Urban and Regional Planning

TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE CONTENTS PAGE NO.

COURSE TITLE and SUMMARY v
COURSE OVERVIEW vi
GRADING SYSTEM & COURSE
REQUIREMENTS vii
CLASS CODE OF ETHICS ix
COURSE OUTLINE/ COURSE SCHEDULE x
1.0 AN INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW OF URBAN AND REGIONAL
1.1 PLANNING HISTORY
History of Planning, Ancient Civilizations 1
Evolution of Planning 7
Planning Philosophies 11
Approaches to Planning 13
History of Urban Planning in the Philippines 21
1.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS 28
Urbanism 28
Urbanization 28
Urbanized Area 28
Metropolis and Metropolitan area 28
City 28
Conurbation, Megalopolis, Superconurbation 28
City System or Urban System 28
Pre-Industrial City 28
Post-Industrial City 29
Primary City 29
Colonial City 29
Socialist City 29
New Towns 29
FUNDAMENTAL OF URBAN AND REGIONAL
1.3 PLANNING 30
What is Planning? 30
Planning Theories 32
Differentiation of Planning 32
The Architect in the Realm of Urban and
Regional Planning 32
1.4 THE PLANNING PROCESS 34
The Planning Process 34
Planning Paradigms 36
2.0 URBAN PLANNING TODAY
ii
URBAN PLANNING IN DEVELOPED
2.1 COUNTRIES 43
Britain 43
France 44
Italy and Greece 45
URBAN PLANNING IN DEVELOPMENT
2.2 COUNTRIES 48
Indian Subcontinent 48
China 49
Southeast Asia 50
2.3 THE PHILIPPINE PLANNING SYSTEM 52
2.4 CURRENT URBAN PLANNING PROBLEMS 53
Excessive Size 53
Overcrowding 53
Shortage of Services 53
Traffic Congestion 53
Lack of Social Responsibility 53
Unemployment and Underemployment 53
Racial and Social Issues 54
Environmental Degradation 54
Urban Expansion and Loss of Agricultural Land 54
Administrative Organization 54
3.0 REGIONAL PLANNING
3.1 PRINCIPLES OF REGIONAL PLANNING 55
3.2 REGIONAL PLANNING IN THE PHILIPPINES 56
SECTOR PLANNING: SOCIO-ECONOMIC
4.0 DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
4.1 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 58
4.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 60
5.0 SECTOR PLANNING: PHYSICAL PLANNING

5.1 LAND USE PLANNING 61
Function of Land Use Planning 61
Land Use Regulation 61
Private Land Use Regulation 62
Land Use Regulation Strategies 62
Comprehensive Zoning 62
Techniques of Comprehensive Zoning 62
Trends and Techniques of Land Use Planning 66
Concepts of Land Use Planning 67
5.2 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING 70
Concepts of Transportation Planning 70
Forecasting 70
Transportation Planning in Metro Manila 74
iii
5.3 INFRASTRCTURE PLANNING 76
Introduction 76
Technical/Urban Infrastructure 76
Technical System 77
Water 78
Sewerage 79
Waste Disposal 79
Energy 80
Telecommunications 80
Traffic 80
Infrastructure and Planning 83
6.0 SPECIALIZED FIELDS

PLANNING FOR THE PHYSICAL
6.1 ENVIRONMENT 84
Philippine Agenda 21 84
The Ecosystems 84
Sustainable Development 84
Unsustainable Development 87
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION, FISCAL PLANNING,
6.2 AND MANAGEMENT 89
6.3 HISTORIC PRESERVATION 90
6.4 TOURISM PLANNING IN THE PHILIPPINES 92
ABSTRACTS OF CHOSEN BOOKS 93

RECOMMENDED CLASS ACTIVITIES 95
SAMPLE EXAM 96
LIST OF REFERENCES 97
APPENDICES 99
APPENDIX A: TIMELINE AND
CHRONOLOGICAL MATRIX OF
PLANNING CITIES AND SETTLEMENTS 100
APPENDIX B: PLANNING CHART 103
APPENDIX C: FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF
PLANNING IN THE PHILIPPINES 104
iv
ARCH 62
INTRODUCTION TO URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
This course is normally taken in the student’s fifth year. The aim of this course is to given the
student an introduction to urban and regional planning and the concepts, principles, and skills
involved. The student is taught the basics of these topics and aims to increase the awareness of
the student with regards to these aspects of architecture.
This course also aims to impart to the students concepts and emerging trends in the realm of
urban and regional planning, an overview of the methods and techniques involved, and the
significance or importance of planning in the spatial arrangement of various elements in the built
environment.
v
COURSE OVERVIEW
Course Code ARCH 62
Course Title INTRODUCTION TO URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
Course Description Concepts and emerging trends; cursory survey of methods and
techniques in urban and regional planning; its importance to the
proper spatial development of the built environment.
No. of Hours/ Week Three (3) hours lecture
Credit Units Three (3) units
Pre-Requisites ARCH 61 Fundamentals of Urban Design and Community Arch.
Objectives 1. To be able to understand and explain the general planning

process.
2. To be able to understand and expound on the basic foundation of
planning.
3. To be able to foresee the implication of specific projects by having
a broader framework in architecture.
4. To be able to identify, describe, and apply the techniques relevant
to the rank of the architect as a design professional.
5. To be able to discuss the current thoughts and practices with
regards to the plan formulation and implementation.
List of References  Introduction to Planning, 2nd Ed., Ernest Alexander, 1993.

 Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning, 3rd Ed., Peter
Hall, 1992.
 Action Planning for Cities, N. Hamdi & R. Goethert, 1997.
 HLRB Planning Guides
 Cities of the World, Brunn & Williams, 1993.
 An Introduction to Regional Planning, John Glasson, 1974.
 Applied Methods of Regional Analysis, D.A. Rodinelli, 1985.
 Urban Planning, Catanese & Snyder, 1998.
 Environmental Problems in Third World Cities, Jorge E.
Hardoy, et al., 1992.
 National Urban Development and Housing Framework Report,
HLRB, 1999.
 Urban Development and Planning in Metro Manila, MMDA,
1996.
vi
GRADING SYSTEM
AND
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
Grading System
Level of learning Grade Point equivalent

Excellent 96-100 1.00
Very Good 90-95 1.25
Good 86-90 1.50
Satisfaction 81-85 1.75
76-80 2.00
Fair 71-75 2.25
66-70 2.50
61-65 2.75
Passed 50-60 3.00
Failed Bellow 50 5.00
Course Requirements
Grade Percentage Share

Requirement Options Non- Exempted Definition/Parameters/Intent
exempted
This is meant to assess the
experiences of the student that
could be related to better clarity
concepts, techniques and issues
Site Design Plate 20% 20% to be lectured and discussed in
class. These would be graded in
terms of thoroughness and
honesty in expression and
presentation of personal ideas.
This is to assess the level of
Examinations per 30% 30% learning grasped and
Module (3) understood by the student by
course modules.
This is to communicate and
Group Presentation 10% 15% apply the basic concepts,
theories and tools learned in the
course on a specific local area.
This is to document the works of
Group Written Report 15% 20% the students to contribute to the
body of knowledge in the field.
Group Peer Grade 5% 10% This is to learn effectively and
constructively interact with each
other to achieve an end and
assess each other’s learning
capacity.
vii
Student This includes class attendance,
Attitude/Interest 5% 5% participation, demeanor, and
general behavior in class.
This is to give opportunity for
those who cumulatively was not
Final Examination 15% able to learn satisfactorily in
class and for those who want to
take the risk to raise their
exemption grade.
Finals Exemption Grade: 2.5
TOTAL 100% 100% ( refer to Grading System )
*** May vary according to the lecture/teacher’s preference.

CLASS CODE OF ETHICS
Students are expected to understand that learning is a two-way process. The teacher and the
students should enrich each other. Such being the case, the responsibility of making sure that
would come out of the course as better individuals falls on both parties.
All lectures and inputs by the teacher shall serve as take-off points and guides only. They are
best complemented by analytical thinking that is supposed to be simulated by the student’s own
observation’s readings, and discussions done outside the classroom,
To facilitate this learning process, these class policies shall be adhered to by the students:
1. No “late” option. Students shall come to class either early or on-time or be marked absent.
This policy seeks to discourage habitual tardiness that disrupts the class once it has already
started with the session’s activities.
2. Academic noise. Only this type of noise (immediate reactions/remarks on what the teachers
presented that are naturally shared with the seatmate) shall be occasionally allowed. Students,
however, are encourage to share these reactions with the whole class. Prolonged discussions,
as well as discussion not related with the course shall be grounds for asking students to leave
the room,
3. No electronic or communication devices. All cellular phones, pagers, radios shall be

turned off during the class and during examination.
4. Proper decorum. Students are to observe proper decorum in class. They are also expected
to dress up decently for the class. Sleeping and eating are not allowed in the classroom.
5. Representation. Students shall ask permission from the teacher and/or the College Dean if
they are to seek access to facilities or information in the College’s name. Letters for other
offices/institutions shall be properly prepared using the college stationery.
6. Group Works. All group members shall contribute to the group works that shall be
collectively graded. For group presentation, the members are expected to make the necessary
arrangements for the required room and presentation equipment.
7. Use of the classroom. Students and teacher alike shall leave the classroom in the same
state it was in when they entered it. Rooms shall left clean with chairs and tables in the same
order and electric fans, air conditions, and lights turned off.
8. Honesty. Cheating in any form shall be penalized with a grade of 5.0 for the course and/or
expulsion from the College/University.
ix
COURSE OUTLINE
SESSION MODULE CONTENT ACTIVITY OBJECTIVES

OPTIONS
Course Objectives, Policies, Discussion To understand
Requirements the nature of the
course.
1.0 An introduction
History of Planning, Ancient Lecture, To provide an
Civilization Readings, introduction to
Evolution of Planning Discussion the history of
Planning Philosophies planning, its
Approaches to Planning concepts, its
History of Urban Planning in process, and its
the Philippines relevance to the
Definition of Terms architectural
Fundamentals of Urban and field/profession.
Regional Planning
The Planning Process
Planning Paradigms
2.0 Urban Planning Today

Urban planning in Lecture, To be able to
Development Countries Readings, analyzed and
Urban planning in Discussion compare the
Development Countries development and
developed
countries of
today.
The Philippines planning To further bring
system, current urban understanding to
planning issues the planning
system of the
country and to be
able to analyze
the pitfalls and
successes and
be able to give
feasible solutions
to the different
problems
plaguing the
cities today
3.0 Regional Planning
x
Principles of Regional Lectures, To be able to
Planning, Regional Planning in Readings, explain the
the Philippines Discussion principles of
regional planning
and apply it in
theoretical/actual
samples.
4.0 Sector Planning: Socio-
Economic Development
Planning
Social Development Planning, Lecture, To be able to
Economic Development Readings, distinguish the
Planning Discussion differences
between social
development
planning,
economic
development
planning and
knows its
importance in the
field of planning.
Learning Assessment Q2: Modules
2, 3, & 4
5.0 Sector Planning: Physical
Planning
Land Use Planning: Functions, Lectures, To understand the
Regulations Readings, concepts of land
Land Use Planning: Discussion use planning and
Comprehensive Zoning, its relation to the
Techniques architectural field.
Land Use Planning: Trends & To know the many
Techniques of Land Use aspects involved in
Planning transportation &
Land Use Planning: Concepts infrastructure
Transportation Planning: planning and to be
Concepts, Forecasting able to integrate it
Transportation Planning in into
Metro Manila theoretical/actual
Infrastructure Planning: planning
Introduction Technical situations.
Infrastructure, Technical
System
Infrastructure Planning: Water,
Sewerage, Waste, Disposal,
Energy
Infrastructure Planning:
Telecommunications, Traffic,
Infrastructure and Planning
ix
Learning Assessment Q3: Module 5
6.0 Specialized Fields
Planning for the Physical Lecture, To understand
Environment: Philippine Readings, why there is a
Agenda 21, the ecosystem Discussion need to involve
environmental
planning in the
local context and
know its
importance in
society.
Sustainable Development To determine what
and Unsustainable is the role of local
Development administration,
Local Administration, Fiscal fiscal planning and
Planning, and Management management in
Historic Preservation and the planning
Tourism Planning professional.
Consolidation Consolidation
Lecture or
Discussion
Final Class Learning Final
Assessment Examination
Final Grading
of Students
xii
NOTE:
This syllabus was created with notes from previous lectures from teachers and students.
Not all sources used in the creation of this syllabus are obtained and mentioned at the end
pages.
These notes were taken down verbatim, and the sources of which are not identified.
xiii
MODULE
MODULE 1.0 AN INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING HISTORY
1.1.1 HISTORY OF PLANNING, ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
The first urban civilizations were those located in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley,
Egypt, China, Peru, and India. See Appendix A for the Timeline.
Time chart showing the

