----~
-~
Heavy-Duty Truck Suspensions*
*SAE Paper 760369 - The Twenty-Second L. Ray
Buckendale Lecture published February 1976.
THE PURPOSE OF THIS BUCKENDALE LECTURE is to
provide information on the suspensions cur-
rently used in heavy-duty trucks. While
considerable information has been published
with respect to suspensions of various types
from time to time, there is no single source
of information which provides relatively com-
plete data on the suspensions currently in
use. The Buckendale Lecture Committee there-
fore selected the subject of "Heavy-Duty
Truck Suspensions" to provide reference
material which would be of particular value
to young engineers and students in keeping
with the purpose of the Buckendale Lecture
series.
It is particularly fitting that this
subject was chosen at this time because of
the increased emphasis being placed on:
1. Product safety
2. Product reliability
3. Improvement in riding qualities.
The subject of vehicle suspensions is
not a new one, as the first reference to the
spring-borne frame in English literature
apparently was given in Pepy's Diary under
date of ~lay 1, 1665.(1)*
The following statement was included
-------------------------------ABSTRACT--------------------------------
Truck suspensions for heavy-duty trucks
perform complex and conflicting functions and
have been the subject of much development.
This paper provides information on many
types of suspensions presently in use and
indicates those applications for which the
E. R. Sternberg
in this Diary:
"Went after dinner to the tryall of
some experiments about making coaches
easy. And several we tried; but one
did prove mighty easy (not here for
me to describe, but the whole body
of the coach lies upon one long spring)
and we all, one after another, rid
in it; and it is very fine, and
likely to take."
The elliptic spring used on light horse
drawn vehicles of the luxury type was pat-
ented in 1804 by Obadiah Elliott (1)* and
provided a revolution in spring design.
Early automotive vehicles used four elliptic
springs for the two axles provided in such
vehicles and .were subsequently replaced by
semielliptic springs which still represent
the most commonly used means of suspension
for heavy commerical vehicles.
Until the late 1920's and the early
1930's, relatively few improvements were made
in heavy-duty truck suspensions. Speeds were
relativey limited and in most cases, solid
tires were employed, with the result that
*Numbers in parentheses designate references
at end of paper.
particular types of suspensions in use are
best suited. While primary emphasis is
placed on leaf spring suspensions, data are
also provided on other types of suspension
such as rubber, air, torsion bar, and solid
mount suspensions which are in current use.
 riding qualities were relatively unimportant.
With the advent of 3-axle trucks and the con-
tinued increase in the number of pneumatic
tire employed with higher vehicle speeds,
riding qualities became of increasing impor-
tance. Since the early 1930's many improve-
ments have been made in heavy truck suspen-
sions in efforts to provide improved riding
qualities, greater stability and greater
reliability in high mileage operations. In
recent years the varieties of suspensions
used in heavy trucks have proliferated sub-
stantially to the extent that many different
types of suspensions are now offered.
LIMITATIONS ON VEHICLES CONSIDERED
Because of the extremely broad subject
matter which could be covered under the sub-
ject of "Heavy-Duty Truck Suspensions", it
has been necessary to limit this paper to
suspensions which are used in certain types
and sizes of trucks.
Basically, the trucks considered in
preparing this paper are primarily highway
type heavy-duty trucks, including combination
on and off highway type trucks used in dump,
mixer and similar services, but excluding
strictly off-highway type vehicles such as
construction type equipment, crane carriers
and airport refuelers.
The trucks considered are limited to
those in gross vehicle weight classifications
7 and 8 which include only those trucks with
a gross vehicle weight rating of over 26,000
pounds. Since the minimum gross vehicle
weight rating considered for this lecture is
in excess of 26,000 pounds, front axle load-
ings are limited to 7,000 pounds or more,
while in the case of single rear axle sus-
pensions, the minimum single rear axle loading
considered is approximately 18,000 pounds.
The tandem rear axle suspensions con-
sidered are those with minimum tandem axle
loadings of approximately 32,000 pounds,
although in some instances the same basic
suspensions may be used with lighter capacity
springs or equivalent suspension means to
provide improved riding qualities with some-
what lower tandem rear axle loadings.
Suspensions for auxiliary axles (which
are usually of the non-driving type) are
included in this paper. Since at least some
of the auxiliary axles are used with single
tires, suspensions of this type include those
suitable for axle loadings of 10,000 pounds
and up.
BASIC TYPES OF SUSPENSIONS
Front Axle - Suspensions for use with
front axles which are included in this
lecture are those used for single front axle
installations only. Tandem front axle sus-
I pensions have specifically been excluded due
to the fact that, with the exception of the
tandem front axles used in crane carriers,
airport refuelers and similar special pur-
pose vehicles, the number of tandem front
2
axle installations used in heavy trucks is
extremely limited.
Furthermore, primary emphasis has been
placed on leaf spring front suspensions due
to the fact that practically all heavy trucks
of the type included in the paper use this
basic type of suspension. However, since
there is some limited usage of other types
of front suspensions and there may be grow-
ing interest in other types of suspensions,
data have been included on several air sus-
pensions which have been used on a limited
production or experimental basis in heavy
trucks.
Single Rear Axle - Suspensions of the
type used with single rear axles include
leaf spring installations of the single
and multi-stage type, air, torsion bar and
rubber suspensions.
Tandem Rear Axle - Suspensions for use
with tandem rear axles are available in many
different types. Data are provided on leaf
spring, air, torsion bar, rubber, and solid
mount suspensions of various types used with
tandem rear axles.
Auxiliary Axles - Suspensions for
auxiliary axles which include tag and pusher
axle installations must be sub-divided into
installations for use with a single drive
axle and installations for use with a tandem
rear driving axle. In addition, there are
some variations in the suspensions available
depending upon whether the auxiliary axle
is installed at the truck manufacturer's
plant or whether the auxiliary axle is in-
stalled in the field.
Installations for use with a single
driving axle and installed at the vehicle
manufacturer's factory include spring, rub-
ber and air suspension types. Field instal-
lations of auxiliary axles for use in a
truck equipped with a single rear driving
axle are almost exclusively limited to air
suspensions. Auxiliary axles installed in
the field or at the truck manufacturer's
plant and intended for use with a tandem
rear driving axle installation are also
almost entirely limited to air suspensions.
FUNCTIONS OF SUSPENSIONS
Suspensions in heavy trucks are required
to perform many complex functions and in
some cases the basic requirements conflict
with each other. Among the primary func-
tions of suspensions used in heavy trucks
are the following:
1. Carry the load - One of the most
important functions of suspensions is to
support the vertical loading imposed by the
weight of the truck itself, plus the body
and payload weight in the case of a straight
truck, or the imposed load on the fifth
wheel in the case of a tractor·truck.
2. Provide adequate stability and
resistance to side-sway and rollover -
Consideration must be given to the fact that
there are substantial variations in the ver-
tical center of gravity location and that
in certain operations, swaying, shifting and
surging loads may be encountered.
The permissible overall height in many
states was limited to a maximum of 12'6" a
number of years ago, but at present most
states have an overall height limitation of
13'6" with some states permitting an overall
height of 14'0".(2) These changes in height
restrictions have resulted in the use of
bodies and trailers with higher center of
gravity locations in the loaded condition
which requires greater stability in the sus-
pensions provided.
In general freight operations, cargo
space is critical in reaching the maximum ~
permissible gross weights due to the fact \~,;
that general freight now averages approx-
imately 12 pounds per cubic foot in weight.
In such operations, increased overall height
is of considerable importance in providing
additional cargo space which not only in-
creases the height of the center of gravity,
but also results in carrying increased gross
weight and higher payloads in those opera-
tions where payload is limited by the cargo
space available.
3. Transfer driving and braking forces
between frame and axles - As a vehicle is
accelerated or decelerated, there are longi-
tudinal forces which must be transferred
between the axles and the frame. One of the
functions of the suspensions is to provide
the means of transferring such forces.
4. Resist drive and brake torgue
wind-up- The application of driving and
braking forces through the tires to the ground
results in a tendency to "wind-up" the suspen-
sions. Means must be provided to resist this
torque wind-up.
The advent of higher horsepower engines
and the requirements of Federal Motor Vehicle
Safety Standard Number 121, Air Brake Sys-
tems (3), has resulted in increasing the
importance of this function in relation to
other functions of suspensions.
5. Resist cornering effects when
negotiating a curve or a turn - Suspensions
must provide resistance to the cornering
forces created when a truck is negotiating
a curve or turning a corner. Normally, a
truck has a tendency to continue on in a
straight line and when the front wheels are
turned, forces are generated which cause the
truck to follow around the curve or the cor-
ner. These forces must be resisted by the
suspensions.
6. Provide suitable riding and cush-
ioning properties - The suspensions provide
a cushioning means between the axles and the
frame and therefore are important in pro-
viding suitable riding qualities, as well
as providing suitable cushioning properties
for the cargo.
Improved riding qualities are becoming
of greater importance and, therefore, the
role of the suspensions in providing improved
cushioning for both the driver and the cargo
will receive more attention in the future.
One of the difficult problems in pro-
viding suitable riding qualities for heavy
trucks is the wide variation between loaded
and unloaded conditions. Tabulated below
is a typical example of the wide variation
between the unladen and loaded condition
which results in the case of a 3-axle truck.
Front Rear Total
r\
Axle Axle Weight
(Lbs.) (Lbs.) (Lbs.)
\·i Chassis 8,000 8,000 16,000
.,}\\' Body 1, 900 4, 100 6,000
Tare Weight 9,900 12,100 22,000
Payload 10,100 21,900 32,000
Gross Weight 20,000 34,000 54,000
Note that the same vehicle is loaded to
slightly less than 10,000 pounds on the front
axle in the unladen condition and 20,000 pounds
11hen loaded, resulting in the fact that
the front suspension must provide for a L:1
ratio in front axle loading.
Similarly since the unladen vehicle has
a tandem rear axle loading of 12,100 pounds
and the loaded vehicle has a tandem rear axle
loading of 34,000 pounds, the tandem rear sus-
pension must provide for a 1.8:1 ratio be-
tween loaded and unloaded conditions. It is
this basic problem which results in the ser-
ious difficulty involved in providing suit-
able riding qualities for both the unloaded
and loaded conditions.
7. Maintain the proper positioning of
the caster on steering axles - To maintain
proper steering geometry and the ease of ste-
ering provided by the basic design, it is
necessary that the suspension used with steer-
ing axles maintain the proper caster angles.
8. Maintain axles in alignment parallel
to each other and perpendicular to the frame -
Suspensions are largely responsible for the
proper positioning of the axles and must
assure that the axles will normally be par-
allel to each other and perpendicular to the
frame. Some of the tandem rear suspensions
provide for a limited steering effect when
rounding a curve, requiring that the rear
axles take a slightly angular position to
each other at that time.
9. On drive axles, provide minimum
changes in drive axle pinion angles - The
design uf the suspensions used with driving
axles must be such that minimum changes in
the drive axle pinion angles are provided
under conditions of articulation to remain
within allowable universal joint angular
1imitations.
10. On drive axles, provide for limited
movement of drive shaft slip splines -The
suspensions used with drive axles must mini-
mize the movement of the drive shaft slip
splines as otherwise excessive movement of
the propeller shaft splines will result in
heavily loading the drive axle pinion bearings.
3
------------ ------ - - - --- -
11. On tandem axles, m1n1m1ze the load
transfer between the axles - It is important
to minimize the load transfer between the two
driving axles used in a tandem axle set under
varying conditions of articulation and of
acceleration and deceleration.
12. On tandem axles, provide sufficient
articulation for various operating conditions
- Tandem axle suspensions must provide
adequate articulation permitting the axles
to move an adequate distance vertically to
maintain traction under the conditions en-
countered in particular operations. The
amount of articulation required varies with
the type of service, with trucks intended
for operation on the highway being able to
operate with somewhat less articulation than
would be required in a suspension intended
for use in a truck that will operate both
on and off the road.
DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Maximum deflection consistent with
required stability - To provide as much
cushioning ability together with better
riding qualities, it is desirable for suspen-
sions to provide maximum deflection. How-
ever, the maximum deflection that can be
provided depends upon the suspension's
ability to provide the required stability for
the type of operation in which the truck will
be used.
2. Compatible with other vehicle com-
ponents in terms of overall ride - Components
other than the suspension enter into the
determination of the actual ride provided in
a given vehicle. The suspensions must be
compatible with these other components which
include tires, wheelbase, frame stiffness,
cab suspension, et cetera.
3. Minimum weight - In view of the
importance of keeping vehicle tare weight to
the minimum, it is desirable that suspensions
provide the minimum weight compatible with
the other requirements for a particular
suspension.
4. Low maintenance and operating costs -
Regardless of the abilities of a suspension
to perform all of its functions and to pro-
vide superior riding qualities, stability
and overall performance, it will not be a
successful suspension unless it can operate
over an extended period of time with low
maintenance and operating costs.
Among the factors which affect the
maintenance and operating costs and which
assist in reducing these costs are the
following:
a. Reduce the number of wearing parts.
b. Provide the minimum number of points
requiring lubrication.
c. Design parts with large wearing sur-
faces and low pressures.
d. Design to assure maintenance of axle
alignment.
e. Provide ease of adjustment where
adjustments are necessary.
4
f. Provide detailed maintenance data
to operators.
5. Minimize tire wear - In view of the
high mileage travelled by most heavy-duty on-
highway type vehicles, tire wear is a critical
item. It is therefore essential that the
suspension provide for minimum tire wear and
eliminate tire scuffing.
6. Minimize wheel hop - Suspensions
should be designed to reduce wheel hop to
a minimum in order to assure the best possible
braking and to .assist in minimizing tire wear.
7. Provide a natural frequency that is
relatively constant between laden and unladen
conditions - It is desirable that the natural
frequency of a suspension be relatively con-
stant between laden and unladen conditions.
This requirement is a difficult one to meet
with most types of suspensions, but efforts
must be made to approach this objective to
the extent feasible with the particular type
of suspension under consideration. Further-
more, this natural frequency must not be in
resonance with tire RPM or with pavement
expansion strips.
8. Low initial cost - While low initial
cost is not among the most important of the
desirable characteristics of suspensions,
it is of concern when comparing two suspen-
sions. One suspension may provide other
desirable characteristics which would indicate
that it is worth some premium, but the cost
difference must then be in keeping with the
added benefits provided by that suspension.
In many cases, suspensions which provided
good performance have not proven to be suc-
cessful because of the fact that the increase
in initial cost was substantially in excess
of the added value provided.
VEHICLE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS THAT
AFFECT SUSPENSIONS
Among the vehicle design and operating
parameters that affect susp~nsions are the
following:
1. Frame Width - Frame width is one
of the determining factors with respect to the
installation of suspensions. Normally most
U.S. manufactured trucks have a frame width
of approximately 34", vlith the actual width
varying from slightly below 34" to approxi-
mately 35", depending upon frame rail section
thickness, whether an inner or outer angle
or channel reinforcement is used and the basic
design of the vehicle.
Some vehicles are equipped with frame
rails which taper outward in the engine instal-
lation area, increasing the width by 2 to 4
inches beyond the normal frame width to pro-
vide for the installation of large Vee-type
engines.
Front springs are usually mounted
immediately below the frame rails, while
single rear axle suspension installations of
the leaf spring type are usually mounted out-
board of the frame rails.
Tandem axle suspensions usually require
 1-•--1--j l==-rw . 1

L.l[

~--IW--~

1-'L-Y T ~ --1\J..__JI
~----OAW .,._

TIRE SECTION 10.00 11(1) 11.00 12( 1) 12.00

RIM SIZE 7.5 8.25 8.0 9.00 8.5
96 96 96 96 96 102
OAW 12.40 12.40
w 10.95 11.00 11.55 11.90
12.60 13.00 13.60 14.00 14.00
s (2) 12.50
34.00 34.00 34.00 34.00
FW (3) 34.00 34.00
T (MAX.) ( 4) 72.55 72.40 71.45 70.50 69.60 75.60
49.10 48.80 46.90 45.00 43.20 49.20
IW 4.60 7.60
c 7.55 7.40 6.45 5.50

NOTES:
(1) TUBELESS TYPE.
(2) DUAL TIRE SPACING(S) MUST BE INCREASED AS FOLLOWS TO PROVIDE
1. 75" CLEARANCE BETWEEN DUAL TIRES FOR INSTALLATION OF TIRE
CHAINS:
REQUIRED FOR TIRE CHAIN INSTALLATION
TIRE SECTION S INCREASE

10.00 12.70 0.20

11.00 13.30 0.30
12.00 14. 15 0.15
(3) FRAt4E WIDTH MAY VARY; 34.75" \~IDTH \-JOULD INCLUDE +0.75"
TOLERANCE SUGGESTED BY S.A.E. INFORt4ATION REPORT J693a.
(4) IN PRACTICE, REAR AXLE TRACK (T) MUST BE SELECTED TO PERMIT
THE USE OF A RANGE OF TIRE SECTION SIZES.
Fig. l - Relationships between frame rails and dual rear tires
that the springs either be mounted outboard This figure clearly shows that the max-
of the frame rails or partially under the imum tire section that can practically be
frame rails and partially outboard of the used within the 96" overall width limitation
frame rails, depending upon the type of based on the recommended Tire and Rim Assoc-
tandem axle suspension involved. iation tire section widths and dual wheel
2. Overall Width Restrictions- The spacings (4}, is 11.00 tube type and 12 tube-
fact that most states and the Federal govern- less type. With the 12.00 tube type section
ment limit the overall width of vehicles to size, it is necessary to provide an increased
96" (2) places definite limitations on the overall width. Clearances for the 12.00 sec-
space available for the installation of sus- tion size are therefore shown with overall
pensions. Fig. 1, entitled "Relationships widths of both 96" and 102", to illustrate
between Frame Rails and Dual Rear Tires", the 1imited clearance available within 96".
;11ustrates the clearance available between Fig. 2, entitled "Front Tire and Frame
inner dual tires and a 34" wide frame when Rail Relationships", is intended to illustrate
an c;>Verall width limitation of 96" applies. the space claims made by front tires, wheels

5
 - -+ --+-----r----
17

c K.P. CENTERS

TURNING ANGLES APPROXIMATE

TIRE TIRE OVERALL KING PIN OUTSIDE INSIDE CLEARANCE
SIZE WIDTH(TH) WIDTH CENTERS R TIRE TIRE LEFT RIGHT
12.00-24 12.34 94.56 68.50 6.66 23.6° 35° 8.80 4.50
15-22.5 15.50 95.82 68.50 5.91 23.6° 35° 8.15 5.00
18-22.5 18.10 98.70 68.50 6.05 23.6° 35° 6.95 3.55
18-22.5 18.10 95.45 65.25 6.05 21.5° 30° 6.00 3.55
(All dimensions are in inches.)
Fig. 2 - Front tire and frame rail relationships

and rims, when reasonable turning angles,
both to the right and to the left, are provided.
Clearance must also be provided for the installa-
tion of the steering gear, arm, and drag
link.Generally it is desirable to provide a
mi9imum turning angle for the inside tire of
35 , but with a limitation of 96" on the over-
all width, it is extremely difficult to pro-
vide turning angles of this magnitude with
front tires such as 18-22.5 which are of the
wide base flotation type.
Since steering gears are often mounted
outside of the frame rail, because of the
desirability of providing accessibility to
the steering gear and also because of the
lack of space inside the frame rail, the
steering gear has a definite effect on the
turning angle which can be provided and fur-
ther limits the space available for the front
suspension installation. Regardless of the
steering gear location (inside or outside of
the frame rail), the steering drag link
usually determines the turning angle avail-
able in one direction.
Locating the steering gear ahead of the
front axle is desirable on a left-hand drive
vehicle due to the fact that this location
then often determines the turning angle that
can be provided when turning to the right.
However, under such conditions, the tire
approaching the steering gear and/or drag
link ahead of the front axle, is the outside
tire which does not require the same large
turning angle as for the inside tire.
In a number of cases, due to the limited
dimension from the front bumper to the front
axle, it is im~ossible to locate ~he steering
gear ahead of the front axle an~ 1n such ~ases,
a greater problem is presented 1n attempt1ng
to provide the desirable turning angles.
The illustration in Fig. 2 clearly shows
that it is imperative that the front suspen-
sion be installed under the side rails and
with as little projection beyond the outside
of the frame rails as possible when the larger
tire sizes are required. Furthermore, it is
evident that it is impractical to provide
suitable turning angles with the larger tires
within an overall width of 96" and, there-
fore it is often necessary to provide over-
all ~idths at the front axle as high as 100"
to 102" when tires such as 18-22.5 are
installed.
When the frame width at the front axle is
increased to accommodate the wider Vee-type
engines, the steering gear usually must be
mounted above or inside of the frame rail.
Therefore, with this construction, the steer-
ing gear is not usually a factor in d~termin­
ing the turning angle, but the drag l1nk
often then is the determining factor with
respect to the clearances available.

6

HEIGHT FROM TOP FACE OF FIFTH WHEEL
TIRE SIZE TO GROUND- UNCOUPLED (H) (1) (2)
10.00-20
10.00-22
11.00-20
11.00-22
11.00-24
12.00-20
12.00-24
NOTES:
(1) IN ACCORDANCE WITH S.A.E.
J701a.
(2) HEIGHT MAY VARY± 1".
Fig. 3 - SAE standard fifth wheel heights
3. Frame Height and Overall Weight
Restrictions - It was previously mentioned
that practically all states have now increased
the overall height restriction applicable to
trucks to 13'6" and that a few states have a
restriction of 14'0". As these heights have
increased, the demand for increased cargo
capacity has resulted in the development of
"volume van" semi-trailers which take full
advantage of the permissible heights. As a
result, it has not been possible to increase
the frame heights of the tractors used with
these trailers. Furthermore, it is still
between a typical frame rail and a typical
rear axle having a rectangular housing 5"
deep which is representative of rear axles
suitable for single rear axle loading in the
range of 18,000 to 23,000 pounds and also
for tandem rear axle loading in the range
of 34,000 to 38,000 pounds.
The depth of frame rails manufactured
of alloy steel usually ranges from approxi-
mately 9" to 10.5", while the frame rails
of aluminum usually fall within the 10" to
11" range. The clearance between the lower
flange of the side rail and the top of the
axle housing is shown for rails having depths
of 9", 9.5", 10", 10.5" and 11" to show that
the clearance available between the axle hous-
ing and the lower flange of the frame rail
48 is rather limited even when the maximum per-
49
49
missible frame height is provided.
51 In some instances, with specific types
53 of bodies such as concrete mixers, loading
51 facilities may restrict the overall height
55 below that permitted in a given state and for
this reason, it is not desirable to increase
the frame height beyond that required for
suitable tire clearance with the particular
INFOR~TION REPORT body to be installed. It is also necessary
to take into consideration the type of sus-
pension to be installed and the amount of
deflection to be provided at the rear axle.
In addition, in the case of tandem axles,
the amount of articulation required for the
given operation must also be considered in
determining the proper frame height and the
clearance available for the installation of
the rear suspension.
With regard to the front axle installa-
tion, it is invariably necessary to restrict
--- )
----1-~ .

