Report

2013 - 2014 Production Of Soaps From Oil
Mill Waste
College Of Engineering & Technology, AKOLA. Page 1

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I. INTRODUCTION
This project is deals with the production of soap from oil mill waste in three different
forms; solid, liquid & detergent powder. It is found that this waste is containing a quantity of
free fatty acids which can be converted into potassium or sodium salt of fatty acids i.e. Soap.
The waste in oil mills causing a serious problem of its disposal. We have used this waste for
production of soap which is very important for maintaining personal hygiene and the general
cleanliness of the environment. The soap prepared in this project work is an organic soap. It
has become a healthier alternative for conventional soap, since it cleans by acting as an agent
between water and dirt. Using various additives pure organic soap is converted into liquid
soap. The demand for liquid soaps will continue to increase as far as washing of plates in the
kitchen, scrubbing of floor & hand washes etc. at home and in the factory and industries
wherever hygiene is concern.
The overall consumption of detergents in the India is probably of the order of six million
tonnes per year. Most detergents are used in the household (especially for laundry and dish
washing). Modern detergents may contain 30 or more ingredients. The main ingredients are
surfactants which perform the cleaning process through surface chemical reactions. The
environmental behaviour and fate of surfactants has been the subject of extensive research
which has led, most recently, to the Detergents Regulation, which regulates the nature of
surfactants used in detergents with particular regard to their biodegradability. Builders are
another important group of ingredients which assist the cleaning process by removing calcium
and magnesium ions. Historically, many detergents contained sodium tripolyphosphate
(STPP) but moves towards non-phosphate laundry detergents resulted in a large increase in
the use of zeolite based detergents (together with the associated necessary co-builders) from
the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s. However, it is important to note that detergents used in
dishwashers are still generally phosphate-based. The focus of this study is on the current use
of organic co-builders and other organic non-surfactant ingredients and associated
implications in terms of risks to people and to the environment.

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Detergents Regulation defines a detergent as: any substance or preparation containing soaps
and/or other surfactants intended for washing and cleaning processes. Detergents may be in
any form (liquid, powder, paste, bar, cake, moulded piece, shape, etc.) and marketed for or
used in household, or institutional or industrial purposes. Apart from technological and
cultural reasons, the other key reason for variability in consumption is water hardness. There
are two broad types of dishwashing detergents: phosphate detergents used in dishwashing
machines (dishwashers); and • liquid detergents (based on fatty acids) used for washing dishes
by hand. In broad terms, the quantity of detergent used per unit of dishwashing is similar
whether washed by machine or by hand. Broadly speaking, all detergents comprise a range of
chemicals which may be grouped according to their function. The key groups of chemicals are
surfactants, builders, solvents, bleaches, performance additives and water. Three of the main
groups of detergents are those based on fatty acids (such as washing up liquids), phosphates
(especially for laundry and dishwashers) and phosphate-free detergents based on zeolites.
Table [1]:- Indicative Composition of Detergent & Soaps Types.

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Table [2]:- Detergents & Soaps Ingredients.
Since most organic ingredients present in soaps and detergents will end up in waste water
treatment plants, the degree to which they undergo aerobic degradation is of interest.
However, in some cases, other forms of environmental degradation are also important. By
way of example, for materials which end up in sewage sludge, anaerobic biodegradation (in
which organic compounds are broken down by micro-organisms when oxygen is not present)
may also be important. Once released into the environment some compounds may degrade
under sunlight (photo-degradation) or undergo chemical reactions with (or catalysed by) other
materials present in the environment. For each type of degradation, it is possible to measure
the rate of degradation using one or more approved test methods. Particular attention was
given to those organic ingredients which were not readily biodegradable or had other
properties of particular concern.
In this project work along with the material and energy balance, the costing, the plant location
and layout for manufacturing plant with quality controls methods are included.

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II. LITERATURE SURVEY:
1. INTRODUCTION TO SOAP
Soaps are surfactants, they are sodium or potassium salts of a blend of long-chain fatty
acids. They are also detergents. Thus the word detergent includes soaps and surfactants, and
the word "surfactant" includes soaps, but not all surfactants are necessarily considered
detergents, although they may act as such. Such exceptions would include wetting agents,
whose function is wetting surfaces, rather than cleaning them.
Soap is integral to our society today, and we find it hard to imagine a time when people were
kept sweet-smelling by the action of perfume rather than soap .Soaps cleanse by lowering the
surface tension of water, which is 64 dynes/m2, to 40 dynes/m2, resulting in emulsification of
oil and grease. The dirt adsorbs directly into the foam. Soap is produced by saponification
which is the reaction of fat with alkalies resulting in sodium and potassium salts of fatty acids
and glycerin. The most commonly employed fatty acids are mixtures of tallow, coconut oil,
palm oil, etc.
The hydrogen on the fatty acid is replaced by the alkali or other metals. These soap curds are
then further processed to form liquid soaps or solid bars. Properties of soaps vary according to
alkalis, fats and fillers employed. In industry, soaps are also used as paint dryers, lubricating
greases, cleansers, etc.
Typical commercial soaps are made by reacting fatty acid esters with sodium hydroxide
(caustic), with glycerol as by-product. They are, in solution, very alkaline, causing a pH of 10.
If such a high pH cannot be tolerated in the system, amine soaps are used which result in a pH
of about 8. The primary amine used is tri-ethanol amine. Multivalent soaps favor the
formation of water in oil emulsions. They do not promote emulsion stability so are of little
concern to the wastewater engineer.
The alkali and amine soaps are widely used as stabilizers for oil & water emulsions. They are
sensitive to hard water, which can lead to breaking of the emulsion. They are not used in

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applications where hard water is used, such as in insecticidal emulsions, which are often
diluted just prior to use. Other soaps are prepared with carboxylic acids derived from rosin
where the principal component is acetic acid. Olive oil is used for Castile soap. The specific
gravity of soaps is slightly more than 1.0; entrainment of air causes it to float. Water solutions
of sodium soaps are universally used as mild emulsifying detergents for washing textiles,
skin, paint, etc.
Transparent soaps are made from decolorized fats; liquid green soaps are made with
potassium hydroxide. Other sources of carboxylic acid are tall oil which is refined for
improved performance. Except in very dilute solutions, soaps exist as micelles. Soap micelles
are usually spherical clusters of carboxylate ions that are dispersed throughout the aqueous
phase.
SOLID SOAP:
The solid detergent bars are the solid form compound of fatty acids and alkali used for
washing clothes, for bathing purpose, etc.
LIQUID SOAP:
Liquid soap helped to transform the way that the world cleaned. Liquid soap can be
useful for all purpose. As a detergent, liquid soap tends to work much better than flake soap.
There are pros and cons of both types of soap. The First soap manufacturing industry in
France was established at Marseilles, a city surrounded with natural advantages of Soil and
climate for the production of all the crude materials necessary for soap-making. The olive-
tree, tile fruit of which yields a fixed oil in great abundance, flourished in the south of France,
while the shores of the Mediterranean Yielded an ample supply of maritime plants, from
which crude soda was obtained by calcinations, at Marseilles. However, with all these
advantages, they were unable to produce sufficient material to meet the demands of its
manufacturers. Therefore, as time progressed, Italy furnished supplies of olive-oil, while
Spain contributed crude soda, or barilla.
DETERGENT POWDER:
The organic soap can be converted into powder form and sold as laundry powders, hard
surface cleansers, fabric conditioners etc. Most soap powders are mixtures of soap and alkali
substances known as builders. This project will cover all production processes, process flow
charts, material balances, energy balances and plant layout as required for industry.

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2. THE CHEMISTRY OF SOAP AND DETERGENT & FUNCTION:

All soaps and detergents contain a surfactant as their active ingredient. This is an ionic
species, consisting of a long, linear, non-polar ‘tail’ with a cationic or anionic ‘head’ and a
counter ion. The tail is water insoluble and the head is water soluble - a difference in
solubility which has two important implications. Firstly, this makes the surfactant molecule a
wetting agent; the tails migrate to align themselves with the solid-water interface, lowering
the surface tension at that point so that it penetrates the fabric better. Secondly, it allows the
oily dirt particles to form an emulsion with the water: the tails of many surfactant molecules
surround an oily dirt particle, forming a micelle with a drop of oil in the centre and the ionic
heads of the surfactant molecules pointing outwards and hence keeping the micelle in the
polar solution.
The chemical structure of soap molecule is given below. These are phospholipids divided into
two regions head & tail shown in figure below;
Figure: - [1] Structure of Soap Molecule.

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Figure: - [2] Phospholipids bilayer formation.
Soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A soap molecule consists of a long
hydrocarbon chain (composed of carbons and hydrogen) with a carboxylic acid group on one
end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually a sodium or potassium. The hydrocarbon
end is non-polar and is soluble in non-polar substances (such as fats and oils), and the ionic
end (the salt of a carboxylic acid) is soluble in water.
Figure: - [3] different shape of molecule

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When a soap or detergent is added to water, a polar solvent, the molecules form
clusters, known as micelles, in which the polar ends of the molecules are on the outside of the
cluster and the non-polar ends are in the middle. The cleaning action of both soaps and
detergents results from their ability to emulsify or disperse water-insoluble materials (dirt, oil,
grease, etc.) and hold them in suspension in water. This ability comes from the molecular
structure of soaps and detergents. When a soap or detergent is added to water that contains oil
or other water-insoluble materials, the soap or detergent molecules surround the oil droplets.
The oil or grease is “dissolved” in the alkyl groups of the soap molecules while the ionic end
allows the micelle to dissolve in water. As a result, the oil droplets are dispersed throughout
the water (this is referred to as emulsification) and can be rinsed away
Fig: - [4] Phospholipids bilayer formation and its action.
Figure:-[5] Phospholipids Chain of STEARIC ACID.

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The chain of stearic acid is shown in above Fig. these are formed by replacing one
hydrogen atom from carboxylic acid group of fatty acid chain.
Figure:-[6] Action of Soap Molecule to Remove Oily Dirt.
The action of soap molecules is shown in above figures. The cleaning action of both
soaps and detergents results from their ability to emulsify or disperse water-insoluble
materials (dirt, oil, grease, etc.) and hold them in suspension in water. This ability comes from
the molecular structure of soaps and detergents. When a soap or detergent is added to water
that contains oil or other water-insoluble materials, the soap or detergent molecules surround
the oil droplets. The oil or grease is “dissolved” in the alkyl groups of the soap molecules
while the ionic end allows the micelle to dissolve in water. As a result, the oil droplets are
dispersed throughout the water (this is referred to as emulsification) and can be rinsed away.
Soaps will react with metal ions in the water and can form insoluble precipitates.
The precipitates can be seen in the soapy water and are referred to as “soap scum”. This soap
scum can form deposits on clothes causing them to be gray or yellow in color. To eliminate
the metal ions in water, washing aids such as washing soda (sodium carbonate) and borax

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(sodium tetra borate) were added to the wash water. These compounds would precipitate the
metal ions, eliminating most of the soap scum. With the discovery of synthetic detergents,
much of the need for washing aids was reduced. A detergent works similar to soap, but does
not form precipitates with metal ions, reducing the discoloration of clothes due to the
precipitated soap.
Various Acids Present In the Soap:
1. lauric acid -(dodecanoic acid - C12H24O2)
2. myristic acid-(tetradecanoic acid - C14H28O2)
3. palmitic acid -(hexadecanoic acid - C16H32O2)
4. stearic acid- (octadecanoic acid - C18H36O2)
5. oleic acid -(9-octadecenoic acid - C18H34O2)
6. linoleic acid -(9,12-octadecadienoic acid - C18H32O2)
The number ranges are meant to be a relative indicator of the soap's qualities and are
general guidelines. The numbers are based on the combined fatty acid content. Each fatty acid
contributes certain qualities to the soap.
Lauric Acid will add hardness to bar promotes a fluffy lather and cleans very well almost too
well. Large amounts of lauric acid will create an excessively drying product as natural skin
oils will be stripped because of its amazing cleansing abilities. Just try not to go overboard
with ingredients like coconut oil, babassu oil or palm oil that have large amounts of lauric
acid in them.