comparative dates of the seven
first civilizations.
From the book by AEJ Morris,

“History of the Urban Form”
The physical base of the city were the elements that give it form, such as
buildings, parks, roads, and the like. The economic base of the city provides it with the reason
for its existence. Order is important for the political base of a city, and a social base is vital for a
city’s meaning.
The physical base of cities are well-defined in the classical cities of the ancient
times. The imposition of regular street patterns, the domination of the center by buildings
devoted to worship, government, and business, which meant that power and domination was
based on the core of the classical city. Housing, while present in the remaining spaces, was not
responsible for the city form. Planners during this time planned cities and designed them to
satisfy the wishes of the ruling parties or leaders. They were constrained by political, economic,
social, and physical conditions.
The planning of cities in ancient times is the precursor of what we consider as

urban pattern today.
ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 1

MODULE
1.1.1.1 THE FERTILE CRESCENT

Urbanization is said to have begun at around 4000 BC (Bronze Age: 4000 to
3000 BC) at the Fertile Crescent, which stretched from the Nile Valley to the alluvial plain of the
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Urban planning began with the development of the Sumerian city-
kingdoms. The Sumerians of Assyria had warrior-kings who build cities that were both
fortresses and marketplaces. Most of these cities had a population of around 3000 to 5000
people.
These cities were planned, built around a ziggurat that served as both temple
and astronomical observatory. The center of the city contained the ziggurat, the palace, and
other public buildings. A massive wall surrounded the entire city and the lower walls of the
public buildings were decorated with the earliest-known examples of public art: paintings on
plaster and/or bas-reliefs..
The capital of the Babylonian Empire, Babylon, was one of the earliest cities, and
has as many as 10,000 people at its height in history. It was built like other Sumerian cities of
the Bronze Age but was rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II in the 6th century BC. The new plan had a
regular street plan, with the Hanging Gardens on the Euphrates River at the north wall, while the
temple and tower remained in the center.
1.1.1.2 EGYPT
Cities in Egypt were generally small, although its civilization was city-oriented.
One of the oldest cities was Kahun, which was built to house the workers and artisans working
on the Illahun pyramid. Housing consisted of little cells grouped together for the slaves, with a
hierarchy of accommodations for the artisans.
The city of Kahun, like the others such as Giza, was abandoned after the
pyramids were completed. These were never considered as permanent

MODULE
towns, but were more appropriately considered a necropolis, or city for the dead.
Housing layout in Kahun, Egypt
From the book by Arthur B. Gallion, “The Urban Pattern”.
1.1.1.3 INDUS VALLEY

In the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-daro and Harrrapa had streets that were arranged
in a regular pattern. The dwellings were compactly built about the interior courts and the height
of buildings was established in proportion to the width of the streets. Sanitation was of relatively
high order and underground sewers extended about the towns, disposal lines were connected
to the dwellings.
The city Mohenjo-Daro was built in 3000 B.C. A relatively advanced civilization
thrived in this city, with houses ranging in size – from two room affairs to mansions with a
multitude of rooms. A major street ran in the north-south (Frist Street) and east-west (East
Street) directions. The buildings were made of masonry and the street were paved, and sewer
drainage existed. The principal buildings that were found when the site was excavated were the
public bath and the monastery.

MODULE
Mohenjo-daro, Stupa view
From www.harappa.com
Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan
From www.harappa.com
1.1.1.4 GREECE
Greek city planning, planning followed a gridiron form. In the 5th century BC,
when Pericles led the establishment of democracy, the

MODULE
democracy assembly area where the people had their meetings became the city center in urban
design (replace the ruler’s palace). Eventually, as democracy grew and became more
developed, the houses and community facilities became the most important elements of the city.
Hippodamus developed the first theoretical basis for physical planning in cities.
By observing Sumerian and Egyptian cities, he came up with the proposal of the rectangular
street system or gridiron pattern for cities. This was meant to give geometric form to urban
spaces. He developed the concept of the central marketplace called an agora. The city’s
commercial business was conducted in this space, considered distinct from the people’s political
assembly area called the pynx or open-air forum.
Eventually, democracy was threatened when the wealthy citizens began to flee
the city to move to their country estates and villas to avoid debated and civic involvement to
enjoy a life of luxury without struggle. The lesser leaders and more corrupt and greedy
politicians were allowed to assume a position that allowed them to plunder the cities’ assets.
The flight of wealthy city residents from the city center is the first example of city deterioration
caused by suburbanization.

MODULE
The Hellenistic period gave way to the classical style of planning and design,
which is still in evidence until now. This period was a transition phase to the more military and
defense-oriented planning of the Romans..
1.1.1.5 ROME
Athens was replaced by Rome as the center of the western world during the time
of the Roman Empire. The Roman Republic expanded its rule throughout neighboring lands and
continued to conquer other lands to establish their world order – Pax Romana or Roman peace.
The concept was one world composed of different people under one supreme leader.
The population of Rome increased as it grew in power and wealth, and caused
problems regarding housing, water, and transportation. Apartment blocks were built to cope with
the problem. These eight-story buildings were being built until the first century AD, when
Augustus imposed a 70-foot height limit. This was the first example of zoning. Aqueducts were
constructed to bring in fresh water due to water shortage within the city. Each emperor built one
greater than the previous.
Roman are considered to be the first regional planners due to their

understanding of the importance of transportation within the empire. Roads were planned and
built to connect the different cities and to allow communications and commerce from Rome to
the other cities. These roads also allowed imperial armies to travel quickly to maintain order and
peace.
The Romans built military cities throughout the empire as an attempt to draw off
some of the migration to Rome and to serve ass Roman symbols of law and order. These
military cities had a master plan with very few variations. These were built in a gridiron pattern,
dominated by civic buildings at the intersection of the two main roads. The housing in these
cities were basically small apartments, with atrium-style houses for the wealthy.
The Roman Forum
From www.kent.com

MODULE
Planned city building as a symbol of governmental power and presence was the
major contribution of the Roman Empire.
1.1.2 EVOLUTION OF PLANNING
1.1.2.1 MEDIEVAL PLANNING
There are two stages in medieval planning: the dark ages and the revival. In the
Dark Ages, the Christian Church kept the civilized values alive in Europe. The Dark Ages was
marked by the invasion of Europe by the Ostrogoths, the Huns, the Visigoths, the Alans, the
Sueves, the Slavs, and the Vandas.
This is the reason Christian monasteries were built on the fingers of Europe. The
arrival of the Augustine and other officials brought the ancient Roman concepts of law and
properly and ecclesiastical hierarchy for the administration.
The Church eventually imposed the peasant’s code of living with central control,
discipline, written charters, and legacies. England was also divided into sees, each with its own
cathedral and bishopric. The bishopric was responsible for the spiritual welfare, financial and
legal affairs of the citizens it was assigned to.
Once a cathedral was established, a considerable number of people would

create a community around it. Eventually, monasteries were built in and around these cities.
The recovery of Europe from the Dark Ages brought about new urban forms
courtesy of the invaders. Some older walled Roman cities survived the attacks and invasions.
Trade routes between northern Europe and the Mediterranean in the Dark Ages were cut
because of the invasions. Many cities became deserted and fell into decline due to this.
Large dominant towers called keeps were built for defense against attack and
these towers were big enough that it accommodated the family of the lord and his tenants.
These European castles were built for defenses and people clustered around them protection.
This type of settlement is called a burgus, where the word borough is derived.

MODULE
Place of Refuge
From the book by Ludwig Hilberseimer, The Nature of Cities.
Europe eventually recovered from the invasions and the villagers began to clear
the land around the villages for agricultural use. The population grew and abbots and bishops
began planning for new towns to be located outside the gates of their monasteries and
cathedrals. Lords started planning new towns below their castle gates; traffic could still be
controlled due to the presence of the gates. A tax or duty can be levied on virtually everything
that passes through these gates, whether going in or out of town. The portcullis draw at
sundown, the gates were locked, and the city becomes insulated from the outside world. Those
that could not afford to live within the city were also isolated.
OUT
IN
RICH
POOR

MODULE
Trade and manufacturing were the two factors that influenced the form of the
medieval city. Merchant agglomerations were constructed close to the old ecclesiastical towns
or feudal fortresses. The marketplace is the center of affairs in the cities and towns and the lots
adjacent to the market place commanded a high price for occupancy.
The frontages that were considered second-best were those that were located on
the streets that led from the gates. Anything else aside from these were considered third-best
and were used for housing.
As more merchants and trades came to the cities, it became congested and new
burgs were built outside the walls of the city, against the walls of the old one. This was called
the “outside burg”.
When the merchants could afford to, their fabourgs grew and they built walls and
palisades. Others started their fabourgs outside theirs and built against the wall they erected.
This resulted in a city that grew in concentric, irregular loops.
For all intents and purposes, the city may have been initially planned, but was
eventually left to grow on its own. Medieval cities were usually irregular in nature and followed
the topography of the site since it was much simpler than grading or flattering the land.
Transportation was via mules, wheeled vehicle weren’t in use yet so there was no use for
regular streets. The buildings had the tendency to encroach the street. In York, for example, the
shanties’ upper stories were projected until they almost touched each other.
Medieval cities had regulations regarding the type of materials used for building.
They used fireproof materials due to the proximity of the houses and the threat that thatched
and timber-framed houses posed.
Siena is a classical example of a highly irregular city. It is clustered around the

Castel Vecchio.
ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

MODULE
Sierra Civic Square
From the book by Ludwig Hilberseimer, The Nature of Cities.
1.1.2.2 RENAISSANCE PLANNING
The advocate of medieval irregular planning in the Renaissance Period was

Leona Battista Albert, According to Albert, the town should have its squares for commerce and
defense and should have narrow, winding streets that may offer the people protection from the
sun or let them enjoy it. These streets would also be for defense so the enemy may be confused
and get lost within the maze of streets. Like Vitruvius, he suggested that the town should be
located in the healthiest possible climate, and should be walled, with battlements, tower, and
gates.
While advocated of irregular planning were many, the Renaissance city was more
regular than the medieval as the gridiron theme was used, with piazzas grouped symmetrically
within the grid.
1.1.2.3 BAROQUE PLANNING
Baroque planning was the final flowering of Renaissance planning in Europe. The
planning was first manifested in the spaces between the buildings, for example, Michelangelo’s
Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome. The axis was defined, and the facades were made
symmetrical.
1.1.2.4 THE INDUSTRIAL CITY
The invention of the steam engine in 1769 signalled the beginning of the industrial
revolution. Human labor was supplemented and/or replaced with machinery. The early impacts
of this period were increased congestion, safety hazards, and air and water pollution.
Transportation became a key elements in the industrial city and streets, raliways, shipping lines,
and canals were built to aid in the transfer of raw materials to the factories for

MODULE
processing. Unfortunately, these transportation facilities were simply laid over existing patterns,
without much thought to the dire consequences.
People were starting to have to travel to get to their workplace. Suburban living
became popular due to the hazards and increased congestion within the city. Those who could
afford to move to the outskirts of the city moved to the suburbs. Those who could not stayed in
the congested central areas.
1.1.2.5 TWENTIETH CENTURY PLANNING
Planning in the twentieth century is marked by the presence of the skyscraper.