G¥-- .. T
H
necessary to conform to SAE Information Re-
port J701a, Truck Tractor Semi-Trailer Inter-
change Coupling Dimensions (5), which includes FH
information on the maximum recommended fifth
wheel heights for a tractor in the unladen
condition and equipped with various tire
I c
sizes. These recommended heights are shown
in Fig. 3, entitled "SAE Standard Fifth Wheel
Heights."
Bodies mounted on trucks vary considerably
in configuration and type. However, frame
heights must be retained at the minimum that
will result in the tires clearing the under- TIRE SIZE 10.00-20 11.00-22 12.00-24
neath part of the body floor with the suspen- TR (LIGHT) 19.90 22.00 24.10
H (LIGHT) 48 51 55
sion in the metal to metal bump position. F 7.75 7.75 7.75
Basically, these required frame heights are FH {LIGHT) 40.25 43.25 47.25
approximately the equivalent of those provided FS 10.00 10.00 10.00
on the tractors conforming to the Standard AF (LIGHT) 10.35 11.25 13.15
SAE Fifth Wheel Heights after the fifth wheel c 2.50 2.50 3.00
A {LIGHT) 7.85 8.75 10.15
height has been deducted.
Fig. 4, entitled "Axle and Frame Height (All dimensions are in inches.)
Restrictions," shows the clearance provided Fig. 4 - Rear axle and frame height restrictions

7

TIRE SIZE 10.00-20
TR (LIGHT)
FH (LIGHT) (2)
19.90
37.25
FS
TF (LIGHT)
10.00
7. 35
SPO
AF (LIGHT)
3.50
10.85
NOTES:
(l) All dimensions are in inches.
(2) Unloaded frame height at rear axle required to provide S.A.E. fifth
wheel heights less 3" to provide for the difference in deflection
between 1 ight and loaded conditions and some do'IKlward frame slope
to the front when vehicle is loaded.
Fig. 5 - Relationships between front axle and frame rails
the amount of bump clearance available be-
tween the spring and the frame rail. Most
front axles of the non-driving type are pro-
vided with a 3-1/2" drop between the axle
spindle center and the spring pad. Fig. 5,
entitled "Relationships Between Front Axle
and Frame Rails", illustrates the clearance
available between the lower flange of a
frame rail and a front axle having a 3-1/2"
spring pad drop, based on the assumption
that a straight frame rail section is pro-
vided and that it is desirable for the frame
height at the rear axle to be 3" higher than
the frame height at the front axle in the
unladen condition.
The use of the 3" higher frame height
at the rear axle is desirable because a level
frame gives the impression that the frame
height is actually lower at the rear axle
than at the front axle and, therefore, the
upward slope is desirable from the appear-
ance point of view.
In addition, the rate of the front
springs is normally less than the rate of
the rear springs and, therefore, the amount
of deflection between the unladen condition
and the loaded condition at the front and
rear axles must be taken into consideration
to assure that the frame height at the rear
axle is no less than the frame height at the
front axle in both the unladen and loaded
conditions.
4. Frame Rail Configuration - Many
heavy-duty vehicles in production today do
not have a straight frame rail configuration
such as illustrated in Fig. 5. Various drop
rail configurations have been provided. Some
of the drop frame rails are used to provide
for the mounting of large Vee-type engines in
a lower position because of potential inter-
ference with the upper frame flange and the
exhaust manifolds which usually project over
the frame rails. In addition, the extreme
front of the frame rail section often has
an additional drop to provide for the installa-
tion of radiators with extremely large frontal
areas required for use with the higher horse-
power engines .
Some rails have a bolted-on section
provided at the front and in other cases, the
frame rail is cut off short at the front
axle with the front spring bracket "bridging"
around the large frontal area radiators.
All of these variations in frame rail
configurations can have an effect upon the
11.00-22 front suspension installation since practi-
22.00
40.25 cally all of these variations occur in the
10.00
8.25
engine mounting section of the frame rail.
3.50
11.75
Where the drop does not result in the lower
flange being parallel to the main section
of the frame rail, the suspension brackets
must be varied to provide suitable mounting
heights for the front and rear of the spring.
In addition to the variations in the
configuration of frame rails at the front
end, deep section frame rails are often
provided to increase the moment of inertia and
section modulus in areas of maximum deflection
and stress. One of the problems with such
deep section frames (which may be 2 to 4
inches or more deeper in section than the
rear of the frame rail) is that wheelbase
limitations must be established for specific
lengths of the deep section. Usually inter-
ference exists between the suspension and
rear axle installation and the deep section
of the frame rail for a certain minimum wheel-
base. The rear suspension and axles must be
located far enough to the rear of the deep
section to provide adequate space for the
installation of the suspension and particul-
arly for providing adequate articulation of
the tandem axles. The deep section frame
rail also presents problems in attempting
to install auxiliary axles mounted ahead of
the tandem axle in the field. Unless the
deep section frame is of the type which pro-
vides sufficient space ahead of the tandem
axle unit to provide suitable articulation
for the auxiliary axle, it may not be possible
to install such an axle.
Fig. 6, entitled "Relationships Between
Deep Section Frame Rails and Axles and Sus-
pensions," illustrates the problem that is
involved in connection with minimum wheel-
bases suitable for use with tandem axles and
also provides data on the approximate require-
ments for the installation of an auxiliary
axle ahead of a tandem axle set. The data
provided are approximate and intended only in
the way of illustration due to the fact that
specific requirements will vary somewhat,
depending upon the particular deep section
frame rail configuration and the types of
suspensions and axles provided.
5. Axle Loadings - Actual and Permis-
sible - Axle loadings will be one of the
determining factors in the use of both the
front and rear suspensions provided in a
particular vehicle. Unfortunately, it is
not always feasible to design to specific
axle loading restrictions in effect on the
Interstate Highway System nor on the basis
8
of the state axle weight restrictions (2),
as actual axle loadings may vary considerably
from these limitations. Furthermore, many
heavy trucks operate in more than one state
and therefore are subject to variation in
the axle weights permitted in different
parts of their operation.
In addition, the actual axle loadings
in many operations are limited by the cargo
space available. The problem the operator
in a general freight operation faces is that
while he may be hauling cargo that averages
12 pounds per cubic foot (6) a good share of
the time, he may also from time to time be
hauling cargo that is much heavier and which
permits of reaching the maximum gross weight
permitted in a particular state. Thus, in
certain operations, the actual axle loadings
may vary substantially from day to day due
to the variation in the weight of the cargo,
while in bulk haul operations, the vehicle
will in most cases be loaded to its full
permissible axle weights when going out
loaded but will return in the unladen
condition.
Another problem which must be considered
is that many operators have indicated a desire
for front axles having a rated capacity sub-
stantially in excess of the actual anticipated
front axle loading. The primary objective in
this case is to obtain extended king pin
and bushing life to assure that the front
axle need not be overhauled except at ex-
tended intervals such as at 400,000 to 500,000
miles of over-the-road highway operation.
In such cases, front axles rated at 12,000
pounds may only be loaded to a maximum of
9,500 to 10,500 pounds. For this reason,
the suspension capacity cannot always be
DEEP SECTION TAPER SHOULD
END FORWARD OF AXLE HOUSING
OF FORWARD REAR AXLE TO AVO I 0
RESTRICTING ARTICULATION
A. TANDEM REAR AXLE INSTALLATION
DEEP SECTION TAPER SHOULD
END FORWARD OF PUSHER AXLE
TO AVOID RESTRICTING AXLE LIFT
B. TANDEM REAR AXLE WITH PUSHER AXLE INSTALLATION
Fig. 6 - Relationships between deep section frame rails and axles and
suspensions
9
based on the front axle capacity but must
be tailored to the particular front axle
loads anticipated.
Similarly, in the case of rear axles,
particularly in the tractor semi-trailer and
truck and full trailer applications where the
gross combination weight is relatively high
and high horsepower engines are employed,
the operators often insist upon a higher
torque capacity rear axle and may employ
a 38,000 or 44,000 pound tandem in lieu
of the 34,000 pound tandem rear axle which
has adequate carrying capacity but which
may not provide the desirable life in the
gears and differential assembly.
In turnpike doubles and similar opera-
tions, the loading on the tandem axle of the
tractor is relatively low in relation to the
axle capacity. In fact, in some installations,
the tandem axle loading may never exceed
26,000 to 28,000 pounds, but a 44,000 pound
tandem is used to provide the necessary
torque capacity to assure the desirable life.
It would not be desirable to provide a sus-
pension equivalent in rating to the axle
capacity, particularly since the riding
qualities with such a stiff suspension would
not be acceptable in over-the-road truck or
tractor operation.
In determining the type of suspensions
which should be used under such conditions,
consideration must not only be given to the
axle weights permitted by the states and the
Federal government on individual and tandem
axle sets, but in addition the actual maxi-
mum anticipated axle loadings that will occur
in the particular operation must be care-
fully considered.
6. Gross Vehicle and Combination
Weights - One of the functions of suspensions
previously mentioned is the ability to trans-
fer drive and braking forces between the
frame assembly and the axles. Particularly
in the case of driving torque, consideration
must be given to the gross vehicle and gross
combination weight which will be hauled.
While the maximum driving torque is usually
dependent upon the weight on the driving axles
and the coefficient of friction between the
tires and the ground, it must be recognized
that the horsepower and torque transferred
on a more or less continuous basis depends
to a large extent upon the gross weight hauled.
As engine horsepower and gross weights
increase, the average forces transmitted be-
tween the frame and the axles increase and
greater structural strength must be provided
in the suspension parts that perform the fun-
ction of transferring these forces. For
example, larger diameter spring pins may be
necessary as gross weights increase even
though the weight on the drive axle may not
increase in proportion. Other suspension com-
ponents must also be considered from this
point of view.
7. "Bridge Formula" Effect on Front
Axle Location - The term "bridge formula"
means that type of weight restriction orioinal-
ly based on formulas used to determine the
strength of bridges and which varies the
gross weight which may be hauled on the basis
of the overall spacing between axles and the
number of axles provided. This subject has
become of increasing importance due to the
fact that the Federal size and weight legis-
lation (2) passed in 1974 included a bridge
formula which restricts the gross weight
carried on each group of two or more axles,
based on the spacing between the forward and
rearward axle in the group and the number of
axles included in the group. The formula
for the permissible gross weight on each
group of two or more axles is as follows:
W= 500 iL ~. N + 12N + 36)) (1)
~ depends upon the specific weight restrictions
Where:
W Gross weight (in pounds) on any group
of two or more axles.
L Overall spacing (in feet) between the
first and last axle in the group.
N Number of axles in the group.
The overall spacing of the axle group is
rounded out by increasing any dimension of
6" or more to the next even foot while a
dimension of less than 6" is reduced to the
next lower even foot. In other words, 54'6"
becomes 55' and 54'5" becomes 54' in the
formula.
Since this formula also applies to the
overall gross weight of the combination, it
is desirable to locate the front axle as far
forward as feasible. Generally, it has been
determined that for tractor semi-trailer com-
binations and truck and full trailer combina-
tions as well as doubles trailer operations,
it is desirable that the front axle of the
truck or tractor be located no more than 30"
in back of the front bumper to provide the
maximum overall "L" dimension. Obviously,
the front axle location can vary to a certain
extent with the particular type of trailers
being used and the specific location of the
rearmost axle of the trailer in relation
to the rear of the trailer, but most front
axles in highway tractors subject to opera-
tion in states using a bridge formula or equiv-
alent to determine the overall gross weight
permitted are located in the range of 28" to
30" back of the front bumper.
This front axle location clearly limits
the length of the front section of the front
spring to approximately 26" maximum and often
makes it necessary to provide an offset spring
with a rear section somewhat longer in over-
all length than the forward section of the
front spring.
Many states provide a table of gross
weights (7) based on a formula similar to
that included in the Federal legislation.
The same reasoning with respect to the pre-
ferred front axle location for such installa-
10
tions applies to vehicles intended for opera-
tion in such states.
In the case of those states which do not
rely upon the bridge formula approach to
determine gross weights, axle weight limita-
tions usually determine the maximum gross
weight which can be hauled and in such cases
locating the front axle as close to the front
bumper as possible is not required.
Where the total permissible gross weight
is almost entirely dependent upon permissible
individual axle loadings, it may be desirable
to locate the front axle in the setback posi-
tion in order to transfer a greater amount
of the body and payload weight or the imposed
fifth wheel loading to the front axle without
exceeding the permitted loading on the rear
axle. Thus, the front axle location which is
desirable for vehicles used in combinations
which apply to the particular operation under
consideration.
Furthermore, in straight truck applica-
tions, even where the bridge formula applies,
individual axle weight limitations often
determine the gross weight which can be hauled
and may be more restrictive than the bridge
formula or table applicable in the individual
states. Therefore, in the case of many straight
truck applications, the set back front axle
construction may be preferred even in those
states where the bridge formula applies.
Where offset type springs are used in
trucks equipped with the forward front axle
location and similar models are offered with
the front axle set back which may make it
possible to use front springs with equal
lengths forward and to the rear of the front
axle, the manufacturer may choose to retain
the offset springs in both types of trucks to
reduce the inventory of different types of
springs to the minimum and to simplify pro-
duction.
While the forward front axle position
effectively restricts the length of the for-
ward section of the front spring, the length
of the rearward section of the front spring
may also be limited by interference between
the front spring rear bracket or shackle with
other parts of the vehicle. Among the items
which may cause such interference are cab
supports, exhaust systems, oil pan shields,
noise shields required by the lower noise
limits becoming effective, and power take-offs
installed on multi-countershaft transmissions.
In most cases, by the careful design of the
spring brackets and/or shackles and the various
systems referred to above, it is possible to
eliminate the interferences that would res-
trict the length of the rearward section
of the front spring.
However, since the drive line relation-
ship to the frame rail is usually fixed within
relatively narrow limits to provide the mini-
mum wheelbases required with specific drive
line components, it is not always feasible
to avoid interference with the side mounted
power take-off on multi-countershaft trans-
missions and which may be required for cer-
tain operations. This problem usually occurs
with the front axles in a set-back position.
8. Type of Vehicle Configuration -
Suspensions vary with the type of vehicle
configuration provided. Heavy trucks may be
divided into conventional, high mount cab-
over-engine and low cab forward trucks. In
the case of conventional designs, the bumper
to back-of-cab dimension may vary from approx-
imately 90" to 156" or more when a sleeper
compartment is furnished on a longer BBC
conventional model. Such vehicles are avail-
able with both axle forward and setback front
axle conditions, depending upon the specific
BBC dimension furnished.
Variations are also available in the BBC
dimension of the high mount cab-over-engine
tractors. Due to the fact that the driver is
located relatively far above the top of the
frame rail, the high mount cab-over-engine
tractor, particularly of the 3-axle type, is
the most critical design from the standpoint
of providing suitable riding qualities. The
front axle in trucks of this type is usually
located in the forward position, although some
cab-over-engine trucks are available with a
setback front axle.
The low cab forward design usually locates
the floor of the cab no higher than the
top of the front tires. Because of the
necessity of mounting the cab floor relatively
low in relation to the front tires, it is
usually necessary to provide the setback front
axle construction.
The various designs available must be
carefully considered in selecting suspensions
to be used in such vehicles, particularly since
each of these types of vehicles are designed
for specific types of operations and the
loadings imposed on the suspensions vary with
the type of configuration furnished, particu-
larly due to the wide variation in wheelbases
normally provided in such units.
9. Type of Vehicle or Combination -
Suspension requirements also vary with the
type of vehicle or combination. Straight
truck and tractor truck operations usually
require different types of suspensions due to
the wide variation in loading and the types
of operations in which the vehicles are used.
In addition, a tractor may be used with a
single axle or a tandem axle smi-trailer
which imposes different loading conditions
on the tractor.
Doubles trailer operation also result
in different loading conditions and in addi-
tion, there are a number of specialized
"turnpike doubles" operations where the
axle loadings are relatively low, but the
gross combination weights may range up to
approximately 130,000 pounds and which can
only be hauled under the specific operating
conditions defined by various turnpike regu-
11
lations (8)(9). Consideration also must be
given to the fact that the truck or tractor
may have 2, 3, or 4 axles and, obviously, the
suspension requirements vary with the number
of axles involved.
10. Type of Operation - The suspensions
required vary considerably with the type of
operation, depending upon whether the vehicle
is intended for strictly on-the-road opera-
tion or whether it is intended for combination
on and off highway service. The type of
terrain and the type of roads, particularly
with respect to the curves encountered, also
must be considered with respect to the spec-
ific selection of suspensions.
The type of body and other equipment
to be used, together with the resultant center
of gravity location, are also of considerable
importance. For example, a mixer which, with
its rotational effect, has a tendency to
load up the left side of the vehicle, requires
much greater stability in a suspension than
does a truck used in general hauling opera-
tions. Also, dump and mixer trucks usually
operate off the road a certain portion of
their operating time and since the terrain may
be very uneven, additional resistance to side-
sway and roll-over must be provided.
The type of load or cargo to be hauled
also must be considered. Surging, swaying
and shifting loads impose different require-
ments on the suspensions than established by
cargo which remains stationary in relation to
the vehicle. Weight transfer either longitud-
inally or in the transverse direction may be
substantial under specific operating condi-
tions with swaying, surging or shifting loads.
Examples of a swaying load would be beef sides,
while surging loads usually are products hauled
in tanks including chemical and petroleum pro-
ducts. A shifting load may be considered as
sand or gravel hauled in a dump body or other
similar body where the load may shift under
conditions of maximum acceleration or
deceleration~
These parameters must all be considered
in connection with the selection and use of
front and rear suspensions required for heavy-
truck operation. Not only must the vehicle
engineer consider these parameters in design-
ing the suspension installation but the opera-
tor must also consider these parameters in
determining the final specifications of the
truck which he will purchase for his part-
icular operation.
LEAF SPRINGS
As previously stated, most heavy trucks
are equipped with leaf spring type suspensions
and for this reason this section will comment
in some detail on leaf springs and their char-
acteristics. However, spring design will not
be discussed in detail because such data go
well beyond the scope of this paper which
is primarily intended to discuss the types
of suspensions currently in use and to
point out the applications in which such sus-
 brackets. Usually, the helper spring has
flat ends and makes sliding contact with its
spring brackets.
The main spring carries the load of the
Fig. 7 - Single stage spring
unladen vehicle and under such conditions,
some clearance between the ends of the helper
FIRST STAGE LEAVES spring and the spring brackets is provided.
As the load increases, the helper springs
come in contact with its brackets, providing
a relatively abrupt change in the spring rate
as contact is made.
Fig. 10, entitled "Variable Rate Spring,"
illustrates a spring design which provides
Fig. 8 - Progressive type multi-stage spring
a variable rate through the use of cam shaped
bearing pads or brackets which contact the
flat ends of the spring. With the vehicle
~-----60" LENGTH------!

CAM SHAPED
SPRING BRACKETS

Fig. 9 - Helper spring multi-stage spring installation

pensions should be used.

Stages - Leaf springs are available in
single and multi-stage types. Generally,
single stage springs may be defined as those 46. LENGTH
springs which have a constant rate throughout
the deflection range for the particular spri- (
ng, while multi-stage springs may be defined c-1 (t:J
I'll i6l
as those springs or combinations of springs ·tr
which provide variations in rate during the ~ p= u

total deflection of the spring.

Fig. 7, entitled "Single Stage Spring," l~ LOADED CONDITION
illustrates a typical spring for a front sus- Fig. 10- Variable rate spring
pension that has a constant rate. Such a
spring is of conventional design and does
not have any appreciable variation in rate
10
I
I
I I
I
throughout the deflection range.
i// I
/'j-t_N0.4
1 1~N0.2
9
Multi-stage springs are available in a
number of different designs. Fig. 8, entitled
"Progressive Type Multi-Stage Spring," illus- I
I
I
I I
8
trates a progressive type spring which consists 1
of an upper spring section which is considered
as the first stage and corresponds rather 7 /!, rN0.5
I I

closely to a single stage spring except that

it usually has a somewhat lower rate. This
spring then has one or more leaves which are
6 Jl/ /
If' I
called the "second stage" leaves mounted
immediately below the shortest leaf of the
main or "first stage" portion of the spring.
As the first stage of the spring deflects,
the second stage section gradually comes in
LOAD
5

000 LB5.
4
'/1
I'/,'
contact with the lower leaves of the first ll/;;'CURV: NO. SPRING TYPE
stage and increases in rate with deflection 3 / SINGLE STAGE
until the spring rate reaches its maximum at 1 11 I
2 2-STAGE
relatively full contact between the first
and second stages. 2 ~i/
,,jl 3
PROGRESSIVE
MAIN A HELPER
The second means of providing a multi-
stage spring installation is to provide help-
er springs mounted above the main spring. In
1/i;/
,
4
5
VARIABLE RATE
VARIABLE RATE
2-STAGE
, PROGRESSIVE
this case, the helper spring is mounted above
the main spring and contacts separate spring 1 2 3 4 5 6
SPRING DEFLECTION-INCHES

Fig. 11 - Comparative spring rate curves

12
lightly loaded, contact is made near the outer
end of the springs. As the load increases,
the effective length of the spring decreases
due to the fact that the cam shape of the
spring brackets effectively shortens the
length of the spring by shifting the points
of contact further towards the center of the
spring. A spring of this type increases in
rate until the minimum effective length is
reached.
Fig. 11, entitled "Comparative Spring
Rate Curves," compares the spring rates at
various deflections for a single stage spring,
a progressive type spring, a combination main
and helper spring installation, a variable
rate spring and a progressive type variable
rate spring, all intended to support the
same load in a typical single rear axle
installation.
Single stage springs are used in front
suspensions for most normal highway truck or
tractor operations and in single rear axle
suspensions where the maximum load is rela-
tively limited and where high centers of
gravity or swaying or surging loads are not
anticipated. Most tandem axle suspensions
also incorporate single stage springs.
Multi-stage springs are usually provided
where there is an extremely wide variation in
the loads to be carried by suspensions to
provide improved ride and handling character-
istics. Thus, trucks with exceptionally high
loaded front end weights such as 14,000 to
20,000 pounds front axle loading, often use
progressive type front springs.
Similarly, some vehicles that carry
heavy front end loads part of the time often
use a main and auxiliary or helper spring
combination. An example of the type of
installation normally using such a combina-
tion is a truck intended for snow-plow serv-
ice. The truck operates with the snow plow
installed only during certain seasons of the
year and in such cases the use of the helper
spring installation is desirable since the
heavy loading requiring the helper spring
only occurs during the winter months.
The progressive type spring is used to
a limited extent in single rear axle sus-
pensions, but the combination of main and
helper springs is extensively used in trucks
equipped with a single rear axle.
Variable rate springs with slipper con-
struction at both ends are normally employed
with single rear axles only, due to the fact
that this design presents a number of problems
with respect to steering geometry when em-
a o~§'§
A. UP-TURNED EYE B. BERLIN EYE
Q held in place by means of the rubber cushions
C. MILITARY WRAPPER
Fig. 12- Spring eye construction
13
ployed on the front axle. Such springs are
used with and without helper springs, depend-
ing upon the type of operation and the axle
loading to be carried. Several manufacturers,
however, provide a variable rate front spring
by providing a double spring eye cushioned
by rubber bushings at the front of the spring
and a slipper end at the rear which contacts
a cam shaped bracket.
The progressive type variable rate
spring provides a relatively soft rate when
the vehicle is unladen and therefore is suit-
able for use where relatively light loads are
transported with relatively high frequency
and only occasionally are maximum loads
hauled. Because of the relatively high total
deflection of such springs, care must be
exercised in their application to assure that
adequate stability is provided under all
operating conditions. Such springs are also
used with and without helper springs.
End Construction - The ends of most
leaf springs used in heavy trucks either
consist of an eye or a flat or plain end used
to contact a "slipper" type bracket. Fig. 12,
entitled "Spring Eye Construction," illus-
trates the two types of eyes primarily used
at the present time. The upturned eye is
most commonly used and has the center-line
of the eye above the top of the main leaf.
The Berlin eye has the center-line of
the eye on the center-line of the main leaf.
Since longitudinal loads are applied centrally
to the main leaf, the tendency of the eye to
unwrap is reduced. In addition to its use
in the spring, the Berlin eye is also used
in the spring leaf type radius rods often
provided with variable rate springs.
Fig. 12 also illustrates the military
wrapper which "wraps" the second leaf around
the eye provided in the main leaf. The sec-
ond leaf wrapper is intended primarily as
an emergency support in the event of main
leaf failure, but in addition, it assists the
main leaf eye under rebound conditions.
Practically all front springs now use the
military wrapper construction at the fixed
eye. Some limited usage of this construction
is also made at the shackled end of the
spring.
The plain end mounting for use with
slipper type brackets provides a sliding
or rolling contact between the spring ends
and the brackets. This type of construction
is mandatory on the variable rate spring in
view of the necessity of providing the cam
shaped brackets.
Some springs have the ends designed to
permit mounting in brackets by means of rub-
ber cushions or shock insulators. Generally,
these springs have the equivalent of flat
ends with minor variation to have the ends
or shock insulators.
Leaf Ends - The ends of the individual
leaves other than the main and, in some cases,

