KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(An Autonomous Institution)

PERUNDURAI, ERODE-638060
SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND MECHANICAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

Unit – I
Layout, Frame, Front Axle and Steering System

Main components of an automobile

An automobile (auto-vehicle) mainly consists of two assemblies
1. Chassis (Basic structure)
2. Body (Super structure)
Chassis:
The chassis is a complete combination of various systems and components that enables it to run on
the road. A vehicle arrangement without body is called chassis.
To construct any automobile, chassis is the basic requirement. Chassis is a French term and was
initially used to denote the frame or main structure of a vehicle.

Frame:
The frame is the main part of the chassis. It is the back bone of the vehicle. All other parts of the
chassis are mounted on the frame.
The front end of the frame carries the engine and the rear end carries rear axle housing, the wheels
and tires. The other components on the frame are steering system, fuel tank, battery, brake, shock absorber,
etc.,
The chassis frame must be stiff and strong enough to withstand shocks, twists, vibrations,
transmission thrust, torque stresses and many other stains to which it is subjected on road while the vehicle
is in movement.

Functions of the frame

To carry the weight of the vehicles and passengers.
To withstand the engine and transmission torque.
To bear thrust, acceleration and braking torque.
To resist the centrifugal forces when cornering curve.
To withstand bending and twisting.
To provide correct spacing between the different components.
To bear the suspension system
To serve as a bed for fuel tank, battery and other mounting units.
To strengthen, to resist the severe twist and bending forces at high speed over rough road.

KEC/AUTO Page 1 of 20
Basic construction of chassis
Layout of Chassis
The main parts of and automobile are mounted on the chassis. The layout of these components on the
chassis are different in different types of vehicles, i.e., cars, jeeps, trucks, buses, etc. The main difference in
the layout of this chassis is the position of the engine.
The engine is located at the front of the vehicle, followed by a clutch, gear box, propeller shaft,
universals joints, differential, rear axle, etc. The radiator is located in front of the engine. Various other parts
of the vehicle not shown in the layout are dynamo, horn, steering box, fan, timing gear, carburetor, air filter,
gear control, steering wheel, cylinder, petrol tank, rear axle, front axle. The drive from the gear box is
conveyed through a short shaft to the front universal joint of the propeller shaft. From the propeller shaft it is
conveyed to the rear wheel through a sliding splined type of joint. The bevel gear of the short shaft is driven
by rear universal joint. This bevel gear meshes with a larger bevel gear which drives the two rear axle shafts
through a differential gear.

The following main components of the Chassis are

1. Frame: it is made up of long two members called side members riveted together with the help of
number of cross members.
2. Engine or Power plant: It provides the source of power.
3. Clutch: It connects and disconnects the power from the engine flywheel to the transmission system.
4. Gear Box
5. U Joint
6. Propeller Shaft
7. Differential

KEC/AUTO Page 2 of 20
TYPES OF DRIVES OF AUTOMOBILES
Some of the important drives of automobiles may be classified as follows:
1. Front engine - Rear wheel drive
2. Rear engine - Rear wheel drive
3. Front engine - Front wheel drive
4. Four-wheel drive

1. Front Engine - Rear Wheel Drive

In this layout a front mounted engine-clutch-gear box unit drives a beam type rear axle
suspended on leaf sprints through a propeller shaft with two universal joints. With the help of coil
sprints, the front wheels are independently sprung. As shown in Figure this layout is one of the oldest
layout which remained unchanged for many years. some of the advantages provided by this system
are:
a) Balanced weight distribution between the front and the rear wheels.
b) Easy front wheel steering.
c) Behind the rear seats, large luggage space is available.
d) Accessibility to various components like engine, gearbox and rear axle is better in comparison to
other layouts. The control linkages-accelerator, choke, clutch and gearbox are short and simple.
e) Full benefits of the natural air stream created by vehicle’s movement is taken by the forward radiator
resulting in reduced power losses from a large fan.
f) Small length of the propeller shaft permits the angularity of the universal joints to be small and easily
provided by simple types.
By mounting the rear wheel drive assembly on the body unit and using universally jointed shafts to
independently steer rear wheels as shown in Figure the layout design can be modified and improved. It
provides number of benefits like improved handling, comfort and rear wheel grip as well as reduced
unspring weight.