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Linoleic Acid will add conditioning and moisturizing properties to soap bar. Some also report
that a silky feel is added to their product when using ingredients high in this acid. DOS
(dreaded orange spots) tends to rancid more quickly then the other fatty acids. Just be leery of
using too much of an ingredient that has a high content of linoleic acid, especially for bar to
last a long time.
Linolenic Acid will add conditioning properties and moisturizing properties to soap creating a
very mild finished product.
Oleic Acid will also add conditioning properties and moisturizing properties to soap. It will
not produce a very good lather though.
Palmitic Acid will add hardness to bar and a creamy / stable lather. Careful though too much
can be over drying.
Ricinoleic Acid will add conditioning properties, a fluffy lather and some creamy/stable
lather! This fatty acid is prominent in castor oil and is great for adding a luxurious lather to
the finished product even if only used in small amounts.
Stearic Acid will offer many of the same characteristics as palmitic acid. Once again, you'll
gain hardness to the bar and add a creamy/stable lather.
Myristic Acid will add hardness to the bar, offer good cleansing properties and adds a nice
fluffy lather. Again, because of its cleansing abilities, too much myristic acid will produce
somewhat of a drying product.

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3. THE SOAP MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

Soaps are water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. Soaps are made from
fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating them chemically with a strong alkali. An alkali is
a soluble salt of an alkali metal like sodium or potassium. Originally, the alkalis used in
soapmaking were obtained from the ashes of plants, but they are now made commercially.
Today', the term alkali describes a substance that chemically is a base (the opposite of an acid)
and that reacts with and neutralizes an acid. The common alkalis used in soapmaking are
sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also called caustic soda; and potassium hydroxide (KOH), and
also called caustic potash. When the alkali is sodium hydroxide, sodium soap is formed.
Sodium soaps are "hard" soaps. Bar soaps are hard soaps. When the alkali is potassium
hydroxide, potassium soap is formed. Potassium soaps are softer and are found in some liquid
hand soaps and shaving creams.
Water, the liquid commonly used for cleaning, has a property called surface tension. In
the body of the water, each molecule is surrounded and attracted by other water molecules.
However, at the surface, these molecules are surrounded by other water molecules only on the
water side. A tension is created as the water molecules at the surface are pulled into the body
of the water. This tension causes water to bead up on surfaces (glass, fabric), which slows
wetting of the surface and inhibits the cleaning process. You can see surface tension at work
by placing a drop of water onto a countertop. The drop will hold its shape and will not spread.
In the cleaning process, surface tension must be reduced so water can spread and wet surfaces.
Chemicals that do this effectively are called surface active agents, or surfactants. They are
said to make water "wetter." Surfactants perform other important functions in cleaning, such

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as loosening, emulsifying (dispersing in water) and holding soil in suspension until it can be
rinsed away. Surfactants can also provide alkalinity, which is useful in removing acidic soils.
The essence of soap production is saponification reaction:
This reaction is exothermic, and progresses quickly and efficiently at around 125o C,
Inside an autoclave type reactor.
The most common fats and oils used are tallow (beef or mutton/beef blend), coconut
oil, and palm kernel oil. Different oils produce soaps of varying hardness, odour and
lathering, so the ratios of the oils used are closely monitored to produce a blend with the most
desirable characteristics for the most reasonable cost. However, pure soap is hard and easily
oxidized, so various additives are added to correct this and to make a more aesthetically
pleasing product. The first such "additive" is glycerine, which is produced in the
saponification reaction. Glycerine makes the soap smoother and softer than pure soap.
Fats and oils are made up of triglycerides, three molecules of fatty acids joined to a
glycerol molecule. The chain length of the fatty acids and their organization on the glycerol
backbone vary greatly, although in most of the edible oils it is with 16 and 18 carbons. Fats
and oils are a combination of fatty acids, both saturated (C14:0, 16:0, etc.) and unsaturated (C
18:1, 18:2, 18:3). Some fats, such as lard, palm and coconut oils have higher concentrations of

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saturated fatty acids than other oils and are referred to as saturated fats, even though they
contain some percentages of unsaturated fatty acids. Cottonseed oil is among the most
unsaturated oils, others being safflower, corn, soybean, rapeseed and sunflower seed oils.
Cottonseed oil has a ratio of 2: 1 of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids and generally
consists of 65-70% unsaturated fatty acids including 18-24% monounsaturated (oleic) and 42-
52% polyunsaturated (linoleic) and 26-35% saturated (palmitic and stearic).
Fig: - [6] Fat or oil is made up of a Fig: - [7] Saponifìcation of fats and oils is the
distinctive mixture of several different most widely used soapmaking process.
triglycerides.
Fatty acids are the components of fats and oils that are used in making soap. They are
weak acids composed of two parts: a carboxylic acid group consisting of one hydrogen (H)
atom, two oxygen (O) atoms, and one carbon (C) atom; plus a hydrocarbon chain attached to
the carboxylic acid group. Generally, it is made up of a long, straight chain of carbon (C)
atoms each carrying two hydrogen (H) atoms.
Figure [8]:- Fatty acids are the components of fats and oils that are used in making soap.

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However, it is also much more valuable than soap itself, so only a minimum of
glycerine is left in the soap and the remainder is extracted, purified and sold. The glycerine is
extracted from the soap with lye, a brine solution that is added to the soap at the
saponification stage. Wet soap is soluble in weak brine, but separates out as the electrolyte
concentration increases. Glycerine, on the other hand, is highly soluble in brine. Wet soap thus
has quite a low electrolyte concentration and is about 30% water (which makes it easily
pumpable at 70oC). To remove the glycerine, more electrolytes are added. Causing the wet
soap to separate into two layers; crude soap and a brine/glycerine mixture known as spent lye,
neutral lye or sweet waters. The soap still contains some salt, which itself functions as an
additive, altering the viscosity and color of the soap. Once the spent lye has been removed the
soap is dried, chipped, mixed with other additives such as perfumes and preservatives and
then plodded (squeezed together), formed into tablets and packaged for sale.
Although soap is a good cleaning agent, its effectiveness is reduced when used in hard
water. Hardness in water is caused by the presence of mineral salts mostly those of calcium
(Ca) and magnesium (Mg), but sometimes also iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). The mineral
salts react with soap to form an insoluble precipitate known as soap film or scum. Soap film
does not rinse away easily. It tends to remain behind and produces visible deposits on clothing
and makes fabrics feel stiff. It also attaches to the insides of bathtubs, sinks and washing
machines. Some soap is raised up by reacting with hard water minerals to form the film. This
reduces the amount of soap available for cleaning. Even when clothes are washed in soft
water, some hardness minerals are introduced by the soil on clothes. Soap molecules are not
very versatile and cannot be adapted to today's variety of fibres, washing temperatures and
water conditions.
The manufacture of soap involves utilizing various oils and fats to produce soaps with
the optimum qualities for their required purposes. A variety of combinations of oils and fats
can be used and selection is usually based on quality of oil, desired product properties and
current market costs. All naturally occurring oils and fats used in soap making are composed
of TRIGLYCERIDES, each molecule of which contains a backbone of glycerol bonded to
three fatty acid chains.

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Some raw materials include abrasives e.g. talc, diatomaceous earth, silica, marble,
volcanic ash, chalk, feldspar, quart or sand. A variety of pigments, dyes, perfumes and anti-
oxidants can also be added to produce speciality products. The quantities used re small in
comparison to the main raw material.
Three types of energy are needed for good cleaning results:

 Chemical Energy, provided by the soap or detergent;
 Thermal Energy, provided by warm or hot water; and
 Mechanical Energy, provided by a machine or hands.
Delivery, handling and storage of Raw Materials

Major raw materials are transported to the site by tankers and stored in bulk tanks and
tank farms on site bounded areas. Minor raw materials are transported and stored in a similar
manner but in smaller quantities.
The nature of the industry means that handling of raw materials is largely carried out
in bulk. The tankers are unloaded in an unloading bay that has facilities for the raw materials
to be pumped into bulk tanks or to tank farms. Where the raw materials concerned are stored
in drums on site, the drums will normally be unloaded from the vehicle by a fork-fit truck.
DIFFERENT PROCESS OF SOAP MANUFACTUR

a. The Colgate-Palmolive Process
This is a continuous process which uses a plant built by Binacchi. The process is best
understood in terms of two streams: soap flowing in the order given below against a counter-
current of lye.
Step 1 - Saponification

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The raw materials are continually fed into a reactor in fixed proportions. Assuming a
production rate of 1000 kg wet soap per hour and an 80:20 tallow: coconut oil mix, the raw
materials would be fed in at the following rates:
Cotton oil 525.9 kg / hr
Tallow 131.5 kg / hr
50% NaOH solution 3101 kg / hr
These ingredients alone would give a low water, high glycerine soap. Soap needs to be
about 30% water to be easily pump, and even then needs to be held at around 70 oC, so excess
lye is added to hydrate the soap and dissolve out some of the glycerine. The lye added is
known as "half spent lye" and is the lye discharged from washing column. This lye already
contains some glycerine, but it is further enriched by that formed in Saponifìcation reaction.
Step 2 - Lye separation

The wet soap is pumped to a "static separator" - a settling vessel which does not use
any mechanical action. The soap / lye mix is pumped into the tank where it separates out on
the basis of weight. The spent lye settles to the bottom from where it is piped off to the
glycerine recovery unit, while the soap rises to the top and is piped away for further
processing.
Step 3 - Soap Washing

The soap still contains most of its glycerine at this stage, and this is removed with
fresh lye in a washing column. The column has rings fixed on its inside surface. The soap
solution is added near the bottom of the column and the lye near the top. As the lye flows
down the column through the centre, a series of rotating disks keeps the soap / lye mixture
agitated between the rings. This creates enough turbulence to ensure good mixing between the
two solutions. The rate of glycerine production is calculated and the rate at which fresh lye is
added to the washing column then set such that the spent lye is 25 - 35 % glycerine. Glycerine
is almost infinitely soluble in brine, but at greater than 35% glycerine the lye no longer

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efficiently removes glycerine from the soap. The soap is allowed to overflow from the top of
the column and the lye ("half spent lye") is pumped away from the bottom at a controlled rate
and added to the reactor.
Step 4 - Lye separation

The lye is added at the top of the washing column, and the soap removed from the
column as overflow. As the lye is added near the overflow pipe the washed soap is about 20%
fresh lye, giving the soap unacceptably high water, and caustic levels. Separating off the lye
lowers the electrolyte levels to acceptable limits. The soap and lye are separated in a
centrifuge, leaving a soap which is 0.5% NaCl and 0.3% NaOH, and about 31% water. The
lye removed is used as fresh lye.
Step 5 - Neutralization
Although the caustic levels are quite low, they are still unacceptably high for toilet and
laundry soap. The NaOH is removed by reaction with a weak acid such as coconut oil (which
contains significant levels of free fatty acids), coconut oil fatty acids, citric acid or phosphoric
acid, with the choice of acid being made largely on economic grounds. Some preservative is
also added at this stage, as shown in the flow sheet;

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Flowchart 1 - The Colgate Palmolive Continuous Soap manufacturing process.
Step 6 - Drying
Finally, the water levels must be reduced down to about 12%. This is done by heating
the soap to about 125oC under pressure (to prevent the water from boiling off while the soap is
still in the pipes) and then spraying it into an evacuated chamber at 40 mm Hg (5.3 kPa). The
latent heat of evaporation lost as the water boils off reduces the soap temperature down to
45oC, at which temperature it solidifies onto the chamber walls. The soap chips are scraped
off the walls and "plodded" (i.e. squeezed together) by screws known as "plodder worms" to

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form soap noodles. The soap is now known as base or neat soap chip, and can be converted
into a variety of different soaps in the finishing stages. The moisture evaporated off the wet
soap is transported to a barometric condenser, which re-condenses the vapour without the
system losing vacuum. The moisture can contain soap dust (Fines.) which is removed by
cyclones and returned by augers to the spray chamber, while the water is recycled. Base soap
can also be made by a batch process such as that used by Lever Rexona.
b. The Lever Rexona Process

This process is summarized in Flowchart [2].