C___L____::_,,___
A. SQUARE END B. DIAMOND POINT END
[ ___ ______, --"(
C. TAPER ROLLED END
Fig. 13 - Leaf end construction
the second leaf can be trimmed to various
configurations to reduce inter-leaf friction
and avoid the "digging-in" of one leaf into
the leaf above it. The types of leaf end
construction normally provided are illustrated
in Fig. 13, entitled "Leaf End Construction."
The square end construction is normally
provided only on those leaves to which align-
ment clips are attached. Generally, the
square end is not considered as being satis-
factory due to the fact that inter-leaf pres-
sure is concentrated and does not provide for
more than a poor approximation of the theore-
tical triangular leaf uniformly stressed
spring.
The diamond point eliminates some of
the excess material and provides some improve-
ment in the pressure distribution between the
leaves. It is probably the most commonly
used construction due to the fact that it
is less costly than the taper rolled ends,
but it does not provide the reduction in
friction obtained through that construction.
The taper rolled end construction reduces
the thickness of the leaf at its extreme end
and thereby provides increased flexibility,
with the result that the pressure distribution
between leaves is improved and inter-leaf
friction is reduced.
Types of Leaves - Until the early 1960's
practically all springs used in heavy trucks
were of the flat leaf type and with the excep-
tion of the variations in the leaf end con-
struction, provided a constant section through-
out the spring leaf. In an effort to reduce
interleaf friction and provide improved rid-
ing characteristics, tapered leaf springs
were developed.
The typical tapered leaf consists of
a relatively short length at the center sec-
tion of the leaf which has a constant section
thickness and then tapers down to a thinner
section at the ends. The use of tapered
leaves permits of substantially reducing
the number of leaves in a spring.
Advantages of Tapered Leaf Springs -
Tapered leaf springs provide the following
advantages:
1. Reduced Inter-Leaf Friction - Inter-
leaf friction interferes with the free opera-
tion of the spring in absorbing the small
deflections and road shocks as the vehicle
runs along the highway. With the reduced
inter-leaf friction of the tapered leaf
14
spring, the vehicle is provided with a suit-
able means of absorbing these small deflec-
tions and road shocks.
2. Reduced Spring Weight - The fact
that the tapered leaf spring uses a relatively
limited number of leaves makes it possible
to reduce the weight of the spring. A
typical example of the weight saving poten-
tial of these springs is provided by a
52-1/2" x 4" front spring designed for a
load of 4,250 pounds. The 10 flat leaf
spring weighs 106 pounds, while the 3 tapered
leaf spring weights 75 pounds, a weight saving
of 21 pounds per spring. In the case of a
spring of the same dimensions but designed
for a load of 5,250 pounds, the 9 flat leaf
spring weighs 118 pounds, while the 4 tapered
leaf spring weighs 98 pounds, a saving of 20
pounds per spring.
3. Improved Riding Qualities - In
practice, tapered leaf springs provide sub-
stantially improved riding qualities, part-
icularly when supplied on the front axle.
Their ability to absorb the smaller deflections
and road shocks as well as providing for
consistent results over an extended period
of time in terms of deflection results in a
reduction in pitching and bouncing, thereby
providing better cushioning for the cargo,
vehicle and driver.
4. All Leaves are Full Length - This
factor with the proper tapering of the leaf
thickness results in uniform stress distri-
bution and the absence of stress concentra-
tion.
~dvantages of Tapered Leaf Springs -
Tapered leaf springs have the following
disadvantages:
1. Higher Initial Spring Cost - The
use of tapered leaf springs usually results
in a higher initial cost due to the added
cost of taper rolling the leaves. In some
instances, while the cost per pound may be
higher the reduction in weight may be suf-
ficient to offset this higher cost per
pound.
It must also be recognized that since
the tapered leaf spring is considered as a
premium type spring, it usually is subjected
to additional treatment to permit of operat-
ing at higher stresses with somewhat more
deflection than is usually provided in flat-
leaf springs. This additional treatment
includes grinding the tension surfaces smooth,
shot peening the top surfaces under stress
to increase endurance, providing Delrin
liners between the leaves to prevent leaf
wear and corrosion and applying a special
WRAPPER AS REQUIRED
FOR FIXED END
I SEAT LENGTH
INTER LEAF LINERS CENTER BOLT
Fig. 14 - Typical tapered leaf spring
corrosion resistant coating to the entire
spring.
2. Shock Absorbers Required for Re-
bound Control - Due to the relatively low
inter-leaf friction, it is necessary to
provide shock absorbers for rebound control.
This requirement in some instances partially
offsets the weight saving in the springs
themselves and adds to the initial and
maintenance costs.
3. Full Weight Saving Potential May
Not be Realized - If offered as optional
equipment, it may not be possible to realize
the full potential weight saving due to the
necessity for adding spacers to make up for
the difference in the center thickness of the
spring. For example, in the case of the
comparison of the 4,250 pound and 5,250
pound capacity springs discussed above, the
flat leaf 4,250 spring has a center thickness
of 3.60". The 3 tapered leaf spring has a
center thickness of 1.78" including the 4
liners, so that spacer leaves or equivalent
with a thickness of approximately 1.82"
would be required to make it possible to
substitute the tapered leaf spring of the
same open camber without disturbing the
steering geometry and other vehicle dimen-
sional relationships. To make up for this
difference in center thickness, five 0.360"
thick spacer leaves which would weigh approx-
imately 12 pounds would be required.
In the case of the 5,250 pound spring,
the flat leaf spring has a center thickness
of 3.609" while the tapered leaf spring con-
sisting of 4 leaves and 5 liners has a cen-
ter thickness of 2.359", so that spacer
leaves or equivalent would be required to
provide for the difference in center thick-
ness of 1.250".
Three 0.401" thick thick spacer leaves
would provide approximately the required
added center thickness, but would add
approximately 8 pounds to the weight of
the spring.
Where tapered leaf springs only are
offered, it should be possible to design
the spring installation so as to eliminate
the need of an excessive number of spacr-:--
leaves or equivalent and realize the full
weight saving potential.
Future Trends in Spring Leaves - In
view of the substantial advantages with
respect to the reduction in inter-leaf
friction, the weight saving potential and
the improvement in riding qualities provided
through the use of tapered leaf front springs,
it is evident that there will be a continuing
trend towards the use of tapered leaf springs
in heavy trucks equipped with leaf spring
type suspensions and intended specifically
for operation on the highway. This trend
is already clearly indicated in that a num-
ber of the newer highway tractor models
which have been introduced recently are
equipped with tapered leaf springs as stand-
ard in the front suspensions.
15
Table I - Suggested Flat Spring Leaf Thickness
0.291 0.447 0.788 1.273
0.323 0.499 0.887 1.440
0.360 0.558 0.999
0.401 0.625 1.127
It is anticipated that there will be
a slower trend towards the use of tapered
leaf springs in rear suspensions, because
of the wider variety of suspensions furn-
ished and the fact that the rear suspensions
are not as critical to the overall vehicle
ride as the front suspension is.
Even with flat-leaf type springs, it is
anticipated that efforts will continue to be
made to reduce inter-leaf friction and to
improve the overall quality of the springs
by providing additional specialized treat-
ment and corrosion resistance to extend the
life of the springs. It is expected that
tapering the ends of the flat section spring
leaves will be used to a greater extent in
the future.
Leaf Thicknesses Available - The normal
range of flat leaf section thicknesses is
listed in the SAE Leaf Spring Manual (10) in
Chapter III, Design Elements. This listing
was expanded as compared with previous
issues of the Leaf Spring Manual. However,
it must be recognized that in selecting
specific leaf thicknesses, consideration must
be given to the quantity of the particular
spring required since all of these section
thicknesses are not readily available except
in large quantity orders calling for a
specific rolling of steel.
Suggested Thicknesses of Leaf Sections
for Front and Rear Suspensions - Accordingly,
it is recommended that the leaf thicknesses
given in Table I, entitled "Suggested Flat
Spring Leaf Thicknesses," be used, if possi-
ble, for heavy truck suspensions since these
leaf thicknesses are the ones most commonly
used and for which the steel should be more
readily available. The minimum leaf thick-
ness usually used for front springs is 0.291"
but the more common minimum leaf thicknesses
for front suspensions are 0.323", 0.360" and
0.401".
The minimum leaf thickness used in rear
springs is usually 0.401" but when two-stage
springs are used with the second stage below
the first stage, leaf thicknesses as low as
0.360" have been used with somewhat thicker
leaves used in the second stage.
Leaf springs for single rear axle sus-
pensions and intended for highway operation
with normal permissible highway loads on the
axles seldom use leaves with a thickness
in excess of 0.499". However, with axle
loadings in excess of 23,000 pounds, leaf
thicknesses up to 0.999" are used to provide
extremely stiff rear suspensions.
Because of the wide variety of tandem
rear axle suspensions, leaf thicknesses vary
considerably. Four spring suspensions, for sible to suggest desired metric modules, but
example, follow the normal leaf thickness it will then be necessary to work with the
pattern provided in single axle suspensions steel suppliers to determine the metric
for highway operation, while some of the sizes which the steel mills will be rolling.
heavier tandem axle suspensions, particularly Limited Interchangeability - It is anti-
of the 2-spring type with or without a walk- cipated that as the SI System becomes more
ing beam, use leaf thicknesses up to 1.440". prevalent in the United States, it will be
Tapered Leaf Thicknesses - As yet, no necessary to redesign practically all springs
industry standards have been set for the into acceptable metric modules due to the
thickness of tapered leaves due to the fact fact that the dimensions of the springs used
that these sections require special rolling. in the United States do not usually corres-
The spring manufacturers up to the present pond to metric modules that probably will be
time have designed the springs to the proper expressed in terms of even millimeters.
stress levels and determined the leaf thick- For example, Table II, entitled "Com-
nesses required to provide these preferred parison of Spring Widths, Inch versus Metric
stress levels. Modules," indicates that some variation in
Chapter X, "Design Data for Single Leaf spring width must be anticipated in convert-
Springs," of the SAE Leaf Spring Manual (10), ing to metric modules, based on the assumpt-
provides data on the design of tapered leaf ion that the preferred spring widths will
springs and refers to a ratio J which is involve the use of metric modules in incre-
designated as the "thickness ratio" and ments of 5 millimeters.
which is determined by dividing the thickness A somewhat similar situation exists with
of the leaves at the center section or at respect to spring leaf thicknesses. Table III,
the point of clamping by the thickness of entitled "Comparison of Spring Leaf Thicknesses,
the leaves at the end of the spring. Inch versus Metric Modules," shows that most
Most heavy-duty tapered leaf springs have of the commonly used leaf thicknesses do not
been designed to provide a thickness ratio correspond closely with anticipated leaf thick-
of approximately 0.6. For example, a typical nesses in terms of metric modules based on the
tapered leaf used in a front spring may have assumption that such leaf thicknesses would be
a thickness at the center of 0.536", while expressed in terms of even millimeters.
at the ends, the thickness is reduced to Tables II and III, therefore, show that,
0.360". However, it must be recognized that with the variations in spring widths and
up to the present time, one supplier has spring leaf thicknesses anticipated in terms
furnished the bulk of the tapered leaf springs of metric modules and the probability that
and as other spring manufacturers engage in lengths also will have to vary to a certain
the manufacture of these springs, it is pos- extent to be rounded out to even millimeters,
sible that variations from this thickness it probably will be necessary to redesign
ratio will come into common usage. Further- springs when converting the design of a veh-
more, it is quite possible that as require- icle to the Sl System.
ments for tapered leaf springs increase, Leaf Spring Design - It is not the pur-
standards may be established for both leaf pose of this paper to discuss in detail the
thicknesses and the thickness ratios. design of leaf springs nor any other spring-
Metric Modules - At the present time, ing means which are used in heavy-duty truck
the SAE Leaf Spring Manual (10) is receiving suspensions. Considerable information has
its periodic 5-year review in keeping with been provided in the SAE Leaf Spring Manual
the policies of the Society of Automotive
Engineers, Inc. It is understood that one Table III - Comparison of Spring Leaf Thickness,
of the subjects that will be considered Inch vs. Metric Modules
during this review is the addition of a sec-
tion dealing with suggested metric modules Spring Leaf Thickness Anticipated Metric Modules
for spring widths and for spring leaf thick- Inches mm mm Inches
nesses. Since the use of the SI System in
the United States is somewhat in its infancy, 0. 291 7.391 7 0.276
it is anticipated that it will only be pos- 0.323 8.204 8 0.315
0.360 9.144 9 0.354
Table II - Comparison of Spring Widths, !nth vs. 0. 401 10.185 10 0.394
Metric Modules 0.447 11.354 11 0.433
0.499 12.675 13 0.512
Current Spring Widths Anticipated Metric Modules 0.558 14.173 14 0.551
Inches mm mm Inches 0.625 15.875 16 0.630
0.788 20.015 20 0.787
2.50 63.5 65 2.559 0.887 22.530 23 0.906
3.00 76.2 75 2.953 0.999 25.375 25 0.984
3.50 88.9 90 3.543 1. 127 28.626 29 1.142
4.00 101.6 100 3.937 1.273 32.334 32 1. 260
5.00 127.0 130 5.118 1.440 36.576 37 1. 457

16
and other SAE publications dealing with the
design of various types of leaf springs. It
is therefore not proposed to duplicate this
material in this paper.
As stated above, the SAE Leaf Spring
Manual is being reviewed by the Spring Com-
mittee and will unquestionably be revised to
incorporate advances in the techniques for
designing springs, as well as bringing the
other sections of the manual up to date.
Chapter IV, Geometry, and Chapter V,
Design Calculations, of this Manual are
particularly pertinent to the design of the
flat-leaf springs. Chapter X, Design Data
for Single Leaf Springs, provides the nec-
essary data for the design of tapered leaf
springs. It is expected that modifications
will be made in Chapters V and X, particul-
arly since tapered leaf springs in heavy
trucks have increased substantially in pop-
ularity since the Leaf Spring Manual was last
revised in April 1970 and published in
October 1970.
One of the items that will be subject
to review by the Spring Committee is the
stiffening factor. The data given in the
current manual are satisfactory for the
first approximation of the stiffening factor,
but it is anticipated that the revised manual
will refine the method used in its determina-
tion.
In fact, most spring engineers have
developed their own approach to the determina-
tion of the stiffening factor and it is sug-
gested that after following the procedure out-
lined in the Leaf Spring Manual, the suspen-
sion engineer work closely with the spring
manufacturer's engineer in finalizing leaf
spring designs.
The SAE Leaf Spring Manual is primarily
limited to providing information on the
design of single stage springs and does not
discuss the specific design of variable rate
or multi-stage springs. References are there-
fore included in the listing at the end of
this paper to provide suitable sources of
information on the design of variable rate
and two-stage springs (11) (12). These
papers have been combined with several other
papers on rubber and pneumatic springs in
SAE Publication SP-376, Truck Spring Funda-
mentals (13).
Materials Normally Used in Leaf Springs -
Table IV, entitled "Materials Normally Used
in Leaf Springs," provides information on
the SAE numbers of the steels used in leaf
springs, depending upon the maximum leaf
thickness. In view of the fact that the
center thickness of the tapered leaves are
usually thicker than 0.323", practically all
tapered leaf springs are made of SAE 5160H
or 51B60H steel.
Some years ago, many heavy-duty truck
springs were manufactured of chrome vana-
dium steels such as SAE 6150. However, at
the present time, such steels are rarely
17
used, due to their relatively high cost and
limited availability.
The normal Brinell hardness range for
heavy-duty leaf springs is 388-444. Yield
strengths range from approximately 165,000
to 220,000 p.s.i. while maximum tensile
strengths normally range from 180,000 to
235,000 p. s. i.
Permissible Stresses - The stress levels
which are considered acceptable in the
design of leaf springs depend upon the extent
of prestressing, the surface finish and
also to a certain extent upon the type of
spring. Generally springs with flat ends
may be stressed to slightly higher limits
than springs with eyes located at one or both
ends.
The bending stresses under normal static
loads which are considered to be representa-
tive of typical spring designs in present day
use are:
1) Not shot or stressed
peened 75,000- 85,000 p.s.i.
2) Shot or stressed
peened 85,000- 95,000 p.s.i.
Maximum stresses in the spring are reached
in the metal to metal "bump" condition.
Springs currently in use normally fall in
the ranges listed below under such conditions:
1) Not shot or stressed
peened 140,000- 150,000 p.s.i.
2) Shot or stressed
peened 160,000- 170,000 p.s.i.
Strength of Spring Eyes - Longitudinal
forces acting on the spring exert a bending
stress in the main leaf adjacent to the spring
eye or in the spring itself. The formula for
calculating this bending stress as given in
the SAE Leaf Spring Manual (10) is as follows:
s = 3F (D + t) (2)
t2 w
where:
S is the stress, p.s.i.
F is the longitudinal load, lbs.
D is the I.D. of the spring eye, inches
t is the thickness of the leaf at the
eye, inches
w is the width of the leaf at the eye,
inches.
Because many leaf springs are used in
Hotchkiss drive suspensions where longitud-
inal forces due to driving and braking are
transferred through the spring eye, the per-
missible stress in the main leaf eye is ·
normally restricted to a range of 50,000 to
55,000 p.s.i.
Table IV - Materials Normally Used in Leaf Springs
Maximum Leaf S.A.E. Number
Thickness, Inches of Steel
0.323 5160
0.625 5160H
1.440 51B60H
Table V - Effect of Change in Spring Pad Length on
Spring Rate
Loaded Percent Decrease in Spring Rate
Spring 4-1/2" Pad Length vs.
Length 5-1/2" Pad Length
50" 3.6%
53" 2.2%
As a result of the relatively low stress
level in the spring eye, it will often be
found necessary to use a thicker main leaf
than would otherwise be required by the normal
bending stresses under static load. Thus, the
calculation of the strength of the spring eye
is a critical item in the design of leaf
springs.
Effective Lengths - Many spring specifi-
cations include a load rate based on the over-
all load length of the spring, but since the
springs are usually clamped at the center, the
effective working length is less than the over-
all length, with the result that the rate of
the spring in the installed condition is inc-
reased. Consideration should be given to both
the unclamped and the clamped conditions in
determining the rates of the spring.
In many cases, particularly on tandem
rear axle suspensions where the clamped length
may be relatively high due to the necessity
of locating the spring clips to clear a trun-
nion tube, the change in rate between the
clamped and unclamped conditions is substantial.
The effective length of a spring may be
determined by deducting from the loaded length
the distance between the inside edges of the
spring clips. For example, if the spring
clips are spaced fore and aft on 4-1/2" cen-
ters and the spring clip diameter is 3/4", the
amount to be deducted from the loaded length
is 4-1/2" minus 3/4" or 3-3/4". Thus, a 52"
loaded length spring under such conditions
would have an effective length of 48-1/4".
Tests which were made to determine the
effect of changing the length of the spring
pad on the spring rate with various length
springs provided the information shown in
Table V, entitled "Effective Change in Spring
Pad Length on Spring Rate."
In the tests, the spring pad length was
decreased from 5 -1/2" to 4-1/2" and comparable
springs 50" and 53" in length were tested with
both pad lengths. The change in spring pad
length decreased the effective spring rate
3.6% for the 50" spring and 2.2% for the 53"
spring which illustrates the importance of
providing minimum clamping length consistent
with the strength requirements of the sus-
pensions.
Rebound Provisions - From the standpoint
of good riding qualities, spring suspensions
require provision for rebound control.
Various methods are employed to dampen out
the vibrations and spring deflections trans-
mitted into the suspension by uneven road sur-
18
faces and bumps. Without proper control, any
unevenness in the road results in·a continued
"bobbing action." With good rebound control,
these vibrations and deflections are dampened
out rather rapidly within a period of two to
three cycles.
The most common method of providing re-
bound control and certainly the lowest cost
is to rely completely upon the inter-leaf
friction provided in the spring design. Un-
fortunately, while such frictional character-
istics provide effective dampening, the fric-
tion also resists the initial deflection and
where inter-leaf friction is high, a relative-
ly poor ride may result.
As a result, this approach is not entirely
satisfactory for use on front springs used on
trucks and tractors intended strictly for on-
highway operation at relatively high speeds.
However, on dump and mixer trucks, where
relatively stiff front springs are required
because of the stability requirements of such
operations, the inter-leaf friction is usually
the preferred method to provide rebound con-
trol since it results in the lowest initial
and operating costs. Since such springs are
usually relatively stiff because of the
stability requirements, the ride is not adver-
sely affected by relying upon inter-leaf fric-
tion for rebound control. In most cases, leaf
spring suspensions used with single and tandem
rear axles rely upon inter-leaf friction for
rebound control.
In the case of tapered leaf springs,
where efforts are made to substantially reduce
inter-leaf friction by providing liners be-
tween the spring leaves so that contact is
made only at the tips of the leaves, the inter-
leaf friction is normally reduced to a level
where adequate rebound control cannot be sup-
plied on either the front or rear suspensions
with tapered leaf springs and, therefore, other
means are required to provide satisfactory
rebound control.
The method normally used to provide re-
bound control when it is not desirable to rely
upon inter-leaf friction or where inter-leaf
friction is reduced to the point where adequate
rebound control is not provided by that means,
is to provide hydraulic double acting shock
absorbers. Such installations add to the
cost of the suspension and also add to the
maintenance and operating costs.
However, particularly on the front springs
of the tractors and of certain trucks operating
entirely on the highway and having a relatively
low center of gravity location in the loaded
condition, the stability requirements are such
that fairly high deflections may be provided
in the front suspensions. In such cases, add-
itional rebound control over and beyond that
provided by inter-leaf friction is required.
The shock absorbers serve to damp out the
vibrations and deflections within a limited
number of cycles and provide superior ride con-
trol in such vehicles. With front axle load-
ings up to approximately 12,000 pounds, front
 REBOUND LEAF
Fig. 15 - Typical front spring with rebound leaf
shock absorbers are often offered as standard
equipment and if not, are available as optional
equipment.
Tapered leaf spring installations on both
the front and rear axles should normally be
equipped with shock absorbers on both the front
and rear axle due to the extremely limited
inter-leaf friction provided.
Other rear axle leaf spring suspension
installations, both of the single axle and of
the tandem axle type, are not normally set up
with shock absorbers as standard equipment,
but occasionally where it is desirable to pro-
vide a further improvement in riding qualities,
the customer will specify the use of such
equipment. In addition, hydraulic shock
absorbers may be offered as optional equipment
on trucks with relatively heavy front axle
loadings (over 12,000 pounds), and on certain
rear suspensions for use with single and tan-
dem axles.
Another approach to provide additional
rebound control is to equip the spring with a
rebound leaf. Fig. 15, entitled "Typical
Front Spring with Rebound Leaf," illustrates
that the rebound leaf, which is mounted above
the main leaf, does not contact the brackets
or shackle. Instead, it normally has less
curvature than the other leaves and may actu-
ally be flat in contour. When the leaves are
bolted together in the spring assembly opera-
tion, assembly stresses are set up in the
various leaves including the rebound leaf.
In extreme rebound, the spring must sup-
port the weight of the axle and other unsprung
components with resulting relatively high
reverse bending stresses, particularly in the
main leaf. Under such conditions, the rebound
leaf helps to protect the main leaf from dis-
tortion between the eye and the nearest align-
ment clip. In addition, the rebound leaf
assists in providing better rebound control
due to the difference in the camber with
which that leaf was formed as compared with
the other leaves in the spring.
The rebound leaf has a further advantage.
Springs subject to high windup loads tend to
have the main leaf distorted and separated
from the shorter leaves of the spring. The
rebound leaf helps to prevent excessive wind-
up stresses in the main leaf. Rebound leaves
are loaded through the alignment clips which
must be properly placed and designed so as
to maintain tip contact between the rebound
leaf and the main leaf.
Rebound leaves are not as effective in
providing improved ride control as shock
absorbers and therefore are not used on
trucks intended for strictly highway-type
operations. Furthermore, due to the high
19
front axle loadings for most dump and mixer
trucks used in on and off highway operations,
the inter-leaf friction provided in the rela-
tively stiff springs is normally adequate to
provide suitable rebound control in such
vehicles. For these reasons, rebound leaves
are used to a limited extent in heavy-duty
truck suspensions.
Shackle Angle Effects - As the shackle
swings and changes its angle, it may lift or
lower the eye of the spring and with it, the
point of load application, thereby providing
the first shackle effect. The second shackle
effect is provided by the fact that when the
shackle is not perpendicular to the datum
line of the spring, the shackle load has a
longitudinal component which either compresses
or stretches the spring between the eyes.
Compressing the spring decreases the
rate of the spring while stretching the spring
increases the spring rate. Most heavy trucks
are equipped with a compression type shackle
at the front suspension.
The effect of the shackle installation
on the rate of deflection is shown in the SAE
Leaf Spring Manual in a series of charts for
various shackle angles and for shackle lengths
expressed in terms of per cent of spring
length. Data are given for variations of
both symmetrical and unsymmetrical springs
with one compression shackle and also with
one tension shackle.
Tests were made to determine the shackle
angle effect on a 50" long by 3" wide front
spring with a rated capa8ity 8f 5,200 Bounds
and shackle angles of 60 , 75 , and 90 . De-
flection readings representing vertical dis-
placement perpendicular to the truck frame
were taken. Table VI, entitled "Effect of
Shackle Angle on Front Spring Deflection,"
shows that a change in the shackle angle can
have a significant effect on the deflection
obtained with a given load and therefore is
an important consideration in the design of
a suspension.·
Installation Effects - Because of the
variation in results obtained with springs
installed in a suspension as compared with
calculated results using an unsupported spring
and caused by the clamping effect at the cen-
ter of the spring and the shackle angle effects,
it is essential to be fully aware of the results
obtained with the spring in its installed con-
dition and to compare these results with the
calculated theoretical deflection and rate.
Otherwise, the results obtained in actual
operation may be significantly different from
Table VI - Effect of Shackle Angle on Front Spring
Deflection-50" x 3" Spring; Load 5200 Lbs.
Shackle Percent Change
Angle In Deflection
60° + 14.1%
75° + 5.4%
goo 0.0%
those which had been anticipated if the various
installation effects had not been thoroughly
considered in the design of the suspension.
FRONT SUSPENSIONS
Leaf spring suspensions are almost
universally used for the front suspension of
heavy trucks. However, there is considerable
variation in the types and dimensions of the
leaf spring designs provided.
Lengths - An analysis of the spring
specifications provided by the various truck
manufacturers indicates that the lengths of
leaf type front springs currently being fur-
nished varies from 45.5" to 60". The 48"
length is quite popular but most springs now
fall within the 52" to 56" length range.
This popularity of this relatively long spring
length range represents a decided change in
spring lengths offered by manufacturers \'lithin
the last 10 year period. Up to that time, there
were relatively few springs used in front sus-
pensions which had a length greater than 50"
and quite a few springs, particularly those
used with the lighter front axle loadings,
fe 11 within a 39" to 41-" 1ength range. Unques-
tionably, the trend towards longer springs has
developed because of the demand for improved
riding qualities and the increased deflection
which can be provided within allowable stresses
when the spring length is increased.
Helper or auxiliary springs mounted above
the main spring and contacting separate pads
or brackets vary in length from a minimum of
27" to a maximum of 41. 5". Deflections in
such helper springs are relatively limited
and therefore maximum length is not critical
in the design of such springs.
Use of Offset or Unsymmetrical Springs -
While most front springs are symmetrical about
the centerline with respect to length, it has
been necessary in numerous cases where a
spring length in excess of 52" is desired on
truck or tractor models equipped with the so-
called "bridge formula" front end which nor-
mally requires that the front axle be located
no more than 28" to 30" in back of the front
bumper to use unsymmetrical front springs.
In such cases, it is necessary to limit the
front section of the spring to a length of
approximately 25" and provide the balance of
the required spring length in the rear sec-
tion. Even some 52" long springs are unsym-
metrical in design with the rear section be-
ing 27" or longer in length.
The unsymmetrical spring is less efficient
than the symmetrical spring and is subject
to greater windup but it does afford an accep-
table compromise when it is not possible to
obtain the length required to achieve the
deflection necessary to provide proper rid-
ing qualities in a symmetrical spring.
All springs with a length in excess of
56" are being used on low cab forward series
trucks and tractors with the front axle set
back well beyond the "bridge formula" dimen-
sion so that there is adequate space avail-
able to install the longer springs.
20
SHACKLE
FIXED EYE
Fig. 16- Front suspension installation; shackle or slipper at front end;
fixed at rear eye
Widths Provided - Four front spring
widths are provided on heavy trucks manufac-
tured in the United States, including 2.50",
3.00", 3.50" and 4.00". The 2.50" width is
restricted to four manufacturers and is used
on medium heavy-duty trucks with a front axle
loading range of 7,000 to 9,000 pounds. This
3.00" spring width is relatively popular and
at one time most heavy trucks were equipped
with this spring width. However, during the
last 10 years, many manufacturers, when in-
creasing the lengths of their springs, changed
to either the 3.50" or the 4.00" width. This
width is used with front axle loadings rang-
ing from 7,000 to as high as 21,000 pounds.
In some cases, with the heavier front axle
loadings, helper or auxiliary springs are
used.
The 3.50" and the 4.00" widths are appro-
ximately of equal popularity due to the fact
that several high volume manufacturers of
Class 8 trucks provide 3.50" width front spr-
ings. However, there appears to be a greater
trend towards the use of 4" front springs,
and it is expected that as some of the manu-
facturers now using 3" wide springs redesign
their front suspensions, there will be a fur-
ther trend towards the 4.00" width. Both
the 3.50" and the 4.00" width front springs
are used for front axle loadings ranging from
approximately 8,500 to 23,000 pounds.
The wider springs provide definite ad-
vantages from the standpoint of eye strength
and the fact that it is possible to use fewer
leaves, thereby assisting in reducing inter-
leaf friction.
Types of Leaf Spring Suspensions
Shackle or Slipper at Front End; Fixed
at Rear Eye - This type of front spring sus-
pension was originally developed when it was
common practice to locate the steering gear
on conventional models to the rear of the
front axle to assure that the steering arm
ball on the axle and the axle itself travel-
ed in concentric arcs about the fixed end of
the spring. While most manufacturers no long-
er use this type of construction, it still
has somewhat limited usage with respect to
being available in a limited number of veh-
icle series. At present, this design is
limited to a maximum front axle loading of
approximately 9,000 pounds and is available
 ~
AEON RUBBER SPRING
0