Elevators broke barriers in vertical building. There were major improvements in the
transportation systems and the use of air-conditioning and metal frames in buildings became
prevalent.
The industrial sector made their presence known in the city, with different kinds
of industries: services and manufacturing. Zoning laws were created and implemented to control
and limit developments – setbacks were prescribes, as well building heights, etc. Developments
emerged due to the use of electricity. Along with these improvements, crime rates and birth
rates skyrocketed. A new urban form was developed.
1.1.3 PLANNING PHILOSOPHIES
The historic modes of planning give us different ways of thinking about the city, its
development, and design. The Greeks and Romans used ceremonies made to their godsto
determine where the cities should be located. Consultations to the oracles or the augurs, etc.
were made before anything was decided upon.
They were also concerned with the aspect, prospect, water requirements, sun path
related to the city, the need for shade, the direction of the prevailing winds, the factors that
affected comfort, convenience, and well-being. They were basically concerned about the
pleasure of those who were going to be living in the city.
There were three (3) basic ways of thinking: (1) pure geometry, (2) experience of the
human senses, and (3) trial and error. These basic ways of thinking were developed over the
centuries and are coherent and rival philosophies. These philosophies, empiricism, rationalism,
and pragmatism, eventually became more complex and had numerous supporters.
The empiricists placed their trust in the human senses, the rationalists worked in logical
steps to come to a conclusion, and the pragmatism preferred things which were know to work in
practice.
1.1.3.1 EMPIRICISM
The advocates of Empiricism were Sir Frances Bacon (1620), John Locke (1632-
1704), bishop Berkeley (1685-1753), and David Hume (1711-1776).
ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

MODULE
Sir Francis Bacon argued that everything that we know about the world around
us was grained through experience as received by the senses. Ideas are built through the
process of induction.
John Locke was considered the first true empiricist. According to him, all our
ideas are based on sensations (receiving information by way of the senses), and knowledge can
only be accumulated by experience over the years. Once the ideas have been accumulated, the
processes such as thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, and willing may be applied
to the information.
Locke also distinguished “primary” and “secondary” qualities in what we

perceived. Primary qualities were those that could not always be perceived: solidarity, figure,
motion, rest, number, etc. Secondary qualities were those that could easily be perceived: color,
shape, taste, sound, etc. He also developed ideas of association.
Bishop Berkeley and David Hume examined Locke’s works in detail. Berkeley
suggested that objects cannot exist outside the mind of the perceiver, and for Hume, “the real
world crumbles into a series of mere sensory impressions”. For him, nothing exists if there is no
one to experience – see, touch, hear, etc. – it.
In general, empiricism is the acceptance of the evidences given by one’s

senses, the comparison of sensations as they happen, linked with memories of the past already
recorded in the brain.
1.1.3.2 RATIONALISM
The great advocate of rationalism was Renee Descartes (1597-1650).

Descartes argued that since the senses could be confused by optical or other illusions, we
cannot trust the evidence of our senses, and should instead search for universal truths that
could not be reached by logical thinking.
He deliberated on the processes of thinking itself and came up with

conclusions on how to distinguish what is true from what is false. According to him, there is less
perfection in what has been put bit by bit by different people than one person.
“…one of the first that came to my mind was that there is

often less perfection in what has been put together bit by
bit by different masters, than in the work of a single hand.
Thus we see how a building, the construction of which has
been undertaken and completed by a single architect, is
usually superior those that many have tried to restore by
making use of old walls which have been built for other
purpose.”

MODULE
“…so too, those old places which beginning as villages,

have developed in the course of time into great towns,
are generally so ill-proportioned in comparison with those
an engineer can design at will in an orderly fashion, that,
even though the buildings, taken severally, often display
as much as art as in other places, or even more, yet the
disorder is such with a large house here and a small one
there, and the street all tortuous and uneven, that the whole
place seems to be the product of chance rather than the
design of men who use their reason.”
- Discours del la Methode (1637)
Descartes preferred the new, fortified towns which were being built in France.
Rationalism are more concerned with the purity of form, whether two-dimensional, than in the
ways in which the design may affect the senses of the users.
Cogito, Ergo Sum. I think, therefore I am. Things can exist without one seeing them.
1.1.3.3 PRAGMATISM
Pragmatism was a philosophy that grew out of America conditions. Its

advocates were Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914), William James (1842-1910), and John
Dewey (1859-1952).
As new technologies were applied in industries, the effect should have been
that poverty, disease, crime and ugliness should have diminished, but it flourished even more.
Pierce: think of an object, what are its effects? What are the practical result of
the effects? What are the practical results of the effects? The results and thoughts will contain
your perception of the object.
James saw pragmatism as an extension of Empiricism. For him, the

Pragmatism talks about truths in the plural, about their utility, their practicality, the ways in which
they work.
For Dewey, Pragmatism’s greatest achievement was “reconciliation of the

scientific view of the universe with the claims of moral life”
1.1.4 APPROACHES TO PLANNING

1.1.4.1 EDWIN CHADWICK
Public Health Acts were created to improved sanitation, in general, living
conditions for the poor urban masses. In 1842, Edwin Chadwick was the Secretary of the Poor
Law Board. He was responsible for the report on the conditions of the working classes.

MODULE
Public Health Acts culminated in the most comprehensive Act: Act of 1875.
These acts prescribes the minimum standards for urban living and resulted in what is now
known as the “Bye-Law Housing”. They were concerned with the actual construction of
dwellings, provision of sanitary facilities, drained, etc. It empowered the authorities to build
water supply systems, drains, and sewers (when there was adequate finances).
Bye-laws were required to be written about the following:

(1) With respect to the level, width, and construction of new streets
and provision for the sewerage thereof.
(2) With respect to the structure of walls, foundations, roofs, and
chimneys for securing stability and the prevention of fires and for
the purpose of health.
(3) With respect to the drainage of buildings, from water closets, earth
closets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools in connection with
buildings and to the closing of buildings, or parts of buildings, unfit
for human habitation and to prohibit their use for such habitation.
(4) With respect to the sufficient of space about buildings, to secure a
free circulation of air, with respect to the ventilation of buildings.
The Act also recommended carriageway widths (36 ft. wide), the widths of all
other streets (24 ft. wide), and setbacks (front: at least 24 ft., backyard: at least 150 sq. ft.), etc.
1.1.4.2 BARON HAUSSMANN
Baron Haussmann was given the task of redeveloping Paris after the
Revolution of 1848. He was to design Paris in such a way that the angry mob could never build
barricades in the streets and throw missiles at the police from behind them. He wanted to link
the major monuments of the city and focuses on the visual and functional intention of the great
monuments of the city and focuses on the visual and functional intention of the great
monuments of Paris: the Bourse, the National Assembly the Church of the Madeline, the
Pantheon, the Cathedral of Notre Dame, etc.
Haussmann’s Boulevard were not really designed for any intrinsic beauty, but it
gave the longest feasible sight-lines for Louis Napoleon’s troops and give long perspective
views of the monuments. It succeeded in speeding up the flow of traffic between the
monuments. The trees humanized the boulevards and made barricade-building very difficult (the
boulevards were also quite wide). It was considered neo-conservative, and many people were
dispossessed of their homes as the boulevards were pushed through.
1.1.4.3 CAMILLO SITTE
Camillo Sitte was the most influencial of those who felt that the boulevards of
Haussmann were too grandiose, too formal, and too

MODULE
monumental. He wanted irregularly in planning and attempted to abstract

principles for design of plazas, streets, and public spaces from the analysis of historic examples
(particularly of the medieval Italian cities).
He proposed the use of architecture projections, more frequent interruption of the

building line, the use of zig-zag and winding streets, uneven street widths, different building
heights, different flights of stairs, loggias, balconies, gables, etc. He wanted to use the interior
elements (such as staircases, galleries, etc.) in the exterior to create what he considered as
charming medieval designs. Sitte was enamored with the picturesque hill towns of Northern
Italy.
1.1.4.4 JULIEN GAUDET
Julien Gaudet was a director of the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris and supported
Sitte’s ideas. He considered picturesque as a variety. He saw planning for traffic one of the
major challenges of urban design and saw that the absence of highway regulation in the past as
a key factor in the growth of the Picturesque. For him, road works must and can be artistic, not
only functional. Road planning is based entirely on utility and there are times that it must be
compromised.
1.1.4.5 THE CITY BEAUTIFUL
The City Beautiful originated in the World’s Columbian Exposition, held in 1893 in
Chicago. The entrepreneurs who sponsored the Exposition wanted Chicago to be known not
only as the commercial center of America, but also as its cultured capital, and commissioned
architects to develop a plan that would make this possible.
Frederick Law Olmsted was responsible for the layout, Daniel Burnham was
responsible for choosing the architects, sculptors, painters, and others who would develop a
three-dimensional realization of the entrepreneur’s ambition.
The City Beautiful
From www.xroads.virginia.edu
The result was a plan devised from Haussmann’s Boulevards and its successors
and opposed in principle to the works of Sitte and Gaudet. The

MODULE
heart of City Beautiful of Burnham was the classical monumentality of his Civic
Center. His plan for Chicago was by far the most completed that had ever been made for any
city. He had ideas of unity between the two sorts of architectural beauty (one is the individual
building, and the other the orderly arrangement of many buildings).
1.1.4.6 EBENEZER HOWARD
Ebenezer Howard conceptualized the Garden City. His was the next great set of
planning conventions and his major concern was to control the flow of the population from the
rural to the urban areas. He presented the alternatives as “town and country magnets”.
E. Howard’s Garden City
From www.planning.org
He characterized the towns as one that closes out nature. For him, it closes out
nature. It also has many disadvantages and advantages. The disadvantages: (a) isolation of the
crowds, (b) high rent and prices, (c) great distance from work to home, (d) excessive hours of
work, (e) great number of unemployed, (f) fogs and droughts, (g) costly drained, (h) foul air and
murky sky, (i) great number of slums, (j) sin palaces, etc. The advantages: (a) social
opportunity, (b) many places of amusement, (c) higher chances of employment, (d) well-lit
streets, (e) palatial edifices, etc.
He characterized the country as having many advantages such as: (a) beauty of
nature, wood, forest and meadow, (b) fresh air, (c) low rents, (d) abundance of water, (e)
abundance of bright sunshine, etc., and the country as having many disadvantages such as: (a)
lack of society, (b) lack of work,
ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and regional Planning 16

MODULE
(c) low wages, (d) lack of drained, (e) idle land, (f) lack of amusement, (g) no
public spirit, (h) need for reform, (i) corrode dwellings, (j) deserted villages, etc.
By incorporation the advantages of both town living and country living, he came
up with his Garden City. His plans are based on the ideas of a central park or garden that would
occupy around five (5) acres, around which all of the city’s main functions could be grouped
concentrically.
He segregated the major components as:
(1) First ring around the central garden: public building

(2) Second ring around the central garden: park land
(3) Third ring around the central garden : housing
(4) Fourth ring around the central garden: Grand Avenue
(5) Fifth ring around the central garden: industrial uses
(6) Sixth ring around the central garden: for agricultural uses
E. Howard’s Garden City

from the book by AEJ
Morris, “The History of
Urban Form”.
The public buildings would consist of the town hall, concert and lecture halls,
theaters, libraries, museum, picture galleries, and hospital. The parkland would be cut through
radially by the six (6) principal boulevards and surrounded by the Crystal Palace.
The Crystal Palace was a wide glass arcade that would combine the Greek
Agora, the Roman Forum, and 20th century fun palace. The housing ring would have around
5,500 buildings lots, averaging 130x20 ft., enough for a population of around 30,000 people.
Another 2,000 people would be housed on the agricultural estates surrounding the town. The
houses themselves would be greatly varied in character.

MODULE
The main ring of housing was surrounded by the Grand Avenue, which as
approximately 420 ft. wide, dividing the main part of the town into two concentric belts. The
Avenue was then divided into six (6) radial boulevards into six (6) segment, which would be
occupied by the public schools, playground, and gardens. The other areas would be sites for
churches.
The outer regions of the town were allocated for industrial uses. These were
areas for factories, warehouses, dairy markets, coal yards, timber yards, etc., with access to a
circular railways line that surrounded the town and enable the transport of goods. Beyond this
was the agricultural areas, where large farms, small holdings, and allotments for cow pastures
could be found.
Howard initiated the building of two Garden Cities, Letchworth and Welwyn, to
act as living examples of his work and what his city should be like. His ideas were taken up and
further development by others such as Sir Partrick Geddes.
1.1.4.7 PATRICK GRDDES
Patrick Geddes made the major philosophical contribution to planning in this era:
comprehensive planning. He theorized that physical planning could not improve urban living
conditions unless integrated with social and economic planning in a context of environmental
concern. According to him, this integration should happen at the regional scale.
1.1.4.8 DANIEL BURNHAM
Daniel H. Burnham was the chief planner and architect for the Chicago’s World
Fair in 1893. It was done to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America
and was called the Columbian Exposition. He used classical buildings and expansive
promenades and open spaces on the Chicago waterfront even though the fair was supposed to
honor the new industrial power of the country.