KEC/AUTO Page 3 of 20
 2. Rear Engine-Rear wheel drive
This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft when the engine is mounted adjacent
to the driven wheels. The engine-clutch-gear box-final drive form a single unit in this layout. As shown in
Figure to reduce the ‘overhang’ distance between the wheel centers and the front of the engine, the final
drive is generally placed between the clutch and the gear box. In comparison to front wheel drive it has a

KEC/AUTO Page 4 of 20
simpler drive shaft layout. Further, the weight of rear engine on the driving wheels provides excellent
traction and grip especially on steep hills as well as when accelerating. Inspire of the low proportion of the
vehicle weight transferring to the front wheels, very effective rear wheel braking is possible. Due to the
absence of the propeller shaft the obstructed floor space is reduced. The front of the vehicle can, therefore,
be designed for good visibility and smooth air flow. the exhaust gases, fumes, engine heat and noises are
also carried away from the passengers. It results in compact layout and short car.
The layout also has got certain disadvantages like restricted luggage space due to narrow front
compartment which houses the fuel tank also. Natural air cooling is not possible; it requires a powerful fan.
The floor is further obstructed due to long linkage required for the engine, clutch and the gear box controls.
The rearward concentration of weight causes the vehicle to be more affected by side winds at high speeds.
this makes the vehicle unstable resulting in over steering and turning very sharply into a curve. This
necessitates the steering correction in the opposite direction.
3. Front engine-front wheel drive.
This layout provides optimum body-luggage space and a flat floor line resulting in a transverse
longitudinal engine position. This drive pulling the car along provides good grip and good road holding on
curves due to major weight at the front. The chances of skidding especially on slippery surfaces are very
much reduced. Good road adhesion is provided by the large proportion of the vehicle weight acting on the
driven wheels. when the vehicle is to be ‘steered in’ to the curve, it provides ‘understeer’ characteristics
always preferred by drivers.
The combination of steered and driven wheels with short drive shafts provides the main disadvantage. This
requires special universal joints and a more complicated assembly. to prevent the rear wheels from skidding
under heavy braking, the ‘reduced’ weight at the rear usually necessitates special arrangement.

4. Four-wheels drive
To increase maneuverability of the vehicle required to travel on rough unconstructed roads and tracks
another arrangement known as four-wheel drive is provided. due to all the four wheels getting driven, whole
of the weight of the vehicle is available for traction. But this advantage is not worth the additional cost on
good road surfaces. The system is provided in jeeps which are known as 4 X 4-wheel drive vehicles.

Rear Engine-Rear Wheel Drive

Advantages
1. Better road adhesion preferably on steep hills and while accelerating with increased weight on the
driving wheels.
2. Generally, a proportional part of weight of the car is transferred to the front wheels while braking.
Therefore, due to the firm road surface contact maintained by rear engine car results in assistance to
stopping of the vehicle.
3. In this arrangement, front wheels are only for steering purposes.

KEC/AUTO Page 5 of 20
 4. The necessity of the propeller shaft is altogether eliminated due to the combination of engine, gear
box and final drive. This also requires only one common oil sump.
5. Good visibility and stream lining is provided by proper design of vehicle front.
Disadvantages
1. At high speed, the increased weight at the rear end makes the vehicle unstable.
2. To control the engine, clutch and gear box, long linkages are required.
3. The width of the car at the front gets reduced for accommodating the movement of the steering
wheels resulting in reduction of size of the luggage compartment for given length and width of the
car.
4. The wheels get turned too sharply into the curve due to tendency of over-steering. This necessitates
the turning of the steering wheels in the opposite direction to make correction by the driver.
5. Efficient cooling becomes very difficult to obtain due to screening of the engine by the vehicle body.
Front Engine - Front Wheel Drive
Advantages
1. As compared to rear wheel driven car, there is a faster and safer travelling due to good road holding
on curves.
2. Good road adhesion is obtained due to a large part of the vehicle’s weight being carried on the
driving wheels under normal conditions.
3. Under-steer conditions generally preferred by many drivers are promoted by this type of drive. The
car comes back to closer radius if the throttle is released. This makes the steering wheel to run more
in the direction of turn to make it a better condition.
4. A lower flat floor lines is provided due to dispensing with the propeller shaft resulting in lowering of
center of gravity.
5. The engine, clutch, gear box and final drive are combined similar to the rear engine car. This
provides a more comfortable drive due to final drive spring.