0
SLIPPER

Fig. 19 - Front suspension installation; a single stage mainspring with aeon

0
'0 0
QJ----~~~~~~~~------j rubber overload or auxiliary springs
0
pension construction with a single stage
FIXED EYE spring, while Fig. 18, entitled "Front Sus-
SHACKLE pension Installation; Fixed at Front End;
Fig. 17 - Front spring installation; fixed at front eye; shackle or slipper Slipper at Rear End Contacting Cam Type
rear end Brackets - Loaded and Light Conditions," shows
I---------VEHICLE LIGHT - - - - - - - - - j
the change in the effective length of the
spring with the double front spring eye con-
LONGER EFFECTIVE LENGTH struction between the light condition when
the spring contacts the outside edges of the
cam shaped rear bracket and the fully loaded
condition when the spring contacts the inside
edge of the bracket.
This basic suspension installation may
also be used with Aeon rubber overload or
helper springs. This type of design utilizes
a single stage main spring in conjunction with
one or two Aeon hollow rubber springs per
frame side. Fig. 19, entitled "Front Sus-
I--------VEHICLE L O A D E D - - - - - - pension Installation; Single Stage Main Spring
with Aeon Rubber Overload or Auxiliary Springs,"
SHORTER EFFECTIVE LENGTH illustrates a typical installation of this
type with two of the rubber springs mounted to
each frame rail and with one located just for-
ward of the axle and the other just to the
rear of the axle. In the installation of
these rubber springs, a nominal amount of
Fig. 18- Front suspension installation; fixed at front eye; slipper at rear clearance (approximately 5/8") is provided
end contacting cam type bracket-loaded and light conditions between the rubber spring and the contact
pad located just above the main spring when
only with single stage springs. This design the vehicle is light.
is illustrated in Fig. 16, entitled "Front The rubber springs can be used as an
Suspension Installation; Shackle or Slipper overload spring or with normal loading to
at Front End; Fixed at Rear Eye." prevent excessive "bumping through" under
Fixed at Front Eye; Shackle or Slipper severe operating conditions such as on
at Rear End - This type of front suspension extremely rough roads or off highway terrain.
is by far the most popular design. Steering Installations of this type have been success-
gears have been relocated forward of the front fully used on the Alaskan Highway where wea-
axle or "transfer lever" steering has been pro- ther conditions often result in relatively
vided so that by means of an auxiliary lever, poor road conditions.
the steering arm ball on the axle pivots about Shackle or Slipper at Both Ends; Radius
a point forward of the axle and therefore des- Rod Installation - This construction is some-
cribes an arc that is relatively concentric what similar to the previous design which pro-
~ith the arc described by the front axle piv- vided a spring fixed at the front eye and a
oting about the fixed eye of the front spring. shackle or slipper at the rear end, except
Installations of this basic design in that the spring is not tied directly to the
common use include front springs of single frame in this construction, but instead a
stage, two stage progressive, and two stage radius rod is provided to transfer the driv-
variable rate springs with the single stage ing and braking forces from the ground to
spring being the most popular type of spring the frame.
used with this suspension design. There is Springs used in·this construction usua-
also some limited usage of a main and helper lly have slipper contacts at both ends of
spring combination with this type of suspen- the spring, but if preferred, a shackle can
sion installation. be furnished at.each end. The spring must
Fig. 17, entitled "Front Suspension be free to move a limited amount in a longi-
Installation; Fixed at Front Eye; Shackle or tudinal direction due to the fact that the
Slipper at Rear End," illustrates this sus- suspension pivots about the forward pin used

21
to connect the radius rod to the frame. The
radius rod takes the load off of the front
spring eye and provides an effective means
of transmitting driving and braking forces.
This type of suspension installation is
used primarily in extra heavy-duty applica-
tions and is usually available only for use
with front axle loadings of 16,000 pounds
and greater and for combination highway and
off-road service. It is often used when
the vehicle is equipped with a heavy front
driving axle and where the increased driving
forces must be transmitted to the frame.
The main objections to this type of
installation are the added cost and weight.
It must, therefore be considered as a premium
type suspension for use under severe operat-
ing conditions and with heavy front axle
loadings.
This basic type of suspension is fur-
nished \'lith single stage and two stage pro-
gressive springs and with the main and
helper spring combination. It is also suit-
able for use with the Aeon rubber overload
or helper springs. Fig. 20, entitled "Front
Suspension Installation; Shackle or Slipper
at Both Ends with Radius Rods," illustrates
this basic suspension design set up with
single stage springs.
Miscellaneous Suspension Components -
While the leaf springs are the most import-
ant component used in suspensions of this
type, care must be exercised to assure that
other components used in conjunction with
leaf springs are of adequate design and
capacity to assure the continuing reliability
and durability of the entire suspension
system.
1. Spring Pins - Two types of spring
pins are normally used in heavy trucks.
The plain spring pin is most often used as
it is simple to manufacture and service and
provides satisfactory life, if of adequate
diameter and regularly lubricated. Side
thrust is taken on the finished faces of
the spring eyes.
The threaded spring pin is provided at
the fixed end of the spring on some vehicles
and a few manufacturers also furnish threaded
pins at the shackle ends of the spring. This
type of pin provides a larger bearing surface
and excludes dirt better than does a plain
pin. It also retains lubricant to a some-
what greater degree, requiring less frequent
lubrication and providing greater tolerance
when lubricated at extended intervals.
Considerable development work is being
done on spring pins and bushings which require
no lubrication or which require lubrication
only at extremely extended intervals. The
results up to the present time have not been
entirely satisfactory due to the environment
under which spring pins operate and the diffi-
culty of providing adequate sealing.
Spring pin diameters furnished in heavy
trucks of the type under consideration usual-
ly range from 3/4" to 1 1/4" for the front
22
Fig. 20 • Front suspension installation; shackle or slipper at both ends with
radius rod
eye of the spring. Spring pins are normally
made of carbon or alloy steel, carburized
and hardened.
2. Shackles - Shackles on heavy trucks
are usually of the double bolted type with
two large diameter spring pins, often identi-
cal in dimensions, being used to attach the
shackle to the frame bracket and to the
spring. The shackle itself must be designed
to provide the proper spring geometry with
length being an important consideration.
The shackle length normally varies from 5
to 10% of the spring length with shackle
lengths of 4" to 5" being common.
3. Spring Clips or U-Bolts - Spring
clips are usually used to clamp the spring
to the spring seat. Other means are provided
on some of the tandem axle suspensions but
practically all front and single axle rear
suspensions, as well as most tandem axle leaf
spring suspensions, utilize spring clips for
this purpose.
The importance of proper spring clip
design and adequate size cannot be over-
emphasized. Breakage of the spring leaves
near or through the center bolt section usu-
ally is an indication that the spring clips
have been loose. Such breakage is probably
the most common type of spring leaf failure;
it is therefore essential that in the design
of a suspension, special efforts be made to
assure that the spring clips retain the pro-
per torque and tightness.
Spring clip diameters on front suspen-
sions vary from approximately 9/16" to 1-1/8"
with the two most common diameters being 3/4"
and 7/8". Materials vary from the equivalent
of the grade 8 bolt to heat treated alloy
steel with the latter predominating in sus-
pensions used for the heavier front axle
loadings.
4. Spring Seats, Spacer and Clip Plates-
Springs are normally clamped at the center
section between a spring clip plate and a
spring seat. There are two important con-
siderations which may be overlooked in the
design of the clamping system. First, it is
essential that the spring seats and clip
plates have the proper finish so that the clip
plates follow the flat contour of the spring
at its center section. Any appreciable varia-
tion in the smoothness of the clip plate or
the seat will tend to create a looseness in
the clamping effect and will eventually re-
sult in failure of the leaf near the center-
bolt. It is also desirable to provide round-
ed edges at the front and rear of the spring
seat and clip plate to avoid sharp edges in
contact with the spring leaf.
The second consideration with respect
to the design of spring seats and clip plates
is that they be of a material that does not
crush under the torque required to maintain
adequate tightness of the spring clips. Cer-
tain types of aluminum used to reduce the
weight of the clamping parts tend to compress
or crush when the proper spring clip torque
is applied. Under such conditions, there will
be a continual tendency for the spring clips
to loosen up, resulting in premature failure
of the spring leaves. It is therefore impor-
tant to carefully select the proper materials
for clip plates and spring seats to avoid
crushing these parts even when the spring
clips are tightened beyond the recomnended
torque to a certain extent.
5. Bumpers - In the case of the front
suspension, a rubber or equivalent bumper
is usually mounted in the upper surface of
the spring clip plate and contacts the bottom
flange of the frame in the "bump" position.
This rubber bumper is intended to prevent
transmittal of shock loads between the frame
and the spring under severe impact loading.
One of the important considerations in
the design of a spring suspension is the
clearance between the spring clip plate or
bumper and the frame provided under normal,
static loading. The SAE Leaf Spring Manual
indicates that the normal ride clearance sug-
gested for trucks at rated load should be
3-5" for highway operation and 2-5" for off-
the-road operation. It is desirable for
this ride clearance to equal the static de-
flection but in practice, due to the neces-
sity of maintaining specific frame heights,
it is extremely difficult to provide this
much clearance. For highway trucks, the
ride clearance when a rubber or equivalent
bumper is provided varies from 2-1/2" to
3-1/2". In the case of heavy front axle
suspensions, with relatively stiff springs,
the ride clearance usually ranges from 2"
to 3".
6. Caster Seat - It is important that
the proper caster angle be supplied in the
front suspension. If a front suspension is
being designed for a limited range of front
axle loadings and for use only with manual
or with power steering, the suspension may
be designed so that the proper caster angle
is provided without a caster seat or shim.
However, in practice, most designs incorpor-
23
ate a caster seat or shim mounted between
the spring and the front axle or where it
is necessary to provide a spacer between the
lower part of the spring and the front axle,
the caster seat is usually mounted below
that spacer.
Some manufacturers make a practice of
increasing the caster angle when power
steering is furnished as compared with the
caster angle provided with manual steering.
In addition, some variation in the caster
angles between two axle and three axle trucks
may be provided. These variations are in-
tended to provide the proper degree of rec-
overy in the steering system. For example,
in a three axle truck, there is a much
greater tendency to continue in a straight
ahead position than in a two axle truck
and therefore less recovery can be built
into the suspension.
Spring Capacities, Rates and Deflection-
In the selection of the proper spring capac-
ities, rates and deflection, consideration
must be given to the type of service in
which the vehicle will be used and the
relative importance of stability and riding
qualities. For example, a mixer truck must
have springs intended to provide maximum
stability and resistance to side sway and in
most cases, the riding qualities must at
least be partially sacrificed to provide
that stability.
On the other hand, a highway tractor
normally must be provided with front springs
that will provide good riding qualities,
since adequate stability for such operations
can normally be provided with reasonably
high front spring deflection.
An analysis has been made of the infor-
mation provided by the various truck manu-
facturers on the single stage springs used
in front suspensions to ascertain the range
of spring rates provided. The approximate
range of static front spring deflection was
then determined by dividing the spring loads
by the range of the spring rates used for
specific front axle loadings.
Table VII, entitled "Front Spring
Capacities, Rates and Deflections - Highway
Service," provide these data for a range of
front axle loadings of 7,000 to 12,000 pounds
for trucks and tractors used primarily on
the highway. The approximate spring capacity
at the pad has been calculated by deducting
a representative amount of unsprung weight
from the front axle loadings. The actual
unsprung weight varies to a certain extent
with the particular vehicle under considera-
tion, but it is believed that the amount
deducted as unsprung weight represents a
reasonably good average for heavy trucks
of the type under consideration.
The range of spring rates was determined
by an analysis of the data furnished by the
truck manufacturers for springs in the approx-
imate capacity range normally used for the
front axle loadings indicated. An effort
 Table VII - Front Spring Capacities, Rates & Deflections-Highway
Service
Approximate Spring
Front Axle Capacity at
Loading, Lbs. Pad, Lbs.
7,000 3,050
8,000 3,500
9,000 3,950
10,000 4.400
11 ,000 4,850
12,000 5.300
was then made to include within the range
of spring rates most of the springs included
in the capacity group assigned to a specific
front axle loading. A few springs had rates
which differed significantly from the normal
rate range. Such springs appear to repre-
sent special purpose cases and therefore
were excluded.
Most of the front springs normally used
in heavy trucks in highway service result
in a deflection range of approximately 3.5"
to 5.0". In such operations, the same
approximate range of static deflections
should be anticipated, regardless of front
axle loading, but there appears to be a
modest reduction in the spring deflection pro-
vided as front axle loadings increase. This
fact possibly can be accounted for by the
desire to provide equivalent stability under
load. As spring loads increase, center of
gravity locations may be expected to increase
and a correspondingly higher rate in relation
to spring capacity would provide equivalent
stability with the higher C.G. locations.
In Table VII, front axle loading was
limited to a maximum of 12,000 pounds.
There are relatively few highway type trucks
and tractors that exceed this front axle
loading. However, in dealing with front spri-
ngs normally used in on and off-highway ser-
vice springs specifically intended for such
service are provided in the front axle load-
ings of 12,000 pounds and up. Furthermore,
on axle capacities above 12,000 pounds, the
springs appear to be designed for use in on
and off-highway service as the rates increase
rather substantially in relation to rated
capacity at the spring pad.
Table VIII, entitled "Front Spring
Capacities, Rates and Deflection - On and
Off-Highway Service," provide data for springs
intended for use in on and off-highway
service comparable to those provided in
Table VII for front springs intended for
use in highway service. The maximum deflec-
tions for on and off-highway service just
about equal the minimum deflections provided
by front springs intended for highway service.
The front springs intended for on and
off highway service provide static deflect-
ions which range from approximately 2.75"
to 3.5" with the average deflection approxi-
mating 3". As in the case of Table VII, the
24
Range of Approximate Range
Spring Rates, of Static
Lbs./ln. Deflection, In.
600-900 3.4-5.1
700-1000 3.5-5.0
850-1200 3.3-4.7
950-1300 3.4-4.6
1050-1400 3.5-4.6
1100-1600 3.3-4.8
range of spring rates shown in Table VIII
excludes some springs with lower rates and
some springs with higher rates than the
range shown for use with a particular axle
capacity due to the fact that these springs
appear to be intended for special purpose
usage. For example, one spring which had a
slightly higher capacity than the 8,900
pound spring pad capacity sho\'m for the
20,000 pound front axle loading had a rate
of 4,300 pounds per inch.
The data given in Tables VII and VIII
apply to single stage springs only. Where
a manufacturer furnishes two stage springs,
the rate for the first stage generally is
slightly below or just about equal to the
lower spring rate 1n each range, The com-
bined rate of the first and second stages
then equals or slightly exceeds the maximum
rate shown in the table for the given axle
loading. For example, a spring of the two-
stage type suitable for 10,000 pound front
axle loading has a rate of 790 pounds per
inch for the first stage, with a combined
rate for both stages of 1315 pounds per inch.
Another manufacturer furnishing a spring
suitable for a front axle loading of 11,000
pounds provides a first stage rate of 1040
pounds per inch and a combined first and sec-
ond stage rate of 1450 pounds per inch.
When two-stage springs are furnished
for combination on and off highway service,
there appears to be a tendency to provide a
spring which provides greater stability.
One manufacturer who offers both a single
and a two stage spring suitable for approxi-
mately 16,000 pounds front axle loading pro-
vides a rate of 2290 pounds per inch in the
single stage spring and in the two stage
springs, provides a first stage rate of
1950 pounds per inch and a combined first
and second stage rate of 3500 pounds.
The two-stage spring provided by an-
other manufacturer for 18,000 pound front
axle loading has a first stage rate of 2850
pounds per inch and a combined first and
second stage rate of 3450 pounds per inch.
Thus, the two-stage springs normally offered
for on and off highway service apparently
provide greater stability due to the fact
that the first-stage rate often exceeds the
minimum rates provided in single stage
springs and the combined first and second
 Table VIII - Front Spring Capacities, Rates & Deflections-On &
Off-Highway Service
Approximate Spring
Front Axle Capacity at
Loading_, Lbs. Pad, Lbs.
12,000 5,300
14,000 6,200
16,000 7' 100
18,000 8,000
20,000 8,900
stage rates substantially exceed the maximum
rates for single stage springs.
Effect of Safetl Standard Number 121, Air
Brake Systems, 3) on Front Suspensions
Increased Weight Transfer and Brake
Torgue- Safety Standard Number 121, Air
Brake Systems, effective March 1, 1975, which
established relatively short stopping dis-
tances for trucks from speeds of 20 to 60
miles per hour under various conditions, re-
sulted in the necessity of providing front
wheel brakes with brake torque outputs sub-
stantially in excess of those provided by the
front wheel brakes previously furnished. In
addition, the shorter stopping distances re-
sulted in a substantial increase in weight
transfer to the front axle under conditions
of maximum brake retardation.
Because of these requirements, it was
necessary to redesign front axles to with-
stand the greater weight transfer and the
substantially greater brake torque. It was
also necessary to review the design of the
front suspension systems to make certain
that they were adequate to maintain satis-
factory durability and reliability under
the revised conditions.
The changes required in front suspen-
sion systems vary considerably depending
upon the previous design of the front suspen-
sion and the extent of the increased weight
transfer and brake torque required to con-
form to Safety Standard Number 121.
A number of manufacturers found that it
was not necessary for them to make any
changes in their suspensions, but most manu-
facturers found that some changes were re-
quired, depending upon the type of vehicle
and the front axle capacity range. In gen-
eral, more changes in the front suspensions
were required on vehicles using the lighter
capacity front axles since such vehicles are
normally more price competitive and overde-
sign of components would have resulted in a
cost penalty.
Changes in Springs - In the case of
springs intended for use with 7,000 and
9,000 pound capacity axles, rates were in-
creased by some manufacturers. For example,
one manufacturer was furnishing a spring
which had a rate of approximately 700 pounds
per inch for use with a 7,000 pound front
axle loading. The rate was increased to
25
Range of Approximate Range
Spring Rates, of Static
Lbs. /In. Deflection, In.
1500-1850 2. 9-3.5
1650-2100 2. 9-3.7
1850-2400 2.8-3.8
2200-3000 2.7-3.6
2600-3350 2.7-3.4
approximately 900 pounds per inch of deflec-
tion when air brakes in accordance with
Standard Number 121 are furnished.
Several other manufacturers found it nec-
essary to increase the rates of the springs
used on their low cab forward trucks due to
the exceptionally high weight transfer which
results on such vehicles when Standard Num-
ber 121 brakes are supplied due to the rel-
atively short wheelbases and the setback
front axle construction furnished.
In most cases, for the heavier front
axle loadings, it was not necessary to in-
crease the spring rates, particularly on the
high mount cab over engine and conventional
models. Consideration was given to provid-
ing increased spring rates on such trucks,
but it was determined that the riding
qualities would be impaired to a certain
extent and therefore where the change in
spring rates was not essential, other changes
were made to avoid increasing spring rates.
In addition to certain changes in
spring rates, several manufacturers, on
particular series, changed their suspension
design to incorporate a Berlin eye at the
front of the spring instead of the upturned
eye previously used.
Changes in Brackets and Attachments -
A number of manufacturers made changes in
the design and material of their front spring
brackets and provided either larger diameter
or improved quality fasteners.
Changes in Spring Clips or U-Bolts -
Several manufacturers found it desirable to
increase the diameter of their spring clips
or U-bolts, particularly in the front sus-
pensions intended for use in the 7,000 to
9,000 pound axle capacity range.
Addition of Anti-Windup Bracket - The
increased brake torque resulted in a sub-
stantial increase in spring windup, resulting
in excessively high stresses in the spring
when in the maximum windup position if no
changes were made that would restrict the
windup. Several approaches to reducing this
windup were considered and in most cases
manufacturers elected to provide an anti-
windup bracket located on the lower flange
of the frame, somewhat to the rear of the
centerline of the spring.
Fig. 21, entitled "Typical Front Spring
Anti-Windup Bracket Installation", illus-