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Flowchart [2] - The Lever Rexona soap manufacturing batch Process.
Step 1 - Oil preparation

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The oils used most commonly are, as in the Colgate-Palmolive process, tallow and
coconut oil. These are blended together and dried in a vacuum chamber. Once the oils are dry,
bleaching earth is sucked by the vacuum into the chamber to remove any coloured impurities.
The spent earth is land filled and the oils stored ready for saponification.
Step 2 - Saponification
The mixture of bleached oils is mixed with spent lye from the washing stage (see
below) and a caustic soda solution. The mix is heated and then left to settle into two layers.
The neutral lye (which is now rich in glycerine) is pumped off and the mixture of soap and
un-reacted oils which has risen to the top is left in the pan. More caustic liquor is added to this
and the mix reheated to saponify the remaining free oils.
Step 3 – Washing
The crude soap is then pumped to a divided pan unit (DPU) where it is washed by a
countercurrent of lye. This lye is a mixture of fresh brine solution and Niger lye. The washed
soap comes out the far end of the DPU and is sent to the fitting pans, while the lye comes out
the near end and is pumped back into one of the saponification pans.
Step 4 - Fitting
Here the remaining unwanted glycerine is removed from the soap by re-boiling with
water, NaCl and a small amount of NaOH solution. The electrolyte concentration in the water
is such that the soap and water to separate out into two layers. The top layer is ’neat’ wet soap,
which is pumped off to be dried. The bottom layer is known as the ‘Niger’ layer, and consists
of a solution of soap, glycerine and NaCl. This is left in the pan, re-boiled with further salt
and left to stand, forming a soap crust over a lower layer of Niger lye (salt and glycerine).
This soap is left in the pan and is mixed with the next intake of washed soap, while the Niger
lye is pumped back to the DPUs to wash the next batch of crude soap.

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Step 5 - Drying
Moisture is flashed off under vacuum in the same manner as was described above for
the Colgate-Palmolive process.
C. CONTINUOUS PROCESS
The continuous saponification process has become increasingly popular over recent
years and has a number of variations. The oil/fats are added to sodium hydroxide in the
presence of steam and mixed in a hydrolyser. This produces soap and glycerol as outlined
above.
Flowchart [3]:- Manufacture of SOAP by CONTINUOUS Process.

Further processes:
The next step in both methods is to separate the soap from the glycerol (called the washing
operation) by adding brine to the soap / glycerol layer is recovered and refined by distillation.
The soap is then mixed with more salt / caustic soda to obtain the correct viscosity /
consistency of soap, in an operation called ‘fitting’.

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After fitting, the liquid soap (known as neat soap), which normally contains 63%
total fatty matter (TFM), is then dried, for example in a flash vacuum chamber, to form a
semi-plastic soap noodle or chip which is 80% TFM, At the drying stage, chelating agents are
added such as EDTA (ethylenediamine tetracetic acid) which remove mainly iron and copper
that would otherwise catalyze the decomposition of the soap to a malodorous rancid material
and also act as softeners, The soap noodle is then converted into a bar in the ‘ finishing
process’.
For normal toilet soaps, additives such as colorants, perfumes, super fatting agents
and titanium dioxide (which reduces the transparent nature of soap) are mixed with the soap
noodles, medicated or shaving soaps require other additives. This mix is run through a soap
mill, with very fine gaps (0.15-0.20 mm), which disperses the additives through the soap and
also removes any small over-dried soap particle. The soap mix is then ‘plodded’, which
involves compressing the soap under vacuum to remove any trapped air and then extruding
the soap into a hard bar. This bar, or billet, can then be stamped into any shapes required and
cartooned or wrapped ready for sale.
Ancillary Activities:
A number of supporting activities are necessary for the running of plant and
producing processes. These include, for example, oil-fired boilers, with the necessary oil
storage tanks. Similarly, coal fired boiler system may have existed. Buildings on site may
have contained asbestos insulation or cladding. And the electrical equipment may contain
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS). Some plants may have had effluent treatment facilities.
Waste
A soap or detergent manufacturing facility commonly generate aqueous process wastes,
which are often recycled after the removal of solids and other constituents, as well as cooling
water which is generally recycled. Wastes may also originate from research and development
activities, as returned products, reject batches or as sludge from biological treatment or
neutralization of liquid effluents.
The storage of waste depends on its physical state. Liquid waste can be stored in sumps,
drums or tanks depending on the volume and ultimate destination of the waste. The soap or

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detergent manufacturing processes also produces glycerol as a byproduct which is generally
stored until it can be sold.
Laundry or 'hard' soap manufacture

The base soap is mixed with colour and preservatives and milled. Perfume is then
added and the mixture plodded then extruded into a continuous bar. This, in turn, is cut into
billets and stamped out into tablets ready for packaging.
Toilet soap manufacture

Toilet soap has less water and more fatty material (fatty acids and soap) than laundry
soap. For this reason base soap intended for toilet soap manufacture usually has extra fatty
acids added with the preservatives before it is vacuum dried. These ensure that there is no un-
reacted caustic left in the soap by the time it reaches the consumer, and also make the soap
softer. Perfume, dye and pacifier are then added to the dried soap and the mixture milled to
ensure even mixing. It is then plodded and extruded out as a continuous bar, cut into billets
and stamped ready for packaging and sale.
4. LIQUID SOAP
Washing soaps are very important in the maintenance of personal hygiene and the
general cleanliness of the environment. The demand for liquid soaps will continue to increase
as far as washing of plates in the kitchen, clothes and scrubbing of floor etc. at home and in
the factory is concern. To make liquid soap at home and generate cool money, we need the
following:
Capital Needed to Make Liquid Soap

You can make liquid soap with at least N20, 000. N10, 000 for raw materials and N10,
000 for equipment but this amount depends on the scale at which you can produce. If you
want to make liquid soap on a large scale you will need more capital, registration with
relevant government agency like NAFDAC, (National Administration for Food And Drugs
Control), and buy expensive equipment.

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Production Equipment Needed to Make Liquid Soap:

 Steel tank or plastic drum,
 Wooden stirrer or blending tank/mixer fitted with stirrer if we can afford it,
 Weighing scale,
 Hydrometer / thermometer,
 Hand gloves,
 Packaging materials (plastic containers with measurement in liter).
 Labels for branding
Raw Materials Needed to Make Liquid Soap:

 Cotton or soya bean oil waste,
 Caustic Soda,
 Sodium Silicate,
 Dye / Colorant,
 Fragrance (to remove odor),
 Diorites to be added when producing anti-septic soap.
Safety Equipment Needed to Make Liquid Soap

Before you start to make liquid soap, please put on the following safety gadgets on, to
prevent chemical’s accidents, like chemical coming in contact with the eyes and body.
 Eye Google
 Hand gloves
 Safety shoes
a) Production Process Required to Make Liquid Soap

The Liquid Soap Recipe - Get 366g of coconut oil, then 1424g of Potassium Hydroxide,
and 1204g of pure water. These are the recipe for the liquid soap we are going to discuss
about in this procedure. Once we have them down, its time to get started with the process of
making the liquid soap. In this method, we are going to use a double boiler system that is
using two pots for the boiler; one will be smaller than the other, the handler on the top pot

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hold it suspended over the bottom one such that when the top pot is in on it, the water level
will be over the top pot. See picture below.
Fig.[8] Double Boiler Fig.[9] Double Boiler
Then add the Potassium Hydroxide on the pot on top. When we add the potassium hydroxide
it will sound like it is going to explode or boil over, even though the water on the bottom pot
does not bubble at all and doesn’t even heat as much as the sodium hydroxide, it’s the normal
process. When mixing water and potassium hydroxide together and when mixing the soap
there will seems to be a very Caustic Steam that comes from the mixture. When making liquid
soap, always wears long sleeves and gloves otherwise our skin begins to burn due to the heat
and the chemical released;
(a):- Pre-Heat the water in the bottom of our double boiler.
( b ):- Heat and mix your oils and fats like you normally would for CP, using the temperatures
of 160 degree for the oils and 140 degree for the potassium / water mixture, they will get to
these temperatures very fast so be ready with our hot water in the bottom of our double boiler
when we start.
Try to bring your soap to trace, which even with a stick blender is pretty long. It will go
though few stages before it harden into our paste. It will also keep trying to separate, but keep
mixing it until it is VERY thick like thick custard or maybe a meringue.

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Tip:
Try to keep our soap as close to 160 degree as we can, if we go over 160 our soap will boil up over the
top of the pot, but much less than 160 and our soap will take forever to trace. So let it be within 160
degree. Look at the sample below: This is not trace, just a good imitation. It has to get much thicker
than this. If we stopped at this point our soap would separate and that wouldn’t be good.
Fig.[10] Thick soap Fig. [12] After processing

How about this on the second fig given above? Nope, this isn’t it either, keep going, its not yet
at the point we want
We are not sure that we can tell by this picture, but at some point our soap may look sort of
grainy and like it is separating. When that happens, just keep going it is normal in a case like this.
Keep going, don’t mind it. Look at the Fig below! Now this is a stage we want you have to look out for.
This is what our soap looks like just before it starts to puff up and out of the pot. What happens is
that the soap gets too hot (we notice that it is in the double boiler) and it doubles in size or begin to
rise.
Fig.[13] After processing Fig. [14] After melting

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If you see this start happening get our pot into our sink and let it cool off. Have a
sprayer in our sink and use it on cold and spray the outside of the pot. As long as the pot was
too hot, we could not stir it down. However using a sprayer to cool the side of the pot,
immediately made soap collapse back to its original size. Be aware this may happen and get
your-self prepared for it. When the soap comes down to its puffy stage it collapsed into a solid
mass. This is sort of what it looked like, but this is a bit further in the process, after it has been
heating for a while, but it’s just similar with the one on the picture below.
Put the soap into top of our double boiler and bring the heat up. It will make a very
stiff paste, don’t bother to try and mix it, it is already far too thick. Check our mixture twice
for separation 20 minutes apart. We have to pry the paste away from the bottom of the pot. If
it has separated there will be a clear liquid on the bottom. If we find this we will have it mix
up again. Keeps the water in the double boiler boiling for 3 hours. Make sure that our pot is
covered the idea is to get it as hot as possible. After about 2 hours it will start to turn translucent, if
not keep cooking it at a very fast boil until it does. Cook for 1hour after the translucent stage. It has
been cooked for about 4hours before and it made a beautiful clear batch of soap like the one below.
Fig.[15] after thicken Fig.[16] close view
Time for Dilution

Scrap the paste into a pot of 4820 ml of water for dilution. Break it up a bit to get into
manageable sized chunks. Look into the pot below, you will see it is broken into manageable
pieces. That’s what we mean.
Now, slowly heat up water / soap mixture to a medium heat and then turn it off and leave it
overnight. Note that heating has to be slowly this time. Make sure the pot is covered. If soap is high in
soft oils (which this recipe is all about) it will get a skin on it if it isn’t covered. Once we add the borax

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it will fix this but until that time, keep the lid covered all of the time. If you have lots of coconut in
your soap it will completely melt overnight. If it is high in soft oils (again which this recipe is) we will
have to reheat it in the morning to get rid of the last of the chunks. In the morning heat up our
mixture to just warm and melt any left over chunks, again making sure we keep the lid on until it
warms up. The soap doesn’t have to be very hot this time. Add our neutralizer, use borax neutralizer:
5g borax and 112g water. Heat up the waste and borax mixture in the microwave (stove or any
cooker) until the borax completely melts. This is harder than it sounds. Borax will not melt until it is
very hot and it will become solid again as soon as it cools so you have to heat it up just before you
add it to your soap. When the borax will look like when melted, in the picture below;
Fig.[17] at a final state Fig.[18] final liquid soap
When we add fragrance to the soap it may cloud the soap again, but the soap will clear again
as it cools. The second Fig. shows as it’s getting clear again after it cools.
5. THE DETERGENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS

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Detergents use a synthetic surfactant in place of the metal fatty acid salts used in
soaps. They are made both in powder and liquid form, and sold as laundry powders, hard
surface cleansers, dish washing liquids, fabric conditioners etc. Most detergents have soap in
their mixture of ingredients, but it usually functions more as a foam depressant than as a
surfactant.
Detergent Powder Manufacture

Step 1 - Slurry making
The solid and liquid raw ingredients are dropped into a large tank known as a slurry
mixer. As the ingredients are added the mixture heats up as a result of two exothermic
reactions: the hydration of sodium tripolyphosphate and the reaction between caustic soda and
linear alkyl-benzene-sulphonic acid. The mixture is then further heated to 85 oC and stirred
until it forms homogeneous slurry.
Step 2 - Spray drying

The slurry is deaerated in a vacuum chamber and then separated by an atomizer into
finely divided droplets. These are sprayed into a column of air at 425 oC, where they dry
instantaneously. The resultant powder is known as ’base powder’, and its exact treatment
from this point on depends on the product being made.
Step 3 - Post dosing

Other ingredients are now added, and the air blown through the mixture in a fluidizer
to mix them into a homogeneous powder. Typical ingredients are listed in Table1.