MODULE
Daniel Burnham’s Plan for Chicago
1.1.4.9 CALRENCE PERRY
Clarence Perry’s concept was that all day-to-day facilities such as shops,
schools, playgrounds, etc., should be within walking distance of every house. He suggested that
the optimum size of a neighborhood should be around 500 people. This would be large enough
to provide for most people’s day-to-day needs, yet it would be small enough for a sense of
community to develop.
Wright and Stein further demonstrated ways that Perry’s ideas could be
achieved. These could be done on a gridiron system, on rolling agricultural land, or on a hillside.
Two features that developed were: (1) the separation of through traffic from the neighborhood
roads and streets, and (2) the neighborhood parks taking the form of a complete greenbelt
which surrounded the town. They separated neighborhood roads from the major traffic arteries.
Cul-de-sacs were used for vehicular access to the parts of the houses, which left areas of
traffic-free land where children in the neighborhood could play safely.
1.1.4.10 LE CORBUSIER
Le Corbusier was the greatest opponent of dispersionist planning. In his plans

and designs, he used vast glass and concrete tower blocks, apartment slabs, etc. He tried
converting the city into a park where the buildings would only occupy around five per cent (5 %)
of the land. Residential suburbs of luxury housing would also be present and the rest of the land
would be used for open, green courtyards.

MODULE
He liked to use rectilinear (Cartesian) grids as the basis of city planning and
designed the city around a transport intercharge. He believed that the elevator would eventually
revolutionize the form of the city.
His Contemporary City was planned for three million (3 Million) people. It was
first displayed as drawings and models at the Salon d’ Automne in 1992. It was a city within a
garden, based on four (4) fundamental principles: (1) freeing the center from traffic congestion,
(2) enhancing the overall densities, (3) enhancing the means of circulation, and (4) augmenting
the area of planting. He presented an abstract view of his concept of what cities ought to be like.
Ville Contemporaine
From www.planning.org
The Ville Radieuse was centered on a railway station with an airport and included
elevated motorways. It had a large central intersection of motorways and a park where twenty-
four (24) sixty-storey buildings were located, spaced 250 meters apart surrounded the center.
Restaurant, cafes, luxury shops, theater, concert halls, etc. would occupy two to three-storey
buildings.
Large buildings on the side of the center was for the town hall, museum, and
other public facilities. Parking was found at the ground level and in multi-storey parks. Beyond
the central area, warehouses, industrial zones, goods yards, etc. were located. The city is
surrounded by a service zone and forest and grassland. Further on, a large belt of houses with
gardens were located two types of housing located immediately around the city center was
proposed: (1) terraces and (2) apartment blocks.

MODULE
Terraces would consist of 6-storey maisonettes crossing the parkland in

rectilinear forms, and the apartment blocks would be located beyond the terraces, and would
have adjoining balconies hollowed into the facades of his blocks. These were intended to open
up day-to-day living to sunlight, fresh air, and greenery.
1.1.5 HISTORY OF URBAN PLANNING IN THE PHILIPPINES
The development of Metro Manila can be attributed to the different influential historic
events in our history.
1.1.5.1 PRE-COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS
Tribes of various cultural-linguistic characteristics lived in small, discreet villages

and hamlets scattered around the archipelago. These settlements were located along
seashores and riverbanks. The barangay is the basic socio-political unit, comprised of around
30-100 families. These were semi-permanent fold societies that subsisted on shifting cultivation
and engaged in hunting, fishing, and food gathering. Local chiefdoms emerged in areas such as
Maynilad, Tondo, Cebu, and the sultanate of Jolo in the south.
Maynilad was a thriving agricultural settlement due to its highly advantageous

location. It was considered the largest indigenous settlements in the archipelago and consisted
of barangays of more than 2000 inhabitants. Cebu had the next largest settlement and port of
call and had close to 2000 inhabitants. It became the hub of important for other large. Tagalog
settlements and for inland villages around the Laguna Lake.
It performed port, commercial, and trading functions as a key transshipment point

for goods entering and leaving the island. The high economic activity level in Maynilad was
fostered by barter trade with local tribes and foreign junks coming from China, Brunei, Malacca,
the Moluccas, and Japan. It also performed non-agricultural activities and service the needs of
the nearby villages. Some villagers became merchants and goldsmiths. Others were farmers,
and hunters.
Rajah Sulayman was the leader of Maynilad who began the supra- barangay
confederation of villages along the Pasig River. This was nipped in the bud by the Spanish
Conquest.
On the eve of Spanish colonization, indigenous settlements in the archipelago

were socially, economically, and politically independent of one another.
1.1.5.2 SPANISH PERIOD
The Spanish period lasted from 1570 to 1898. After Magellan landed in Cebu in
1521, Spain colonized the Philippines and Manila became a colony of Spain in 1570.

MODULE
The Spaniards established Manila as their permanent urban base from where
they commanded the colony. By the end of the 16th century, Intramuros had been converted into
an imposing colonial capital as a symbol of Spanish colonial power. The planned city was
influence by the Roman city planning and inspired by the piazza planning of the Italian
Renaissance. It was laid out according to the Laws of the Indies issued by King Philip II in 1573.
This detailed the rules of the Spanish city planning.
Other Hispanized parts of the islands were widely-dispersed regional urban

centers called ciudades and villas with population ranging from 2500 to 5000. Spanish
missionaries founded many provincial religious and administrative hubs or cabereras. These
were established around nearby existing hamlets and villages as beachheads in order to
subdue the natives and convert then to the Catholic faith. The Church is the nucleus of these
rural settlements. Many of the cabeceras eventually became poblaciones or towns with
populations ranging from 500 to 2000. Visitas and barrios surrounded each poblacion when the
poblacion settlement system spread to the lowlands. These Hispanic settlements displayed the
Spanish principles of urban design known as the Church-plaza complex. By 1655, the urban
settlement system was composed of four tiers: the capital city of Manila, several region urban
centers, 180 cabeceras or poblaciones and a host of rural barrios.
Manila was the governmental, ecclesiastical, military, cultural, social, and

economic nerve center of the Spanish colonial government in the archipelago for the
subsequent three centuries. It became the entrepot of Spain in Southeast Asia and the focal
point of the entrecot economy. It also served as vital cog in the annual Manila-Acapulco Galleon
Trade between Mexico and Spain.
Manila became a primate city due to the highly centralized, urban-based

administration system of the colonial government. It became the dominant growth center of the
colonial economy as its regional maritime trade and economic role grew in size and importance.
Manila was also the control point for external trade. It was used to control insular commerce and
trade, became the processing and transportation hub of the country, serviced the needs of the
frontier regions, and provided spatial locus necessary for the organization of predominantly rural
space as well as for linking the regional and provincial centers and the hinterlands.
As the city grew more prosperous, urbanization spilled over the walls of
intramuros and engulfed the surrounding arrabales. The pre-urban hamlets and villages where
Spanish friars founded their missions formed the nuclei of the arrabales, or suburbs, and
pueblos around Intramuros. Some examples are the mission settlements of Tondo, Binondo,
Sta. Cruz, and Quiapo.

MODULE
Wealthy Spaniards built their country estates, complete with orchards, baths, and
gardens in the suburbs, especially along the banks of the Pasig River. By the 1650s, the
immediate extramural areas around Intramuros were become urbanized while the outlying
peripheral areas remained largely rural. Thus, the spatial expansion of the effluence Spanish
residential sector highly influenced the direction of city growth and urbanization. As a result of
such residential growth, the pueblos of Bagumbayan, Ermita, Binondo, Quaipo, Santa Ana de
Sapa, San Pedro Makati, and Sab Juan del Monte became the emerging major suburbs of
Manila.
The style of urban development promoted by Spain in its colonies included a

church and a square at the center of the city called of the city called the plaza mayor.
The castle city of Intramuros was built in Manila to serve as a residential district
for the Spaniards. The street network of this walled city was latticed.
1.1.5.3 AMERICAN PERIOD
The American period (1898-1946) ushered in the development of roads done by

the colonizing government. The development of the transport network and housing was done by
the private sector. It was at this time that the basic frame of the present road network of Metro
Manila was formed.
The first master plan of Manila was done by Daniel Burnham and Pierce
Anderson. Only part of this plan was implemented, and in 1933, the transfer of the capital city
from Manila to Quezon City was decided and planned upon. Unfortunately, the plan did not
push through due to the outbreak of World War II.
In July 1903, the City of Manila was incorporated by virtue of Act No. 183. It
encompassed Intramuros, and twelve (12) rapidly urbanizing towns of Binondo, Tondo, Santa
Cruz, Quiapo, San Miguel, San Nicolas, Sampaloc, Santa Ana, Malate, Ermita, Paco, and
Pandacan, Manila became the first chartered city in the Philippines. The presence of a large
service sector in Manila also spoke of its more diverse urban economic functions compared to
the nest ranked port town of Iloilo and Cebu. The Americans started developing the city and its
suburbs through infrastructure improvements such as sanitary and drainage facilities. More
roads and railways were built and improve to facilities the transport of goods to and from Manila.
Manila retained its prominence as the primate city in the Philippines throughout the
American colonial period. Its economic and political roles grew in importance, and it became a
satellite economy and link between the West and the colonial territory.

MODULE
1.1.5.4 POST-WORLD WAR

After World War II and the independence of the Philippines from America, the
population in and around Manila continued to increase, particularly in the rapidly urbanizing
towns of Tondo, Sampaloc, Ermita, Malate, Paco, Pandacan, and Sta. Ana. A steady stream of
migrants from the provinces was lured by the promise of a better life and better jobs in the city.
The abnormal growth of the inner district of Intramuros can be attributed to the massive influx of
squatters after it had been badly bombed during the Japanese occupation.
Reconstruction of Manila began in 1946 and the Quiapo became the business
and financial center of Manila. The jeepney, a recycled army jeep, was created and became a
popular mode of transportation. In 1975, Metro Manila was established to promote orderly urban
development and to solved many of the urban problems prevailing, such as slums, traffic
congestion, and garbage. Metro Manila consisted of four cities and thirteen municipalities.
1.1.5.5 URBAN GROWTH OF METRO MANILA

Three factors accounted for the growth of the city. These were (1) natural
population increase, (2) position net migration, and (3) areal classification. By 1960,
urbanization had spread to the emerging suburbs of Manila which were previously rural. The
City of Manila was the core of the emerging conurbation. As the central city of an expanding
metropolis, it was the population nucleus and adjacent areas that were socially and
economically linked to it.
In the 1960 census, Manila and its suburbs consisted of:

(1) City of Manila
(2) Caloocan City
(3) Pasay City
(4) Quezon City
(5) Makati, Rizal
(6) Mandaluyong, Rizal
(7) San Juan, Rizal
(8) Paranaque, Rizal
As early as the sixties, urbanization had extended to six (6) outer peripheral
towns of the newly metropolitanized areas such as Malabon, Navotas, Marikina, Pasig, Pateros,
and Las Pinas, all in the province of Rizal.
The tremendous growth of Metro Manila after 1960 is the most significant urban
phenomenon to happen in the country. The whole metropolitan region became the pivotal
center of the country’s economic, social, political, cultural, and educational life. It was not until
1975 that the government attempted to integrate the administrative discreet cities and
municipalities of Metro Manila. This was done to enable the local governments to cope with the
complex problems of metropolitanization and become more efficient in the delivery of metro-
wide basic services.

MODULE
In 1975, Metro Manila (later to be renamed the National Capital Region) was
composed of four (4) cities and thirteen (13) municipalities.
These included:
(1) City of Manila
(2) Caloocan City
(3) Pasay City
(4) Quezon City
(5) Las Pinas
(6) Makati
(7) Malabon
(8) Mandaluyong
(9) Marikina
(10) Muntinlupa
(11) Navotas
(12) Paranaque
(13) Pasig
(14) Pateros
(15) San Juan
(16) Taguig
(17) Valenzuela
At present, the National Capital Region’s territorial composition remains the
same as that of the original except for seven (7) more towns that became cities:
(1) City of Manila
(2) Caloocan City
(3) Pasay City
(4) Quezon City
(5) Las Pinas City
(6) City of Makati
(7) Malabon
(8) Mandaluyong City
(9) Marikina City
(10) Muntinlupa City
(11) Navotas
(12) Paranaque City
(13) Pasig City
(14) Pateros
(15) San Juan
(16) Taguig
(17) Valenzuela
Present day Metro Manila is a product of its long colonial history and of
contemporary economic, social, cultural, and political processes.