Fig. 21 -Typical front spring anti-windup bracket installation
trates one means of reducing the windup of the
spring under maximum brake application con-
ditions. In this installation, the center-
line of the anti-windup bracket is located
10 inches to the rear of the center line of
the spring and the lower face of the bracket
is located 2.75" below the lower frame
flange, effectively reducing the windup of
the spring to the point where the maximum
stress in the spring under full brake appli-
cation is acceptable.
Miscellaneous Other Changes - It was in
some cases necessary to make. some revisions
in the extent of shock absorber dampening
provided. Where slipper-type ends were
provided at the rear of the front spring,
one manufacturer made a change in the re-
bound bolt.
Other Types of Front Suspensions
The previous discussion has reviewed in
some detail the types of leaf spring front
suspensions now being furnished in heavy
trucks. There are no other types of sus"
pensions furnished in heavy trucks in appre-
ciable production quantities and therefore
emphasis has been placed on leaf spring
suspensions for front axles. However, there
are several air suspensions for use with
front axles in an experimental or pre-produc-
tion stage and therefore, it would be of
interest to briefly review these suspen-
sions.
There are no fully independent front
suspensions without a front axle of more or
less conventional design offered in heavy
trucks at the present time. One of the
major areas of concern with respect to in-
dependent suspensions in heavy trucks is
the fact that maintaining the front end in
proper alignment without using a front axle
is extremely difficult. Furthermore, the
front end structure of the frame assembly
must be built up substantially to withstand
the loading imposed by an independent sus-
pension. The experimental or pre-production
designs discussed below incorporate conven-
tional front axles but eliminate the leaf
spring construction and substitute air
springs.
1. R der Tractor Front Sus ension-
The Ryder tractor 14 incorporates a front
suspension of the air spring type, using
trailing arm members which restrain the axle
and allow no windup during brake applica-
tions. The trailing arm is connected to
the rigidly mounted axle plate through a
26
cylindrical rubber bushing. The front axle
beam is used as a roll stabilizer. Fig. 22,
entitled "Ryder Truck Front Suspension",
illustrates this basic design.
Since it is the intent to operate the
tractor with 18,000 pounds on the front axle
and 18,000 pounds on the single rear axle,
the front tires are 18-22.5 wide base single
tires. A conventional I-beam type front
axle is used in this design. Substantially
improved riding qualities are claimed and
by providing an air suspension on both the
front and rear axles, the same frame height
loaded and unloaded is achieved.
2. Ridewell Air Front Suspension -
Ridewell has developed an air suspension
for the front of vehicles and installed
several of these units in vehicles on an
experimental basis. Most of the units in-
stalled to date have been in use in bus
operation, but the suspension is also suita-
ble for use in heavy trucks with a maximum
front axle loading of 20,000 pounds.
Fig. 23, entitled "Ridewell Air Front
Suspension" illustrates the basic design of
this suspension. Two air springs are pro-
vided on each side of the vehicle with the
axle attached by means of rigidly mounted
support plates to the rear air spring. The
forward end of this support assembly is
attached to a frame mounted bracket by means
of parallel torque rods providing a parallel-
ogram arrangement to maintain proper steer-
ing geometry. Front shock absorbers are
provided to control rebound.
The lower support for the front air bag
is also attached to the support assembly to
which the front axle is attached so that the
entire lower part of the suspension operates
Fig. 22 - Ryder truck front suspension installation
Fig. 23 - Ridewell air front suspension
through the parallel torque rods. Conven-
tional front axles up to 20,000 pound capac-
ity are used with this suspension with the
brackets bolted to the front axle by means
of the conventional spring pad arrangement.
The dimension from the forward part of the
suspension to the center line of the front
axle is 26-3/4", permitting the use of the
"bridge formula" front axle position.
SINGLE REAR AXLE SUSPENSIONS
As in the case of front suspensions,
most single rear axle suspensions used at
the present time in heavy trucks are of the
leaf spring type. A wide variety of such
suspensions are used with single rear axles.
The following material will briefly discuss
those leaf spring suspensions for use with Fig. 25 - Single rear axle suspension installation; variable rate with slipper
single rear axles that are currently being ends contacting cam type brackets
used in reasonable volume.
Types of Leaf Spring Suspensions or from 18,000 to 36,000 pounds.
Fixed at Front Eye; Shackle or Slipper Variable Rate; Slipper Ends Contacting
at Rear End - This type of design provides a Cam Type Brackets - The variable rate spring
fixed eye at the front of the spring and a construction is probably the most popular
shackle or slipper construction at the rear type of single rear axle leaf spring suspen-
end of the spring. This construction is one sion in use at the present time. Since the
of the two most common types used in heavy slipper ends are furnished on both ends of the
trucks and is used in conjunction with single spring, it is necessary to provide a radius
stage and two-stage progressive springs, as rod between the frame and the rear axle. The
well as with combined main and helper springs. most popular type of radius rod construction
Fig. 24, entitled "Single Rear Axle provided is of the spring leaf type and usual-
Suspension Installations; Fixed at Front Eye; ly consists of two or three spring leaves
Shackle or Slipper at Rear End", illustrates with one leaf having an eye at the end, usually
a typical suspension of this type. Both the of the Berlin type, to transmit the driving
shackle and the slipper rear end construc- and braking forces between the axle and the
tion have been shown. In some instances, the frame. In some cases, a bar type radius rod,
main spring is used without an auxiliary or which may be forged, cast or fabricated, is
llelper spring. Such usa(le is some\'lhat 1imi ted provided in lieu of the leaf spring radius
due to the fact that since the spring is not rod construction.
of the variable rate type, it provides a Bearing in mind that the main spring used
constant rate. in this type of suspension is a variable spring
Two-stage progressive springs are also by virtue of the change in the effective length
used to a somewhat limited extent, with the as the load increases, these suspensions may
single stage main spring, combined with a incorporate a main spring only, a progressive
leaf type auxiliary or helper spring being type spring incorporating a second stage be-
the most common construction provided. In low the main spring section, or the main spring
some instances, the helper spring consists of may be used with helper springs.
a single tapered leaf. Tapered leaf main Both the main spring only and the main
springs also are used with this basic suspen- spring with auxiliary or helper springs are
sion design. extremely popular. The two-stage progressive
This suspension design is offered in the design also has been used in fairly high vol-
full range of capacities for use in heavy ume, particularly on the lighter heavy-duty
trucks of the type considered in this paper, trucks.
The Dayton Truckmaster single rear axle
suspension is of the variable rate type using
~~ a bar type radius rod installation with one
~R side adjustable and the other fixed. An
upper torque rod between an axle housing
bracket and a crossmember is provided to
assist in maintaining drive pinion angles
and to minimize the spring windup under
severe braking conditions. The design of
this suspension is such that the spacing of
the spring brackets can be varied so that
spring lengths as short as 36.25" can be used
or if desired, the spacing can be increased
Fig. 24- Single rear axle suspension installation; fixed at front eye; shackle to permit of providing spring load centers
or slipper rear end up to 44.50".

27
 This basic type of single rear axle
suspension can be provided in a wide range
of capacities ranging from 18,000 to 36,000
pounds. Other capacities beyond the scope
of this paper, are also provided.
Fig. 25, entitled "Single Rear Axle
Suspension Installation; Variable Rate with
Slipper Ends Contacting Cam Type Brackets",
illustrates the basic variable rate spring
suspension with the spring leaf type radius
rod. A separate view shows the bar type
radius rod construction and also shows the
type of upper torque rods used in the Dayton
single rear axle suspension. The auxiliary
or helper spring installation is similar to
that illustrated in Fig. 24.
Shackle or Slipper at Both Ends; Radius
Rod Installation - This type of suspension
is normally used in trucks intended for the
more severe operations and with rear axle
loadings in excess of 25,000 pounds. Springs
are usually relatively stiff to provide
greater resistance to side sway. Fig. 26,
entitled, "Suspension Installation; Shackle
or Slipper at Both Ends with Leaf Type
Helper Springs and Radius Rods", illustrates
this basic type of suspension.
Lengths - The general range of spring
lengths provided in suspensions using a
spring fixed at the front end and with a
shackle or slipper at the rear ranges from
approximately 50" to 56" between load centers.
Most variable rate springs provide for
an effective length of 46" between load
centers under the loaded condition and an
effective length of 58" to 60" when in an un-
loaded condition. However, as pointed out
previously, load centers on some of the var-
iable rate spring suspensions can be as low
as 38.25" under the loaded condition and
approximately 42" to 43" in the unladen
condition. Springs used with radius rods
usually fall in the 50" to 56" load center
length range.
Widths Provided - Most single rear axle
suspensions use springs either 3" or 4" in
width, but there are a limited number of
heavy trucks which use rear springs 3-1/2"
in width. The wider springs reduce the pos-
sibility of providing clearance for the
installation of dual skid chains, particularly
when tire section sizes larger than 10.00
are i nsta 11 ed.
Miscellaneous Suspension Components -
The comments made under the subject of
"Front Suspensions" with respect to miscel-
laneous suspension components generally apply
to the same basic components used in the sus-
pensions for single rear axle installations.
One of the significant differences is that
the rear springs normally used in rear sus-
pensions are outboard mounted whereas in the
case of front suspensions, springs are nor-
mally mounted under the frame rails and
therefore, overhanging type brackets are
normally provided for the single rear axle
spring suspensions.
28
Fig. 26 - Single rear axle suspension installation; shackle or slipper at
both ends with leaf type helper springs and radius rods
Loadings for most single rear axle sus-
pensions are similar to the heavier loadings
provided on front axles, although in some of
the higher gross vehicle weight trucks, the
rear axle loading may be as high as 36,000
pounds and the components must be sized to
suit these heavier loadings.
In the case of the variable rate springs,
the proper shape of the cam type brackets is
critical and must be developed so as to pro-
vide for the progressive increase in the rate
of the spring as the load increases.
One of the more important considerations
in the design of the components forming a
part of a single rear axle suspension is to
provide for the proper driveline angles.
This angular relationship is provided by
installing spring seats designed so that the
rear axle is mounted in a position which
provides the proper drive pinion angle.
Bumpers for rear springs are not usually
required as the clearance between the rear
axle and the frame serves to provide maximum
spring deflection under metal-to-metal condi-
tions that is within acceptable limits.
When necessary, a bumper block may be pro-
vided below the lower frame flange to limit
maximum deflection. In some instances,
where it is desired to limit spring travel,
an angle type bracket is attached to the
web of the frame rail and contacts the upper
spring clip plate when the maximum accept-
able travel has been reached. Where bumper
or axle stops are required on rear suspen-
sions, it is essential that they be properly
located so that they do not allow for clear-
ance or articulation in excess of that for
which the suspension is designed.
Spring Capacities, Rates and Deflection
- Because of the wide range of single rear
axle capacities and the wide variation in
the applications for which leaf spring sus-
pensions are provided, the springs are
usually selected to provide for the proper
deflection and stiffness for the individual
operation. As a result, a wide range of
spring capacities and rates are available
and in many cases, particularly where the

--~
I
I
Fig. 2 7 - Ken worth single air ride suspension
truck is intended for use in the most
severe operations, such as dump or mixer
service, or where high center of gravity
loads are to be hauled, the spring capaci-
ties and rates are usually increased beyond
the nominal rated spring capacity equival-
ent to the rear axle capacity.
It is difficult to give a limited range
of deflections and spring rates as being
suitable for use in single rear axle suspen-
sions because of the variety of springs pro-
vided. As a general rule, rear spring sus-
pensions used in highway operations nor-
mally provide a range of deflections of 3"
to 5", depending upon the type of spring
and whether or not auxiliary springs
are provided. A variable rate spring nor-
mally provides for greater axle movement
or deflection due to the fact that the
rate increases with the load, while a single
stage fixed rate spring used without an
auxiliary spring must have somewhat reduced
deflection to provide suitable stability
under load.
The heavier suspensions used in on and
off road service use extremely stiff springs
and in such cases, the total deflection does
not normally exceed 2" to 2-1/2" because of
the high center of gravity locations normally
anticipated with the extremely heavy rear
axle loading. In aqdition, maximumstability
and resistance to rollover are prime
considerations.
Air Suspensions
8as1c Advantages - Air ride suspensions
provide the following basic advantages:
1. A lower natural frequency providing
a softer ride;
2. An essentially constant frequency
is provided with the same effective static
deflection under all conditions of loading;
3. Relatively constant frame height
under all conditions of loading;
4. The rate curves of air springs can
be tailored to suit specific requirements;
5. Effectively isolates vibrations;
6. Provides greater protection for
cargo and vehicle against shock and impact
loads.
Basic Disadvantages
1. Premium Cost - The increased retail
price including Federal excise tax varies
with the type of suspension included in a
particular vehicle as standard equipment.
As a result, there is a relatively wide range
29
of increased costs for providing air sus-
pensions in different types of heavy trucks.
The increased retail price for furnish-
ing a single rear axle air suspension ranges
from approximately $350 to $1075 with $635
representing the average. Simi 1arly, in
the case of air suspensions for use with
tandem rear axles, the increased retail price
including Federal excise tax ranges from
approximately $400 to $1700 with $1125 rep-
resenting the average.
2. Potential for Higher Maintenance
Costs - Since it is necessary to provide
control valves and additional air lines as
well as other additional parts when an air
suspension is supplied as compared with a
typical leaf-spring suspension, there is a
potential for higher maintenance costs. This
factor may be offset by the greater protec-
tion provided for the vehicle and its com-
ponents against shock and impact loads.
3. Shock Absorbers Mandatory - Shock
absorbers are mandatory equipment to provide
rebound control, adding both cost and weight
to the air suspension installation.
4. Additional Structure and Linkage
Required -The air springs have no stability :I·
l
by themselves and, therefore, it is neces-
sary to provide additional structure and
linkage as compared with a typical spring
suspension in which the leaf spring not only
serves as the cushioning medium, but also
provides part of the structure required
to maintian the stability of the suspension.
While the advantages of air suspensions
are substantial from the standpoint of a
softer ride, a constant frame height, and
improved cargo and vehicle protection, the
premium cost of the air suspension has lim-
ited its use to those operations where the
cost can be justified in economic terms.
As a result, air suspensions are not being
as widely used as had been anticipated a
number of years ago. Unquestionably, the
high premium cost involved has held back
the wider acceptance of air suspensions.
There are a wide variety of air sus-
pensions available for use with single rear
axles. Quite a few variations are offered
by a number of the air suspension manufac-
turers and because of this variety, it is
not possible within the scope of this paper
to cover all of these suspensions in detail.
In many cases, the variations deal with the
height of the frame above the centerline of
the axle, the location of the shock absor-
bers and the attaching means for the drive
axle. The following material is intended
to provide information on a number of air
suspensions which are being used in heavy
trucks equipped with a single rear driving
axle.
1. Kenworth - The Kenworth Air Ride
single rear axle suspension uses two beams
and two air springs to support and cushion
the load. Fig. 27, entitled "Kenworth
Single Air Ride Suspension," illustrates
.. ------------------------ --------~----------------------------------------------------------------------

The suspension utilizes straight spring

Fig. 28 - Neway single rear axle air ride suspension
the basic design which shows that the beam
pivots about a frame mounted bracket at the
forward end and is attached to brackets
mounted below the axle housing by means of a
pin-type support. The air springs are loca-
ted to the rear of the axle as are the
double acting shock absorbers. Internal
rubber bumper blocks are provided in the
air springs. Two leveling valves are pro-
vided to assure that the frame is held at
a relatively constant level regardless of
load. The capacity range of the basic sus-
pension is 18,000 to 24,000 pounds at the
ground.
2. Neway - The Neway air suspension
for single drive axles is offered in a num-
ber of varieties providing varying dimens-
ions from the centerline of the axle to the
lower frame flange and with varying shock
jbsorber locations. However, the basic
design is quite similar to the Kenworth
single axle air ride in that the suspension
is of the trailing arm type with the rear
axle attached to the arms by means of pin
connections to brackets mounted below the
axle. The front of the trailing arm is
pivoted about a frame mounted bracket with
the air springs located to the rear of the
axle. The shock absorbers are located
either forward or to the rear of the drive
axle. The basic capacity of the suspension
is 22,500 pounds.
Fig. 28, entitled "Neway Single Rear
Axle Air Ride Suspension," illustrates the
basic design of the suspension, including the
upper torque rod and the forward mounting of
the shock absorbers. The unique shape of
the beam is intended to provide increased
leaves of the cantilever type pivoted about
a frame bracket mounted forward of the axle
and which are attached to the axle by
means of spring clips and plates. A
heavy bracket is mounted between the spring
and the axle and extends downward toward
the rear to serve as the lower support for
the air springs, which are mounted below
the frame rails. The shock absorbers are
located betweeen the axle housing and the
air springs fore and aft and longitudinally
between the frame rails.
The Peterbilt Air Trac suspension is
similar to the Peterbilt Air Leaf suspension
except that both longitudinal and trans-
verse tracking rods are furnished. This
suspension is intended for use in more
severe operations than the Peterbilt Air
Leaf suspension which is intended for high-
way operations only. The Air Trac suspen-
sion may be used for both on and off-high-
way hauling. This suspension also has a
nominal rating of 20,000 pounds on the
tires at the ground.
Fig. 30, entitled "Peterbilt Single
Rear Axle Air Trac Suspension," illustrates
the basic design of this single rear axle
suspension, including the lower tracking
bar with the cantilever spring which has
a slipper end at the front end, mounted
above the longitudinally tracking bar.
Fig. 29 - Peterbilt single rear axle air leaf suspension
CROSS TORQUE ROD INSTALLATION

clearance for spring type parking brake

chambers.
3. Peterbilt - Peterbilt offers two
types of air suspensions designated as the
Peterbilt Air Leaf suspension and the
Peterbilt Air Trac suspension. The Peterbilt
Air Leaf suspension is used with single axles
having a maximum rating of 23,000 pounds at
the ground, but the suspension has a nom-
inal rating of 20,000 pounds capacity.
Fig. 29, entitled "Peterbilt Single Rear
Axle Air Leaf Suspension," illustrates the
Fig. 30 - Peterbilt single rear axle air trac suspension
basic design of this suspension.

30
 4. Ridewell - Ridewell furnishes a
variety of air suspensions, one a trailing
arm type somewhat similar in basic design
to the Neway and the second a parallelogram
type of arrangement which is intended for
use as the rear suspension when the Ride-
well air suspension for the front axle
previously mentioned is used.
Fig. 31, entitled "Ridewell Trailing
Arm Type Single Rear Axle Air Suspension,"
is generally similar to the Neway single
axle air suspension with the exception of
the details of construction. The shock
absorbers are located forward of the rear
axle housing with the air springs located
to the rear of the axle.
An eccentric bolt is provided at the
attachment of the beam to the frame bracket
to provide for proper alignment of the rear
axle. The axle is attached to a fabricated
support by means of U-bolts. Pin connec-
tions are provided between the trailing
arm and the support bracket. No upper
torque rod is furnished.
The Ridewell parallelogram type sus-
pension is generally similar in basic
design to the Ridewell air suspension for
front axles previously discussed. In
this case, the design is intended for use
with a single rear driving axle, but retains
the basic features of the parallel torque
rods and the forward and rear air springs
on each side. Shock absorbers are located
forward of the driving axle. Fig. 32,
entitled "Ridewell Parallelogram Type Single
Rear Axle Air Supsension," illustrates the
basic design of this suspension.
5. Western Unit - Western Unit "Stabi-
laire" air suspensions are furnished in
several basic types with numerous variations
Fig. 31 - Ridewell trailing arm type single rear axle air suspension
Fig. 32- Ridewell parallelogram type single rear axle air suspension
31
Fig. 33 -Western unit underslung spring single rear axle air suspension
;/f~1l
0 0 0 I '-1
0 0 I
I I
I
Fig. 34 - Western unit overslung spring single rear axle air suspension
to provide for installation in a wide
variety of vehicles.
The Western Unit underslung spring
single rear axle air suspension has a nomi-
nal rating of 20,000 pounds on the tires at
the ground and consists of frame mounted
brackets to which are attached cantilever
type springs mounted below the axle and
attached to the axle by means of spring clips
and spring seats. The rear of the spring ex-
tends beyond the axle and serves as the
lower support for the air spring. The
shock absorbers are mounted outside of the
frame between the axle housing and the air
spring. Fig. 33, entitled "Western Unit
Underslung Spring Single Rear Axle Sus-
pension," illustrates the basic design of
this suspension.
Fig. 34, entitled "Western Unit Over-
slung Spring Single Rear Axle Air Suspen-
sion," illustrates the basic design of the
overslung spring air suspension. The rear
axle is mounted below the cantilever spring
and attached to it by means of spring clips
and seats. The spring is of the flat-end
type at the front having a slipper action and
at the rear is attached to a crosstube run-
ning between the air springs by means of U-
bolts. A radius rod leaf is attached to the
lower part of the frame bracket with the
suspension pivoting about this point. Shock
absorbers are mounted slightly to the rear
and just inside of the air springs.
Rubber Suspensions -
1. Hendrickson - Hendrickson provide a
variety of single rear axle rubber suspen-
sions ranging in capacity from 25,000 pounds
and up. Only two of these suspensions fall
within the scope of the paper, both of