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Table 3: The Ingredients of Detergent base Powder.

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Table 4: Additives
ANCILLIARY PROCESSES
Glycerine recovery
As has already been stated, glycerine is more valuable than the soap itself, and so as much of
it as possible is extracted from the soap. This is done in a three step process.
Step 1 - Soap removal

The spent lye contains a small quantity of dissolved soap which must be removed
before the evaporation process. This is done by treating the spent lye with ferrous chloride.
However, if any hydroxide ions remain the ferrous ions react with them instead, so these are
first removed with hydrochloric acid:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
The ferrous chloride is then added. This reacts with the soap to form an insoluble ferrous
soap:
FeCl2 + 2RCOONa → 2NaCl + (RCOO) 2Fe
This precipitate is filtered out and then any excess ferrous chloride removed with caustic:
2NaOH + FeCl2 → Fe (OH)2 (s) + 2NaCl
This is filtered out, leaving a soap-free lye solution.

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Step 2 - Salt Removal

Water is removed from the lye in a vacuum evaporator, causing the salt to crystallise
out as the solution becomes supersaturated. This is removed in a centrifuge, dissolved in hot
water and stored for use as fresh lye. When the glycerine content of the solution reaches 80 -
85% it is pumped to the crude settling tank where more salt separates out.
Step 3 - Glycerine purification

A small amount of caustic soda is added to the crude glycerine and the solution then
distilled under vacuum in a heated still. Two fractions are taken off - one of pure glycerine
and one of glycerine and water. The glycerine thus extracted is bleached with carbon black
then transferred to drums for sale, while the water/glycerine fraction is mixed with the
incoming spent lye and repeats the treatment cycle.
6. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
Soap is designed as a product to be used once then flushed down the drain, so as
expected the environmental implications of its manufacture are not nearly as great as many
other chemical processes. There are two main areas of concern; the safe transport and
containment of the raw materials and the minimisation of losses during manufacture. The
three main components of soap by both cost and volume are oils, caustic and perfumes. Oils
and perfume are immiscible in water and if spilled create havoc, although the oils do solidify
at room temperature. Transport of these products is by trained carriers, and the systems for
pumping, from the truck to storage tanks is carefully designed. Perfumes are bought in lined
steel drums which are quite robust, and flammable perfumes are not used in soaps.
All storage tanks are surrounded by bunds to catch the contents of a tank should it
rupture or a valve fail. When the storage system is designed, all the safety features (such as
access to tank and valves) are designed in, as well as procedures to deal with the product
should it end up in the bonded area.
Within the plant, all the process areas are also bonded, and the trade waste from there
piped to an interception tank before draining to the council’s trade waste system. The contents

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of the interception tank are continuously monitored for acidity or alkalinity, and designed to
settle out excess solids or light phase chemicals. If a spill is detected in the plant itself, a
portion of the interception tank can be isolated off and the effects of the spill neutralized
before the waste is dumped.
In most cases, however, potential problems are identified and stopped before they
happen. Often an off-spec product can be reprocessed and blended rather than dumped, and
even washout water can be reprocessed to minimize the discharges from the plant. Finally, the
manufacturing process itself is closely monitored to ensure any losses are kept to a minimum.
Continuous measurements of key properties such as electrolyte levels and moisture both
ensure that the final product is being made to spec, and ensures the manufacturing process is
working as it was designed to. Hence the losses in the plant will indirectly be minimized
because the process itself is being monitored.
7. COTTON SEED OIL

Cottonseed oil is obtained from the seed of cotton plant. The cotton plant (Gossypium
hirsutum or G. barbadenseis) is grown for its fiber. The oil is a by-product with about 12 per
cent of the gross value of the total product. Cottonseed oil was once the major vegetable oil
competing with the more widely-used animal fats. Today, it occupies ninth place in
production tables after five vegetable oils (soybean, palm, rape/canola, sunflower and
groundnut) and three land animal fats (tallow, lard and butter).
Cottonseed oil is unusual among commodity vegetable oils in that it contains a

relatively high level of palmitic acid (typically 23%) along with oleic acid (17%) and linoleic
acid (56%). Cottonseed oil is a member of a particularly useful group of vegetable oils, whose
fatty acids consist substantially of C-16 and C-18 fatty acids containing no more than two
double bonds. Its fatty acid profile is typical of the oleic/linoleic group of vegetable oils, as
these two fatty acids make up almost 75% of the total. Fatty acid composition of cotton seed
oil.
Palmitic, the major saturated fatty acid in cottonseed oil, has been identified as a β
′promoter when it is in the sn-1 or sn-3 positions; therefore, it is stable in the β′crystal form,
which is desirable in many products because this stability promotes a smooth, workable

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consistency, usually referred to as plasticity. The distribution of the fatty acids in cottonseed
oil is considered to be nonrandom, with the saturated fatty acids positioned predominantly in
the sn-1 or sn-3 positions and the unsaturated fatty acids in the sn-2 position. Because linoleic,
oleic, and palmitic fatty acids account for over 90% of the fatty acid composition of
cottonseed oil, most of the triglycerides contain some combination of these fatty acids.
Analysis of cottonseed oil by semi quantitative thin-layer chromatography indicated that the
distribution of saturated (S) and unsaturated (U) fatty acids in the sn-1, 2, and 3 acryl
positions were 11.8% SUS, 4.4% SSU, 12.3% USU, and 42% UUS. Almost 30% of the
triglycerides contain only unsaturated fatty acids, but no molecules are completely saturated.
Cottonseed oil was one of the earliest oils to be extracted from the seed. Food
applications have been a major use for cottonseed oil but it has also been used in soap,
lubricants, sulfonated oil, pharmaceuticals, protective coatings, rubber, as a carrier for nickel
catalysts, and, to a lesser degree, in the manufacture of leather, textiles, printing ink, polishes,
synthetic plastics, and Resins. This research work is aimed at extraction of oil from cotton
seed using soxhlet apparatus and n-hexane solvent, the objective was to utilize the extracted
seed oil for soap production.
Figure:-.19 Representation of foam ability as a function of foam height of the various soap
samples.
CTS = Castor seed oil soap JOS = Jatropha oil soap

CGS = Castor glycerin soap NOS = Neem oil soap

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COS = Cotton oil soaps SOS = Sesame oil soap SFS = Shea nut fat soap
III. EXPERIMENTAL WORK:
1. PREPARATION OF SOLID SOAP:

Raw Materials Needed to Make SOLID Soap:
 Oil mill waste.
 Caustic soda (NaOH)
 Benzoin ( C14H22O2 )
 Sodium Lauryl Sulphate powder ( C12H25NaO4S ).
 Sodium Tetra Borate ( Borax- Na2B4O7)
 Colorant
 Fragrance( to remove odour)
PROCEDURE:
1. Take 100 gm of oil mill waste.
2. Prepare a solution of 13.5 gm NaOH and add this solution into oil mill waste.
3. Heat this mixture nearly upto 700c to have uniform mixture. ( saponification )
Fig. [20] Heating of Waste Saponification

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4. Cool the sample to separate molten state soap.
Fig. [21] Separated Soap From Above Process

5. Then add solution of 10 gm borax and 4 gm of Benzoin into molten state
6. Also add 4 gm Sodium Lauryl Sulphate( foaming agent)
7. Add some colour and fragrances.
Figure 22 final product

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2. PREPARATION OF LIQUID SOAP:

Raw Materials Needed to Make Liquid Soap
o Oil mill waste.
o Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
o Benzoin ( C14H22O2 )
o Sodium Lauryl Sulphate powder ( C12H25NaO4S ).
o Sodium Tetra Borate ( Borax- Na2B4O7)
o Colorant
o Fragrance( to remove odour)
PROCEDURE:
1. Take 600 gm of oil mill waste.
2. Prepare a solution of 114gm KOH and add this solution into oil mill waste. When we
add the potassium hydroxide it will sound like it is going to explode or boil over, even
though the water on the bottom pot does not bubble at all and doesn’t even heat as
much as the sodium hydroxide so don’t worry, it’s the normal process.
3. Heat this mixture upto 800c ( saponification),
4. Cool the sample to separate molten state soap,
5. Now take 100 gm of molten state soap,
6. Add adequate quantity of water to make it liquid and continuously heat it in double
boiler

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Fig 23:- construction of double boiler

7. Then add solution of 4 gm borax and 8gm of Benzoin into molten state soap,
8. Also add 4 gm Sodium Lauryl Sulphate( foaming agent),
9. Add some colour and fragrances
Fig. [24] Prepared liquid soap

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3. Preparation of detergent powder
The manufacture of spray-dried detergent has three main processing steps: 1) slurry
preparation, 2) spray drying and 3) granule handling. The three major components of
detergent are surfactants (to remove dirt and other unwanted materials), builders (to treat the
water to improve surfactant performance) and additives to improve cleaning performance.
Additives may include bleaches, bleach activators, antistatic agents, fabric softeners, optical
brighteners, antiredeposition agents, and fillers. The formulation of slurry for detergent
granules requires the intimate mixing of various liquid, powdered, and granulated materials.
Detergent slurry is produced by blending liquid surfactant with powdered and liquid materials
(builders and other additives) in a closed mixing tank called a soap crutcher. Premixing of
various minor ingredients is performed in a variety of equipment prior to charging to the
crutcher or final mixer. Figure 2 illustrates the various operations. Liquid surfactant used in
making the detergent slurry is produced by the sulfonation of either a linear alkylate or a fatty
acid, which is then neutralized with a caustic solution containing sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
The blended slurry is held in a surge vessel for continuous pumping to a spray dryer. The
slurry is atomized by spraying through nozzles rather than by centrifugal action. The slurry is
sprayed at pressures of 4.1 to 6.9 kPa (600 to 1000 pounds per square inch) in single fluid
nozzles and at pressures of 340 to 690 kPa (50 to 100 psi) in two-fluid nozzles. Steam or air is
used as the atomizing fluid in the two-fluid nozzles. The slurry is sprayed at high pressure into
a vertical drying tower having a stream of hot air of from 315 to 400EC (600 to 750EF). All
spray drying equipment designed for detergent granule production incorporates the following
components: spray drying tower, air heating and supply system, slurry atomizing and
pumping equipment, product cooling equipment, and conveying equipment. Most towers
designed for detergent production are counter current, with slurry introduced at the top and
heated air introduced at the bottom. The towers are cylindrical with cone bottoms and range in
size from 4 to 7 meters (12 to 24 feet) in diameter and 12 to 38 meters (40 to 125 feet) in
height. The detergent granules are conveyed mechanically or by air from the tower to a mixer
to incorporate additional dry or liquid ingredients, and finally to packaging and storage.