Disadvantages
1. Due to the weight of the vehicle moving to the rear, the weight on the driving wheels is reduced on
steep gradients as well as while accelerating.
2. The tractive effort which is most needed on steep gradients and during accelerating is reduced.
3. This disadvantage becomes more serious on slippery gradients.
4. Under these conditions certain modifications in modern designs have been made to ensure provision
of sufficient traction.
5. Left hand and Right and drives

In different countries, the automobiles are driven on different sides of the road, In United Kingdom
and all the countries, which were once colonies of the British Rule. The vehicles are driven on the left hand

KEC/AUTO Page 6 of 20
side of the road. In all other countries of the world, normally vehicles are driven on the right hand side of the
road. For better driving control, the vehicle drivers must be nearer to one another while passing or crossing.
Similarly, for safety consideration, the drivers must be in the center of the road while driving. Therefore,
two types of vehicles are manufactured.
(a) Left hand drive: The steering is fitted on the left hand side of the automobile and such
vehicles are convenient to drive in countries following right hand drive rules, e.g. U.S.A., Russia, European
countries.
(b) Right hand drive: The steering is fitted on the right hand side of the automobile and such
vehicles are convenient to drive in countries following left hand drive rules, e.g. U.K., India, Pakistan.
However, though rare, left hand cars also driven in such countries.

TYPES OF FRAME
1. Conventional frame
2. Integral or Unit construction or Frameless chassis
3. Half integral & half frame chassis
1. Conventional frame

It is used in most of the heavy vehicles.

Construction of frame varies according to the type of vehicle.
Generally made from the steel sections.
This type of frame has “2 long side members” & “5 to 6 cross members” joined together with the
help of rivets or bolts.
Cross members are used to increase the strength of the frame.
They are inswept (Narrow) at the front & are upswept (Broad) at the rear.
The frame is narrowed down at the front (inswept) to have a better steering lock which provides
space for pivoting & swinging of the front wheels.

KEC/AUTO Page 7 of 20
 Upswept at the rear provided to give room for the vertical movement of the rear axle as it travels
over road bumps & other road inequalities.
Body brackets are provided to support the body of the vehicle.
Spring brackets are provided for mounting the body of the vehicle.
Extension of chassis frame ahead of the front axle known as front overhung.
Extension of chassis beyond the rear axle known as rear overhung.
Different sections are used for long & cross members. Generally, channel section & box section is
used for long side members & other sections like I section, hat section, tubular section is used for
cross members.

2. Integral or Unit construction or Frameless chassis

This frame construction, now-a-days used in most of the motor cars called as a frameless or
chassis less or mono or unit construction in which the floor assembly & frame form one integral
unit.
Need of the heavy side members are eliminated, which is used in conventional frame & the floor
is strengthened by cross members & body, all welded together.
In some cases, sub-frames are also used on which various chassis components are mounted. This
sub-frames are supported by main frame.
The main purpose of sub-frame is to provide isolation, flexibility & simplified production. So, in
this type of construction all components like cross member, floor, body are welder or bolted
together as one assembly.
This type of construction gives more strength & rigidity.

3. Semi - Integral Frame:

In some vehicles half frame is fixed in the front end on which engine gear box and front
suspension is mounted. It has the advantage when the vehicle is met with accident the front frame
can be taken easily to replace the damaged chassis frame. This type of frame is used in FIAT cars
and some of the European and American cars.

KEC/AUTO Page 8 of 20
Various loads acting on the frame
A chassis frame is subjected to the following loads:
1. Loads of short duration: when the vehicle is crossing a broken patch of road, it is acted upon by heavy
and suddenly applied loads of short duration. This load results in longitudinal torsion.
2. Combined loads of moment any duration: These loads occur while negotiating curve, applying
brakes and striking a pot hole.
3. Inertial loads: These loads are applied on the vehicle due to application of brake for a short period. This
load tends to bend the side member in the vertical plane.
4. Impact loads: These loads are applied during collision of vehicle with another object. It results in
general collapse.
5. Load due to road camber, side wind, and cornering force while taking a turn. It results in lateral bending
of side members.
6. Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause that particular wheel to remain obstructed
while the other wheel tends to move forward. It will tend to distort the frame to parallelogram shape.
7. Static loads: loads due to chassis parts like engine, steering, gearbox, fuel tank, body etc. are constantly
acting on the frame.
8. Over loads: The load of the vehicle which is loaded beyond the specified design load is known as
overloads.

Front Axle
Front wheels of the vehicle are mounted on front axles. Functions of front axle are listed below:
(a) It supports the weight of front part of the vehicle.

(b) It facilitates steering.

(c) It absorbs shocks which are transmitted due to road surface irregularities.

(d) It absorbs torque applied on it due to braking of vehicle.

Construction and Operation

Front axle is made of I-section in the middle portion and circular or elliptical section at the ends. The special
x-section of the axle makes it able to withstand bending loads due to weight of the vehicle and torque applied due to
braking. On kind of front axle is shown in Figure which consists of main beam, stub axle, and swivel pin, etc. The
wheels are mounted on stub axles.

TYPES OF FRONT AXLES

1. Based Upon the drive
Classification based upon the drive of the front axle into two types of front axles:
(a) Dead front axle, and
(b) Line front axle.

KEC/AUTO Page 9 of 20
(a) Dead Front Axle
Dead axles are those axles, which do net rotate. These axles have sufficient rigidity and strength to take the
weight. The ends of front axle are suitably designed to accommodate stub axles.
(b) Line Front Axle
Line axles are used to transmit power from gear box to front wheels. Line front axles although, front wheels.
Line front axles although resemble rear axles but they are different at the ends where wheels are mounted. Maruti-800
has line front axle.
2. Based Upon the construction of axle
The construction of axle is classified based upon the cross section of axle beam into two types.
(a) Beam construction (Solid I Beam), and
(b) Tubular construction.
(a) Beam construction
The cut section of this beam has “I” shape. It is used to carry the weight of the part of the vehicle as well as to
facilitates steering and absorb shocks due to road surface variations. When there is no braking system in the front
wheels of the vehicle then there will be only bending load on the axle therefore a simple forging (forged alloy steel) of
“I” beam section is used.

(b) Tubular construction.

The cut section of this axle has hollow shape. If front axle is live axle, the axle shaft is rotated inside tubular,
front axle. It is used in Mahindra vans

STUB AXLE
Stub axles are connected to the front axle by king pins. Front wheels are mounted on stub axles arrangement
for steering is connected to stub axles. Stub axle turns on kind pins. Kingpins is fitted in the front axle beam eye and is
located and locked there by a taper cotter pin. Stub axles are of four types:
(a) Elliot
(b) Reversed Elliot
(c) Lamoine
(d) Reversed lamoine
All are differing from each other in the manner in which they are connected to the front axle. Elliot type stub
axle is shown in Figure

KEC/AUTO Page 10 of 20
 1. Elliot type front axle
In the Elliot type front axles, the yoke for king spindle is located on the ends of beam The
axle ends are forked to hold the steering knuckle extension between them.

2. The reverse Elliot front axles

The reverse Elliot front axles have hinged spindle yoke on spindle itself instead of on the
axle. The forked portion is integral with the steering knuckle. This type is commonly used, as this
facilitates the mounting of brake backing plate on the forged legs of the steering knuckle.
3. Lemoine type front axle
In the Lemoine type front axle, instead of a yoke type hinge, an L-shaped spindle is used,
which is attached to the end of the axle by means of a pivot, it is normally used in tractors.
4. Reverse Lemoine type front axle
The front axle beam end forms eye to take supports the stub axle. The stub axle and king pin
are integrated to form inverted L-shape assembly to receive the front axle.
The axle beam in use is of I or H-section and is manufactured from alloy forged steel for rigidity
and strength.

KEC/AUTO Page 11 of 20
Steering Linkages

Condition for True Rolling

True rolling occurs only when the direction of motion of the vehicle is perpendicular to the wheel
axis (Shown in figure), i.e. the wheel is subjected to forward force.
When wheel is subjected to side force that acts parallel to the wheel axis, a true scrub action is
produced (Shown in figure).
When the wheel is subjected to both forward and side forces, the movement is compounded of true
rolling and lateral distortion (Shown in figure). This condition occurs when the wheels are being steered, i.e.
the direction of motion is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
On a circular path, true rolling condition occurs when the projected axes of several wheels all
moving in different curved paths intersect at a single point called the instantaneous center (Shown in figure).
When these projected axes do not intersect at a single point, a degree of tyre scrub results (Shown in figure).

KEC/AUTO Page 12 of 20
 Fig. Road-wheel and tyre rolling conditions. A. True-rolling. B. True scrub. C. Tyre steer. D.
Condition for true rolling. E. Condition for tyre scrub.

Whenever a vehicle takes a turn, the front wheels must turn in a definite manner both in relation to
each other and to the axis of the rear wheels so that the lateral slip may be avoided and true rolling for all the
wheels is obtained. For this, as explained above, all the wheels must always rotate about the instantaneous
center. Since the rear wheels have a common and fixed axis, it is quite obvious that this common center “O”
would lie somewhere on its extension (Shown in figure).

Fig. Condition for true rolling of a vehicle.

KEC/AUTO Page 13 of 20
 This equation gives the fundamental condition to be satisfied by all types of steering mechanism if
true rolling for all the wheels is to be obtained avoiding any lateral slip. The steering linkage used in the
vehicles must maintain the proper angles with the wheels when taking a turn. But practically it is not
possible to maintain absolutely correct angles for the wheels for all turning angles.

Turning Circle Radius.

When a vehicle takes a turn without experiencing any lateral slip, all the wheels rotate about a
common center along different turning circles

Thus, the turning circle radius can be defined in different ways. In order to avoid confusion, the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) adopted the following definition. “The turning radius of an automotive vehicle
is the radius of the arc described by the center of the track made by the outside front wheel of the vehicle
when making its shortest turn”. The turning radius depends upon a, b, c and the maximum angle θ through
which the inside front wheel can be deflected from the straight-ahead position. Thus, Rof when expressed in
these parameters becomes,

KEC/AUTO Page 14 of 20
The Ackermann Principle as Applied to Steering.

The Ackermann Principle

To achieve true rolling for a four-wheeled vehicle moving on a curved track, the lines drawn through
each of the four-wheel axes must intersect at the instantaneous centre Figure The actual position the
instantaneous centre constantly changes due to the alternation of the front wheel angular positions to correct
the steered vehicle’s path. Since both rear wheels are fixed on the same axis but the front wheel axles are
independent of each other, the instantaneous centers lies somewhere along an imaginary extended line
drawn through the axis of the rear axle.

The Ackermann principle is based on the two front steered wheels being pivoted at the ends of an
axle-beam. The original Ackermann linkage has parallel set track-rod-arms, so that both steered wheels’
swivel at equal angles. Consequently, the intersecting projection lines do not meet at one point is shown in
figure. If both front wheels were free to follow their own natural paths, they would converge and eventually
cross each other. Since the vehicle moves along a single mean path, both wheel tracks conflict continuously
with each other causing tyre slip and tread scrub. Subsequent modified linkage uses inclined track-rod arms
so that the inner wheel swivels about its king-pin slightly more than the outer wheel. Hence the lines drawn
through the stub-axles converge at a single point somewhere along the rear-axle projection is shown in
figure.

