
1 min state 0.8–0.9 pu 0.5–2%
4.2 Current3.3 Overvoltages > steady
1 min state 1.1–1.2 pu1.0–30%
3.4 Current overload > 1 min
5.0 Waveform 4.0 distortion
Imbalance
5.1 DC offset4.1 Voltage steady
steady state state 0.5–2% 0–0.1%
5.2 Harmonics4.2 Current 0–9 kHz steady
steady state state 1.0–30% 0–20%
5.0 Waveform distortion
5.3 Interharmonics 0–9 kHz steady state 0–2%
5.1 DC offset steady state 0–0.1%
5.4 Notching 5.2 Harmonics 0–9 kHz
steady state
steady state 0–20%
5.5 Noise 5.3 Interharmonics broadband
0–9 kHz steady
steady state state 0–2% 0–1%
6.0 Voltage fluctuations
5.4 Notching < 25 Hz intermittent
steady state 0.1–7%
5.5 Noise broadband steady state 0–1% 0.2–2 P b
st
6.0 Voltage fluctuations < 25 Hz intermittent 0.1–7%
7.0 Power frequency variations < 10 s 0.2–2 Pst b± 0.10 Hz

NOTE—These termsfrequency
7.0 Power and categories
variations apply to power quality measurements < 10 sand are not±to beHzconfused with
0.10
similar terms defined in IEEE Std 1366™-2003 [B27] and other reliability-related standards, recommended
NOTE—These terms and categories apply to power quality measurements and are not to be confused with
similar terms
practices, and guides. defined in IEEE Std 1366™-2003 [B27] and other reliability-related standards, recommended
practices, and guides.
a
The quantitya puquantity
The refers puto refers
per unit,
to per which is dimensionless.
unit, which is dimensionless. TheThequantity
quantity 1.0corresponds
1.0 pu pu corresponds
to 100%.toThe100%. The
nominal condition
nominal is often considered
condition to beto1.0
is often considered pu.pu.InInthis
be 1.0 this table, thenominal
table, the nominalpeak peak
value value is the
is used as used as the base
base
for transients and the nominal rms value is used as the base for
for transientsb and the nominal rms value is used as the base for rms variations. rms variations.
b Flicker severity index Pst as defined in IEC 61000-4-15:2003 [B15] and IEEE Std 1453™-2004 [B28].
Flicker severity index Pst as defined in IEC 61000-4-15:2003 [B15] and IEEE Std 1453™-2004 [B28].
tion machines, increasing heat loss and temperature rise.

Summary
Overview   of  distortion
To summarize voltage Power  typesD isturbances  
and [2]    
causes, see Figure 3.22.

Disturbance type Description Causes

Narrow pulse with fast rise and Load switching, fuse clearing, utility
Impulse exponential or damped oscillatory switching, arcing contacts, lightning
decay; 50 V to 6 kV amplitude,
0.5 µs to 2 ms duration

Repetitive low-energy disturbances Normal equipment opeation

EMI in the 10 kHz to 1 GHz band, with (switching power supplies, motor
100 µV to 100 V amplitude speed controllers, etc.), carrier power-
line communication, wireless
broadcasting

Low voltage (typ. less than 80%), Starting heavy load, utility switching,
SAG for more than one periord ground fault

Swell High voltage (typ. more than 110%), Load reduction, utility switching
for more than one period

Figure 3.22 Overview of power disturbances [3.6].

[© 1995, IEEE, reprinted with permission]
Overview  of  Power  Disturbances  [2]  
42 Chapter Three

Disturbance type Description Causes

Flicker Small repetitive fluctuations in the Pulsating load
voltage level

Notches Repetitive dips in the line voltage, Current commutation in controlled or

with short durations uncontrolled three-phase rectifier
circuits

Waveform distortion Deviation from ideal sine wave due Rectifiers, phase-angle controllers,
to the presence of harmonics or other nonlinear and/or intermittent
interharmonics loads

Frequency variation Deviation of the frequency from the Poorly regulated utility equipment,
nominal value emergency power generator

Outage Zero-voltage condition of a single Load equipment failure, ground fault,

phase or several phases in a multi- utility equipment failure, accidents,
phase system, for more than a half- lightning, acts of nature
period

Figure 3.22 (Continued)

 26 Chapter Three

−400 V
0s 20 ms 40 ms 60 ms 80 ms 100 ms 120 ms 140 ms 160 ms 180 ms 200 ms
rms variation

Voltage  Sag  SimulaQon  [2]  

120
100 V(Vs)-V(VLOAD) Time
(b)
Voltage (%)

80
60
Figure403.5 Circuit for the voltage sag analysis of Example 3.2. (a) Line-neutral equiva-
lent circuit.
20 (b) PSPICE simulation showing load current starting at t ! 0.1 seconds. Top
trace is
0 line-neutral voltage with peak value 391.7 V (277 V rms). The bottom trace is the Voltage Distort
voltage0drop0.05
across0.1the line
0.15 impedance.
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Time (ms)

The
150 output voltage is V
LOAD ! 267 – j50 V. We see
X1that the
PCCinductive
X2
Utility
reactance
100
results in a phase shift of: Im
Voltage (%)

50
0
−50 50
−100 ! ! "tan "1 a b ! "10.6° Motor
−150 267 To other loads
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

That is, the load voltage VLOAD lags the source voltage vs by 10.6°.(a)The
Time (ms)
2
Figure 3.1Voltage sag due to a single line-to-ground fault [3.1].
rms value
[© 1995, of the
IEEE, reprinted voltage drop across the line impedance is 51 V.rms variation
with permission]

A capacitor
comes up to speed. Thiscanhigh becurrent
3
added causeson the load
a significant end
voltage to
drop115help the power factor, as
due to the impedance of the line.
shown
ResultsinfromFigure 3.6. (Figure
an EPRI study The reactive
3.3) [3.2] show power provided by the added capacitor
that the average110
(–jX ) can
sag duration
c improve
in U.S. systems theis a power
few cyclesfactor.
long. This average dip
clearing time of roughly 6 cycles (100 milliseconds) is attributable to
the circuit breaker switching time for clearing a fault. 105
R jXL R jXL
Example 3.1: Motor starting. Next, we’ll examine a hypothetical case of a
three-phase motor starting and its effect on the load voltage. We’ll model100
0.002 j 0.01
Voltage (%)

the system as shown in Figure 3.2a, where we have a 277-V line-neutral

VLOAD VLOAD
vsvoltage, a resistance of 0.02 ohms, and an inductance of 100 microhenries. 95 vs
−jXc of the combination
The resistance and inductance model the impedances
of the utility, any wiring impedance, and the impedance of a step-down IL IL
transformer The motor is modeled as a current source of 1000 A, which 90
energizes at time t ! 0.1 second. In Figure 3.4b, we see the effect of the
motor starting on the load voltage, where there is a sag with approxi-
Figure a 60-VAdding
mately3.6 peak. Thisacorresponds
capacitorto to offset
a sag the15effects
of roughly percent.of a 85
line- (a)
voltage drop.
2
 a resonant condition is set up between the line inductance and the
current, or both on a power line. These transients can occur due to res-
onances during switching. A circuit capable of exhibiting this phenom-
R L
enon is shown in Figure 3.11a. A power supply bus is shown with the

Oscillatory  Transient  SimulaQon  [2]  

bus having inductance L. A capacitor bank labeled C1 is connected at one
end of the bus. This capacitor bank may be in place, for Bus
instance, for
power factor improvement or for voltage sag improvement. C1 C2
34 Chapter Three
If at some time, we switch in capacitor bank C2 with the switch as shown,
a resonant condition is set up between the line inductance and the (a)

capacitor banks. The resultant resonance

7500 will be underdamped, and the cur-
R rentLin the capacitor bank may look5000
something like that in Figure 3.11b.
2500
Example 3.4: Capacitor bank switching. We’ll next consider an example of

Current (A)
Bus capacitor bank switching. Let’s look at the circuit of Figure 3.12a, where
0

we have Ca1 line with a capacitor

C2 bank−2500
at the load end of the line. The capac-
itor bank may be for power factor −5000correction, or for some other reason.
In this simulation, the line-neutral voltage is 277 V and the capacitor
−7500
bank(a)is switched in at t ! 100 milliseconds.
8 We see
10 in Figure 3.12b
12 the 14
Time (ms)
7500 resultant ripple in the load voltage and capacitor current (b) after the
Figure 3.11 Oscillatory transients. (a) Circuit that can produce an oscillatory transient.
(b) An oscillatory transient9 [3.1].
5000 [© 1995, IEEE, reprinted with permission]

R1 L1
2500 vS 9
From IEEE Std. 1159-1995, p. 14.
VLOAD
Current (A)

0.02 100 µH
0
+ C1 100 µF
vS
−2500 −
S1
Sw_control + +
−5000
− −
−7500
8 10 12 (a) 14
Time (ms)
500 V
(b) Load voltage
 Notching  SimulaQon  [2]  
Ls D1 D3 D5
a
Ls
b IL
Ls
c

D2 D4 D6
36 Chapter Three

(a)
1000

D1 D3 D5 500
Ls
a
Ls 0
b IL
Ls
c −500
D2 D4 D6
−1000
0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050
(a) (b)
1000 Figure 3.14 Notching in a three-phase rectifier. (a) A three-phase rectifier
that has commutation due to line inductances Ls and which produces
notching. (b) A waveform12 showing notching.
[© 1995, IEEE, reprinted with permission]
500

parasitic inductances are zero, then the diodes turn on and off in
0 taneously. With a finite line inductance, there is a finite switch
time from diode pair to diode pair.
−500
In
Example 3.5: Voltage notching in a single-phase full-wave rectifier.
example, we’ll see how line-side inductance can result in voltage n
−1000 ing in rectifiers. First, let’s consider an ideal single-phase full-
0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050
rectifier with a 208-V line-voltage and a 200 A DC load (Figure 3
(b)
If we assume the line inductance is zero, how will this circuit ope
 AddiQonal  SimulaQons  
•  Flicker  
•  12-­‐pulse  RecQfier  
•  Controlled  RecQfier  
 Measurement  Equipment  [4]  
•  Instruments  used  to  monitor  electromagneQc  
phenomena  can  range  from  a  simple  analog  voltmeter  
to  a  sophisQcated  mulQple-­‐site,  permanently  installed  
power  quality  monitoring  system.  SelecQon  and  use  of  
the  correct  type  of  monitor  requires  the  user  to  
understand  the  capabiliQes  and  limitaQons  of  the  
instrument,  its  responses  to  power  system  variaQons,  
and  the  specific  objecQves  of  the  analysis.  This  clause  
focuses  on  the  capabiliQes  and  limitaQons  of  various  
types  of  monitoring  equipment.    
•  Instrument  features  required  are  dependent  on  the  
monitoring  locaQon  and  objecQves.  
Suggested  Monitoring  LocaQons  on  
Typical  Low-­‐voltage  System  [4]  

IEEE Std 1159-2009

IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality

tight connections. This inspection will resolve many problems. This inspection should also include making
a log of devices and equipment throughout the circuits to serve as a reference when interpreting the data.
Also, the installer should determine the connection and operation schedule of backup power sources and
mitigating devices such as UPSs. See Table 3.

Table 3 —Suggested monitoring locations

Problem Recommended monitoring location
Specific piece of equipment exhibits problems related to At the equipment connection to the facility’s electrical
power quality. system (i.e., circuit breaker).
All equipment connected to a branch of the distribution At the branch connection to the facility’s electrical system
system within a facility exhibits problems related to power (i.e., motor control center).
quality.
Entire facility exhibits problems related to power quality. Secondary of the transformer serving the facility (see
note)
NOTE—The location may need monitoring on primary of same transformer by electric service provider.
 IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality

6.4.4 Additional parameters

Parameters   D etermined   f rom   A cquired   V oltage  
Once the voltage and current waveforms have been properly acquired, digitized, and stored in the monitors
and  
memory, then other useful parameters
in Figure 17.
C
canurrent   D
be computed usingata  
suitable[4]    
algorithms. Some of these are shown

ANSI transformer derating factor
Arithmetic sum power factor
Arithmetic sum displacement power
factor
Arithmetic sum volt-amperes
Current crest factor
Current THD
Current THD (rms)
Current total interharmonic
distortion (TID)
Current TID (rms)
Current imbalance
Displacement power factor
Frequency
Fund frequency arithmetic sum volt-
amperes
Fund frequency vector sum volt-
amperes
Harmonic power (sum)
IEEE 519 current TDD
Interharmonic rms current True power factor
Interharmonic rms voltage Unsigned harmonic power
Current-time product Vector sum displacement factor
Negative sequence current Vector sum power factor
Negative sequence voltage Vector sum volt-amperes
Net current Voltage crest factor
Positive sequence current Voltage THD
Positive sequence voltage Voltage THD (rms)
Residual current Voltage TID
RMS current Voltage TID (rms)
RMS current individual harmonics Voltage telephone interference factor
(TIF)
RMS harmonic current (total) Voltage TIF (rms)
RMS voltage Voltage imbalance
RMS voltage individual harmonics Watt hours
Total fund frequency reactive power Zero sequence current
Transformer K factor Zero sequence voltage

Figure 17 —Parameters that can be determined from acquired voltage and current data
were identified, then each event should be inspected based on its chronological order. Keep in mind that an
event may consist of more than one graph or report.

Table 7 is a reference chart for data interpretation. For the conditions given, it identifies the analysis
Reference  Chart  for  Problem  Analysis  [4]  
technique to be used and locates that by subclause number. A discussion of the characteristics and possible
causes are included in each subclause.

Table 7 —Reference chart for problem analysis

Subclause
Typical problems Disturbance type Possible causes
location
Overheated neutral Steady-state Shared neutrals 8.4.2
Intermittent lockups Improper or inadequate wiring
Frequency deviations High source impedance
Silicon-controlled rectifier
(SCR)/rectifiers and notching
Voltage imbalance Harmonics
Current imbalance
Current imbalance Capacitor banks
Single-phase loads
SCR/rectifier
Voltage imbalance
Interruption — Utility faults 8.4.3
Garbled data Inrush currents
Bonding and grounding
Random increases in harmonic levels Inadequate wiring
Capacitor banks
SCR/rectifier load
Intermittent lockups Sag/Swell Source voltage variations 8.4.4
Lights flicker Inrush currents
Garbled data Inadequate wiring

61
Reference  Chart  for  Problem  Analysis  [4]  
IEEE Std 1159-2009
IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality

Table 7 —Reference chart for problem analysis

Subclause
Typical problems Disturbance type Possible causes
location
Component failure Impulses Lightning 8.4.5
Dielectric breakdown EMI/RFI Load switching
Lockups Capacitor switching
Garbled data Static discharge
Wavy CRTs Hand-held radios
Loose wiring/arcing
Overheated transformers Harmonics Electronic loads 8.4.6
Voltage distortion SCR/rectifier loads
Current distortion Bandwidth of source impedance
Overheated motors Voltage imbalance
Garbled data
Lockups
Problems occur at the same time All Timed loads 8.4.7
Problems occur at regular intervals Cyclical loads
SPS and/or automatic transfer switch Discontinuities Switching to alternate sources 8.4.8
does not work Nonsynchronized power
Excessive frequency shift switching

8.4.1 Signature analysis

Signatures are characteristic graphical representations of electromagnetic phenomena. For example, the
 References  
[1]  G.T.  Heydt,  “Electric  Power  Quality.”    
[2]  A.  Kusko,  M.  Thompson,  “Power  Quality  in  
Electrical  Systems.”    
[3]  IEC  61000-­‐2-­‐5:1995,  “ElectromagneQc  
CompaQbility  (EMC)—Part  2-­‐5:  Environment—  
ClassificaQon  of  electromagneQc  environments.”    
[4]  IEEE  Standard  1159,  “IEEE  Recommended  
PracQce  for  Monitoring  Electric  Power  Quality.”