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Liquid detergents
`Both batch and continuous blending processes are used to manufacture liquid and gel
cleaning producers. Stabilizers may be added during manufacturing to ensure the uniformity
and stability of the finished product. In a typical continuous process, dry and liquid
ingredients are added and blended to a uniform mixture using inline or static mixers.
Recently, more concentrated liquid products have been introduced. One method of producing
these products uses new high-energy mixing processes in combination with stabilizing agents.
Flowchart [4]:- manufacture of spray dried detergent
Detergent manufacturing emissions and controls-
The exhaust air from detergent spray drying towers contains two types of air contaminants:
1) fine detergent particles and 2) organics vaporized in the higher temperature zones of the tower.
Dust emissions are generated at scale hoppers, mixers, and crutchers during the batching and
mixing of fine dry ingredients to form slurry. Conveying, mixing, and packaging of detergent granules
can also cause dust emissions. Pneumatic conveying of fine materials causes dust emissions when
conveying air is separated from bulk solids. For this process, fabric filters are generally used, not only

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to reduce or to eliminate dust emissions, but also to recover raw materials. The dust emissions
principally consist of detergent compounds, although some of the particles are uncombined
phosphates, sulphates, and other mineral compounds.
Dry cyclones and cyclonic impingement scrubbers are the primary collection equipment
Employed to capture the detergent dust in the spray dryer exhaust for return to processing. Dry
cyclones are used in parallel or in series to collect this particulate and recycle it back to the crutcher.
The dry cyclone separators can remove 90 percent or more by weight of the detergent product fines
from the exhaust air. Cyclonic impingement scrubbers are used in parallel to collect the particulate
from scrubbing slurry and to recycle it to the crutcher.
Secondary collection equipment is used to collect fine particulates that escape from primary
devices. For example, cyclonic impingement scrubbers are often followed by mist eliminators, and dry
cyclones are followed by fabric filters or scrubber/electrostatic precipitator units. Several types of
scrubbers can be used following the cyclone collectors. Venturi scrubbers have been used but are being
replaced with packed bed scrubbers. Packed bed scrubbers are usually followed by wet-pipe type
electrostatic precipitators built immediately above the packed bed in the same vessel. Fabric filters
have been used after cyclones but have limited applicability especially on efficient spray dryers due to
condensing water vapour and organic aerosols binding the fabric filter. \
In addition to particulate emissions, volatile organics may be emitted when the slurry contains
organic materials with low vapour pressures. The VOCs originate primarily from the surfactants
included in the slurry. The amount vaporized depends on many variables, such as tower temperature
and the volatility of organics used in the slurry. These vaporized organic materials condense in the
tower exhaust airstream into droplets or particles. Paraffin alcohols and amides in the exhaust stream
can result in a highly visible plume that persists after the condensed water vapour plume has
dissipated.
Opacity and organics emissions are influenced by granule temperature and moisture at the
end of drying, temperature profiles in the dryer, and formulation of the slurry. A method for controlling
visible emissions would be to remove offending organic compounds (i.e., by substitution) from the
slurry. Otherwise, tower production rate may be reduced thereby reducing air inlet temperatures and
exhaust temperatures. Lowering production rate will also reduce organic
Emissions.

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IV. PROPERTIES OF CHEMICALS USED:
1. Caustic soda
Molecular formula: NaOH
Molecular weight: 40.00 gm
Specifications:
Assay (NaOH) ≥ 97%
Carbonate as (Na2CO3) ≤ 2%
Chloride (Cl) ≤ 0.02%
Sulfate (SO4) ≤ 0.05%
Heavy metals (Pb) ≤ 0.002%
Iron (Fe) ≤ 0,005%
2. Potassium hydroxide
Molecular formula: KOH
3. Sodium Tetra Chlorate ( Borax):
Molecular formula: Na2B4O7
Specifications:
Assay: 99%
Chloride (Cl): 0.05%

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Sulfate (SO4): 0.05%
Heavy metals: 0.005%
Iron (Fe): 0.005%
4. Benzoin
Molecular formula: C14H22O2
Specifications:
Assay: min 99%
4. Sodium Lauryl Sulphate powder
Molecular formula: ( C12H25NaO4S)
Specifications:
Assay : min 85%
Sodium Chloride : max 8.0%
Sodium Sulfate : max 8.0%
Unesterified alcohol: max 4.0

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V. SCOPE OF THE SOAP INDUSTRY

Soaps and Detergents are cleaning products that have become an essential part in our
daily lives. Cleaning products play an essential role by safely and effectively removing dirt,
germs and other contaminants, and thus promote a hygienic lifestyle. The first recorded
manufacture of soap was in 600BC, when Pliny the Elder described its manufacture by the
Phoenicians from goats tallow and ash, and it was known among the British Celts and
throughout the Roman Empire. However, these people used their soap medicinally, and it was
not until the second century AD that it was used for cleaning, and not until the nineteenth
century that it began to be commonly used in the Western world.
Soap has numerous applications in our daily life. One of its great values is keeping our
household a far better place to live and work. However, contrary to what one may think, soap
was invented not only for the purpose of personal hygiene; rather, it was invented to solve
other purposes. Colorful yarns were valued very early in the history of textiles; wool as it
comes from the sheep is coated with a layer of grease that interferes with the application of
dyes, soap was used to solve this problem. Soap is integral to our society today, and we find it
hard to imagine a time when people were kept sweet-smelling by the action of perfume rather
than soap.
The market is littered over with several leading national and global brands and a large
number of small brands which have limited markets. The popular and premium brands
include Lifebuoy, Lux, Cinthol, Liril, Rexona, Shikaki, Nirma, & Dettol, etc., to name a few.
The inventory, however, changes by the quarter-if not by the month.
The Soap and Detergent industry is profoundly lucrative with splendid market
potential as well as bright future scope. In order to meet the requirement of market demand,
many more new units are recommended to be established on small and cottage scale.
The basic function of a detergent is to remove dirt. In our country most of the people
are washing their clothes with their hands. The detergent which removes the dirt and grime
from the clothes also degreases the skin while washing the clothes. Thus natural oils from the
skin are removed which may lead to certain skin diseases. Alkaline materials which are also
present in the detergent powders and bars will intensity this. Of all the house hold chemicals,

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the detergents and related cleaning compounds make up the greatest volume. Extensive use of
these chemicals has led to an increasing number of health and environmental problems. Hence
care should be taken to use them in homes with proper regard to the directions or precautions
given on their labels.
Toilet soaps account for the largest single share of about 10% in the Rs 480 billion
FMCG market. The toilet soap market is getting saturated at a high penetration level of 98%
and is growing at a very modest rate. The toilet soap, once only an urban phenomenon, has
now penetrated practically in all areas including remote rural areas. The incremental demand
flows from population increase and rise in the usage norm impacted as it is by a greater
concern for hygiene. Increased sales revenues would also expand from up-gradation of
quality or per unit value.
The market is expected to grow at rates ranging from under 4% to around 4.5%. These
are very modest rates considering that the lifestyles not only of urbanites, but even of well-off
rural folks are changing at a very high pace. The leader in the toilet soap category, HLL
enjoys a high market share, followed, a way behind by Godrej Consumer Products, Nirma,
Reckitt Benckinser etc.
Detergent powders are laundry-cleaning products that are made using a synthetic
surfactant in place of the metal fatty acid salts, which are used in soaps. Made in powder
form, these detergents are also sold as laundry powders, hard surface cleansers, etc. Majority
of the powder detergents has soap in their mixture of ingredients; however they basically
function more as a foam depressant than as a surfactant. Detergents ,as a constituent of the
overall chemicals industry, accounts for a near 9% of the total demand for all chemicals
estimated at around Rs 315 billion. Detergents, chemically known as Alfa olefin sulphonates
(AOS) are used as fabric brightening agent, anti-deposition a, as a major input.
Detergents are available as powder, bars and liquids. Bars make up for less than half of
the market, while powders have more than a third of the market. Liquids have 12% presence
in the market. The bar market is dominated by Hindustan Lever (HLL) with a share of over
40% swayed by its brands: - Rin, wheel, 555, Shakti. The super-premium market, making up
for around 10% of the overall detergents market, is dominated by Surf Excel from HLL and
Ariel from proctor & Gamble. The two together have a near 90% market with the rest coming
in from players like Henkel SPIC. In the sub premium segment, Nirma from Nirma Soaps and

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Wheel from HLL are the major players with small presence from an array of brands like Trilo, Hipolin,
Tide, Key, Chek, and others.
Toilet soaps and detergents, despite their divergent brands, are not well differentiated
by the consumers. It is, therefore, not clear if it is the brand loyalty or experimentation lured
by high volume media campaign, which sustains them. A consequence is that the market is
fragmented and mercurial. It is obvious that this must lead to a highly competitive market.
SUPPLY OF LAUNDRY SOAP (TONNES)
Table.5 Supply of laundry soap (tones)
Laundry soap, which is used for cleaning clothes as well as household utensils, is
necessity in urban households. The demand for the product is, therefore, mainly associated
with urbanization. The country’s requirement for laundry soap has been met through domestic

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production and import. Table 3.1 shows the supply of the product from domestic production
and imports during 1989-2002. During the period under reference, total supply averaged at
64,293 tones, of which 12,301 tones constituted domestic production and the remaining
14,992 tones is met from imports. Thus, on the average, domestic production accounted for 44
per cent of the country's requirement for laundry soap, indicating much of the demand for the
product (56%) is still met through imports.
Table 6. PROJECTED DEMAND FOR LAUNDRY SOAP (TONNES)

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Assuming supply was driven by demand, the average annual supply of laundry soap
for the period which constitutes domestic production and imports is considered as the
effective demand for the product for the year 2002. Since the consumption of laundry soap is
associated with the growth of urban population, the demand for the product is assumed to
grow by 4% that corresponds to the annual growth rate of the urban population. The demand
for laundry soap for the year 2004 is, thus, estimated at 29,520 tones.
The demand for laundry soap is projected based on the 4% annual growth rate of the
urban population which is the major user of the product. The existing soap factories in the
country, on the average, cover 44 per cent of the supply of the product. Assuming the factories
will maintain their market share of the projected demand, the market share of the envisaged
plant is shown in Table 4.

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VI. ROLE OF THE LABORATORY

The laboratory monitors the formulation and specification of products from raw
material to finished goods. Most soap is formulated locally, and the laboratory tests a range of
formulations for stability and manufacturing practicality. The trial formulations are aged in a
warm oven to simulate a couple of years of shelf life, and then checked for perfume loss or
alteration, base odour, colour stability and any general rancidity. Formulations are also
constantly checked for cost effectiveness, and soaps are frequently reformulated for cost and
supplier considerations. When a new formula has been agreed the laboratory will lay down
the specifications that the finished soap and its intermediary stages must meet. These could be
colour, odour, moisture, or the concentrations of impurities or additives. These specifications
are also constantly being revised as the production equipment is improved, or consumer
demands change. The laboratory lays down all the specifications for raw materials to be
purchased against. These specifications become the basis for the supplier to quote against.
The materials are constantly tested against these specifications, either on a shipment basis or
supplier’s batch size. In some cases the manufacturing plant is inspected and approved, and if
the supplier can validate their process then the need for many routine or expensive tests can
be reduced or eliminated. In most cases quality testing is performed at the process, by the
process operators. The laboratory hold samples of every batch of finished goods for twelve
months, so that if there are any consumer complaints, an original sample can be tested against
the defect sample to determine the cause of the complaint. Tests carried out on some particular
products are listed below.
QUALITY-
Several medical soaps with antiseptic properties and washing commercial soaps were
analyzed to compare the values on quality criteria for different characteristics.
A comparison of results on the pH, the content of total fat, free alkalinity/acidity, chloride
content, foam height and alcohol insoluble with the quality criteria have shown clear
differences. Values for pH ranged between 5.5 and 8, for free acidity between 0.06 and 0.88%,
the chloride content from 0.16 to 0.5%, the level of foam between 4 and 115 ± 2 cm and

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alcohol insoluble located between 20-28%. The results were compared with the data in the
literature. It can be concluded that the values determined are within the limits set by
standards.
Solid soap was ground into powder form and following analysis was carried:
1. pH
2. content of total fat,
3. free alkalinity/acidity,
4. chloride content,
5. Foam height and alcohol insoluble.