Side-pivot steering with parallel-set track-rod arms.

KEC/AUTO Page 15 of 20
 Side-pivot steering with inclined track-rod arms.

Ackermann Linkage

Ackermann linkage geometry.

A. Parallel set track-rod arms, outer wheel turned 20 and 40 degrees.
B. 10 degrees set track-rod arms, outer wheel turned 20 degrees.
C. 10 degrees set track-rod arms, outer wheel turned 40 degrees.

KEC/AUTO Page 16 of 20
 In parallel-set steering arms layout (shown in figure), the track-rod dimensions yi, xi andy0, x0,
remain equal for all angles of turn. With the inclined arms (shown in figure), the inner-wheel track-rod end
dimension yi, is always smaller than the outer wheel dimension y0, while negotiating a curve. On the other
hand, there is very little variation between xi and x0 for small angular movements. For small steering angles
about the kingpin up to say 10 degrees, there is very little difference between yi and y0 and between the inner
and outer wheel turning angles. Figure illustrates that for a 10 degrees set track rod arms if the outer wheel is
turned at 20 degrees, then the corresponding inner wheel is shown to rotate 23 degrees. Similarly, for the
same set, for 40 degrees’ outer wheel turn, the inner wheel rotates 51 degrees (shown in figure). Therefore,
for a given angular movement of the stub axles, the inner-wheel track-rod arm and track-rod are more
effective than the outer-wheel linkage in turning the steered wheel. For a given amount of transverse track-
rod movement with inclined track-rod arms, the least effective angular displacement of stub-axle pivot
occurs in the straight-ahead region, and the most effective angular displacement takes place as the stub-axles
move away from the mid-position. Thus, the angular movement of the inner wheel relative to the outer
wheel becomes much greater as both wheels approach movement of the inner wheel relative to the outer
wheel becomes much greater as both wheels full lock (shown in figure). With modern radial tyres, the
difference between front and back-lock steering angles is sometimes reduced.

Ackermann-linkage Geometry

KEC/AUTO Page 17 of 20
 Analytical solution diagram for Ackermann-linkage.

If the slight inclination of the track rod is neglected, the movements of M and N in the direction parallel to
the axle beam PQ can be considered as the same, say z. Let M’, N’ represent the correct steering position
and, r, denote the cross-arm radius.

KEC/AUTO Page 18 of 20
Steering Geometry:

It refers to the angular relationship between the front wheels and parts attached to it and car frame.
The steering Geometry includes
1. Caster angle
2. Camber angle
3. King-pin inclination
4. toe-in
5. toe-out etc.,
Caster Angle: This is the angle between backward or forward tilting of the king pin from the vertical axis at
the top. This is about 2º to 4º. The backward tilt is called as positive caster. The forward tilt is called
negative caster.

Camber: The angle between wheel axis to the vertical line at the top is called camber angle. It is
approximately ½º to 2º.
King-pin inclination: It is the angle between vertical line to the king pin axis. The inclination tends to keep
wheels straight ahead and make the wheels to get return to the straight position after completion of a turn.
The inclination is normally kept 7º to 8º.
Included Angle: The combined camber and kingpin inclination is called the included angle. This angle is
important because it determines the point of intersection of the wheel and the kingpin centre line. This in
turn, determines whether the wheel will tend- to toe-out or toe-in. If the point of intersection is above the
ground, the wheel tends to toe-out. If it is at the ground, the wheel keeps its straight position without any
tendency to toe-in or toe-out. In this position the steering is called centre point steering.

KEC/AUTO Page 19 of 20
Toe-in: It is the amount in minimum at the front part of the wheel points inwards approximately 3 to 5 mm.
It prevents side slipping excessive tyre wear, proper rolling of front wheels and steering stability.
Toe-out: It is the difference in angles between two front wheels and vehicle frame during turning. It is used
to prevent dragging of tyre during turn.

KEC/AUTO Page 20 of 20