Fig. 35 - Hendrickson RS series single rear axle rubber suspension
which use rubber load cushions in compression
to support the load, providing relatively
limited deflection. The two capacities
available are 25;000 pounds and 40,000
pounds. The 25,000 pound suspension uses
a saddle mounted above the rear axle and
attached thereto by means of through bolts
and a lower clamping plate. The rubber load
cushions are located between brackets attached
to the frame and the upper face of the saddle.
Drive pins, which are an integral part of the
frame brackets and extend through the rubber
load cushions and the saddle, transmit driv-
ing and braking forces between the rear axle
and the frame. Fig. 35, entitled "Hendrick-
son RS Series Single Rear Axle Rubber Suspen-
sion," illustrates the 25,000 pound capacity
suspension.
The 40,000 pound suspension is generally
similar in basic design and concept to the
25,000 pound suspension except that the
saddle is mounted below the axle and has a
much larger section. Load cushions approp-
riate for supporting the heavier load are
provided.
Since the rubber load cushions provide
a relatively limited deflection, the sus-
pension is intended for use in special app-
lications requiring exceptional stability.
Usage in highway type vehicles, including
those used in on and off-highway type serv-
ice, is relatively limited as more of these
suspensions are used in vehicles intended
for strictly off highway service including
airport refuelers.
2. Chalmers - Chalmers offers a single
rear axle suspension (15)(16) using variable
rate hollow rubber springs. The rear axle
is positioned by two lower torque rods and
an upper wishbone arrangement, providing
a parallelogram arrangement in the side
view. The lower torque rods pivot about
the connections provided at the lower end
of frame mounted brackets, while the wish-
bone arrangement has a ball joint attach-
ment to the axle at the rear and rotates
in bushed metal cups at the outer end of
the forward crosstube. The suspension is
suitable for nominal rear axle loads of
18,000 to 22,000 pounds.
Additional data on the Chalmers rub-
ber suspension are given under "Tandem Rear
Axle Suspensions," since the same basic
design concept is used with single and
32
tandem rear axles. Because of the variable
rate feature of the hollow rubber spring,
this suspension is suitable for use in oper-
ations on the highway only as well as for on
and off-the-road operations.
Torsion Bar Suspensions - The Kenworth
TBS Torsion Bar Suspension uses two torsion
bar type springs, one end of which is anch-
ored to the frame, while the other end is
twisted by the axle load. The torsion bar
serves as a springing member only, while
the crank and perch used in this suspen-
sion absorb the reacting torque and locate
the axle. Fig. li, entitled "Kenworth TBS
Single Rear Axle Torsion Bar Suspension,"
illustrates this type of suspension.
Depending upon the diameter and length
of the torsion bar furnished, the suspension
is available in a capacity range of 18,000
to 23,000 pounds. A 1-5/8" bar, either 66"
or 108" long, provides the 23,000 pound cap-
acity, while 1 1-1/2" x 108" long bar pro-
vides a capacity of 18,000 pounds. The ·
shorter bar is used where greater resistance
to side sway is required. This suspension
is recommended for practically all highway
operations, but not for use with exception-
ally high center of gravity loads.
TANDEM REAR AXLE SUSPENSIONS
A great variety of tandem rear axle
suspensions have been made available by
most heavy truck manufacturers. Some of
these suspensions are of their own manu-
facture, but many of the tandem axle sus-
pensions are provided by independent sup-
pliers who have developed tandem axle sus-
pensions for specific types of operations.
As in the case of single rear axle
suspensions, leaf-type spring suspensions
predominate but there is a greater variety
of basic types of tandem axle suspensions
offered for use at the present time. In
addition to leaf spring type suspensions,
there is substantial usage of air, torsion
bar, rubber and solid mount suspensions.
The following material is intended to pro-
vide a basic outline of the types of tandem
axle suspensions available and in use today,
together with brief comments with respect
to the types of applications for which the
specific suspensions are primarily designed.
Types of Leaf Spring Suspensions - Even
within the basic leaf spring suspension
classification, there are a wide variety
of suspensions produced which can be divided
into three major sub-classifications which
are the walking beam type, the 4-spring and
~-
Fig. 36 - Kenworth TBS single rear axle torsion bar suspension
the two-spring type. Other types are also
available and will be discussed briefly
below.
Walking Beam Type -
1. Hendrickson Leaf Spring Suspensions
- Hendrickson furnishes a wide variety of
leaf spring suspensions using a walking
beam mounted below the spring. Capacities
range from 34,000 to 65,000 pounds. In
addition, they provide a variety of leaf
spring suspensions of greater capacity
for special purpose and off highway type
vehicles.
The Hendrickson leaf spring suspensions
are designated as the U, RU, RT, and T
series suspensions with the major differ-
ences occuring in the means of attaching
the saddle holding the walking beam at the
center in relation to the spring and the
types of bushings provided at the beam cen-
ter and at the beam ends. The U and RU
series are available only in a capacity of
34,000 pounds, while the RT series suspen-
sions are available in a range of capacities
from 34,000 to 65,000 pounds. The T series
are available in capacities of 44,000 to
55,000 pounds, but have relatively limited
usage.
The general design of the Hendrickson
leaf spring suspension of the walking beam
type is illustrated in Fig. 37, entitled
"Hendrickson RT Series Tandem Rear Axle
Spring Suspension." This figure shows the
RT series design with the clamping plate
arrangement used to attach the spring
to the saddle assembly.
Basically, this suspension consists
of two frame mounted brackets on each side
of the chassis with the spring fixed at
the front eye and with a slipper end at the
rear. The spring assembly is mounted to
the saddle assembly with the walking beam
attached at its center to the saddle by
means of a rubber or bronzed bushed heavy
pin. The walking beam ends are attached
to the axle by means of brackets located
below the axle housing. Drive is trans-
mitted through the pin at the front of the
spring. Upper torque rods are provided to
maintain the proper pinion angles and to
resist drive and brake torque windup. The
walking beam serves the function of the lower
torque rods which are not used in this type
of design.
A wide variety of spring capacities
are available depending upon the loads to
_ _\
Fig. 37- Hendrickson RT series tandem rear spring suspension
33
--~
~~
Fig. 38 - Page LWH series tandem rear axle spring suspension
be carried and the type of service in which
the vehicle will be used. Deflection is
generally somewhat limited even with the
relatively low rate springs recommended
for tractor application. These suspensions
are used in practically all types of opera-
tions, including severe on and off-road
operations.
This type of suspension provides excep-
tionally good stability and resistance to
rollover because of the limited spring de-
flection and the fact that it is possible
to tailor the springs to meet the require-
ments of the particular type of operation
in which the vehicle will be used.
2. Page LWH Husky Suspensions - The
Page LWH husky suspension is of the walking
beam design using a leaf spring in conjunc-
tion with the walking beam. Trunnion type
frame brackets are furnished on each side
of the chassis with a crosstube supporting ,.
the trunnion to which the springs are
mounted. The ends of the spring are mounted
in rubber and attached to the walking beam,
with the spring and walking beam assembly
pivoting about the trunnion. The beam ends
are attached to the axle housings in the
same manner as on the Hendrickson suspension.
Similar upper torque rod assemblies are
provided.
Because of the greater length of spring
and the fact that the drive is not taken
through the front eye of the spring, it is
possible to provide slightly lower rate
springs in this suspension when required.
This suspension~ries is also used in both
on-highway and on and off-highway service.
The Page LWH series suspensions are
available in a capacity range from 34,000
through 44,000 pounds. Fig. 38, entitled
"Page L~JH Series Tandem Rear Axle Spring
Suspensions," illustrates the basic design
of this suspension.
3. Hendrickson Extended Leaf Spring
Suspensions - In addition to suspensions
using leaf springs of the conventional type,
Hendrickson furnishes a series of extended
leaf spring suspensions which are basically
identical in design to the conventional
leaf spring suspensions except that the
upper leaves of the spring are extended
further to the rear so that when the vehicle
is light or partially loaded, the rear of
the spring contacts an additional frame
bracket mounted to the rear of the second
frame bracket on each side rail.
As the load increases, the spring de-
flects until the spring contacts the second
frame bracket, shortening the effective
length substantially and thereby providing
a two stage effect. A relatively low rate
for operating unloaded or partially loaded
is provided, together with a relatively high
rate to provide the necessary stability
for operating the vehicle under loaded
conditions.
The latest suspensions of this type
utilize the same Number 1 and Number 2
frame brackets as the comparable conventional
leaf spring suspensions so that the only
changes required are the addition of the
third frame bracket on each rail and the
change in the spring to provide the
extended leaf construction.
The extended leaf spring suspensions
are available in the UE, RUE, and RTE series
suspensions with the capacity range avail-
able in this basic type of suspension
ranging from 34,000 to 44,000 pounds. This
basic type of suspension should be used only
when the vehicle will operate part time
under full load and part time in the unladen
condition. It is not normally recommended
for general freight operations where a
partial load is carried on both legs of
a trip.
Fig. 39, entitled "Hendrickson RTE
Series Tandem Rear Axle Spring Suspension,"
illustrates the basic suspension design
and clearly shows the relatively limited
difference between this type of suspension
and the Hendrickson conventional leaf
spring suspension.
Four Spring Type - Four spring sus-
pensions are relatively popular for highway
operation but are not normally recommended
for on and off-highway operation, although
there are a number of heavy-duty versions
of the four spring suspensions available
which are used in limited off-highway ser-
vice where the amount of articulation
required is not excessive.
Fig. 39 - Hendrickson RTE series tandem rear axle extended leaf
spring suspension
Fig. 40 - Typical four spring suspension
34
Fig. 41 - Four spring suspension with bar type radius rods
The design of most of the four spring
suspensions is quite similar consisting of
three frame brackets mounted on each side
rail, two conventional type springs with
slipper construction at each end and an
equalizer lever mounted to the center
frame bracket and pivoted at that point.
The basic design of a typical four spring
suspension is shown in Fig. 40, entitled
"Typical Four Spring Suspension."
This particular installation shows a
four spring suspension with leaf type radius
rods and in some instances forged, cast
or fabricated radius rods are provided in
lieu of the leaf spring radius rods. Fig.
41, entitled "Four Spring Suspension with
Bar Type Radius Rods," illustrates this
type of installation.
The different makes available and the
extent to which they vary from these two
basic designs are outlined below:
1. Dayton Truckmaster - The Dayton
Truckmaster four spring suspension is
typical of the four spring suspension
design with bar type radius rods with the
addition of upper torque rods to restrict
the drive pinion angles and to provide for
greater resistance to drive and brake torque
windup. One of the lower torque rods on
each axle is adjustable and the other is
fixed in length. The upper torque rod is
adjustable. Rubber bushings are used at
all radius and torque arms to eliminate the
need for lubrication.
2. Freightliner - Freightliner manu-
facture their own four spring suspension
using 4" wide springs and provide capacities
ranging from 34,000 to 44,000 pounds. The
Freightliner four spring suspension is of
conventional design using bar type radius
rods and is illustrated in Fig. 41 referred
to above.
In addition to the basic highway
type suspensions, Freightliner provide
modifications of their suspensions for on
and off-highway service, for relatively
high center of gravity loads, and for
high gross combination weights where high
continuous horsepower is transmitted.
For the high center of gravity 1oads, Freight-
liner provides a rebound bridge which con-
sists of a beam mounted above the spring
and which is illustrated in Fio. 42, enti-
tled "Freightliner Rebound Briage or Support

Fig. 42- Freightliner rebound bridge or support beam for high center of
gravity loads
Beam for High Center of Gravity Loads."
3. Kenworth Glide Ride Four Spring
Suspension - The Kenworth four spring sus-
pension, designated as the "Glide Ride,"
is available in capacities ranging from
32,000 to 44,000 pounds and uses 4" wide
springs. While the basic design is gen-
erally similar to the conventional four
spring suspension with bar type radius rods,
the forward and rear radius rods run from
the axle end to the centrally located frame
bracket. Other than this change, the sus-
pension is basically similar to the conven-
tional four spring suspension and is illus-
trated in Fig. 43, entitled "Kenworth Glide
Ride Four Spring Suspension."
4. Page - Page offer a variety of
four spring suspensions which are basically
similar in design but which vary with res-
pect to the types of springs and radius rods
furnished. The more popular types provided
by Page are as follows:
a. 700 series - The Page 700 series
suspension is similar to the conventional
four spring suspension with bar type radius
rods except that the rear of the forward
spring is connected to the rear of the rear
spring by means of a low walking beam pivoted
on the frame and which replaces the relatively
short equalizer lever usually furnished on
conventional four spring suspensions.
The purpose of this walking beam is
to limit load transfer from axle to axle
and to provide for somewhat greater arti-
culation that can be provided in four spring
suspensions using the short equalizer lever.
Bar type torque rods are provided with one
torque rod on each axle being adjustable
and the other fixed in length.
Fig. 44, entitled "Page 700 Series
Four Spring Suspensions," illustrates this
basic suspension design. The nominal cap-
acity of this suspension is 36,000 pounds.
b. 800 Series - The Page 800 series
suspension is identical in design to the
700 series except that the bar type radius
rods for the rear rear axle are replaced by
leaf spring radius rods and adjustment
of the alignment of this axle is made by
means of an eccentric bolt. This suspen-
sion also has a capacity of 36,000 pounds.
c. 1000 Series - The Page 1000
series four spring suspension is similar to
the 700 series suspension except that tapered
35
leaf springs are provided. The springs are
of the two leaf type with slipper ends,
connected to frame mounted brackets. Adjust-
ment of axle alignment is provided by means
of eccentric bolts. This suspension also
has a nominal capacity of 36,000 pounds.
5. Peterbilt - The Peterbilt four
spring suspension is similar in general
design to the suspension illustrated in
Fig. 43 in view of the fact that the lower
torque rods both run from the axles to the
center frame bracket. The only significant
difference between the Peterbilt four spring
suspension and the suspension illustrated
in Fig. 42 is the shape of the frame brackets
and the fact that the axle stops are located
closer to the center frame bracket and just
beyond the ends of the equalizer lever.
The nominal capacity of this suspension is
34,000 pounds.
6. Reyco - Reyco manufacture the fol-
lowing types of four spring suspensions with
a nominal capacity range of 34,000 to 44,000
pounds:
a. 101 Series - The Reyco 101 series
four spring suspension is generally similar
to the suspension illustrated in Fig. 40
in view of the fact that leaf spring type
radius rods are used with alignment adjust-
ments being made through the use of
eccentric bushings at the hangar attachments.
b. 102 Series - The 102 series is
generally similar to the Reyco 101 series
except for the fact that bar type radius
rods are substituted for the leaf spring
radius rods. A fixed radius rod is located
on one side of each axle and an adjustable
radius rod is located on the other side
of each axle for alignment adjustments.
c. 101-A Series - The 101-A series
suspension is similar to the Reyco 101
series suspension with the exception that
bar type radius rods are provided in lieu
of the leaf spring radius rods, but align-
ment adjustments .are made through the type
of eccentric bushings provided in the 101
series suspension.
Fig. 43 - Kenworth glideride four spring suspension
Fig. 44 - Page 700 series four spring suspension
 7. White - The White four spring sus-
pension is of the conventional four spring
design using leaf spring radius rods and
therefore is illustrated in Fig. 40,
entitled "Typical Four Spring Suspension."
Adjustment for alignment purposes is made
through the use of eccentric bushings. The
nominal capacity of the suspension is 36,000
pounds.
Two-Spring Type - Two spring suspensions
are available in two basic types, one pro-
viding an underslung spring and the other
providing an overslung spring. In using
this terminology, reference is made to the
location of the spring in relation to the
trunnion tube mounting. The underslung
spring is therefore located below the trun-
nion tube, while the overslung spring has
the spring mounted above the trunnion tube.
It is possible, with either design,
to mount the ends of the springs either
above or below the axle housing but in using
the terms "underslung" and "overslung",
reference is not being made to the relative
positions of the ends of the springs in
relation to the axle housings.
Data on the various types of two-spring
suspensions follow:
Underslung Spring -
1. Mack SWTL56 Series Suspension-
This 34,000 pound capacity suspension is
available with a tapered leaf spring using
three leaves. Fabricated steel trunnion
brackets support a tube. Saddles support-
ing the center of the springs are mounted
on the ends of the tube. Four shock
absorbers are furnished on this suspension
as standard equipment. Only two upper
torque rods are provided with this sus-
pension since the spring ends are held in
brackets attached to the axles by means of
shock insulators and bracket caps.
Fig. 45, entitled "Mack SWTL56 Under-
slung Spring Suspension," illustrates this
type of design. The ends of the springs
are mounted below the axle housings.
2. Mack SWC562 and SWC57 Series
Suspensions - These suspensions are similar
in general design to the SWTL56 series sus-
pension except that the three tapered leaf
spring is replaced with a combination beam
and spring and the shock absorbers are
eliminated. In addition, the capacity
of the SWC57 series suspension is increased
to 38,000 pounds. This basic design is
primarily intended for mixer service.
TAPERED LEAF SPRING
Fig. 45 - Mack SWTL 56 under slung spring suspension
36
Fig. 46 -Mack SWC 562 and SWC 57 series combination beam and spring
suspension
Fig. 41 - Rockwell experimental under slung spring suspension with six
torque rods
When the mixer is unloaded, the springs
contact the beam over a relatively short
span near the center of the beam and spring,
but as the load increases, more and more of
the spring comes in contact with the beam,
reducing the effective working length of
the spring and providing substantially in-
creased stiffness and resistance to roll-
over.
The beam and spring assembly is mounted
below the trunnion tube in the center and
below the axle housings at the ends. Fig.
46, entitled "Mack SWC562 and SWC57 Series
Combination Beam and Spring Suspension,"
illustrates this design.
3. Rockwell Six Torque Rod Suspension
- Rockwell has under consideration the
development of an experimental six toruqe
rod suspension using a four tapered leaf
spring mounted below the trunnion and with
the ends mounted above the axle housings.
Since slipper ends are provided on the
springs, two upper and four lower torque
rods are required. Fig. 47, entitled
"Rockwell Experimental Underslung Spring
Suspension with Six Torque Rods," illus-
trates this basic type of design.
No through trunnion tube is furnished,
but instead the two trunnion ends are canti-
levered from the frame brackets due to the
fact that it is intended to primarily use this
suspension with front mounted carriers.
This design appears to have possibilities
from the standpoint of providing good rid-
ing qualities and relatively light weight
as compared with other suspensions of the
two spring type.
Overslung Spring -
1. Kenworth Big Six Suspension -
The Kenworth Big Six two spring suspension
is available in a capacity range of 38,000
to 50,000 pounds and suitable for use with
axles having either front mounted or top
mounted carriers. Basically, the suspen-
sion is furnished with six torque rods (two
 4. Peterbilt Six Rod Suspension - The
Peterbilt six rod suspension is generally
similar in design to the suspension illus-
trated in Fig. 48 in view of the fact that
the spring is mounted above the trunnion
tube, with the ends of the springs mounted
above the axle housings. Two upper and
four lower torque rods provide a parallel-
ogram arrangment to maintain proper axle
alignment as the axles articulate. The
Fig. 48- Ken worth "Big 6" overslung spring suspension
suspension is available in 38,000 and 44,000
pound capacities.
5. Peterbilt 5" Suspension - This
suspension is similar in general appearance
to the suspension illustrated in Fig. 49.
5" wide rear springs are provided with two
upper and four lower torque rods. The
spring is mounted above the trunnion tube
with the ends of the springs being mounted
above the axle housings. The capacity of
this suspension is 70,000 pounds on the
tires at the ground.
Fig. 49 - Kenworth 6-65 overslung spring suspension 6. Rockwell - Rockwell produces a
upper and four lower) with a single point number of overslung two spring suspensions
trunnion tube installation using 5" wide using six torque rods and with the spring
springs. The spring saddles are fitted mounted above the trunnion tube and with
with rubber bushings. The major suspension the ends contacting spring seats on top of
components are cast. Fig. 48, entitled the axle housings. All of these suspensions
"Kenworth Big 6 Overslung Spring Suspension," with the exception of a new unit being
illustrates this type of suspension. developed are equipped with a cross tube
2. Kenworth 6-65 Suspension - This at the trunnion bracket and therefore are
suspension is generally similar in design suitable for use with top mounted double
to the Kenworth "Big 6" suspension, but reduction carriers only, as interference
has a rating of 65,000 pounds on the tires between the cross tube and the inter-axle
at the ground. In addition, split frame propeller shaft would result with front
brackets are provided so that the lower mounted carriers.
caps can be removed and the axles rolled out The suspensions of this basic type
from under the chassis without removing the which Rockwell is furnishing include the
frame brackets. following:
Six rubber bushed torque rods (2 lower a. 4" Wide Springs - This suspension
and 4 upper) are provided. This suspension is illustrated in Fig. 51, entitled "Rock-
was designed primarily for use in logging well 4" Wide Overslung Spring Suspension,"
trucks and in heavy dump and mixer operat- which is available in a range of capacities
ions. The spring is mounted above the from 34,000 through 44,000 pounds. Since
trunnion with the ends resting on seats a through cross tube is furnished, this
located above the axle housings. Fig. 49, --~
~--
entitled "Kenworth 6--65 Overslung Spring
Suspension," illustrates this design.
3. Mack Camel-Back Suspension - \_ ~'·~~
Most Mack suspensions are of the camel-
back spring type with the spring mounted
above the trunnion and with the ends fixed ''
in place in relation to the axle by means L__ f' 'lh
of rubber insulators held by brackets
mounted below the axle housings. A parallel-
ogram arrangement is provided by the two Fig. 50- Mack camelback spring suspension
upper torque rods combined with the ends
of the springs holding the lower section of 1--
the axle in place.
Fig. 50, entitled "Mack Camel-Back
Spring Suspension," illustrates this basic
design. The type of suspension is available
in capacities ranging from 34,000 to 65,000
pounds. By proper selection of the springs,
suspensions of this type can be tailored
to suit strictly on-highway operations or
Fig. 51 - Rockwell 4 in wide overslung suspension
combination on and off-highway service.