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VII. TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

1. Testing
1.1 Determination of total fatty matter (TFM):
Total Fatty Matter (TFM) is one of the most important characteristics describing the
quality of soap and it is always specified in commercial transactions. It is defined as the total
amount of fatty matter, mostly fatty acids, that can be separated from a sample after splitting
with mineral acid, usually hydrochloric acid. The fatty acids most commonly present in soap
are oleic, stearic and palmitic acids and pure, dry, sodium oleate has TFM 92.8%, while top
quality soap noodles now increasingly used for making soap tablets in small and medium size
factories, are typically traded with a specification TFM 78% min., moisture 14% max. But
besides moisture, finished commercial soap, especially laundry soap, also contains fillers used
to lower its cost or confer special properties, plus emollients, preservatives, etc. and then the
TFM can be as low as 50%. Fillers, which are usually dry powders, also make the soap harder,
harsher on the skin and with greater tendency to become 'mushy' in water and so low TFM is
usually associated with hardness and lower quality. In older days in Europe and in some
countries now, soap with TFM 75% minimum was referred to as Grade 1 and 65% minimum
as Grade 2 and less 60% grade 3
Soaps are graded in terms of total fatty matter or TFM. Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS) has categorized bath or toilet soaps as ‘normal’, ‘baby, transparent, and antibacterial
soaps. The last three are called specialty soaps targeted to specific users. Toilet soap is a
cosmetic by law and it must fulfill the requirements of the relevant Indian standard.
T. F. M or total fatty matter is a measure for identifying the amount of fatty matter
present in soaps. TFM of a sample of soap can be determined as follows. A known weight of
the soap is dissolved in water and the solution is treated with dilute sulphuric acid. The soap
decomposes to sodium sulphate and fatty acids. The fatty acids so formed can be estimated.
From this TFM can be calculated. On the basis TFM, toilet soaps can be classified into three
grades.

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Grade I toilet soap should have TFM value above 80 percent, except in ayurvedic soap. Any
soap which has a TFM value less than 55 percent is not considered as toilet soap at all. TFM
is what lends soap its soapy feel and it is the TFM and the insoluble matter in the soap that
largely distinguishes one soap from the other. The three grades should have less than 0.05 %
of free alkali as sodium hydroxide and less than 1% of carbonate alkali. The salt content
should not go above 1.5 %.
Procedure to calculate (TFM):

Procedure:
5 g of sample was weight and transferred into a 250 Ml beaker. 100 ml of hot distilled
water was added to completely dissolve the soap. 40 ml of 0.5N HNO3 was added until
contents turn slightly acidic. The mixture was heated over water bath until fatty acids were
floating as a layer above the solution. Then it was cool suddenly in ice water in order to
solidify the fatty acids and separated them. 50 ml of chloroform were added to the remaining
solution and transferred to a separating funnel. The solution was shaken and separated into
two layers. The bottom layer was drained. 50 ml of chloroform were added to the remaining
solution in the separating funnel. The fatty acids were separated and the chloroform was
dissolved again as in previous case and transferred to the collected fatty matter that was
weighed in a difference in weight, the % of fatty matter in the analyzed soaps samples was
calculated using the relation:
Fatty matter [%] = (B-A) ×100
C
Where:
A – weight of the porcelain dish, g;
B – Weight of the porcelain dish + soap after drying, g;
C – Weight of the initial sample of soap, g.
1.2 Determination of total alkali

The total alkali is determined by titrating excess acid contained in the aqueous phase
with standard volumetric NaOH solution. Ten grams of finished soap was weighed and 100
ml of neutralized alcohol was added to it. Five milliliters of 1N H2SO4 solution was added to

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the mixture and heated till the soap sample dissolved. Test solution was titrated against 1 N
NaOH using phenolphthalein as indicator. The total alkali was obtained with the formula;
% Total alkali = (VA – VB ) x 3.1

W
Where,
VA= Volume of acid
VB= Volume of base
W= weight of soap.
1.3 Determination of free caustic alkali

Five grams of finished soap was weighed and dissolved in 30 ml of ethanol. Few
drops of phenolphthalein indicator and 10 ml of 20 % BaCl2 were added. The resulting
solution was titrated against 0.05 M H2SO4. Free caustic alkali- the volume of the acid
obtained was calculated using the formula;
NaOH = (0.31 x VA )
W
Where,
VA – Vol. of acid
W – Weight of Soap
1.4 Determination of percent (%) chloride.

Ten grams of finished soap was weighed and 100 ml of distilled water added to it and
heated to dissolve sample. The resulting solution was transferred into a 250 ml volumetric
flask and 20 ml of 15 % Ca (NO3)2 was added to it and shaken to dissolve the soap. Distilled
water was added to the solution to the 250 ml mark. The solution was filtered and methyl red
added to 100 ml of the filtrate. The solution was titrated against 10 N H2SO4 until a pink
colour was obtained. Resulting solution was titrated against 0.1 N AgNO3 using K2CrO7 as
indicator, till a brick-red color was obtained.

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% Cl = Titre volume X 0.585

Weight of soap
1.5 Analysis of % moisture Content

Approximately 5 g of samples was accurately weighed using analytical balance
(sensitivity 0.1 mg) into dried, tarred moisture dish and dried in an oven (Memmert,
Germany) for 2 hr at 101 ± 1 0C and repeated until a constant weight (difference between two
measurement not exceed 0.5 mg/g of sample) was reached. The % moisture was calculated
using the following formula.
% Moisture = Cs- Ch X 100

Cs- Cw
Where,
Cw= weight of crucible
Cs= weight of crucible + sample
Ch= weight of crucible + sample after heating.
1.6 Determination of pH
Ten grams of the powdered soap was weighed and dissolved in distilled water in a 100
ml volumetric flask. This was made up to prepare 10 % soap solution. The pH of the 19 %
soap solution was determined using a pH meter. Two grams of finished soap was dissolved in
10 ml of distilled water and stirred till sample dissolved. The pH was determined with pH
meter.
1.7 Foam ability Tests

About 2.0g each of soap was added to a 500cm3 measuring cylinder containing
100cm3 of distilled water. The mixture was shaken vigorously so as to generate foams. After

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shaking for about 2 minutes, the cylinder was allowed to stand for about 10 minutes. The
height of the foam in the solution was measured and recorded.
1.8 Iodine value:

The iodine value (or "iodine adsorption value" or "iodine number" or "iodine index")
in chemistry is the mass of iodine in grams that is consumed by 100 grams of a chemical
substance. Iodine numbers are often used to determine the amount of unsaturation in fatty
acids. This unsaturation is in the form of double bonds, which react with iodine compounds.
The higher the iodine number, the more C=C bonds are present in the fat. It can be seen from
the table that coconut oil is very saturated, which means it is good for making soap. On the
other hand, linseed oil is highly unsaturated, which makes it a drying oil, well suited for
making oil paints.
This particular analysis is an example of iodometry. A solution of iodine ions is
yellow/brown in color. When added to a complex solution however, any chemical group
(usually C=C double bonds) in solution that react with iodine effectively reduce the strength,
or magnitude of the colour (by taking iodine ions out of solution). Thus the amount of iodine
required to make a solution retain the characteristic yellow/brown colour can effectively be
used to determine the amount of iodine sensitive groups present in the solution.
In a typical procedure, the fatty acid is treated with an excess of the Hanuš or Wijs
solutions, which are, respectively, solutions of iodine monobromide (IBr) and iodine
monochloride (ICl) in glacial acetic acid. Un-reacted iodine monobromide (or monochloride)
is then allowed to react with potassium iodide, converting it to iodine, whose concentration
can be determined by titration with sodium thiosulphate.
The chemical reaction associated with this method of analysis involves formation of
the diodes alkane (R and R' symbolize alkyl or other organic groups):
The precursor alkane (RCH=CHR') is colorless and so is the organoidine product (RCHI-
CHIR').

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Procedure to Check Iodine Value:

0.4 g of the sample was weighed into a conical flask and 20cm3 of carbon tetra
chloride was added to dissolve the oil. Then 25 cm3 of Dam’s reagent was added to the flask
using a safety pipette in fume chamber. Stopper was then inserted and the content of the flask
was vigorously swirled. The flask was then placed in the dark for 2 hours 30 minutes. At the
end of this period, 20 cm3 of 10% aqueous potassium iodide and 125cm3 of water were added
using a measuring cylinder. The content was titrated with 0.1M sodium-thiosulphate solutions
until the yellow colour almost disappeared. Few drops of 1% starch indicator was added and
the titration continued by adding thiosulphate drop wise until blue coloration disappeared
after vigorous shaking. The same procedure was used for blank test and other samples [1].
The iodine value (I.V) is given by the expression
12.69C (V1-V2)
IV = ________________
M
Where,
C = Concentration of sodium
V1 = Volume of sodium thiosulphate used for blank
V2 = Volume of sodium thiosulphate used for determination
M = Mass of the sample.

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2. QUALITY CONTROLL:
Hardness - This refers to the hardness of the soap bar. Higher is harder. A range of 29 to
54 is satisfactory for this soap quality. A low Iodine value also contributes to hardness.
Cleansing - This refers to the soap's ability to grab on to oils. A soap molecule is a chain of
carbon atoms. One end of the chain attracts water, the other end attracts oil. When you wash
your skin with soap and water, multiple chains will gather around a droplet of oil (which
contains, for lack of a better word, dirt) with their oil-hungry ends attached to the oil droplet.
The water hungry ends are surrounded with water. To make this happen you need to mix up
(scrub or rub) the soap and water on your skin. When you rinse, the oil droplets with the
attached soap molecules are washed away.
Some soap molecules can have a very hungry oil grabbing end. Soap made with too
much Lauric and/or Myristic Acid can irritate the skin by washing away not only the top dirty
layer of oils, but also the protective layer of surface oils on the skin. Generally speaking,
keeping the total of coconut and palm kernel in your recipe to no more than 30-35% is
considered the norm. However, when using large or very large percentages of coconut and
palm kernel the strong cleansing can be compensated for by super fating with an oil or butter
that has a high conditioning value. A typical range for Cleansing would be 12 to 22.
Condition - Conditioning refers to the soap’s emollient content. Soap’s emollients are left on
the skin. They help the skin retain moisture. They sooth the skin and keep it soft. A range of
44 to 69 is satisfactory for this soap quality.