MODULE
1.1.5.6 CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBDs)
The central business district has traditionally symbolized the socio-economic

vitality of a city or conurbation of cities and towns. It usually contains prime metropolitan real
estate, the high value of which necessitates very specialized uses. A large number of
skyscrapers occupy the center. Metro Manila today exhibits several CBDs – the Manila CBD,
Makati CBD, Ortigas CBD, and Cubao CBD.
Manila CBD. Manila remains to be the center of business and commerce, a

population nucleus, and the seat of the national government. The Manila CBD typifies the
historical CBD in that it evolved from a commercial-trade district during colonial times to a retail-
office-commercial complex at mid-century, and most recently, to a convention-tourist-
entertainment center. As such, it is located at the oldest part of the metropolis. It is also the
center of financial trading due to the Binondo financial and banking district. Its service sector is
largely comprised of consumer and personal services and retail trade. The Manila CBD is also
the heart of the urban informal sector, with its narrow streets lined with vendors and rolling
stores selling anything and everything.
Makati CBD. The Makati CBD is the business, financial, commercial, convention,
and recreational center of the metropolitan region as well as of the country. It was begun in
1948 by the Ayala conglomerate. It is a successful mixed-use development of residential,
business, and commerce. Urban development is strictly regulated by the Ayala Corporation, in
terms of building height, bulk, floor area ratio, and land use. It is also the national center of
business and producer services, and is the base of almost all corporate headquarters of
transnational corporations or TNCs. Producer services offer legal, financial, advertising,
consultancy, and accountancy services to companies who provide the needs of the business
elite and TNCs. These services thrived in Makati since it is the modern financial center of the
country, as opposed to the Binindo financial district.
Ortigas CBD. The Ortigas CBD in Pasig City is another business, financial,
convention, shopping, and recreational node including its commercial extension, the Greenhills
shopping complex. The Ortigas family conglomerate began developing the area in the 1950s
but it only took shape in the late 1980s to the 1990s. The area is surrounded by low-density
master planned residential subdivisions.
Cubao CBD. The Araneta group began to develop the Cubao property in the late
1960s. It was to serve as an alternative commercial, recreational, and shopping node. With its
small individual shops and throngs og hawkers and vendors, it eventually became another
traditional shopping and retail district. It is also surrounded by high-density residential areas.
Emerging CBD. There are quite a number of new developments in Metro Manila
that promises to become economic nodes in the coming years.

MODULE
One of these is the Ford Bonifacio Global City located between the Makati CBD
and Ortigas CBD. It involves the development of a former military base into another city in the
21st century. Another is the Filinvest Corporate City. It is a joint venture of the government and
the private sector, aiming to become another major center with the proposed development of a
city center surrounded by residential areas and with high accessibility to nearly industrial estate
and technoparks.

MODULE
1.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS

1.2.1 URBANISM
Urbanism is a board concept generally referring to all aspects of the urban way of
life. These aspects are political, economic, social, etc. It is considered the end result of
urbanization.
1.2.2 URBANIZATION
Urbanization is the process or urban growth. It involves two (2) phases or
aspects: (1) the movement of people from rural to urban areas where they engage in primary
non-rural functions or occupations, and (2) the change in their lifestyle from rural to urban with
its associate values, attitudes, and behaviors.
1.2.3 URBANIZED AREA

The urbanized area is defined as the built-up area where buildings, roads, and
other essential urban land uses predominante.
1.2.4 METROPOLIS AND METROPOLITAN AREA

The metropolitan is properly the chief city, but not necessarily the capital, of the
country, state, or region. It is loosely used to refer to any large city. The metropolitan area is
generally regarded as a central city and peripheral jurisdictions plus all surrounding territory
integrated with the central city.
1.2.5 CITY
The term city is essentially a political designation. It refer to a place governed by
some kind of administrative body or organization. It is normally larger than a town or village.
1.2.6 CONURBATION, MEGALOPOLIS, SUPERCONURBATION

Conurbation and megalopolis essentially mean the same thing: the spatial
merging of two or more cities along major transportation corridors. The term conurbation was
initially coined in reference to British urban growth. Megalopolis was originally coined to refer to
the merging of cities along the urban corridor in the eastern United State from Boston to
Washington. It later became a generic term referring to urban coalescence. A superconurbation
is simply a giant conurbation or megalopolis having a population of least 12 million, based on a
rather arbitrary population threshold.
1.2.7 CITY SYSTEM OR URBAN SYSTEM

Every region or country has developed a hierarchy of cities which can be ranked
on the basis of population size and economic and other functions. These are interlinked by
increasingly sophisticated transportation and communication networks.
1.2.8 PRE-INDUSTRIAL CITY

The pre-industrial city is sometimes referred to as the traditional city. It is a city
that was founded and grew before the arrival of industrialization in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Typically, it had different characteristics from the modern industrial cities of today.

MODULE
1.2.9 POST-INDUSTRIAL CITY

The origin and economic base of a post-industrial city is not tied to an industrial
base. It is one where employment in the services sector is high. These are cities that are usually
the headquarters for corporations or a series of governmental and intergovernmental
organization such as those specializing in research and development (R&D) institute,
tourism/recreation.
1.2.10 PRIMATE CITY

The primate city is defined by size and function. The term is derived from urban
primacy, a concept first development in the late 1930s to refer to the tendency for countries to
have one city that is at least twice as large as the second largest city and has dominance over
the country’s political, economic, and cultural life.
1.2.11 COLONIAL CITY

This type of city as almost entirely gone from the face of the earth today. It had
the profoundest impact on urbanization and urban patterns throughout much of the world. The
colonial city is a unique type of city because of its special focus on commercial functions, its
peculiar situation requirements, and the odd blend of European or Western urban forms with
indigenous population and cultures.
1.2.12 SOCIALIST CITY

The socialist city is peculiar to the communist-socialist countries of the world,
particularly the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China. There is massive degree in
government involvement, coupled with the absence of both private land ownership and free-
market forces. These have produced distinctly different cities in virtually all aspects of urbanism
and internal spatial structure.
1.2.13 NEW TOWNS

The new town is a phenomenon of the 20th century and refers to a
comprehensive planned urban community built from scratch with the intent of becoming as self-
contained as possible by encouraging the development of an economic base and full range of
urban services and facilities. These have come into existence around the world to fulfill a
number of functions, which include relieving overcrowding of the larger central cities, providing
optimum living environment for the residents, helping to control urban sprawl and preserve open
land, and in some counties serving as growth poles for development of new industry and
exploitation of natural resources.

MODULE
1.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

1.3.1 WHAT IS PLANNING?
Planning is part of the organization of society. It is a universal human activity that
consist of making choices among options that appear to be open to the future; then securing
their implementation, which depends on the allocation of necessary resources. It is a universal
human activity that involves the consideration of outcomes before choosing among alternatives.
It is a decision-making and resources activity, which makes it political. Options

must be selected and these may not necessarily equally benefit all members of society. The
means of deciding what wants and whose wants the available resources should be used to
satisfy is political in nature and there is a complementary process of identifying and choosing
among the various possible uses of productive resources. The preferred uses of these
resources must be ensured.
1.3.2 PLANNING THEORIES

There are two (2) major types of planning theories: (1) theories of system
operations, and (2) theories of system change.
1.3.2.1 THEORIES OF SYSTEM OPERATIONS

Theories of system operations try to understand and anticipate how complex
social system operate and how they are likely to react to planned changes and interventions.
For this, information from a number of different disciplines is taken. These disciplines may
include botany, biology, economics, geography, political science, psychology, sociology, and
other applied disciplines such as architecture, engineering, public administration, and public
health.
The General System Theory is not formally recognized as an academic

discipline. It provides the closest approach to the total-system viewpoint necessary for good
planning. It attempt to provide a single comprehensive view of all aspects of living and non-living
systems. A system is defined as any set of independent components with relatively high
closure, connectivity, and stability. Closure measures external independence, the extent to
which system components do not interact with other components outside the system.
Connectivity measures internal independence, the degree to which system components interact
with each other. Stability refers to the length of time the system lasts without major change or
disruption. As system grow and develop, they become more complex. The components become
more specialized and the interaction increases among the components within and outside the
system.
1.3.2.2 THEORIES OF SYSTEM CHANGE

Theories and interpretation of how, when, and for what purpose changes are to
be introduction into the system are sometimes called decision theories. They draw heavily upon
the traditions and expectations of 18th and 19th century positivism. During this, period, the
successes of scientific

MODULE
methods in increasing the understanding and control over natural forces led many scholars to
believe that similar approaches could be applied to human social system with equal success.
The results was a great flourishing of the social sciences and a proliferation of
utopian experiments seeking to improve the human condition through the rational planning and
control of social institutions. There are four (4) different palnning situation that occurs in reality
and categorizes the kinds of theories appropriate to each. These theories are (1) Rationalism,
(2) Incrementalism, (3) utopianism, and (4) Methodism.
Rationalism is used when both the means and the ends are clearly defined and
well understood. This involves the four (4) steps of scientific decision making: (1) analyzing the
system and its problems, (3) evaluating the probable consequences of each proposed solution,
and (4) recommending the best alternatives based on how well it will help attain the ends being
sought. This style of planning places strong emphasis on techniques of data collection,
measurements, and analysis.
Incrementalism is used when the ends being sought and the means to attain
them are highly uncertain. Small steps are taken and their implications are examined in terms of
whether they improve or worse the problem at hand. Experimentation, comparisons to other
system in similar situations, evaluation and feedback of information on the effectiveness of
proposed solutions, and a number of other approaches legitimize incrementalism as a useful
form of planning activity.
Utopianism has an old and respectable position in planning. It seeks to fire the
public’s imagination and to resolve problems by proposing sweeping new approaches to system
organization and operation. In this approach, the goals are clearly and powerfully stated, even
though the means of accomplishing them may be quite unclear.
Methodism describes planning activities for which the method to be employed is

clear but the ends to be achieved are largely undefined and unknown. Frequently, the methods
employed becomes an end in itself. While ritualistic, this style of planning potentially has
considerable merit. The kind of information collected or generated by following certain
standardized procedures is likely to be useful in a wide variety of situations, even when the ends
for which the information is to used are not known.
No one of the four theories describes are superior to the others – they are
necessary at one time or another. The planner’s skill lies in knowing something about all these
theories and their associated techniques and in knowing when to choose the appropriate
combination to match the demands of the situation at hand.
ARCH 62: introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 31

MODULE
1.3.3 DIFFERENTIATION OF PLANNING
There are seven (7) types of planning: (1) Site Planning, (2) Subdivision
Planning, (3) Urban Space Planning, (4) Town and/or City Planning, (5) Urban Planning, (6)
Regional Planning, and (7) National Development Planning.
Site planning usually involves only a single project at a time. It is also

predominantly architecture. Subdivision planning is a medium to large-scale development
project that is predominantly residential.
Urban design is urban space planning and is typically for in-city sites. It is
concerned with the relationship of holding and exterior spaces. Town and/or city planning
involves larger areas and covers all aspects of planning. The results are policy-oriented and it is
a bit abstract. It usually involves a framework of developments.
Urban Planning addresses the growth strategies of towns and cities. It is also
policy-oriented and transcends political boundaries. The plan will involve towns and cities and
growth strategies. Regional Planning is planning at a macro view. It addresses relationships of
towns and cities with the region they are located in. It is policy-oriented and the growth potential
of the region as a whole is addressed. National Development Planning will involve the entire
country and its development orientation. It is at the national level and will usually entail National
Development Plans. It is policy and governance-oriented and has economic, social, and political
emphasis. The various factors that are involved are the GDP, GNP, employment, external trade,
etc.
Site planning, subdivision planning, and urban space planning usually entails
physical planning orientations and the financial viability of the project. These projects are usually
privately-sponsored and are usually headed by architects. Town/city planning, urban planning,
regional planning, and national development planning are usually driven by economic, social,
and political needs. These are interdisciplinary and are handled by institutions or government
agencies.
See Appendix B for the Planning Chart.
1.3.4 THE ARCHITECT IN THE REALM OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

The Housing and Environmental Planning Act was created in 1970, authorizing
the creation of a Department of Housing and Environmental Development to be headed by a
Secretary and two Undersecretaries, one for Housing and Resettlements, and the other for
Environmental Planning and Development, to be appointed by the President of the President of
the Philippines. There are five (5) bureaus under this Department: (1) Bureau of Resettlement,
(2) Bureau of Housing Standards, (3) Bureau of Rural Development, (4) Bureau of Urban
Development, and the (5) Bureau of Special Development Projects.

MODULE
The Department was directed to formulate and implement a national program on

housing and resettlements, a comprehensive program on environmental planning, and a
program on environmental development. It was expected to perform the following functions:
(a) Provision of low-cost housing for low-income and resettled families, and
carrying out of resettlement programs for dislocated families,
(b) Coordination of all government financing and credit institutions and facilities
for housing, and provision of incentives for land capability utilization and
production of homes of sound standard,
(c) Adoption and enforcement of a National Environmental Framework Plan and
promulgation of a program of priorities for the preparation of development
plans,
(d) Laying out of rural and urban town sites, development of well planned
neighborhoods, and the redevelopments of slum areas,
(e) Coordination and supervision of local planning boards and regional authorities
in the preparation and implementation of development plans, and
(f) Coordination with land reform agencies in expropriations and disposition of
public lands, and the promotion of plans for integrated farm communities.
The Department also takes authority over the Department of Social Welfare over
the Central Institute for the Training and Rehabilitation of Urban Squatters. The National
Planning Commission was abolished and all its land planning orders and regulations were
repealed.

MODULE
1.4 THE PLANNING PROCESS
1.4.1 THE PLANNING PROCESS
1 Action
Policy 2 Goals
3 Evaluation
4 Plan Formulation
Design 5 Design Techniques
6 Problem formulation
7 System models
Understanding
8 Techniques
N.B. The diagram is to be read upwards but the constant

interaction takes place between all eight levels
The Planning Process from the book by Peter Hall, Urban and Regional Planning.
1.4.1.1 GOALS, OBJECTIVES, AND TARGETS

Planning is a general activity, and may have one or many objectives. Most urban
and regional planning activities have multiple objectives, the first step in the planning process is
to identify the purposes that the planner seeks to achieve, order them in terms of their
importance, and consider how far they are reconcilable to each other.
Goals are essentially general and highly abstract. They tend to fall into board
categories such as social, economic, and aesthetic. They may also include qualities of the
planning process itself, such as flexibility.

MODULE
Objectives are more specific. They are defined in terms of actual programmes
capable of being carried into action, though they fall short of detailed qualifications. They also
required the expenditures of resources so that they imply an element of competition for scarce
resources. These “resources” are not only conventional economic resources, but include those
such as information.
Objectives are turned into targets representing specific programmes in which

criteria of performance are set against target dates. These detailed targets are developed from
the objectives and these might include the construction of a new underground railways line
within 10 years to reduce journey times in a sector of a city by a percentage, or construction of a
new motorway link within 5 years to cut traffic delays by a specific amount. Targets are very
specific and particular.
One problem that emerges from the whole goals-objectives-targets process is

that of integrating rather disparate individual programmes into a coherent plan. This first stage in
the planning process involves great difficulties of a conceptual and technical nature.
1.4.1.2 FORECASTING, MODELLING, PLAN DESIGN

Once objectives have been defined and given some precise form in the shape of
targets based on performance criteria, planners turn to description and analysis of the urban or
regional system they wish to control. The aim is to find ways of representing the behavior of the
system over time – both in the recent past and in the future – in such a way that they can
understand the impact of alternatives courses of action that are open to them. To do this, a
model of the system is produced. A number of interconnected models may also be done to
represent sub-systems.
A model is a schematic but precise description of the system, which appears to fit
its past behavior and which can, hopefully, be used to predict the future. There are two
questions that planners need to resolve about the modeling process: (1) what aspects of the
urban system they wish to model and (2) what types of models are available. The answer to the
first question will depend on the planner’s precise interests – what are the questions the model
is required to answer. The answer to the second question will depend of the object of the
planning exercise. Models are simple or complex, and can be classified in a number of different
ways.
Model design is one of the most complex stages of the modern planning process.
Designing a model, or models, to suit a precise problem, will involve logical analysis of a set of
interrelated questions. Planners must also consider what behavioral theories about systems are
to be embodied in their models, etc.

MODULE
1.4.1.3 PLAN DESIGN AND PLAN EVALUATION

The design process starts as soon as the planner begins to design the models.
At that point, the critical questions will finally determine the content of the plan design. These
questions are on what elements of the urban system the models should represent and in how
much detail.
Design consist of two (2) elements. The first will involve the choice of system
models to represent the main elements which the design should incorporate, and the running of
these models to give a number of coherent and realistic pictures of the future state of the
system through time. The second is the process of evaluation of the alternatives to give a
preferred or optimum solution. At the stage of evaluation, the goals and objectives which the
planner has generated are applied directly to the alternatives simulations of the future system.
Evaluation is derived from the goals and objectives set early on in the planning process.
1.4.1.4 IMPLEMENTATION
Through the systematic evaluation of alternatives, the planner can select a
preferred course of action for the implementation of the plan. The whole process of modeling,
evaluation, and selection is continuously repeated. The objectives is to have a monitoring
system that checks the response of the urban and regional system to the various planning
measurements which are taken to control its progress. The control system itself will respond
flexibly and sensitivity to the information controlled by the monitoring system.
Even while the monitoring system is in place and a very tidy planning process is
used, things may still go wrong. This may be because knowledge about the external
environmental of the planning decision may increase rapidly with unpredictable results. Another
may be because of the complex interrelationship between different levels of the planning
situation. Over time, human values (or those that are actively concerned) tend to change.
Fashions on planning tend to change almost as fashion trends do. Finally, it is very difficult to
reconcile different sets of values. Most planning controversies involve a conflict of right against
right.
1.4.2 PLANNING PARADIGMS

1.4.2.1 CONVENTIONAL PARADIGM
The city functions through the circulation of goods and services. The strength of
the urban pattern is measured by the adequacy and convenience of the circulation system and
the stability of the investments by the level at which the community maintains itself. Public
services must be made available to all property and the cost of these services is paid for by
taxes and public utility rates. These costs are measured to a large degree by the quality of the
improvements that comprise the city.

MODULE
The physical form of the city emerges from the initiative and enterprise of many
people acting individually or in groups. These people are guided by a set of standards and not
from some preconceived model of the city.
Laws from an integral part of the planning process and it is appropriate to the
democratic process that the people who design and invest in urban building find free expression
and action within the limits prescribed by law. Urban development implies a continuing
responsibility. The laws applying to the physical development of the city set the standards for
that development. It is important to examine the effect of these regulations and prospects for
further improvements.
With the development of civilization, the building of cities and the growth of
population, land has taken on other values than that attached to agricultural use. The fixed
marketplace became a land use of great value. The public open space, the forum, and the
commons became the important centers of the towns. Each community has the right and the
responsibility to determine their own character, as long as that determination did not disturb the
orderly growth of the region or the nation.
Planning is accomplished through the activities of many agencies and authorities.

The number of person involved and the process may vary with different levels of government
with different enabling legislations but the responsibilities are largely similar in most parts of the
country.
The role of the legislative body is that of decision-making on the character the
city shall aspire to achieve. A planning commission is usually formed to serve in an advisory
capacity to the legislative body.
A General Plan is prepared and other plans for civic developments are specific in
the enabling legislation which creates the commission. A Planning Consultant gives the
advantage of particular experience, judgment, and technical knowledge. It is important for the
consultant to work intimately with the leaders of the community as well as government agencies
and their staff.
Citizen organizations serve as links between the professional planners, the

legislators, and the general public in the development of plans. They assist in shaping planning
objectives and through their vigilance, ensure the effectuation of the plans. They perform an
important function in support of bond issues and other financial programs to secure the
amenities of the plans. These citizen organizations also serve as the conscience of the
community.

MODULE
1.4.2.2 ACTION PLANNING

The concept of action planning was created by Otto Koenigsberger in 1964 as a
reaction to conventional planning, which he saw as unresponsive to the needs of a dynamically
changing society. Action planning consisted of a series of action plans controlled by a set of
performance standards and forming part of a guiding concept for the whole urban region.
The methods used in the application of action planning is not traditional and the
procedures are less standardized and less dependent on comprehensiveness, which makes it a
very flexible planning framework. It is guided by informed improvisation, is adaptive in its
processes, and is based on action instead of lengthy and tiresome surveys and studies.
1.4.2.2.1 OBJECTIVES OF ACTION PLANNING

The objective of action planning is to (1) equip planners with an improved
means with which to guide rather than control city development, and (2) to try to match the
needs of the people more closely to the goals of planning. It is also meant (3) to propose
improvements to the efficiency of planning by speeding up the planning operations and (4) to be
able to measure success in tangible results, on the ground, accepting limited resources, working
closely with communities and other local groups whenever possible.
The new purpose of action planning in the community is (1) to remove
barriers to learning opportunities, (2) improve access to public sources, and to (3) create a
climate of opportunity for people to help themselves.
1.4.2.2.2 NEW REALISM IN CITY PLANNING

In 1987, Koenigsberger revised some of his ideas: slums and squatter
settlements were considered a sin of a healthy city. He concluded that most development in
Third World cities followed the lines of least resistance and not according to plans draw up by
architects or planners. These gave principles that gave way to a new realism in city planning,
and were summarized by Devas in 1993:
(1) Urban population growth is inevitable

(2) The form of cities would continue to be determined largely by the
decisions of individuals and organizations rather than by the
governments
(3) There are limitations on the abilities of governments to influence
effectively in the urban system
(4) Governments, particularly those that are debt-laden and undergoing
structural adjustment, would continue to face resources constraints
(5) The poor have the limited capacity to pay for services currently
provided are therefore rarely afforded by the urban majority.

MODULE
1.4.2.2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION PLANNING

The origins of action planning are derived from physical, social, and
economic planning, and not from applied anthology or forming systems researches. The
preoccupations are traditionally and intrinsically urban rather than rural. Action planning serves
both local-level problems solving and city-level strategic planning. It is applied to four (4) areas
of activity: (1) urban improvement, (2) capacity building, (3) new development planning, and (4)
planning under crisis.
It is problem-driven, and exploits opportunities that are present as the

project starts and work proceeds. It avoids the maximization of information, coordination,
integration, and participation.
The core of action planning is stakeholder participation. This refers to the

discovery of common interests and the convergence of these interests as a prelude to planning.
This makes action planning heavily biased toward building coalitions and fostering cooperation
between government and non-government groups, community groups, etc.
1.4.2.2.4 THE PROCESS
1 Direct observation
- information on visible structure of settlement
- gives the planning team first hand views of the condition of the urban setting
under consideration
- enables them to check/verify maps &/or plans
- enables them to form preliminary opinions based on a variety of indications
2 Semi-structure interviews
- listening to the needs, problems, & aspirations of local inhabitants, children,
women, respected elders, & other key informants
- useful techniques: individuals interviews, community/group interviews, focus
group discussion, field diaries
- shows hidden social, economic structure of the community
- may be formal or informal
3 Measuring, learning from precedents
-supplements interviews
-more quantitative than qualitative process
-size of roads, walkways, percentage of land use, relative percentage of
public and private land, where the highest commercial activity is, the nearest
school/clinic, # of manholes, services connectors, etc.
4 Resources surveys

MODULE
- conducted by the community

- gives overview of local resources that may be used in any important
programming proposal
- establishes who can do what (amount of skill in the community)
- establishes whether there is enough resources (labor, financial, land, etc)
available for the proposed development
5 Prioritizing or Ranking
- stakeholders decide their priorities on the basis of needs and feasibility
- continuous process, starts with problems and ends with possible projects
6 Brainstorming
- done in mixed groups or focus groups in either open discussion or through
maps and models
- concentrates on ideas, whether they be feasible or not, discovering
alternatives and soliciting responses
7 Diagraming
-done in the early stages of the planning process
-seasonal calendars, time lines, daily routines, pie charts which tells about the
population structures, effect of seasonal climatic variations on the
inhabitants, distances to work, etc
- may be generated by community groups
- may be useful for representing organizational structure and work schedules
- may aid in the analysis and act as a basis for space allocation and sizing
decisions
8 Mapping and modeling
- participatory activities for documenting information and of expressing views
and opinions about a neighborhood in a non-confrontational setting
- may give informational on other physical problems and needs, who has
influence, who owns what, what are the territorial claims, etc.
- builds a sense of cooperation between the participants
9 Gaming and role-playing
- employed to build awareness and sensitize planners to the key issues
- some are design to simulate potential outcomes
- others are used to teach skills or build awareness of planning procedures and
potential hurdles in the planning process or to familiarized people with the
technical side of planning
- role playing may be used to build awareness of the needs and desired of
groups of people who may not be well-represented during the planning
process

MODULE
10 Group work and intermixing

- intermixing of disciplines, gender, age groups, expert with community
people, managers, and technical staff
- builds cooperation among the participants and exposes them to the widest
possible range of interest and demands
Other phases of action planning may be involved with the final objectives of
implementation. These are the (1) identification of problems and opportunities, (2) prioritization
and determination of goals to see what is needed, then prioritized according to urgency,
acceptability, and feasibility, (3) finding out the options and trade-offs, (4) determining the
resources and constraints, (5) formation of projects teams, and (6) the implementation and
monitoring.
Monitoring plays a key role in action planning and indicators of achievements

may be developed at project level. There are a number of indicators for monitoring:
(1) Technical indicators

- assessed both quantitatively and qualitatively
- quantitatively: how road improvements have reduced flooding, and
improved vehicular access, new housing increased the stock of houses,
etc.
- qualitatively: houses may be too small or of the wrong kind, access for
pedestrians is poor, supply of water is still inadequate, etc.
(2) Economic indicators

- judges the cost-effectiveness of programmes, increased level of
earnings due to the employment programmes, effect of starter loans for
small businesses, etc.
(3) Operating or organizational indicators

- involves the functioning and effectiveness of organizations during the
project delivery, management or maintenance
(4) Social indicators

- inform about difficulties for one group or another (women, minority,
ethnic groups, etc.) to be involves in the programmes, etc.
- may show discrimination of social groups in the project
(5) Environmental indicators

- judge the impact of intervention on the environment
- assessment of environmental impact of the project

MODULE
ORTHODOX PARADIGM THE ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM

“Providing” “Enabling”
 increased productivity growth in GNP  encourage resourcefulness/well-

as a goal being as a goal
 people as objects of development  people are subjects of development
 professional as benevolent  professional as populist idealists

pragmatists
 promote dependency  promotes self-sufficiency/empowers
 professionals/governments as prime  CBOs/NGOs as prime actors –

actors professionals as catalysts,
governments as enablers
 promotes technology transfer  promotes appropriate techniques
(products) (processes)
 information as data (things/surveys)  managements of

resources/concerned with outcomes
 centralized production and decision  decentralizes production/devolves
making decision making
 prefers standardization  promotes variety/flexibility

 instant projects, prescriptive plans  incremental projects/progressive
programmes, adaptive planning
 consolidated (formal) industry,  fragmented (informal) industry based
preferring large organizations or small enterprises
Taken from “Action Planning for Cities: A Guide to Community Practice”
By Nabeel Hamdi & Reinhard Goethert, 1997
ARCH 62:Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 42

MODULE
MODULE 2.0 URBAN PLANNING TODAY
2.1 URBAN PLANNING IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

2.1.1 BRITAIN
The predominant image of Britain consists of small villages and sleepy country
towns. It has been a highly urbanized country for more than a century. The urban centers are
characterized by a slow and steady growth of local agricultural markets and places of trade. The cities in
the center and north of the region grew explosively and medium sized towns, especially those in the
south, stagnated. This was due to mounting industrialization which attracted streams of migrants from the
countryside. A significant feature of contemporary urban Britain is the subsequent decline of the industrial
cities.
The industrial Revolution changed Britain from an agrarian society to an urban

society. In the late 18th century, industrial growth created bustling towns where green fields and quiet
market towns were. By 1851, over 40% of the population lived in towns and cities with more than 100,000
inhabitants. The rapid growth was untrammeled by planning controls, which resulted in heavy social and
environmental costs. Cities became polluted, overcrowded, and blackened with soot and grime.
Tenement buildings that were far from sanitary served as housing for the workers.
The congested, polluted conditions of the British Isles prompted the trend toward
suburbanization. Those who could afford to moved to healthier and more spacious housing on the city
outskirts. Planning to control industrial and urban growth became widely accepted at the end of the 19th
century when the poor conditions of the inner cities became a matter of public concern and served as a
breeding ground for radical protest.
The latter half of the 20th century was marked by a sharp decline in the
manufacturing industry and welcomed the new growth centers: service-related industries. These
economic growth sectors include research and development, computer software, media, and other brain-
powered industries as opposed to mechanical-powered industries.
The most striking feature of the urban settlement pattern of Britain is the
dominating role of London. It is the seat of government, contains the headquarters for most major British
companies and multinational corporations. It is the center of the English legal system, fashion,
advertising, banking, insurance, publishing, etc. Growth is concentrated in the outer margins of the
greater London area, creating a vast megalopolis in the southeast of Britain. A major factor in this growth
is improved transportation and telecommunications.
The Greenbelt Policies were developed before World War II and enforced through
a series of planning acts. It controlled urban sprawl by creating a band of protected open land around the
city. Urban growth is forced to take place beyond this band of open land.

MODULE
The 20th century also saw the steady movement of population away from the old urban
core to the suburbs. Some were voluntary, others were compelled to move as a result of the
government’s rehousing schemes. After WWII, crowded substandard housing of the Victorian era was
demolished, and until the 1970’s local governments pursued urban renewal policies that included the
mass demolition of whole streets and neighborhoods. Former inhabitants were rehoused in large new
estates of high-rise blocks on peripheral urban sites. These estates became the new slums replacing the
old. Residents felt alienated and shut-off from their old community and many residents suffered high rates
of vandalism and violence. After two to three decades of their construction, high-density housing
schemes in many parts of the country were being demolished because they had fallen into disrepair.
Residential district were sharply defined by economic and social status. The poor were
concentrated in rundown areas of the inner cities or in high-rise estates. Middle-income groups lived in
the older suburban area, and the higher-income households that chose to move out of the elderly inner
city terraced houses moved to private housing estates in the suburbs or neighboring small towns and
villages that offered more space, more educational opportunities, and access to shopping.
The large influx of immigrants from the Caribbean and Asia to Britain cities from the 1950’s
to the 1970’s settled in the industrial areas of the older cities, closer to factories and to places of work.
The combination of low employment opportunities, poor housing, and ethnic division has made the inner
cities a seedbed for social tension.
Inner city decline has long since been a problem of British governments. The first scheme
to direct money into factory units in inner city areas established in the 1970’s used public funds in a
partnership between central and local governments, later the emphasis shifted to ways of attracting
private funding into inner-city redevelopment schemes.
Enterprise Zones were established in major cities after 1980 to stimulate economic activity
by tax concession and minimal planning restrictions. This was followed by the creation of Urban
Development Corporations (UDCs). Which were central government agencies charged with attracting
private capital into decaying inner-city areas. The most successful of the scheme’s initiatives is the
scheme for the redevelopment of London’s disused docklands areas. Unfortunately, the UDCs created
better conditions for business and industry and did not do much to solve the social problems of the inner
city.
2.1.2 FRANCE
The Romans established the basis of a well-developed urban system in the region. During
their 500-year occupation of the area, they were able to found many towns. These sites were linked by a
network of roads and the locations were chosen with such care that they remain important administrative
centers until now. The rectangular gridiron street plan of the Romans can still be identified in many
modern cities. Rapid population growth and expansion of trade stimulated a new phase of

MODULE
town building between the 11th and 14th centuries. Some towns were created and grew at the gates of
castles or great abbeys. Others were founded as planned towns or bastides to assist in the colonization
of land for farming. These bastides were characterized by parallel streets and arcaded market squares.
France experienced a much slower rate of urbanization than its immediate neighbors,
Britain and Germany. This was due to a limited scale of 19th century industrialization. The capital of Paris
was already the most dominant city in the settlement pattern and expanded quickly in the 19 th century.
Railroads made the rise of fashionable coastal resorts possible. Examples of these are Nice, Biarritz,
Deauville, and Vichy.
There are two distinct characteristics of the French urban system. There is a close
relationship between the town and the country, and the country, and the stability of the urban system.
The leading towns of two centuries ago or more are France’s most prominent cities today (with one or
two exceptions).
The small market town called bourg still acts as a link between the rural and urban world.
There is usually a secondary school, the bourg’s banks, doctors, and lawyers. These will serve the
inhabitants of the immediate neighborhood. Medium-sized towns are larger than the bourgs and can
have from 20,000 to 200,000 inhabitants. These include manufacturing towns and others with specialized
roles such as ports. Provincial cities in France are generally smaller than those in other European
countries.
2.1.3 ITALY AND GREECE

Italy and Greece have been noted for their cities since classical times. Traditionally, they
have acted as both trading and local administrative centers. The countryside is characterized by a dense
network of compact rural settlements. The rules of both countries attempted to colonized neighboring
countries to extend their powers. In the 13th – 16th centuries, Florence and Venice were the most
successful of the Renaissance cities, with established political influence overseas. Florence dominated
the European banking system, and Venice dominated the maritime empire.
These two countries are typically Mediterranean in character. Historic centers remain the
hub of most social and economic activity and are crowded with commercial and administrative offices,
boutiques, stores, theaters, cafes, restaurants, residential apartment buildings, etc. On the fringes thaee
is spontaneous, largely unplanned growth where new factories and housing have sprung up.
There is a great mixing of social groups within the city’s residential areas than in the
United States. The more affluent classes have not deserted the inner city to the extend as in other
countries. In some apartment buildings, wealthy tenants occupy the more spacious and airier upper floors
while those who are less well-off
ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban Regional Planning 45

MODULE
occupy the lower floors. Single-family dwellings are rare within the city and can generally be afforded only
by the very wealthy.
With the high density of the their populations, Italian and Greek cities have remained
compact. The cities are becoming increasingly jammed with traffic and are under-serviced as the public
provision of roads, schools, parks, and the like has failed to keep up with the rate of population growth.
In the 1980s, many new medium-sized towns were crated as new industries were sited in
places that could provide space to expand but were close enough to the large centers to take advantage
of their financial, marketing, and other producer services. The central areas of the large cities have
consequently remained places of importance and have not been eroded by the movement to
decentralized service activities as in other countries.
Italy. Rome is not much bigger than Milan, the industrial-commercial center of the North.
The country’s political unification in 1870 and urban traditions of the north resulted in a decentralized
pattern of city growth. Before, unification, each of the individual Italian states had been dominated by its
own capital.
Italy’s population growth rate became twice the national average between 1951 and 1971
due to internal migration of workers from stagnating agriculture in the south and the industrial towns of
the northwest. Movement from southern Italy has slowed to a trickle since the 1970s. Main flows are from
small towns to the metropolises of Naples, Bari (capital of Aplulia in the southeast), and Palermo.
Northem and central Italy experienced movement from old urban cores to new centers of economic
development on the fringe of established urban areas.
A striking feature of its urban centers, from one end of the peninsula to the other, is the
inform architectural style of the public buildings, facades, official statues, and street signs that have been
erected since the political unification in 1870. This is in marked contrast to the variety of styles found in
buildings surviving from before that date.
Greece. Large parts of Greece became depopulated as great numbers of people moved to
Athens and to Salonike. Athens is located within the territory of the modern Greek state. It has
dominance over the rest of the country due to the result of 150 years of political centralization after Greek
independence was won in 1830 and not because of its geographical position. Centralization was initially
necessary to consolidate the fragmented territory of the country of rocky peninsula divided by high
mountain ranges and scattered islands.
Nearly all the production of goods and services is based in the greater Athens urban area
and distribution flows out from the center to the small towns and rural areas of the mainland and to the
islands.
The landmark in Athens are in danger of being swamped by the uncontrolled urban
development. The city faces massive problems of air pollution caused by

MODULE
vehicle exhaust and industry. This causes damage to the ancient stonework and endangers the health of
the citizens.

MODULE
2.2 URBAN PLANNING IN DEVELOPMENT COUNTRIES

2.2.1 INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
A complex urban civilization flourished in the Indus Valley, consisting of a network of over
100 settlements. Further excavations revealed that two of the largest settlements, Harappa and Mohenjo-
Daro had populations of over 50,000 as well as a formally planned city structure with complex sanitation
arrangements and an advanced system of local government.
Urbanization has its ancient roots in the Indian subcontinent. The settlement patterns are
highly diverse, reflective of the rich combination of geographical, climatic, social, religious, and ethnic
forces that have shaped the region. Most of the people living in the Indian subcontinent are still rural-
based – they live in small farming villages and communities.
The most significant influence on contemporary urban patterns in the regions is due to the
two centuries of British colonial rule. An extensive railroad system was created to link new urban centers
and to serve Britain’s colonial interests. Calcutta, the northeastern port, was the chief city of British rule
until New Delhi, in the center of the Ganges plain, was built as the new national capital at the start of the
20th century.
There is great diversity in the pattern of settlement around the region due to the
differences of geography and climate, and social, religious, and ethnic variety.
Independence from British rule had a major impact on urban development in the
subcontinent. In 1947, British India was partitioned to form two new states of Pakistan and India. This
partition was largely due to religion. One immediate consequences of this was vast migration to these
new states. Hindus and Sikhs moved to India, Muslims moved to West and East Pakistan. The influx of
refugees also exacerbated social divisions within urban communities and the economic prosperity of
these refugees and their contrasting religious practices and traditions led to conflicts with the indigenous
urban populations. These differences still form an important part of national politics at present.
The greatest transforming influence on the subcontinent’s major cities has been the scale
of migration from the countryside, fueled by a combination of population growth, landlessness, and rural
unemployment. Migrants are attracted to the cities by the perceived advantages they offer- employment
opportunities, higher wages, better schools, and medical treatment. Urban industrial development has not
expanded to meet these demands and many cannot find jobs, and are forced to live in shanty towns or
makeshift shelters on the streets.
While the urban population is concentrated in the largest cities, the region also has several
smaller towns and villages which are also part of the urban network. These places play an important role
as local markets, administrative centers, and sites for processing and distribution agricultural produce.

MODULE
The British, during their colonizing years, introduced European architectural styles and
built spacious new settlements, formally planned with symmetrical street patterns, with strict separation of
residential, commercial, and retail areas. These are in contrast to the bazaar, where temple sites
dominated the center, no distinction marks the residential and commercial areas, and a city wall built for
security encloses a dense pattern of narrow streets, passageways, and courtyards. The British
community was segregated from the indigenous population in the hopes of avoiding disease and for
protection against rebellion and civil commotion.
The city’s growth has been rapid and chaotic. A lack of financial resources has restricted
investment in housing in a modern urban infrastructure. There is also a lack of growth in the services
sector, which leads to shortage in employment opportunities.
2.2.2 CHINA
Various areas of suitability for settlements in China is due to geographical diversity. China
is the third largest country on earth and has one of the world’s oldest urban civilizations. Despite the grow
of early cities and high culture, the population has remained tremendously rural and poor into the late 20th
century.
Overpopulation is China’s worst problem since the mid-19th century. The population
declined briefly due to a famine in 1958-1960 that wiped out millions of people. The population soared
once again until the 1970s, when the one-child family planning campaign began to be effective. Urban
populations seesawed throughout 1950 to 1982 due to conflict large-scale migration patterns. People
would flock to the cities in the 1950s during industrialization, to the communes during the “Great Leap
Forward” in the early 1960s, and back to the countryside during the Cultural Revolution, and back to the
cities in the 1970s
Walls set early Chinese cities distinct from the countryside. It reflected the role of the city
not only as a barrier against attack but also as a controlled, administered and ordered place. Virtually all
ancient imperial centers in China were designed as walled compounds with outer and inner walls. Inside
the city walls were more walls encircling courtyards palaces, offices, and common homes. Often, markets
were located outside the main gates of the city and incorporate as the city grew. Many cities have special
internal market district.
Increased urban density and overcrowding is the characteristic of great modern cities such
as Beijing, Shanghai, Taipei, and Hong Kong. Tightly-packed buses share the roads with millions of
bicycles. Private- owned cars were rare until the early 1990s. Public transport can barely cope with the
demand from the commuters.
Beyond the cities, the gap between rural and urban China remains obvious. There is no
sharp distinction between rural and urban areas in the poorer provinces. City dwellers, though they have
to live in crowded conditions, have better access to facilities. Many rural dwellers live without electricity or
plumbing and have less access to educational and healthy facilities.

MODULE
2.2.3 SOUTHEAST ASIA

A rich and complex mix of people, culture, languages, and economies characterizes the
cities of Southeast Asia. This mix is due to the pivotal position of Southeast Asia, between the Pacific and
Indian oceans and of the region’s long history of international trade and urban culture. Southeast Asia
has a relatively low level of urbanization as compared to the other parts of the world.
Most people in this region are still farmers. While urban populations are increasing rapidly,
they are concentrated in a relatively small number of major centers. Agricultural produced is collected
and delivered directly to the major markets. Goods and services are sent out from the cities to the rural
areas without a network of distribution centers in between.
Migration from the rural areas gravitates towards the large cities due to a number of
reasons. First is that services are generally much more widely available. Even squatter settlements on
the edge of major centers are better provided than small towns. Second, migration creates much needed
income for impoverished rural communities. Even the lowest levels of urban employment are likely to
produce a higher income than could be earned in rural areas. Thirdly, the presence of a migration chain
result in migrants from one particular area being settled in a certain part of the city and following similar
occupations. Migration chains are set up through the presence of a group of friends, relatives, or fellow
villagers in the city. The presence of these people act as a magnet, persuading others from the same
family or community to try their luck in the urban environment. Once established, they in turn attract yet
another group of migrants.
Urban growth in Southeast Asia does not appear to be as closely related to industrial
development as it was in western countries when they changed from being predominant agricultural to
predominant urban societies. Employment opportunities are only capable of absorbing only a small
proportion of the available labor force of migrants to the cities, so part of the urban populations obtains its
income and necessities for hiring from the “informal” sector and is supported by systems of “shared
poverty”. This is why there is a proliferation of street vendors, automobile window cleaners, collectors of
waste materials, producers of goods on an often tiny scale, and the large number of middlemen handing
minute quantities of goods and taking miniscule “cuts” on each transaction. The informal sector supplies
much of the basic needs of the urban population and helps to hold wage levels down across the whole
workforce.
The layout of most major towns and cities in Southeast Asia reflects their evolution as
trading centers during the colonial period. Western administrative and commercial district were developed
around the central port zone. The city landscape is often varied. In many cities, the needs of growing,
comparatively wealthy urban middle class are met by the development of major shopping and leisure
complexes outside the centers. Squatters settlements have sprung up on the edges of all the cities, and
uncontrolled urban growth has sprung up on the edges of all the cities, and uncontrolled urban growth
has engulfed villages that have barely been integrated in the urban fabric.

MODULE
Rapid urban growth, combined with the lack of regulations and insufficient funding for
urban programs is already resulting in major problems of congestion and pollution throughout the region.
Provision for freshwater supplies, sewerage and drained, electricity, surfaced roads and transportation
are all inadequate to meet present needs, needless to say, with future expansion. Government attempts
to limit migration and develop secondary centers and outlying rural areas have so far proved ineffective.

MODULE
2.3 THE PHILIPPINE PLANNING SYSTEM

See Appendix C: Future Directions of Urban Planning in the Philippines by Nathaniel Von
Einsiedel.
In the 1920s, the Revised Administrative Code was amended to provide for the
preparation by the director of public works of general plans for adoption by municipal and provincial
governments. The function of the plan was to lay out and locate public buildings, parks, major land use
areas for further action in the form of zoning ordinances, etc.
At the conclusion of World War II, President Segio Osmena created the National Urban
Planning Commission (NUPC) through Executive Order 98 in 1946. It was meant to prepared plans for
the rebuilding of the cities which had been destroyed during the war. It was authorized to adopt general
plans, zoning ordinances, and building and subdivision regulations for any urban area of the Philippines.
It was empowered to delegate to the local planning commission powers and duties that it deemed proper,
imposing the procedural restrictions laid down by the Executive Order. It also determined the organization
of these local planning bodies and limit the scope of the exercise of their particular planning powers or
duties.
In 1962, President Macapagal issued Administrative Order 31, directing municipal boards
and city councils to form planning boards to prepare physical development plans, subdivision, zoning,
and building regulations, and enjoining them to harmonize all public improvements with the duly
approved town or city development plan.
In the 1970s, Republic Act 5223 authorized any provincial, municipal, or city government
to enter into any contract with private persons for the construction of self-liquidating projects. Upon the
implementation of Republic Act 3931, also known as the Pollution Control Law, the city of district
engineers shall decide on applications on the issuance or renewal of permits for the construction and
operation of any commercial or industrial establishment that may cause an increase in the discharge of
wastes, and the construction or use of any new outlet for the discharge of any waste directly into the
waters or atmospheric air of the Philippines.
The Philippines has a predominantly agricultural economy, with increasing urbanization.

The concept of human settlements was introduced to the Philippines by the national delegation that
attended the 1969 United Nations conference in Stockholm. The Task Force of Human Settlements was
created in 1973, by President Ferdinand Marcos, to look into three (3) major aspects of national
development – the locational/geographic dimension of the national economic development plan, the
national housing policy and implementation program, and the planning and management of the Metro
Manila Area.
The Metro Manila Commission was created in 1975 and it consolidated the delivery of
services common to the cities and towns comprising the metropolis. These services include: (1) solid-
waste management, (2) traffic and transportation, (3) flood control and drainage, (4) health and
sanitation, and (5) land use planning and zoning. It propagated the first metropolitan – wide land use and
planning ordinance.

Urban and Regional Planning

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Urban and Regional Planning

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE CONTENTS PAGE NO.

2.0 URBAN PLANNING TODAY

5.0 SECTOR PLANNING: PHYSICAL PLANNING

6.0 SPECIALIZED FIELDS

ABSTRACTS OF CHOSEN BOOKS 93

INTRODUCTION TO URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

Course Code ARCH 62

Course Title INTRODUCTION TO URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

Credit Units Three (3) units

Pre-Requisites ARCH 61 Fundamentals of Urban Design and Community Arch.

Objectives 1. To be able to understand and explain the general planning

List of References  Introduction to Planning, 2nd Ed., Ernest Alexander, 1993.

Level of learning Grade Point equivalent

Grade Percentage Share

*** May vary according to the lecture/teacher’s preference.

3. No electronic or communication devices. All cellular phones, pagers, radios shall be

SESSION MODULE CONTENT ACTIVITY OBJECTIVES

2.0 Urban Planning Today

MODULE 1.0 AN INTRODUCTION

Time chart showing the

From the book by AEJ Morris,

The planning of cities in ancient times is the precursor of what we consider as

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 1

1.1.1.1 THE FERTILE CRESCENT

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 2

Housing layout in Kahun, Egypt

From the book by Arthur B. Gallion, “The Urban Pattern”.

1.1.1.3 INDUS VALLEY

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 3

Mohenjo-daro, Stupa view

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 4

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 5

Roman are considered to be the first regional planners due to their

The Roman Forum

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 6

1.1.2 EVOLUTION OF PLANNING

1.1.2.1 MEDIEVAL PLANNING

Once a cathedral was established, a considerable number of people would

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 7

From the book by Ludwig Hilberseimer, The Nature of Cities.

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 8

Siena is a classical example of a highly irregular city. It is clustered around the

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

Sierra Civic Square

From the book by Ludwig Hilberseimer, The Nature of Cities.

1.1.2.2 RENAISSANCE PLANNING

The advocate of medieval irregular planning in the Renaissance Period was

1.1.2.3 BAROQUE PLANNING

1.1.2.4 THE INDUSTRIAL CITY

ARCH 63: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 10

1.1.2.5 TWENTIETH CENTURY PLANNING

Planning in the twentieth century is marked by the presence of the skyscraper.

1.1.3 PLANNING PHILOSOPHIES

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

Locke also distinguished “primary” and “secondary” qualities in what we

In general, empiricism is the acceptance of the evidences given by one’s

The great advocate of rationalism was Renee Descartes (1597-1650).

He deliberated on the processes of thinking itself and came up with

“…one of the first that came to my mind was that there is

ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning 12

“…so too, those old places which beginning as villages,

Pragmatism was a philosophy that grew out of America conditions. Its