37

LOADED
CONDITION
UNLADEN
CONDITION
Fig. 52 - Oshkosh four point cantilever spring suspension
design is suitable only for use with top
mounted double reduction carriers.
b. 5" Wide Springs - This design is
similar to the suspension design illustrated
in Fig. 51, insofar as the general condept
is concerned, but the components are much
heavier since the capacity range is from
44,000 to 65,000 pounds, depending upon the
springs furnished. In addition, a low
and a high frame bracket are available with
the higher bracket increasing the frame
height approximately 2-7/8".
Because of the somewhat limited clear-
ance between the overhanging section of the
frame bracket and the spring clip plate, the
capacity of the suspension with the lower
frame bracket is normally limited to 44,000
to 55,000 pounds, although it would be pos-
sible to use a tapered leaf spring which
would permit of using the lower bracket
with axles of 65,000 pounds capacity. The
high frame bracket, with its increased
clearance above the spring clip plate,
permits using a spring with a much thicker
center section and, therefore, is normally
used with the higher capacity axles.
c. R-6-65K Suspension - This suspen-
sion is a new suspension being developed
and under test which will eventually super-
sede the 5" wide overslung spring suspen-
sion. Basically, the design principles
are identical to the 5" wide overslung
spring suspension, but a number of improve-
ments are being made to provide greater
flexibility, better usage potential, and
improved operating results. The capacity
range to be covered is 44,000 to 65,000
pounds.
Among the improvements being incorpor-
ated in this suspension are the following:
a. Designed to be used with either
front mounted or top mounted carriers.
b. The pedestal type trunnion brack-
ets and adjustable gussets which are bolted
to the frame web provide an easy means of
adapting to various frame widths.
c. The flange type gussets provide an
easy means of attaching bumper stops under
the frame rails.
d. Six identical straddle type torque
rods are provided in this design.
38
e. A multi-leaf spring using flat
leaves or a tapered leaf spring can be
supplied. The use of the tapered leaf
spring permits the use of the low trunnion
bracket even when a high capacity spring is
required.
f. The trunnion bushing is of the
type which does not require lubrication.
g. The spring seat design provides
ease in servicing the springs.
In general appearance, the suspension
is quite similar to that illustrated in
Fig. 51, except of much greater capacity.
In addition, the cross tube is mounted
well below the center line of the trunnions
which are cantilevered out from the main
frame brackets to provide clearance for the
inter-axle propeller shaft installation used
with front mounted carriers.
Cantilever Spring Type -
Oshkosh Four Point Suspension - Oshkosh
manufactures a suspension intended for use
in on and off-highway service, including
dump and mixer operations, which basically
consists of two individual suspensions,
each using a walking beam pivoted about a
point attached to the main frame brackets
and a cantilever type spring mounted below
the walking beam so that as the load incr-
eases, the cantilever spring comes in con-
tact with the walking beam. Without the
load on the truck, only the fixed end of
the spring contacts the walking beam, but
as the load increases, the spring flattens
out and more of the upper surface of the
spring comes in contact with the walking
beam, effectively increasing the rate of
the spring by decreasing the working length.
Two parallel torque rods are provided for
each axle to hold it in alignment and
provide for relatively substantial articul-
ation.
The suspensions for the two axles are
then tied together by means of a load equal-
izer rod on each side of the frame, assuring
equal axle loading. Tandem axle spacing
variations can readily be provided by moving
the individual suspensions in relation to
each other and by increasing the length of
the load equalizer rod.
Fig. 52, entitled "Oshkosh Four Point
Cantilever Spring Suspension," illustrates
the suspension in the loaded position,
showing the substantial length of the spring
in contact with the beam. A separate view
illustrates the spring for one of the rear
axles in the unloaded position.
Air Suspensions - The advantages
provided by air suspensions for tandem
axles are generally the same as those out-
lined under Air Suspensions for Single Rear
Axles. However, in addition, the air sus-
pension assures equal weight distribution
on each of the two drive axles and, thereby
provides better traction, particularly
since with the relatively low frequency
provided, the air suspension keeps the
tires in contact with the road to a greater
extent.
Among the types of air suspensions
suitable for use with tandem rear axles are
the following:
1. GMC ASTRO-Aire Suspension The
GMC air suspension consists of a main frame
bracket centrally mounted between the two
axles and with cantilever type springs
pivoted about the lower part of the frame
bracket. The springs are attached to the
axle and extend beyond the springs to pro-
vide the lower support for the air bags.
Shock absorbers are located between the
axles and the air bags and mounted outside
the frame rails.
The rating of this suspension is 34,000
pounds. Fig. 53, entitled "GMC ASTRO-Aire
Tandem Rear Axle Air Suspension" illustrates
the design of this suspension, which is
primarily intended for highway operations.
2. Hendrickson AR Series - The
Hendrickson AR series suspension incorporates
the same walking beam, torque rods and axle
attaching means as provided in the Hendrick-
son leaf spring and extended leaf spring
suspensions. However, the springs are
replaced by elongated air chambers which
are mounted immediately below main frame
brackets and supported by aluminum sad-
dles attached to the walking beams by means
of a pivot pin arrangement. The aluminum
saddles also serve as air reservoirs for
the system. Vertical drive pins are provided
between the frame and the aluminum saddle,
so that the air spring does not have any
function except to cushion the load.
This suspension is recommended for on-
highway use only, particularly where the
truck operates fully loaded part of the time
and unladen on the return trip and where
additional cargo protection is mandatory.
Fig. 54, entitled "Hendrickson AR
Series Tandem Rear Axle Air Suspension,"
illustrates the basic design of this sus-
pension and shows the commonality of parts
with the Henderickson spring suspensions of
equivalent capacity. This series of sus-
pensions is available in 34,000 and 38,000
pound capacities and both forged steel and
aluminum walking beams are available.
3. Kenworth Dual Air Ride Suspension
The Kenworth Dual Air Ride Suspension con-
sists of two air suspensions similar to the
Kenworth single axle air suspension illus-
trated in Fig. 27. This suspension is avail-
able in a capacity range of 32,000 to 44,000
pounds on the ground. Recommended applica-
Fig. 53 - GMC astro-aire tandem rear axle air suspension
39
Fig. 54 • Hendrickson AR series tandem rear axle air suspension
tions include many specific types of opera-
tions in on-highway operations where cargo
protection is desirable but this suspension
is not recommended for mixers or for high
center of gravity loads.
4. Neway Air Suspensions - The Neway
tandem rear axle air suspensions which are
available are basically similar in design to
the Neway single rear axle air suspensions
available, except for the fact that two of
these suspensions are used and there usually
are variations in the drive pinion angles to
provide the proper drive line angles for
tandem axle applications. Variations in the
shock absorber location as outlined under
the Neway single axle suspensions are also
available in the tandem axle suspensions.
The capacity of the Neway tandem axle
suspension for on highway application is
44,000 pounds maximum. Reference should be
made to Fig. 28, entitled "Neway Single Rear
Axle Air Ride Suspension," for a typical
example of the basic Neway air suspension
design.
5. Peterbilt Air Suspensions - As in
the case of the single axle air suspensions
offered by Peterbilt, their tandem axle air
suspensions are also available in two types,
with the on-highway version being designated
as the Peterbilt Air Leaf Suspension and the
combination on and off-highway suspension
being designated as the Peterbilt Air Trac
suspension. .
These suspensions are identical to the
single axle suspensions except that two
suspensions are used for each tandem axle.
The tandem axle Air Trac suspension incor-
porates both longitudinal and transverse
torque rods with the ends of the springs
being of the slipper type.
For the basic design of the two Peter-
bilt air suspensions, reference should be
made to the single axle version shown in
Fig. 29, entitled "Peterbilt Single Rear Axle
Air Leaf Suspension," and Fig. 30, entitled
"Peterbilt Single Rear Axle Air Trac
Suspension."
6. Ridewell Air Suspension - The Ride-
well tandem rear axle air suspension, as in
the case of most other tandem axle air sus-
pensions, consists of two of the Ridewell
single axle suspensions modified to provide
the proper pinion angles for tandem axle
operation. For further information on the
Ridewell tandem axle air suspension, refer-
 ------------
- - - -------------
Fig. 55 - Kenworth TBB torsion bar tandem rear axle suspension
Fig. 56 -Chalmers tandem rubber suspension
ence should be made to Fig. 31, entitled
"Ridewell Trailing Arm Type Single Rear Axle
Air Suspension."
7. Western Unit Air Suspensions -
Western Unit provides air suspensions with
both overslung and underslung spring con-
struction, with the spring serving as the
trailing arm. In the case of tandem axle air
suspensions, the Western Unit suspensions are
generally similar to the single axle air sus-
pensions, except that two suspensions are re-
quired for each tandem rear axle unit.
In the case of both the overslung and
underslung spring units, the design of the
tandem axle installation therefore simply
results in using two of the basic single rear
axle suspensions with the exception of the
drive pinion angles which are varied to suit
tandem axle operation by changing the spring
seats and clips to properly line up the axles
from the standpoint of drive pinion angles.
Reference should be made to Fig. 33,
entitled "Western Unit Underslung Spring
Single Rear Axle Air Suspension," and to
Fig. 34, entitled "Western Unit Overslung
Spring Single Rear Axle Air Suspension,"
for further details on the Western Unit
tandem rear axle air suspensions.
Torsion Bar Suspensions
Kenworth TBB Torsion Bar Suspension -
The Kenworth TBB torsion bar suspension
for tandem rear axles is similar in design
principles to the Kenworth TBS series single
rear axle torsion bar suspensions, but the
tandem axle suspension uses two torsion bar
springs twisted by opposed crank assemblies.
All springing is taken in torsion and there
is no bending of the bars which are pre-
stressed to twist in one direction only and
must be installed in pairs.
Capacities range from 34,000 to 44,000
pounds at the ground with 1-1/2" diameter
bars provided for the 34,000 to 38,000
pound capacity and 1-5/8" diameter bars
provided for the 44,000 pound capacity.
40
Two lengths of bars are provided, one
being 66" long and available only in the
1-5/8" diameter and which is normally
specified when maximum stability is
required. The 108" bar is available in
either 1-1/2" or 1-5/8" diameter.
The larger diameter bar provides greater
stability than provided with the 1-1/2"
diameter bar. This suspension is suggested
for all operations where good riding quali-
ties are required except in mixer operations
and where high center of gravity loads are
involved.
Fig. 55, entitled "Kenworth TBB Torsion
Bar Tandem Rear Axle Suspension," illustrates
the basic design of this suspension which
incorporates a single torsion bar located
at each side of the frame.
Rubber Suspensions
A variety of suspensions incorporating
rubber as the suspension means are avail-
able. Rubber can be used in compression,
in shear, or in torsion providing a rather
wide variety of rubber suspension systems.
1. Chalmers Rubber Suspension - The
Chalmers tandem rear axle rubber suspension
(15) uses variable rate hollow rubber springs
as the suspension means. Fig. 56, entitled
"Chalmers Rubber Tandem Rear Axle Suspension,"
illustrates the design provided in this sus-
pension, which is similar to the Chalmers
single rear axle suspension. Rubber springs
to cover a nominal capacity range of from
34,000 to 44,000 pounds can be provided(16).
Because of the variable rate feature,
this type of suspension, with the proper
selection of the rubber springs, is suitable
for use in on-highway operations, including
tractor service, and for use in on and off-
highway operations.
2. Hendrickson RS Series Rubber Load
Cushion Suspensions - The basic design of
the Hendrickson RS series suspension is
similar to the Hendrickson spring and ex-
tended spring suspensions except that the
leaf springs are eliminated and rubber load
cushions are located between frame brackets
and a saddle generally similar to the type
used on the Hendrickson AR series air
suspension. Vertical drive pins are pro-
vided with rubber bushings to trasmit the
drive between the axles and the frame.
Fig. 57 - Hendrickson RS series tandem rear axle rubber load cushion
suspension
 Deflection is relatively limited and
therefore the suspension is primarily
intended for operations where stability and
resistance to rollover are primary considera-
tions. However, because of the relatively
light weight and durability of these suspen-
sions, a number of them are also used in
tractor applications. In such cases, special
care must be taken in selecting the rubber
load cushions which are available in a
variety of durometers and also in a variety
of designs from the standpoint of the amount
of rubber provided within the overall con-
figuration of the load cushion.
The 34,000 and 38,000 pound suspensions
use two load cushions per side, while the
44,000, 50,000 and 65,000 pound capacity
suspensions use three load cushions per
side. A third load cushion can be provided
on the 34,000 and 38,000 pound suspensions
when increased stability is required.
Fig. 57, entitled "Hendrickson RS
Series Tandem Rear Axle Rubber Load Cushion
Suspension," illustrates the basic design
provided in a suspension of this type having
acapacityof 38,000 pounds
3. Hendrickson SR Series Shear Ride
Suspensions - The Hendrickson SR series
suspension is generally similar in appear-
ance to the RS suspension except that the
rubber load cushions used in compression
are replaced with rubber springs in shear.
These springs are of the two-stage type and
are located at the ends of the saddles.
Under light load, both stages are in shear
to provide a lower load rate, but at rated
load, a flange on the vertical drive pin
cushions out the first stage, increasing
the rate of the rubber springs and thereby
providing for reduced deflection as the
rated load capacity is reached.
Vertical drive pins are used to pro-
vide the drive between the axles and the
frame. The same basic walking beam con-
struction as provided in other Hendrickson
suspensions is incorporated in this design.
Shear ride suspensions are available in
the 34,000 and 38,000 pound capacity only.
Fig. 58, entitled "Hendrickson SR Series
Tandem Rear Axle Shear Ride Suspension,"
illustrates the basic design provided in
this suspension.
4. Ridewell Dynalastic Suspension -
The Ridewell Dynalastic suspension incor-
Fig. 58- Hendrickson SR series tandem rear axle shear ride suspension
41
Fig. 59- Ridewell dynalastic tandem rear axle suspension
porates elastomer type rubber springs with,
in effect, a divided walking beam. Fig. 59,
entitled "Ridewell Dynalastic Tandem Rear
Axle Suspension," illustrates the basic
design of this suspension.
Trunnion type frame brackets are pro-
vided with a through cross tube on which a
compensator assembly is mounted. Elastomer
type rubber springs are mounted to the com-
pensator assembly at each end and are also
attached to torque beam assemblies at the
lower end of the springs. The torque beam
assemblies are pivoted in the compensator
assembly and therefore instead of a single
beam, two separate "half beams" are provided
so that each elastomer type spring is free
to deflect independently of the other springs
used in the suspension. Upper torque rods
are provided so that the axles are held in
alignment by a parallelogram type arrange-
ment. This suspension is normally used with
drive axles of the 34,000 and 38,000 pound
capacity range and is primarily used in
highway operations, particularly of the
tractor type.
5. White Velvet Ride Rubber Torsion
Suspension - The White Velvet Ride suspension
(developed under a license from Elwood
Willitts) is a premium type suspension using
rubber in torsion as the suspension means.
Static spring deflection at rated load is
approximately 2-5/8" providing a frequency
of approximately 115 cycles per minute.
The suspension consists of an integral cross-
member and frame brackets supporting canti-
lever type pivot tubes on which two indepen-
dent spring arm assemblies are attached.
Two rubber springs in torsion are provided
with the secondary spring supporting the
full chassis weight and undergoing both
torsional and vertical static deflection.
The main spring is pressed into one of the
arms and subject to torsional loading.
Attachment of the arms to the axles is
similar to the installation provided on
the Hendrickson suspensions and upper tor-
que rods are provided to maintain the proper
drive pinion angles. Shock absorbers are
provided to dampen excessive movement under
resonant conditions, due to the fact that
there is no inherent friction other than
the hystersis in the rubber. Further details
on this suspension are provided in the SAE
paper listed in the reference section (17).
The basic suspension is illustrated in Fig.
 ~~o---o------o---ol
I
I
I
I
t o
L----,-------~---~
o ol
\ /
Fig. 60 - White velvet ride tandem rear axle rubber torsion suspension
60, entitled "White Velvet Ride Tandem
Rear Axle Rubber Torsion Suspension."
Solid Mount Suspensions
Solid mount suspensions are limited to
certain restricted applications in which
they should be used, particularly due to
the fact that the ride provided is not
satisfactory for on-highway operations but
in mixer applications where maximum stabil-
ity and resistance to rollover is of primary
importance, the use of solid mount suspen-
sions is increasing in popularity. As a
result, a variety of solid mount suspensions,
which eliminate the springing means between
the frame and the axles but still permit the
axles to articulate in relation to each other
and to the frame as uneven terrain is nego-
tiated, are·being provided.
1. Hendrickson R Series Walking Beam
Suspensions -The Hendrickson R Series solid
mount walking beam suspensions are basically
similar to the Hendrickson leaf spring sus-
pensions except that the leaf spring and
attaching brackets are eliminated completely
and a centrally located trunnion bracket
is attached to the frame with the walking
beam pivoting about the trunnion tube. The
upper torque rods are retained to provide
a parallelogram effect in conjunction with
the walking beams. The basic design of
this su!pension is illustrated in Fig. 61,
entitled "Hendrickson R Series Tandem Rear
I·
Axle Solid Mount Suspension."
Suspensions of this type are available
in a capacity range of 34,000 through 65,000
pounds and are recommended for on and off-
highway use where stability is a prime
consideration. Operations in which this
type of suspension is used include trucks
intended for oil field use and for concrete
mixer service.
2. Mack Walking Beam Suspensions -
The Mack suspensions of the walking beam
type are basically similar in design to the
Mack spring suspensions except that the
springs are eliminated and a steel walking
beam is mounted on the trunnion tube. Frame
brackets support the trunnion tube, with
the beams replacing the spring saddle mounted
on the ends of the tube.
The ends of the beams are held in place
by rubber shock insulators and by the spring
seat caps similar to the manner in which the
42
Mack springs are held. Upper torque rods
provide a parallelogram arrangement in
conjunction with the beams.
Suspensions of this type are available
in a capacity range of 34,000 through 80,000
pounds. A typical suspension of this type
is illustrated in Fig. 62, entitled "Mack
Walking Beam Tandem Rear Axle Solid Mount
Suspension."
3. Rockwell Walking Beam Installation
- The Rockwell two overslung spring suspen-
sions can be converted to solid mount sus-
pensions by eliminating the springs and
substituting cast or fabricated walking
beams. Such installations have been provided
in both the 4" and 5" wide spring suspensions,
but specific walking beams for such suspen-
sions have been provided by certain vehicle
manufacturers.
Fig. 63, entitled "Rockwell Tandem
Rear Axle Suspension Modified to Provide
Solid r1ount," illustrates the general appear-
ance of a suspension of the basic Rockwell
design in which springs have been eliminated
and walking beams substituted.
Tandem Axle Spacings - The standard
tandem axle spacing provided varies with
the type of suspension and with the capacity
of the suspension. Generally, highway type
suspensions in the 34,000 and 38,000 pound
capacity are provided with a standard spac-
ing of 50", while four spring suspensions
which are sometimes limited as to the mini-
mum spacing which can be provided by virtue
of the necessity of providing a reasonable
length of spring have standard spacings of
50" to 52". Heavier suspensions from 44,000
pound capacity and up are normally pro-
vided with tandem axle spacings ranging from
54" to 58".
The bridge formula approach to estab-
lishing gross weight limitations on every
group of two or more axles and various
state laws (7) make it desirable to increase
the tandem axle spacing. In f4ichigan, if
the spacing between two axles exceeds 108",
the axles are considered as individual
axles. As a result, there have been a num-
ber of walking beam suspensions provided
with 109" tandem axle spacing. In other
states, higher weight limits are permitted
on various spacings from 54" on up and as
a result, optional spacings of 54", 60",
72", 96" and 109" have been provided from
fig. 61 - Hendrickson R series tandem rear axle solid mount suspension
time to time, depending upon the type of
suspension involved.
In Canada, certain of the provinces
have adopted weight lav~s (19) which make
it desirable to provide 54", 60" and 72"
tandem axle spacings since higher tandem
axle loadings are then permitted.
Furthermore, with particular tandem
axles and the larger propeller shaft sizes
required in the inter-axle position when
higher torque and horsepower engines are
used, it is often not possible to provide
acceptable inter-axle propeller shaft angles
under all conditions with the standard
spacing. As a result, it may be necessary
to provide a greater spacing than standard
to provide suitable inter-axle propeller
shaft angles. Tire chain clearance (18) and
the particular tire sizes to be mounted on
a given suspension may also make it desir-
able to increase the spacing beyond the
standard normally provided.
Certain types of suspensions are limited,
because of their basic design, with respect
to the maximum spacings that can practically
be provided. For example, four spring sus-
pensions and two spring suspensions normally
are not provided with spacings in excess of
60". In walking beam suspensions, since it
is possible to modify the shape and length
of the walking beam, spacings up to 109"
have been provided. The major problem with
the longer walking beam is the reduction in
ground clearance at the beam center as the
section depth increases, but even this prob-
lem has been overcome by providing a beam
shaped so that the center point of the beam
is at a higher level than the ends so that
as the axles articulate, the center of the
beam does not hit the ground.
Air suspensions can be spread apart
to almost any practical dimension due to the
fact that, with the exception of the inter-
connecting air lines, the two suspensions
are relatively independent of each other
with respect to location.
The Oshkosh four point suspensions also
permit of readily varying the tandem axle
spacing as the only significant change other
than the location of the suspension units
in the frame, is an increase in the length
of the load equalizer rods.
With extended tandem axle spacings,
consideration must be given to a number of
special problems. The most important prob-
l mounted between the frame rails is comprom-
--~
Fig. 62- Mack walking beam tandem rear axle solid mount suspension
Fig. 63 - Rockwell tandem rear axle suspension modified to provide solid
mount
lem is the steerinq effect created by the
extended spacing of the tandem rear axle
suspension. The product of the wheelbase
of the vehicle multiplied by the load on the
front axle should substantially exceed the
tandem axle spacing multiplied the load on
one axle of the tandem set to assure that
the vehicle will be able to steer properly
under poor traction conditions. Otherwise,
the vehicle will continue on in a straight
line instead of following the curvature of
the load.
On tractor models, the extremely ex-
tended spacings (over 60") shou 1d not be pro-
vided since the front axle loading on tractors
is usually limited as compared with straight
truck applications and relatively short wheel-
bases are provided. Furthermore, the weight
of the trailer also has a tendency to con-
tinue to push the tractor in a straight
forward direction.
The second factor that must be considered
is the effect of the higher side thrust loads
imposed on the suspension and the steps
which must be taken to resist that side
thrust. In many cases, transverse torque
rods are provided with extended tandem axle
spacings, particularly with the walking beam
and two spring suspensions when the spacing
approaches 60" or more. The transverse torque
rods hold the t\'10 axles in proper side align-
ment and transfer the side thrust into the
frame assembly.
In some cases, the frame assembly must
be reinforced to withstand this increased
side thrust depending upon the tandem axle
spacing provided. In addition, it is impor-
tant to spread the side thrust transferred
by the transverse torque rods to the frame
over a sufficiently large area so that the
torque rod bracket mounted on the frame rail
does not break out through the web of the
frame rai 1.
Extended tandem axle spacings also in-
crease the minimum wheelbases that can be
provided if propeller shaft lengths and
acceptable universal joint angles establish
the minimum wheelbase. Space for the instal-
lation of air tanks and other items normally
'ud U't
I
ised, particularly when transverse torque
rods are installed.
43
 SUSPENSIONS FOR INSTALLATIONS OF AUXILIARY
NON-DRIVING AXLES
For the purpose of this paper, auxiliary
non-driving axles are defined as tag or
pusher axles of the non-driving type used
in conjunction with single or tandem rear
driving axles. The auxiliary axle may be
installed at the vehicle manufacturer's
factory or in the field.
Tag axles are located to the rear of
the single or tandem rear driving axles,
while pusher axles are located forward of
the single or tandem rear driving axles.
The tag ax1e is the more common of the
two installations, but a pusher axle is used
where the drive axle cannot be located far
enough forward because of propeller shaft
length considerations to provide the required
wheelbase v1hen the auxiliary axle is installed.
In addition, in tractor applications requiring
.. backing unloaded or lightly loaded combina-
tions up a relatively steep ramp, the pusher
axle installation provides better traction
under such conditions.
Up to the present time, most installa-
tions of auxiliary axles of the tag or pusher
type have been made in the field. It is
anticipated, particularly in the case of
trucks with tandem rear driving axles, many
field installations of auxiliary axles will
continue to be made. However, as a result
of the necessity of conforming to and cer-
tifying conformance with safety standards,
it will become increasingly more complex for
suppliers and installers of auxiliary axles
and suspensions to meet these requirements.
The advent of Safety Standard Number 121,
Air Brake Systems (3), presents a substantial
compliance problem when auxiliary axles are
installed in the field, particularly since
I the gross vehicle weight normally increases
!. under such conditions. It is therefore
f·
possible that an increasing percentage of
auxiliary axle installations will be made
by the vehicle manufacturers as part of the
original equipment installation. Where field
installations are made, extremely close
cooperation between the vehicle manufacturer,
the manufacturers of the auxiliary axle and
suspension, and the supplier who installs
this equipment will be required to assure
that the completed vehicle fully conforms to
the requirements of all safety standards and
is properly certified for such conforQance.
Auxiliary Axle Installations for Use with
Single Rear Drive Axles
There has been an increase in demand
for the installation of tag and pusher
axles for the following reasons:
1. Improved Fuel Economy - The use
of a single driving axle with an auxiliary
axle of the non-driving type is becoming
of increasing importance because of the
improved fuel economy provided by such
installations. In the booklet, ~Trucker's
Guide to Fuel Savings~ (20), the Cummins
Engine Company, Inc. estimates that the use
44
of a single driving axle in conjunction with
a non-driving auxiliary axle would provide
a three per cent improvement in fuel economy
over a tandem rear driving axle installation.
In view of the voluntary program to improve
the fuel economy of heavy motor trucks, this
factor is an important consideration.
Secondly, the higher fuel costs have
made it mandatory for all truck operators
to consider every practical means of reduc-
ing fuel consumption. Therefore, the pot-
ential for improved fuel economy is important
with respect to the increased demand for a
single driving axle combined with an auxil-
iary non-driving axle.
2. Inter-Axle Differential Maintenance
Costs - Because it is possible for a ~spin­
out~ condition to develop before the driver
could possibly engage the inter-axle differ-
ential control, and also because in some
cases the vehicle may be driven for an ex-
tended period of time with the inter-axle
differential locked, maintenance costs on
inter-axle differentials have been relatively
high on many tandem axle installations. In
some cases, the cost of inter-axle differen-
tial repairs has been such that operators
have felt that it would be desirable to sub-
stitute a single driving axle and a non-
driving auxiliary axle for the tandem rear
driving axle installation.
Unquestionably, some operators have been
able to reduce their maintenance costs, but
the desirability of making such a change
must be weighed with respect to the operat-
ing conditions from the standpoint of the
grades, weather conditions etc., that will be
encountered because of the reduced amount
of traction provided by the use of a single
driving axle.
As a result of these two conditions,
there has been a definite increase in the
demand for three axle tractors with a single
driving axle and present indications are that
this trend may continue, but perhaps at a
somewhat reduced rate. It is therefore
important to consider the types of suspen-
sions that are used with such installations.
From the standpoint of auxiliary axle
installations made at the factory, many of
the suspensions used with a single driving
axle and an auxiliary non-driving axle are
quite similar to those used with tandem rear
driving axles. However, certain design
modifications are required. In addition,
only a relatively limited capacity range
is required due to the fact that since such
installations are primarily required for
highway tractor applications, the capacity
range is limited to 34,000 to 38,000 pounds
subject to the comments made further below.
Many states still limit tandem rear
axles or equivalent to 32,000 pounds.
Since most such states also limit the weight
on a single axle to 18,000 pounds, it is
desirable that the drive axle carry 18,000
pounds and the non-driving axle carry the
rema1n1ng 14,000 pounds.
Similarly, in those states which have
fallen in line with the revised Federal
weight limitations, permitting 34,000 pounds
on a tandem axle and 20,000 pounds on a
single axle, it is desirable to place 20,000
pounds on the drive axle and 14,000 pounds on
the non-driving axle.
From the standpoint of placing 18,000
pounds on the drive axle with 32,000 pounds
on the two rear axles, the theoretically
ideal weight distribution would be 53-47%,
while to carry 20,000 pounds on the drive
axle with 34,000 pounds being carried on
the two rear axles, the desirable weight
distribution would be 59-41%.
At the present time, the weight dis-
tribution provided on the combination of
a single drive axle and an auxiliary non-
driving axle varies from 50-50% to 60-40%.
The most common weight distribution provided
is 55-45% in the case of a tag axle instal-
lation and 45-55% in the case of the pusher
axle installation.
As a result of the change in the Federal
weight law made in 1974, there is the pos-
sibility that there may be a trend towards
increasing the percentage of weight carried
on the drive axle since the 60-40% weight
distribution closely approximates the ideal
59-41% weight distribution required to
place 20,000 pounds on the drive axle, with
34,000 pounds on the two rear axles. Incre-
asing the percentage of weight on the drive
axle will be helpful from the standpoint of
reducing wheel slippage and improving tire
life on the drive axle because of the better
traction provided.
In some instances, the weight distribu-
tion provided between the drive and non-
driving axles can be varied by providing an
auxiliary axle lift, particularly where air
suspensions are provided. Changing the air
pressure in the air springs can be used to
vary the weight distribution so that when
difficult traction conditions are encountered,
the pressure in the air springs of the
auxiliary axle can be reduced and the weight
carried by the drive axle correspondingly
increased. In such cases, the weight dis-
tribution under normal highway operating
conditions and with good weather conditions
may be established at the optimum to provide
the combination of good tire wear and good
traction and then when poor traction condi-
tions are encountered, the weight on the
drive axle can be increased.
Where the suspension is provided with
an axle lift, the weight on the drive axle
can be substantially increased by lifting
the axle. In some cases, the axle may be
lifted completely clear of the road surface
so that the drive axle carries all of the
weight. Such a condition would only be
satisfactory in the case of a single driv-
ing axle for a relatively short period of
operation as otherwise the rear axle and
45
rear tires, as well as the suspension for
the driving axle, would be substantially
overloaded.
The following types of suspensions are
used with a single driving axle and an auxil-
iary non-driving axle:
Leaf Spring Suspensions
1. Walking Beam T_ype - The only walk-
ing beam type spring suspension suitable for
use with tag and pusher axles is the Hendrick-
son RTA 340 leaf spring suspension which is
basically similar to the Hendrickson con-
ventional leaf spring suspension used with
tandem rear dirivng axles, except for the
fact that the walking beam is offset to
provide 55-45% weight distribution on pusher
axle installations. This suspension is
available only with a 34,000 pound rating
and only with a forged aluminum beam which
has the proper offset to provide the required
weight distribution.
Reference should be made to Fig. 37,
entitled "Hendrickson RT Series Tandem Rear
Axle Spring Suspension," to determine the
basic construction furnished in this
suspension. The trunnion point is moved
forward on the tag axle installation and to
the rear on the pusher axle installation so
that one leg of the beam is 22-1/2" long
and the other leg of the beam is 27-1/2"
in length to provide 50" tandem axle spacing.
The spring and frame bracket assemblies
move with the change in the trunnion or
pivot point of the axle beam.
2. Four Spring Type - t4ost of the four
spring suspensions which are available for
use with dual drive axle installations can
be modified for use with tag axle installa-
tions and in addition some of the four spring
suspensions can be modified for use with
pusher axle installations. The change in
weight distribution is accomplished either
by changing the arm lengths of the equalizer
lever or by providing spacers between the
spring and the drive axle. As spacers of
increased height are installed below the
spring on the drive axle, the drive axle is
forced do\'/n, thereby redistributing the weight
as required. Gy selecting the proper spacer
thickness, the appropriate weight transfer
to the drive axle can be accomplished.
The thicker the spacer, the greater the
transfer of weight from the auxiliary non-
driving axle to the drive axle.
3. Air Suspensions - Most of the single
rear axle suspensions of the air spring type
would be suitable for use as a suspension
for the auxiliary non-driving axle used in
conjunction with a single drive axle. Most
of the field installations made using an
air suspension for the auxiliary axle retain
the conventional leaf spring type suspension
for the drive axle.
Ho~1ever, in the case of factory installa-
tions, this approach could be followed, or
an air suspension could be furnished for
both the drive axle and the auxiliary non-
 driving axle. In the latter case, to pro-
vide appropriate variations in the loading
between the drive axle and the auxiliary
non-driving axle with the same air pressure,
different sizes of air springs would be
used on the two axles.
The air suspensions will usually be
similar in design to those used with single
rear axle or tandem rear axle installations,
but in the case of the Western Unit suspen-
sion of the underslung spring type, there
is a change in the construction at the
front end of the spring. The Western Unit
,, suspension with the overslung spring intended
for use with a tag axle is illustrated in
Fig. 64, entitled "Western Unit Underslung
Spring Tag Axle Suspension."
4. Other Suspensions - There are other
suspensions which can be used with an auxil-
.. iary non-driving axle in conjunction with a
single driving axle. However, most such
special suspensions are primarily used with
tandem rear driving axles and therefore they
wi 11 be discussed in the material on suspen-
sions for auxiliary non-driving axles
intended for use with tandem rear drivitlg
·' axles.
Auxiliary Axle Installations for Use with
Tandem Rear Drive Axles
,, As a result of the weight restrictions
' applicable on the Interstate System and in
many states, it is often important to provide
one or more axles in addition to the three
axles provided on most heavy straight trucks.
Gross weight on any group of two or more
axles often limits the weight that can be
hauled in a given vehicle or combination due
either to the number of axles or the spacing
of axles. The addition of an auxiliary non-
driving axle can be helpful in providing
flexibility in loading and substantially
increasing the average gross weight that can
be hauled.
In most cases, three axle trucks to be
equipped with an auxiliary non-driving axle
usually retain the conventional tandem rear
axle suspension normally provided in such
vehicles. The tag or pusher axle is almost
always provided with an air suspension. The
ability to lift the axle off the ground is
mandatory due to the fact that many such
vehicles operate both on and off-highway and
it is necessary to lift the axle when operat-
ing off the highway to provide maximum trac-
-------------.,
Fig. 64 - Western unit under slungspring tag axle suspension
46
----,
01
I
I
Fig. 65 -Ole GranningT-lOOA tag axle suspension
Fig. 66 -Ole Granning T-SOOAP air pusher axle suspension
tion on the drive axles. Furthermore, when
returning empty, it is desirable to lift the
auxiliary axle to reduce the tire scuffing
problem created by the relatively l'Jng dis-
tance between the forward and reannost axle
of the three rear axles provided after the
auxiliary non-driving axle is added.
The following material will provide
information on a number of representative
suspensions normally provided for use with
an auxiliary non-driving axle in conjunction
with a tandem rear driving axle. Some of
these suspensions are also suitable for use
with a single rear driving axle.
1. Ole Granning- Ole Granning furnish-
es a number of suspensions for use with tag
or pusher axles with many of the installa-
tions being made in the field. The types
available are as follows:
a. TlOOA Tag Axle Suspension - This
suspension is intended for use in two axle
trucks or tractors with a tag axle installa-
tion. An air lift feature is available as
an option so that the load can be reduced or
the axle lifted off the ground when necessary.
The nominal rated capacity of this suspen-
sion is 20,000 pounds.
Fig. 65, entitled "Ole Granning TlOOA
Air Tag Axle Suspension," illustrates the
design of this suspension which has air
springs on each side of the vehicle mounted
directly above the axle and with the trail-
ing arm pivoted about a centrally located
pivot point and with the rear section of the
trailing arm arrangement sliding within a
slotted guideway to maintain the proper axle
alignment, control lateral axle movement, and
to provide a positive stop for downward
travel.