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Bubbly lather - This refers to the soap’s ability to lather up and get bubbly. A typical range
of values would be 14 to 46. The higher Bubbly numbers will tend to produce a foamy, fluffy
lather rather than a creamy lather with little or no bubbles.
Creamy lather - This value indicates the stability and creaminess of the lather. Usually,
increasing Bubbly will decrease Creamy and vice versa. A range of 16 to 48 is common here.
The higher Creamy numbers will tend to produce a creamy lather with lesser amounts of
bubbles or foam. Soap made with oils that do not contain Lauric, Myristic or Ricinoleic acids
will produce soap with just creamy lather. An example would be 100% olive oil soap.
Iodine - As a general rule, the lower the number, the harder the bar and the less the
conditioning qualities and vice versa. A recipe with iodine values higher than 70 will tend to
produce a somewhat soft bar of soap. Definition: number of grams of iodine that will react
with the double bonds in 100 grams of fats or oils.
Quality Checking On Soap & Results
Sr. No. Name Of Test Lifebuoy Organic Waste soap
1 TFM 52 50
2 PH 10.1 10.4
3 Iodine Value 90 75
4 % Moisture
5 Foam height 180 140

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VIII. MATERIAL & ENERGY BALANCE:

A.MATERIAL BALANCE
MATERIAL BALANCE ON SOLID SOAP
REQUIREMENT
1000 kg. Of cotton waste
350 kg. Of WATER
135kg. of NaOH
20 kg. Of BORAX
10 kg. Of BENZOIN
5 kg. COLOUR of FRAGRANCES
TOTAL WEIGHT OF FEED
F=COTTON WASTE + WATER + NaOH + BORAX + BENZOIN + PIGMENTS
F=1000+350+135+20+10+05
F=1520KG.

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BASIS: - 1520 kg. Of Feed per Batch
Material Balance across Reactor
SOAP (76%)
A
FEED
C
1520 KG.
T
WASTE (24%)
Fig [24]. MATERIAL BALANCE ON REACTOR
1. Percentage of soap Form from reactor

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=1520 × (76/100)
=1155.2 kg/batch
2. Percentage of waste from reactor
=1520 × (24/100)
=364.8 kg/batch
CONVERSION TABLE
Sr. No. COMPOUNDS I/P (KG) CONVERSION O/P (KG)

(%)
1 COTTON WASTE 1000 -
2 NaOH 135 75% 33.75
3 WATER 350 -
4 BORAX 20 -
5 BENZOIN 10 -
6 OTHER 5 -
7 SOAP - 1155.2
8 WASTE - 364.8
For every batch, the conversion of alkali that is NaOH is near about to be 75%.
MATERIAL BALANCE ACROSS DRYER
BASIS: - 1155.2 kg. Of soap.
1. Moisture in the soap before drying is taken to be 35%.

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=1155.2 × (35/100)
=404.32 kg/batch
2. Soap content in raw soap is calculate to be 65%
=1155.2× (65/100)
=750.88 kg/batch
Let ‘x’ be the moisture in the soap after drying.
Weight of soap= 750.88+x
But moisture in soap after drying is found to be 15%.
CALCULATION OF WEIGHT OF MOISTURE
1. Weight percentage of moisture is given by
=(x/wt. of soap) × 100
(15/100) = (x/(x+750.88))
15 (x+750.88) = 100 x
X=132.50 kg/batch
2. NET RESULT
Sr. No. COMPOUNDS I/P (KG) O/P (KG)
1 SOAP 750.88 750.88
2 MOISTURE 404.32 132.50

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3 TOTAL 1155.2 883.38
The net weight of soap after drying per batch is calculated to be 883.38 kg/batch
(For every one tone per batch of cotton waste).
MATERIAL BALANCE ON LIQUID SOAP

REQUIREMENT
1000 kg. Of COTTON WASTE
850 kg. Of WATER
190 kg. Of KOH
16.66 kg. Of BORAX
33.33 kg. Of BENZOIN
5 kg. Of COLOUR + FRAGRANCES
TOTAL WEIGHT OF FEED
F=COTTON WASTE + WATER + KOH + BORAX + BENZOIN + PIGMENTS
F=1000+850+190+16.66+33.33+5
F=2094.99 kg.

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BASIS: - 2094.99 kg. Of Feed per Batch
Material Balance across Reactor
SOAP (76%)
C
FEED
2094.99 kg. T
WASTE (24%)

FIG [25]. MATERIAL BALANCE ON REACTOR
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From Reactor Percentage of soap Form
=2094.99 × (76/100)
=1592.19 kg/batch
From Reactor Percentage of soap form
=2094.99 × (24/100)
=502.79 kg/batch
CONVERSION TABLE
Sr. No. COMPOUNDS I/P (KG) CONVERSION O/P (KG)

(%)
1 COTTON SEED 1000 -

OIL WASTE
2 KOH 190 75% 47.25
3 WATER 850 -
4 BORAX 16.66 -
5 BENZOIN 33.33 -
6 OTHER 5 -
7 SOAP - 1592.19
8 WASTE - 502.79
For every batch, the conversion of alkali that is KOH is near about to be 75%.
MATERIAL BALANCE ACROSS EVAPORATOR

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BASIS: - 1592.19 kg. Of soap.
Assume moisture to be evaporated is about 20%.
=1592.19× (20/100)
=318.4 kg/batch
Let Soap content in raw soap is calculate to be 80%
=1592.19× (80/100)
=1273.75 kg/batch
Let ‘x’ be the moisture in the soap after evaporation.
Weight of soap= 1273.75 + x
But moisture in soap after evaporation is found to be 5%.
CALCULATION OF WEIGHT OF MOISTURE
Weight percentage of moisture is given by
=(x/wt. of soap) × 100
(5/100) = (x/ (1273.75 + x))
5 (1260.99 + x) = 100 x
X=67.03 kg/batch
NET RESULT
Sr. No. COMPOUNDS I/P (KG) O/P (KG)
1273.75 1273.75
1 SOAP

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2 MOISTURE 318.4 67.03
3 TOTAL 1592.15 1340.78
The net weight of liquid soap after evaporation per batch is calculated to be 1340.78
kg/batch (for every one tone per batch of cotton waste).
B. ENERGY BALANCE:
1) ENERGY BALANCE ON REACTOR:
The calorific value of wood used for burning is 4480 kcal/ kg.
In the given process total 57 kg of wood is required.
Hence heat requirement for a given process is 4480×57 kcal/ kg.
Q= 255360 kcal/ kg.
Q= 255360×103 cal/ kg
Q= 1.0688×109 J/ kg (1 cal = 4.1858 J)
Total heat required for the given process is Q= 1.0688×109 J/ kg
2) ENERGY BALANCE ON DRYER ( for solid soap):
(For 45 min)
Mass input supplied to dryer is 1155.2 kg
Mass of output come out from dryer which contain only solid cake of soap is 883.38
kg / batch.

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Percentage of weight loss during drying operation is given by
% weight loss = (Initial – final) × 100
Initial
= 1155.2- 883.38 × 100
1155.2
= 23.53%
Thus total moisture loss during operation is 23.53 %
3) ENERGY BALANCE ON EVAPORATOR( for liquid soap):
(For 30 min)
Mass input supplied to evaporator is 1592.15 kg/ batch.
Mass of output come from evaporator which contains only molten state soap is 1340.78 kg/
batch.
Percentage of weight loss during evaporation operation is given by

% weight loss = (Initial – final) × 100
Initial
= 1592.15 – 1340.78 × 100
1592.15
= 15.788%
Thus total moisture loss during operation is 15.79 %

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C. COSTING
COSTING FOR SOLID SOAP
Sr. no. Raw Material Quantity(gm) Conversion Amount(Rs)

Required (%)
1 FATS 1000 - 10.00
2 SODIUM 135 75 52.08

HYDROXIDE
3 BORAX 20 - 9.24
4 WATER 670 - 2.00
5 BENZION 5 - 30.92
6 FRANGRANCE 10 - 11.5
TOTAL 1840 gm 115.74
CALCULATION OF SOLID SOAP
 After processing in at reactor we get 1840 gm of molten form soap.
 We consider 35% moisture in soap i.e., 65% soap
 Hence,

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Solid soap= (65×1840)/ (100)
Solid soap=1196gm of solid soap
 For every 1196 gm of soap have cost is 115.74Rs.
 For comparing with 1196 gm solid lifebuoy soap having cost is 199.25Rs.
COST FOR LIQUID SOAP
Sr. no. Raw Material Quantity(gm) Conversion Amount(Rs)

Required (%)
1 FATS 1000 - 10.00
2 Potassium 189 75 102.43

HYDROXIDE
3 BORAX 20 - 9.24
4 WATER 900 - 5.00
5 BENZION 10 - 61.84
6 FRANGRANCE 20 - 22.5
TOTAL 2139 gm 211.01
CALCULATION OF LIQUID SOAP:
 After processing in at reactor we get 2139 gm of molten form soap.
 We consider 20% moisture in soap i.e., 80% soap
 Hence,
Liquid soap= (80×2139)/ (100)
Liquid soap=1711 gm of liquid soap

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 For every 1711 gm of soap have cost is 211.01Rs.
 For comparing with 1711 gm liquid lifebuoy soap having cost is 493.33Rs.
IX. COST ESTIMATION
An acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions which will yield a profit. Since net profit equals total income minus all expenses, it
is essential that the chemical engineer be aware of the many different types of costs involved
in manufacturing processes. Capital must be allocated for direct plant expenses, such as those
for raw materials, labor, and equipment. Besides direct expenses, many other indirect
expenses are incurred, and these must be included if a complete analysis of the total cost is to
be obtained. Some examples of these indirect expenses are administrative salaries, product-
distribution costs, and costs for interplant communications.
A capital investment is required for any industrial process, and determination of the
necessary investment is an important part of a plant-design project.
The total investment for any process consists of fixed-capital investment for physical
equipment and facilities in the plant plus working capital which must be available to pay
salaries, keep raw materials and products on hand, and handle other special items requiring a
direct cash outlay. Thus, in an analysis of costs in industrial processes, capital-investment
costs, manufacturing costs, and general expenses including income taxes must be taken into
consideration.
CAPITAL INVESTMENTS
Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, a large sum of money must be
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment. Land and service
facilities must be obtained, and the plant must be erected complete with all piping, controls,
and services. In addition, it is necessary to have money available for the payment of expenses
involved in the plant operation. The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and
plant facilities is called the fixed-capital investment, while that necessary for the operation of

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the plant is termed the working capital. The sum of the fixed-capital investment and the
working capital is known as the total capital investment. The fixed-capital portion may be
further subdivided into manufacturing fixed-capital investment and nonmanufacturing fixed-
capital investment.
Fixed-Capital Investment
Manufacturing fixed-capital investment represents the capital necessary for the
installed process equipment with all auxiliaries that are needed for complete process
operation. #Expenses for piping, instruments, insulation, foundations, and site preparation are
typical examples of costs included in the manufacturing fixed-capital investment. Fixed
capital required for construction overhead and for all plant components that are not directly
related to the process operation is designated as the nonmanufacturing fixed-capital
investment. These plant components include the land, processing buildings, administrative,
and other offices, warehouses, laboratories, transportation, shipping, and receiving facilities,
utility and waste-disposal facilities, shops, and other permanent parts of the plant. The
construction overhead cost consists of field-office and supervision expenses, home-office
expenses, engineering expenses, miscellaneous construction costs, contractor’s fees, and
contingencies. In some cases, construction overhead is proportioned between manufacturing
and nonmanufacturing fixed-capital investment.
Working Capital
The working capital for an industrial plant consists of the total amount of money
invested in
(1) Raw materials and supplies carried in stock,
(2) Finished products in stock and semi finished products in the process of being
manufactured,
(3) Accounts receivable,
(4) Cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses, such as salaries, wages,
and raw-material purchases,
(5) Accounts payable, and

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(6) Taxes payable.
The raw-materials inventory included in working capital usually amounts to an l-
month supply of the raw materials valued at delivered prices. Finished products in stock and
semi finished products have a value approximately equal to the total manufacturing cost for 1
month’s production. Because credit terms extended to customers are usually based on an
allowable 30-day payment period, the working capital required for accounts receivable
ordinarily amounts to the production cost for 1 month of operation. The ratio of working
capital to total capital investment varies with different companies, but most chemical plants
use an initial working capital amounting to 10 to 20 percent of the total capital investment.
This percentage may increase to as much as 50 percent or more for companies producing
products of seasonal demand because of the large inventories which must be maintained for
appreciable periods of time.
DIRRCT PRODUCTION COSTS
Raw Materials
In the chemical industry, one of the major costs in a production operation is for the
raw materials involved in the process. The amount of the raw materials which must be
supplied per unit of time or per unit of product can be determined from process material
balances. In many cases, certain materials act only as an agent of production and may be
recoverable to some extent.
Therefore, the cost should be based on the amount of raw materials actually consumed
as determined from the overall material balances.
Direct price quotations from prospective suppliers are preferable to published market
prices. For preliminary cost analyses, market prices are often used for estimating raw-material
costs. These values are published regularly in journals such as the Chemical Marketing
Reporter (formerly the Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter).
Freight or transportation charges should be included in the raw-material costs, and
these charges should be based on the form in which the raw materials are to be purchased for
use in the final plant. Although bulk shipments are cheaper than smaller-container shipments,