Fig. 67- Neway ART-505 series air auxiliary axle suspension with coil
spring lift
)-----------------)
L__ __ ~
' '
- __:~;;
0 0
- u
Fig. 68 - Page 1400 series auxiliary axle suspension
b. T200A Tag Axle Suspension - This
suspension is basically similar to the TlOOA
tag axle suspension except that it is intend-
ed for use in installing auxiliary non-driv-
ing axles on three axle trucks, primarily for
use in construction operations. It is in-
tended only for use as a tag axle installa-
tion. The basic design is similar to the
TlOOA, but the dimensions differ, as the
T200A suspension provides more vertical
travel and incorporates longer air springs.
An air lift kit is an available option.
c. T200AX Tag Axle Suspension - The
T200AX tag axle suspension was designed
specifically for use in ready-mix truck
chassis of the three axle type. An extra
high lift is provided by locating the axle to
the rear of the three air springs. No shock
absorbers are required. This suspension in-
corporates the centrally located drawbar pull-
ing point and the rear travel guide system
similar to those used in the TlOOA and T200A
suspensions. The capacity of the suspension
is 15,000 pounds and may be used with 15" or
20" whee 1s. As in the case of the Tl OOA and
T200A suspensions, the T200AX suspension is
available with an optional air lift kit to
increase the weight on the driving axles.
d. T500AP Pusher Axle Suspension - The
T500AP pusher axle air suspension system is
located forward of the drive axles and in-
cludes the centrally mounted drawbar pulling
point and provision of positive axle align-
ment throughout the entire vertical movement
of the axle by means of hardened wear plates
mounted on the outside of the frame rails.
The basic principles are generally similar
to the Granning tag axle suspensions, but
the construction naturally differs by virtue
of the location of the suspension and the
auxiliary axle. Fig. 66, entitled "Ole
Granning T500AP Air Pusher Axle Suspension,"
illustrates the basic design of this suspen-
sion. An air lift kit is available as an
option where required. The capacity of the
suspension is 20,000 pounds.
2. Neway Air Suspension - The Neway
ART500 series suspension is available for
use with a non-driving axle for both on and
off-highway operation and is rated at
20,000 pounds capacity. Basically, this
suspension is similar to the single drive
axle suspension provided by Neway with the
exception that clamping parts for a tubular
trailer type axle are provided and in addi-
tion, either an air lift or a coil spring
lift is provided to raise the axle. In the
0
0 4_
,--; __
'
__j
latter case, when the pressure is reduced in
the air springs, the coil spring operates to
raise the axle from the ground. Fig. 67,
entitled "Neway ART505 Series Air Auxiliary
Axle Suspension with Coil Spring Lift,"
illustrates the basic type of design provid-
ed in this suspension.
3. Page Suspensions - Page manufactures
a number of suspensions suitable for tag or
pusher axle installations to be added to three
axle trucks equipped with tandem rear driv-
ing axles. Two of the suspensions which
they provide are:
a. 1400 Series Lift Suspension- The
Page 1400 series suspension is suitable for
pusher or tag axle installations on trucks
equipped with two rear driving axles. The
capacity of this suspension is 18,000 pounds
with the load applied by means of pressure
in the air springs.
An automatic spring lift lifts the axle
off the ground when the air pressure is re-
leased. Fig. 68, entitled "Page 1400 Series
Auxiliary Axle Suspension," illustrates the
basic design of this suspension which
utilizes four high stability air springs
with the automatic spring lift feature and
is suitable for installation on most trucks
or tractors.
b. Liftmaster LM3000 Suspension- This
suspension is rated at 18,000 pounds and is
also suitable for use as either a tag or
pusher axle installation. The axle is
pivoted about points attached to frame
t 0 0
J
Fig. 69 -Page Liftrnaster LM-3000 series auxiliary axle suspension
47
 (-------~--~--~
l1o o ~I
0 0 0 road.
Fig. 70- Turner quick-lift auxiliary axle suspension
Fig. 71 - Front suspension used in the Ford trans-continental tractor
brackets with two high stability air springs
mounted over the axle and with an automatic
coil spring lift arrangement. Air pressure
control is provided by means of a cab
mounted switch. Fig. 69, entitled "Page
Liftmaster LM3000 Series Auxiliary Axle
Suspension," illustrates the basic design
of this suspension.
4. Turner Quick Lift Suspension -
Turner provides a number of quick lift
suspensions for tag or pusher axle installa-
tions which are normally used in conjunction
with tandem rear driving axles. The basic
principle is generally similar to that of
the Page 1400 series suspension in that the
load is applied by means of air pressure
exerting a downward force on the axle. When
the air pressure is released by means of a
cab control switch, the springs lift the
axle off the ground.
However, in this design, radius rods
are provided between the lower spring clip
plates on the axle and frame brackets. Both
ends of the spring are of the slipper type.
The capacity of the suspension system is
20,000 pounds. Fig. 70, entitled "Turner
Quick Lift Auxiliary Axle Suspension,"
illustrates the basic design of this
suspension.
Tandem Drive Axle and Suspension
Recommendations. Because of the necessity
of providing auxiliary axle lift provisions
for suspensions used in conjunction with
tandem rear driving axles, the weight on the
other axles in the truck will increase sub-
stantially if the auxiliary axle is lifted
when the truck is loaded. Since this situa-
tion will occur in most cases in the off-
road phase of the operation, the proper capa-
city tandem drive axles and suspensions must
be provided. It is therefore essential to
review the loading carried on the axles and
suspensions when the auxiliary axle is lifted
~ff the ground and the vehicle is fully
loaded. Adequate capacity of these compon-
ents should then be specified, particularly
48
since the operation will take place off the
In the absence of specific data with
respect to the details of the loading under
such conditions, a general rule of thumb
which has been used is that the capacity
of the tandem rear axles and the suspension
should be increased by a minimum of one
size. In other words, if, with all axles in
contact with the ground, the normal loading
on the tandem rear axles is 38,000 pounds,
the minimum capacity tandem rear axles and
suspension which should be specified if a
liftable auxiliary non-driving axle is pro-
vided, is 44,000 pounds. However, in all
cases, this rule of thumb may not provide
adequate capacity for these components and
therefore an analysis of requirements should
be made to assure the selection of the proper
size of load carrying components.
EUROPEAN SUSPENSIONS
No discussion of suspensions for heavy
duty trucks would be complete without a
brief review of the significant differences
between suspensions used in heavy trucks in
the United States and in Europe. Operating
conditions and requirements differ substan-
tially and perhaps nowhere has there been
such a significant departure in design trends
between United States and European practice
than in the suspensions used in many of the
heavy trucks.
Road and traffic conditions differ (21).
While Europe has some outstanding roads, the
density of population has resulted in rela-
tively heavy traffic which must often be
routed through urban areas. In addition,
there is a somewhat limited number of roads
suitable for heavy vehicle traffic.
Furthermore, because of the size of the
area in which heavy trucks operate in
Western Europe, the lengths of haul are
limited and the annual mileage accumulated
by trucks in over the road service does not
exceed 70,000 to 80,000 miles, as compared
with much greater mileage (up to 250,000
miles per year) accumulated in the United
States.
The types of vehicles differ to a
certain extent. European operations are very
heavily oriented in the direction of cab-
over-engine trucks and relatively few con-
ventional trucks or tractors are used in
over-the-road service. Furthermore, there
is a greater preponderence of truck and full
trailer operation with the requirements for
tractor semi-trailer combinations increas-
ing, but as yet representing a smaller per-
centage of the heavy combinations in use
than is the case in the United States.
Axle loads and gross combination weights
permitted in Europe are slightly greater than
those normally permitted in the United States.
A single axle is permitted loadings of 22,100
to 28,700 pounds, while tandem axles are per-
mitted loadings of 32,000 to 46,300 pounds,
depending upon the country (22). This com-
pares with loadings of 18,000 to 24,000 pounds
permitted in the various states on a single
axle and 32,000 to 40,680 pounds permitted
on tandem axles, with the Federal Interstate
System limits now being 20,000 and 34,000
pounds on single and tandem axles respective-
ly (2).
As a result of the differences in oper-
ating conditions, considerably more develop-
ment work has been expended on suspensions in
Europe to provide improved road ability and
driver comfort together with cargo protection.
For over-the-road highway trucks, suspensions
have been developed to provide the lowest
feasible frequency which required relatively
soft and correspondingly long springs.
Furthermore, features have been incorporated
in many of the European suspensions used in
over-the-road vehicles which are not normally
found in U. S. suspensions (22).
Efforts have also been made to reduce the
inter-leaf friction by various means. The
use of tapered leaf ends, plastic intermediate
liners and specific attention to the detailed
design of the springs to reduce the contact
between the leaves to the minimum are several
of the methods used to reduce inter-leaf fric-
tion. Hydraulic shock absorbers are used to
a greater extent than is the case in the United
States, particularly on rear axle suspensions.
In addition,, there is wide-spread usage of
torsion bar stabilizers to provide the nec-
essary stability and resistance to rollover
with the relatively soft springs used.
Front Suspensions - Front suspensions
normally used in European trucks for over-
the-road operation are basically of the leaf
spring type with the front eye fixed and a
shackle provided at the rear of the spring,
However, beyond that basic similarity with
U.S. manufactured suspensions for the front
axle, there are significant differences.
One of the advantages which European
manufacturers have is that they are not con-
cerned with the bridge formula, which makes
it desirable to locate the front axle not
more than 30" back of the front bumper to
take full advantage of the weight laws ex-
isting in the United States, both on the Fed-
eral and State levels. It has therefore
been possible for them to locate the front
axle in such a position in relation to the
front bumper so that front springs of the re-
quired length to obtain the degree of "soft-
ness" desired can be provided.
Spring lengths are therefore substan-
tially greater than provided in the United
States with lengths up to 75" being generally
representative of the front spring suspen-
sions used in heavy European over-the-road
trucks. Both single stage and two stage
front springs are employed. One manufacturer
in his over-the-road trucks provides a spring
rate of 830 pounds per inch which is rela-
tively low for front axle loadings which run
49
TORSION BAR STABILIZER
Fig. 72 - Typical European single rear axle suspension
up to 6 metric tons, or approximately 13,300
pounds.
To compensate for the extremely soft
spring rates, torsion bar stabilizers are
normally provided on such installations. In
addition, hyraulic double acting shock
absorbers are provided. Fig. 71, entitled
"Front Suspension Used in the Ford Trans-
continental Tractor," illustrates the rela-
tively long springs, which are of the single
stage type in this case, the torsion bar
stabilizer and the hydraulic double acting
shock absorbers (23).
Single Rear Axle Suspensions - While
there is some usage in Europe of the varia-
ble rate springs with leaf-type radius rods
primarily with auxiliary springs, the more
common suspension used on trucks equipped
with a single rear axle are main springs
fixed at the front eye and shackled at the
rear eye with auxiliary springs mounted above
the main springs. Torsion bar stabilizers
are normally incorporated with this type of
suspension and hydraulic shock absorbers of
the double acting type are often supplied
and, if not furnished as standard equipment,
are made available as an option. As in the
case of front springs, the rear main springs
are substantially longer than is normally
considered acceptable practice in the United
States and spring lengths up to 75" are
representative of this basic type of in-
stallation. Spring rates are correspon-
dingly low with the necessary stability be-
ing provided by the auxiliary springs and
the stabilizers.
Fig. 72, entitled "Typical European
Single Rear Axle Suspension," illustrates the
basic design concept of such a suspension,
showing both the long main and auxiliary
springs and the use of the torsion bar
stabilizer, together with hydraulic shock
absorbers.
In one effort to provide a suspension
with "a soft as possible" ride on a single
rear axle vehicle, three stage springs have
been provided. This suspension incorporates
a single stage main spring, a progressive
type second stage mounted below the main
spring, auxiliary springs mounted above the
main spring, a torsion bar stabilizer and
shock absorbers. Fig. 73, entitled "Three
Stage Rear Spring Suspension Installation,"
illustrates this basic design (23). In some

TORSION BAR STABILIZER
Fig. 73 -Three stage rear spring suspension installation
J
1-
l spring construction with six torque rods
, tractors include the fact that the effec-
Fig. 7 4 - Single rear axle air suspension
instances, hollow rubber springs are mounted
above the auxiliary springs to provide for
the potential use of even softer springs in
the initial stages and yet provide the nec-
essary stability for the fully loaded vehicle.
Air suspensions are used to a greater
extent in Europe than in the United States
and generally, these air suspension installa-
tions are somewhat more complicated than
many of the U.S. air suspensions.
Fig. 74, entitled "Single Rear Axle Air
Suspension," illustrates one type of air
suspension being used in Europe. A parallel-
ogram arrangement is provided by the upper
and lower torque rods. A saddle is attached
to the axle, extending both forward and rear-
ward of the axle with air springs being
supported at their lower end at each end of
the saddle. The suspension incorporates
four air springs, a torsion bar stabilizer
and hydraulic doub 1e acting shock absorbers.
Tandem Rear Axle Suspensions - European
vehicles incorporate various types of leaf
spring suspensions for use with tandem rear
axles, including the four spring and the two
overslung spring design with six torque rods.
For over-the-road operation, the de-
tails of design differ in some respects from
U. S. practice in efforts to provide softer
spring rates.
The Ford Transcontinental tractor is
offered with a four spring suspension in
which the four spring assemblies are each
anchored at the front end to the chassis
frame, but the rear end of each spring is
connected by a system of bell crank levers
and compression rods to equalize the load-
ing throughout the suspension movement.
Anti-roll bars or torsion bar type
stabilizers are attached to both axles in
the tandem set to provide the necessary sta-
bility. Four hydraulic shock absorbers are
50
Fig. 75- Four spring tandem rear axle suspension used in the Ford trans-
continental tractor
provided in this suspension which is illus-
trated in Fig. 75 entitled "Four Spring
Tandem Rear Axle Suspension Used in the Ford
Transcontinental Tractor."
A typical example of the two overslung
used in over-the-road trucks and tractors
is that provided by Mercedes-Benz in certain
of their 6 x 4 models. The basic design of
this suspension is quite similar to equiv-
alent types supplied in the United States.
However, the features of the Mercedes-Benz
suspension for over-the-road trucks and
tive length of the sprinq is increased by
extending the spring pads on top of the axles
beyond the axle proper so that the contact
points of the spring under load provide an
effective length longer than the tandem axle
spacing. The rate of the springs is reduced
by providing relatively thin leaves which
are tapered at the ends to reduce inter-leaf
friction. In addition, a torsion bar stab-
ilizer is provided for the rear rear axle.
Fig. 76, entitled "Two Overslung Spring
Tandem Rear Axle Suspensions Used in Mercedes-
Benz 6 x 4 Over-the-Road Trucks," illustrates
the design of this suspension. Four hydrau-
lic shock absorbers mounted outside of the
frame rails are provided.
The same basic suspension is used in
Mercedes-Benz dump and construction type
trucks but there are differences in design
which are significant. The spring consists
of fewer but thicker leaves to increase the
rate and decrease the deflection. The leaves
are flat at the ends and do not incorporate
the taper provided on the over-the-road
spring. Furthermore, the spring contacts
the axle spring pads at the centerline of
the housings, thereby reducing the effective
length of the spring and further increasing
the stiffness. The torsion bar stabilizers
and the hydraulic shock absorbers are el im-
inated.
Tandem axle trucks and tractors are
also made available with air suspensions.
As is the case 1n the United States when air
suspensions are furnished on tandem rear
driving axles, the installations really con-
sist of two basic air suspensions of the
type used with the single rear axle. Thus,
the installation illustrated in Fig. 74,
entitled, "Single Rear Axle Air Suspension,"
is generally representative of the tandem
axle installation for this type of air
suspension except that the frame bracket is
centrally located between the axles and the
upper and lower torque rods for the forward

Fig. 76 - Two overslung spring tandem rear axle suspension used in
Mercedes-Benz over-the-road trucks
axle run back to the centrally located cross-
member and frame bracket, with the torsion
bar stabilizer and shock absorbers located
ahead of the center line of the forward
rear axle.
It is evident that many of the suspen-
sions furnished on European heavy trucks
must be considered as premium suspensions
which are required because of the differences
in operating conditions between the United
States and Europe. In addition to the
higher initial cost involved in providing
many of these European suspensions, it must
be anticipated that maintenance costs will
also be higher due to the addition of many
parts which are subject to wear. The higher
maintenance costs may not be of the same
significance in Europe as in the United
States because of the substantial difference
in average annual mileage accumulated in
over-the-road operation.
Nevertheless the trends in European
suspensions are of considerable interest
as some of these developments may eventually
find their way into some of the U.S. manu-
factured vehicles.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, an effort has been made
to present a survey of the state of the
art of suspensions for heavy-duty trucks.
In addition, information has been provided
on some of the factors which must be con-
sidered in selecting and applying various
types of suspensions.
There is a need for suspensions which
provide improved ride, better protection
to the cargo, greater stability, reliability
and durability and yet not result in signi-
ficantly higher initial costs and particu-
larly not in higher operating costs and
increased downtime.
~Jhile many improvements in suspensions
have been made, there is still an opportuni-
ty and a challenge to en9ineers to improve
suspensions to better meet the objectives of
good suspension design and which will satis-
factorily fulfill the basic functions of
heavy truck suspensions.
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51
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