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they require greater storage facilities and inventory. Consequently, the demands to be met in
the final plant should be considered when deciding on the cost of raw materials.
The ratio of the cost of raw materials to total plant cost obviously will vary
considerably for different types of plants. In chemical plants, raw-material costs are usually in
the range of 10 to 50 percent of the total product cost.
Operating Labor
In general, operating labor may be divided into skilled and unskilled labor. Hourly
wage rates for operating labor in different industries at various locations can be obtained from
the U.S. Bureau of Labor Monthly Labor Review. For chemical processes, operating labor
usually amounts to about 15 percent of the total product cost. In preliminary costs analyses,
the quantity of operating labor can often be estimated either from company experience with
similar processes or from published information on similar processes. Because the
relationship between labor requirements and production rate is not always a linear one, a 0.2
to 0.25 power of the capacity ratio when plant capacities are scaled up or down is often used.
Land
The cost for land and the accompanying surveys and fees depends on the location of
the property and may vary by a cost factor per acre as high as thirty to fifty between a rural
district and a highly industrialized area. As a rough average, land costs for industrial plants
amount to 4 to 8 percent of the purchased-equipment cost or 1 to 2 percent of the total capital
investment. Because the value of land usually does not decrease with time, this cost should
not be included in the fixed-capital investment when estimating certain annual operating
costs, such as depreciation.

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X. PLANT LOCATION
The geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on the success
of an industrial venture. Considerable care must be exercised in selecting the plant site, and
many different factors must be considered. Primarily, the plant should be located where the
minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained, but other factors, such as room
for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation as well as the surrounding
community, are also important. A general consensus as to the plant location should be
obtained before a design project reaches the detailed estimate stage, and a firm location
should be established upon completion of the detailed-estimate design. The choice of the final
site should first be based on a complete survey of the advantages and disadvantages of various
geographical areas and, ultimately, on the advantages and disadvantages of available real
estate. The following factors should be considered in selecting a plant site:
1. Raw materials availability

2. Markets
3. Energy availability
4. Climate
5. Transportation facilities
6. Water supply
7. Waste disposal
8. Labor supply
9. Taxation and legal restrictions
10. Site characteristics
11. Flood and fire protection.
12. Community factors

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XI. PLANT LAYOUT

The efficiency of production depends on how well the various machines; production
facilities and employee’s amenities are located in a plant. Only the properly laid out plant can
ensure the smooth and rapid movement of material, from the raw material stage to the end
product stage. Plant layout encompasses new layout as well as improvement in the existing
layout. It may be defined as a technique of locating machines, processes and plant services
within the factory so as to achieve the right quantity and quality of output at the lowest
possible cost of manufacturing. It involves a judicious arrangement of production facilities so
that workflow is direct.
IMPORTANCE
Plant layout is an important decision as it represents long-term commitment. An ideal
plant layout should provide the optimum relationship among output, floor area and
manufacturing process. It facilitates the production process, minimizes material handling,
time and cost, and allows flexibility of operations, easy production flow, makes economic use
of the building, promotes effective utilization of manpower, and provides for employee’s
convenience, safety, comfort at work, maximum exposure to natural light and ventilation. It is
also important because it affects the flow of material and processes, labour efficiency,
supervision and control, use of space and expansion possibilities etc
ESSENTIALS
An efficient plant layout is one that can be instrumental in achieving the
Following objectives:
a) Proper and efficient utilization of available floor space

b) To ensure that work proceeds from one point to another point without any delay
c) Provide enough production capacity.
d) Reduce material handling costs
e) Reduce hazards to personnel
f) Utilize labour efficiently

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g) Increase employee morale
h) Reduce accidents
i) Provide for volume and product flexibility
j) Provide ease of supervision and control
k) Provide for employee safety and health
l) Allow ease of maintenance
m) Allow high machine or equipment utilization
n) Improve productivity
TYPES OF LAYOUT
Plant layout for Small Scale business is closely linked with the
Factory building and built up area.
From the point of view of plant layout, we can classify small business or unit into
Three categories:
1. Manufacturing units
2. Traders
3. Service Establishments
1. Manufacturing units
In case of manufacturing unit, plant layout may be of four types:
(a) Product or line layout

(b) Process or functional layout
(c) Fixed position or location layout
(d) Combined or group layout
2. Traders
There are three kinds of layouts in retail operations today.
1. Self service or modified self service layout

2. Full service layout

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3. Special layouts
3. Services centers and establishment

Services establishments such as motels, hotels, restaurants, must give due attention to
client convenience, quality of service, efficiency in delivering services and pleasing office
ambience. In today’s environment, the clients look for ease in approaching different
departments of a service organization and hence the layout should be designed in a fashion,
which allows clients quick and convenient access to the facilities offered by a service
establishment.
FACTORS INFLUENCING LAYOUT

While deciding his factory or unit or establishment or store, a small-scale businessman
should keep the following factors in mind: a) Factory building: The nature and size of the
building determines the floor space available for layout. While designing the special
requirements, e.g. air conditioning, dust control, humidity control etc. must be kept in mind.
b) Nature of product: product layout is suitable for uniform products whereas process layout
is more appropriate for custom-made products.
c) Production process: In assembly line industries, product layout is better. In job order or
intermittent manufacturing on the other hand, process layout is desirable.
d) Type of machinery: General purpose machines are often arranged as per process layout
while special purpose machines are arranged according to product layout
e) Repairs and maintenance: machines should be so arranged that adequate space is available
between them for movement of equipment and people required for repairing the machines.
f) Human needs: Adequate arrangement should be made for cloakroom, washroom, lockers,
drinking water, toilets and other employee facilities, proper provision should be made for
disposal of effluents, if any.
g) Plant environment: Heat, light, noise, ventilation and other aspects should be duly
considered, e.g. paint shops and plating section should be located in another hall so that
dangerous fumes can be removed through proper ventilation etc. Adequate safety arrangement
should also be made.

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CONCLUSION
A journey has started towards the utilization of this seed oil for soap production.
Physicochemical analysis of the extracted seed oil was carried out in order to justify its
usefulness in soap industry. The following values were obtained for the various parameters
measured; Saponifìcation value 199.42 ± 0.53 mgKOH/g, Iodine value 119.78 ± 0.81g I2/100
g and Acid value 0.81± 0.01mgKOH/g. The oil yield was 48%. The analytical values obtained
were significantly in favour of the utilization of the indigenous cotton seed for soap
production on commercial scale. The pH of the soap was 9.38, comparably within the higher
pH range of 9-11 set by the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control
(NAFDAC), mostly due to incomplete alkali hydrolysis resulting from the saponification
process. The foam height of the soap was 4.5cm lower than that of Jatropha, sesame and
cotton seed soaps analyzed higher than that of Neem, castor and castor super fatted with
glycerine soaps. The soap was white and slightly soluble in distilled water.
Cleaning products play an essential role in our daily lives. By safely and effectively
removing soils, germs and other contaminants, they help us to stay healthy, care for our
homes and possessions, and make our surroundings more pleasant.
The principal approaches of accumulating the OIL MILL wastes in landfills have
resulted in several environmental problems. Using this waste we have manufactured soaps.
The use of such waste materials serves a dual role of generating a usable product and reducing
waste disposal. One of the greatest advantages of using this soap is that it produces a low
carbon footprint compared to commercially produce big brand soaps. Organic soap reduce the
volume of toxins in skin and because they are created using natural ingredients. Reducing
toxins in one area helps your overall living environment.

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REFERENCES
1. George T. Austin, (1975), “Shreve’s Chemical Process Industries, Fifth edition,
McGraw Hill International Editions, pp 511, 534-537, 540-549.
2. P. H. Groggin’s, (1995), “Unit Processes In Organic Synthesis, Fifth edition, TATA

McGRAW Hill, pp 772-775,896-901.
3. Gopal Rao M. & Sitting Marshall, (2012), “Dryden’s” , Outline Of Chemical

Technology For the 21st. Century, East-West Press, New Delhi, pp.296-298.
4. McCutheon, J.W (1974). In “Detergent and Emulsifier” Annual Report. New Jersey
5. Max S. Peters “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineering”, fourth
edition, McGraw Hill International Editions, pp. 157-158, 176,197-198.
6. Efeovbokhan, Vincent Enon., Anawe, Paul Apeye Lucky, Adeeyo, Opeyemi and
Obafunso, Bisola Aderonke,” Recovery Of Glycerine From Spent Palm Kernel Soap
And Palm Oil Soap Lye ”, International Journal of Engineering & Technology
IJET-IJENS Vol: 12 No: 02, pp. 11-15.
7. David A. Katz, “The Science of Soaps and Detergents” pp. 1-8.
8. Abha Kumar, “Plant Location and Layout” chapter 7.
9. Soap and Detergent Manufacturing: Point Source Category. Prepared for the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. EPA-440/1-74-018-a.
April 1974.

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10. PERRY, R. “Detergent builders and water-quality –a Changing Scene”, Effluent.
Water Treatment, Journal, 21, 446-449. 1981.
11. O’Brien, R, D. Fat and oils: formulating and processing for applications. 3 rd
. Edition.
Taylor
& Francis Group, LLC. Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742. 2009; P 9, 20.
12. Gunstone, F.D.The Chemistry of Oils and Fats: Sources, Composition, Properties and
Uses. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK. 2008;
P5.

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2013 - 2014 Production Of Soaps From Oil

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Table [1]:- Indicative Composition of Detergent & Soaps Types.

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II. LITERATURE SURVEY:

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2. THE CHEMISTRY OF SOAP AND DETERGENT & FUNCTION:

Figure: - [1] Structure of Soap Molecule.

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Figure: - [2] Phospholipids bilayer formation.

Figure: - [3] different shape of molecule

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Fig: - [4] Phospholipids bilayer formation and its action.

Figure:-[5] Phospholipids Chain of STEARIC ACID.

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Figure:-[6] Action of Soap Molecule to Remove Oily Dirt.

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Various Acids Present In the Soap:

1. lauric acid -(dodecanoic acid - C12H24O2)

2. myristic acid-(tetradecanoic acid - C14H28O2)

3. palmitic acid -(hexadecanoic acid - C16H32O2)

4. stearic acid- (octadecanoic acid - C18H36O2)

5. oleic acid -(9-octadecenoic acid - C18H34O2)

6. linoleic acid -(9,12-octadecadienoic acid - C18H32O2)

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3. THE SOAP MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

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The essence of soap production is saponification reaction:

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Three types of energy are needed for good cleaning results:

Delivery, handling and storage of Raw Materials

DIFFERENT PROCESS OF SOAP MANUFACTUR

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Step 2 - Lye separation

Step 3 - Soap Washing

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Step 4 - Lye separation

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Flowchart 1 - The Colgate Palmolive Continuous Soap manufacturing process.

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b. The Lever Rexona Process

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Flowchart [2] - The Lever Rexona soap manufacturing batch Process.

Step 1 - Oil preparation

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Flowchart [3]:- Manufacture of SOAP by CONTINUOUS Process.

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Laundry or 'hard' soap manufacture

Toilet soap manufacture

Capital Needed to Make Liquid Soap

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Production Equipment Needed to Make Liquid Soap:

Raw Materials Needed to Make Liquid Soap: