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Фортеця : збірник заповідника “Тустань”. – of mining and/or mountain archaeology appeared , which might bring 2
Л.: Колір ПРО, 2012. – Кн. 2. – С. 272-291
important contributions to the direct or indirect reconstruction of eco-
nomic, social and ethno-cultural processes specific to ancient times.
II. Objectives
In this paper our aim is to discuss on the areas of occurrence and ex-
ploitation and on the manner the useful natural resources were used in
the Carpathian and Sub-Carpathian areas and in the Suceava Plateau,
by protohistoric man, especially during the Aeneolithic, the Bronze Age
Dumitru BOGHIAN, and the Hallstatt period. We refer to the fact that in the technological
Bogdan Petru NICULICĂ, Vasile BUDUI process of creating protohistoric artifacts, the first important operation
was the one of identification of the natural resources susceptible of being
THE USAGE OF NATURAL processed locally, in production centers from the perspective of develop-
ing (main and secondary) craftsmanship centers.
RESOURCES IN PROTOHISTORY These activities, contained in the so-called chaîne opératoire / tech-
(AENEOLITHIC – HALLSTATT) IN THE NORTH- nological chain (prospecting and procuring the necessary raw materials →
production of the necessary artifacts: tools, weapons, jewels, construc-
EASTERN CARPATHIAN AREA tions etc. → operating / using the artifacts / wear indicators → reus-
age and abandonment → action of post-deposit processes → discovery,
I. Introduction
research, historical reconstruction etc.), had not only technological and
N atural resources (soil and subsoil) had a significant role in the
foundation of the human habitat, in all historic periods, and es-
pecially in Prehistory and Protohistory. Relating to the scale of historic
economic connotations, but also considerable relational connections, mi-
cro and macro-social, the movement of communities on the west / east –
east / west and south /north – north / south itineraries, the fights for
times, according to the environmental conditions and their own needs,
the domination of certain areas, the exchanges over short and long dis-
human communities exploited many of the primary natural resources
tances being determined by the resources existing in the considered geo-
which were immediately available to them (minerals, compounds and
graphic area (Carpathians and Sub-Carpathians of Bukovine and Gali-
rocks which appear in outcrops, salt, running and still waters, timber
tia, the Moldo-Volhyno-Podolian Plateau).
and woods, meadows and agricultural lands with soils in formation). Fol-
lowing the increasingly accentuated interventions in the ecosystem, man
brought a considerable contribution to the modification of the natural en- 2
vironment (landschaft), which partly became an anthropic environment. Freise F. Geschichte der Bergbau- und Hüttentechnik. – Berlin, 1908. – Bd. 1: Das
Altertum; Haupt T. Bausteine zur Philosophie der Geschichte des Bergbaues. – Leipzig,
In fact, the landschaftarchäologie / landscape archaeology as a wide 1866. – Lief. 2: Die Archäologie und Chronik des Bergbaues; Archeometallurgia –
multi- and interdisciplinary approach, aims among others at the identifi- richerche e prospettive. Atti del colloquia internazionale di archeometallurgia. Bologna
18–21 ott. 1988 / ed. E. Antonacci-Sanpaolo. – Bologna, 1992; Bailly-Maitre M.-
cation of the useful natural resources (mineral and non-mineral), which C. Les méthodes de l’archéologie minière // Archeologia delle attività estrattive e
were used throughout Pre-, Proto- and History by human communities1. metallurgiche / ed. R. Francovich. – Firenze, 1993; Marie-Christine Bailly-Maitre M.-
At the same time, taking into account that certain resources were found C., Ploquin A. Brandes en Oisans. Archäologie et paléometallurgie d’un village de
mineurs au Moyen-Âge. – Paris, 1993; Di Lernia S., Galiberti A., Archeologia mineraria
in underground deposits and especially in mountain areas, the branches della selce nella preistoria. Definizione, potenzialità e prospettive della ricerca. –
Roma, 1993; Schwarz S. Archueologia Mineira // Boletin de Minas. – Lisboa, 1936;
Montanarchäologie in Europa. Berichte zum Internationalen Kolloquium “Frühe
1
Lüning J. Landschaftsarchäologie in Deutschland, ein Programm // Archäologisches Erzgewinnung und Verhüttung in Europa” in Freiburg vom 4. bis 7. Oktober 1990 /
Nachrichtenblatt. – 1997. – Nr 2, 3. – P. 277–285; Zimmerman A. Landschaftsarchäologie. hg. von H. Steuer, U. Zimmermann. – Sigmaringen, 1993. – (Archäologie und Geschichte. –
I. Die Bandkeramik auf der Aldenhovener Platte // Bericht der RGK. – 2002. – Bd. 83. – Bd. 4); Weisgerbeger G. Aufgaben der Montanarchäologie // Archäologie Österreichs. –
P. 17–38; Zimmerman A., Richter J., Frank T., Wendt K. P. Landschaftsarchäologie II. 1995. – Vol. 6, H. 2. – P. 23–29; Wilsdorf H. Aspekte der Montanethnografie, zugleich
Überlegungen zu Prinzipien einer Landschaftsarchäologie // Bericht der Römisch- Rückblick auf die Montanarchäologie // Deutsche Jahrbuch für Volkskunde. – 1964. –
Germanischen Kommission. – 2004. – Bd. 85. – P. 37–97; Kuna M., Dreslerová D. Bd. 10. – P. 54–71; Wollmann V. Mineritul metalifer, extragerea sării şi carierele de piatră
Landscape Archaeology and ”Community Areas” in the Archeology of Central Europe // în Dacia romană. – Cluj-Napoca, 1996; Boroffka  N. Observaţii asupra descoperirilor
Envisioning landscape: situations and standpoints in archaeology and heritage / ed. by preistorice de chihlimbar din România // Apulum. –2002 (2003). – Vol. 39. – P. 145–168;
D. Hicks, L. McAtackney, G. Fairclough. – Walnut Creek, 2007. – P. 150. – (One World Boroffka  N., Heck  G. Resursele minerale din România şi stadiul actual al cercetărilor
Archaeology. – Vol. 52). privind mineritul preistoric // Apulum. – 2006. – Vol. 43, № 1. – P. 71–94.
274 D.BOGHIAN, B. P.NICULICĂ, V. BUDUI THE USAGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 275
III. Useful Natural Resources between the springs of the various rivers, larger or smaller, there ap-
Geologic researches, various written sources of past epochs (De- peared main trans-Carpathian passes, that facilitated the access to the
scription of Bucovina District, achieved by general Gabriel Splény von mountain façades (northeast and southwest ones) and the areas adja-
Miháldy, 1775; Recent Physical-Political Trips of of Hacquet in 1788– cent thereto; they represented veritable corridors in all prehistoric and
1789 Through the Dacian and Sarmatian Mountains or the Northern historic times, while the “local” intra-Carpathian passes favoured the
Carpathians)3, the documentary ones, especially Austrian4, as well as internal circulation between the different depressions and ethnograph-
the geologic5 and archaeological investigations pointed out the presence ic zones (1. Jablunkovsky; 2. Dukliansky; 3. Uzhots’kyj; 4. Verets’kyj;
of important useful natural resources, in the area of the Carpathians of 5. Bereger / Volovets’kyj; 6. Torun’skyj / Vyskovskij; 7. Jablunets’kyj /
Bukovine, Sub-Carpathian one, the piedmont and plateau ones. Tatar; 8. Gutin; 9. Prislop; 10. Rodna)7. In this regard, one can notice
The considered Carpathian area is approximately located in the cen- that a third of the important passes in the Carpathians are found in the
ter of Europe, between the plateaus and plains to the south of the Baltic northeast segment. Beyond the logical deduction, the trans-Carpathian
Sea and the Aegean and Balcanic world, on the north-south direction, and intra-Carpathian circulation is attested by the medieval pattern of
and between the northern Pontic – Caspian steppes and sylvosteppes and the Tartar penetration and domination, which indicates the existence of
those in the intra-Carpathian space of the Tissa and the Middle Danube. Tartar Mountains, passes and passes8, and the existence of later ways
The zone of the north-eastern Carpathians is formed of three parallel as well. These ways were used to circulate people, ideas, technologies
distinct zones, approximately spreading from west to east: mountains of and products. These intra-Carpathian and Sub-Carpathian depressions
the eruptive zone (e. g. Călimani, Oaş, Gutâi, Ţibleş Mountains), moun- were, throughout time, real natural fortresses and forts. Apart from be-
tains of the crystalline zone and of the flysch, surrounded by an area of ing a “dead-end”, the north-eastern Carpathians represent an important
foredeep (the Carpathian foredeep)6. This Carpathian segment is part of area of convergence between the adjacent spaces, a space of the indi-
the area of the middle mountains (with heights of up to 2500 m), within vidualities and multiculturalism, a crucible of syntheses.
them being located the spring of several large rivers: to the west the Regarding the natural resources, the rich vegetation, especially
Tissa, to the east the Siret, the Prut and the Dniester, with most of their woods, the meadows and mountain agricultural lands favoured human
affluent rivers of the upper course. habitat in the north-eastern Carpathians too. Such habitat was also
This main and secondary hydrographic network shaped the north- stimulated by the existence of mineral resources which, according to the
eastern Carpathians, creating numerous depressions and valleys, where technology specific to the different epochs, were exploited, processed,
man founded settlements ever since the Palaeolithic. At the same time, consumed and/or meant for short- and long-distance exchanges.
Methodologically and historically, we consider adequate to provide
3
Bucovina în primele descrieri geografice, istorice, economice şi demografice  / ediţie
the geomorphologic classification of the natural resources used by pre-
bilingvă îngrijită, cu introduceri, postfeţe, note şi comentarii de acad.  R.  Grigorovici; historic and historic communities:
prefaţă de D. Vatamaniuc. – Bucureşti, 1998; Hacquet B. Bucovina în prima descriere 1) primary – autochthonous sources, in the source rocks in the for-
fizico-politică. Călătorie prin Carpaţii Dacici (1788–1789) / ediţie bilingvă îngrijită, cu mation zones, of in situ occurrence;
introduceri, postfeţe, note şi comentarii de acad. R. Grigorovici; prefaţă de D. Vatamaniuc. –
Rădăuţi, 2002; Kure Scharr: Дія Karpaten/ Balthazar Haequet undolas "verqessene" 2) secondary – sub / quasi–autochthonous sources: resulting from
Cebirgein Europa Studien Verlag.– innsbruk, Wien, Munchen, Bozen – 2004; Ровенчак І. natural erosion (land drifts, gully erosions, geomorphologic processes,
Бальтазар Гакет як географ України // Історія української географії. Всеукраїнський thaw and frost, deepening of the water courses etc.), usually, and re-
науково-теоретичний часопис. – Тернопіль, 2000. – Вип. 2. – С. 56–62.
4
Ceauşu M. Ş. Contribuţii la istoricul exploatării sării la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea deposited / accumulated, most of the times in alluvial deposits, near the
şi în prima jumătate a secolului al XIX-lea in Bucovina // Suceava. Anuarul Muzeului primary sources;
5
Judeţean. – Suceava, 1982. – T. IX. – P. 377–392. 3) tertiary – allochthonous sources: resulting from repeated erosions,
Borcoş  M., Kräutner  H.  G., Udubaşa  G., Săndulescu  M., Năstăseanu  S., Biţoianu  C. carried at a distance and re-deposited / accumulated as alluvial depos-
Harta substanţelor minerale utile. – Ediţia a II-a. – Bucureşti, 1983. – T. I; Bucureşti,
1984. – T. II; unfortunately no geological map of the Carpathians and Sub-Carpathians its in the middle and even in the lower courses of rivers with mountain
of Ukraine was available to us. sources or which cross the resourceful zones9.
6
Birkenmajer K. Carpathian Mountains // Mesozoic-Cenozoic Orogenic Belts. Data for 7
Orogenic Studies / ed. A. M. Spencer. – London, 1974. – Vol. 4. – P. 127–157; Pop G. P., Bader T. Passfunde aus der Bronzezeit in den Karpaten // Communicationes
Carpaţii şi Subcarpaţii României. – Ediţia a II-a. – Cluj-Napoca, 2006. Dunăre  N. archaeologicae Hungariae. – 2001. – P. 15–39.
8
Civilizaţia tradiţională românească în curbura carpatică nordică. – Bucureşti, 1984; Vasilescu  A. Drumurile tătăreşti în lumina noilor descoperiri arheologice din judeţul
Grasu C., Catană C., Grinea D. Flişul carpatic: Petrografie şi consideraţii economice. – Suceava // Studii şi materiale. – Suceava, 1969. – T. I passim.
9
Bucureşti, 1988; Grasu C., Catană C,, Boboş I. Petrografia formaţiunilor din flişul intern Turq A. Le Paléolithique inférieur et moyen entre Dordogne et Lot // Paléo. – Les
Eyzies, 2000. – Supplément 2. – P. 106–107. – http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
carpatic. – Bucureşti, 1996; Grasu C., Catană C., Miclăuş C., Boboş I. Molasa Carpaţilor home/prescript/article/pal_1145-3370_2000_ sup_2_1_1266; Mester Z. Rácz B. The
Orientali. Petrografie şi sedimentogeneză. – Bucureşti, 1999; see also: http://www. spread of the Körös Culture and the raw material sources in the northeastern part of
encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages/C/A/CarpathianMountains.htm. the Carpathian Basin: a research project // Neolithization of the Carpathian Basin:
Northernmost distribution of the Starčevo/Körös culture  / ed.  by J.  K.  Kozłowski,
P. Raczky. – Kraków; Budapest, 2010. – P. 30–31.
276 D.BOGHIAN, B. P.NICULICĂ, V. BUDUI THE USAGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 277
Among the natural resources used by the prehistoric Carpathian and the basin of Galitian Bistritsa), Solotwino / Solotvyno (towards the basin of
Peri-Carpathian communities, mention should be made first of all by the the Upper Tissa), Krasna (Krasna Ilski), Kalush and the mining exploitation
salt, which had an important role both for humans10 and for domestic of Okna16, systematically exploited since the modern period.
animals (extending lactation, increasing corporal mass etc.), as well as in Ferrous and non-ferrous metal compounds, in the form of oxides, sul-
practicing other activities: preserving food, tanning skins, dying vegetal phides, carbonates etc. or in native form, were also used during Prehistory
and animal fibers, hardening metals etc. and Protohistory. Nowadays, many of the deposits and outcrops that were
Salt sources are found throughout the whole Carpathian chain and in known before the industrial17, modern and contemporary epochs do not ex-
the Sub-Carpathians, in the shape of underground “bags” with salted wa- ist any more or were considerably diminished.
ter, being also available in the Peri-Carpathian plateaus as well. By regres- Manganese compounds (pyrolusite, hausmanite, jakobsite etc.) were
sive erosion, the sources of waters reach the “stones salt” and this is how discovered between Baia-Borşa and Tulgheş, where there are not less than
were formed the salted springs and lakes which were both systematically 30 deposits of various sizes, such as those of the zones Cârlibaba-Broşteni-
and non systematically used in ancient times. Such springs are known in Borca, Cârlibaba-Dadu, Ciocăneşti, Mestecăniş-Iacobeni, Şaru Dornei-
Suceava County, in the form of salted springs (saltine, solonets/solonts) Dealul Rusului, in Feredeu and Mestecăniş Občina and Bistriţa Moun-
and salted brooks in: Doroteia, Drăgoieşti, Slatina, Slătioara, Solca (Pleşa, tains18. In the northwards continuation of Maramureş Mountains, in the
Plosca, La biserică, Pe imaş, Trestia / Trestioara; Slatina Mare)11, Cacica12 area of Czywczyn Mountain, between the White Ceremush and the Black
(Slatina de la Salină; Slatina de pe Blândeţ, Pârteşti); Voitinel; Vicovul de Ceremush, there are deposits of manganese, more difficult to exploit due to
Jos and Vicovul de Sus (Slatina Vicovului, La Preluce, Al lui Coroamă, Lu- the mountain zone19.
bonca, Slatina de la Runc and Bahna)13. Copper compounds (especially pyrite and chalcopyrite) are found in
In the Ukrainian Carpathians almost 800 salt sources have been ac- various deposits, also in the areas of Feredeu and Mestecăniş Občina and
knowledged, some of those which were used in prehistory being discovered Bistritsa Mountains, at: Izvorul Ursului-Cârlibaba, Fundoaia-Stânişoara,
at Tekuči, Kosiv’sk district, and Loyeva, Nadvirna district14. In fact, in Po- Tătarca-Găina, Valea Stânii, Mănăila, Orata-Deluţ, Fundu Moldovei –
kutsia or Pokucia and the Carpathians of Bukovine (the upper courses Dealul Negru, Praşca-Valea Putnei, Pojorâta-Colbu-Izvorul Giumalăului,
of the Tissa, the Dniester, the Prut and the Ceremush) 40 salt sources Pârâul Colbului, Pârâul Leşu-Pârâul Câinelui-Pârâul Ursului, and associ-
(salted springs and brooks) have been attested, many of them having spe- ated to polymetallic sulphides, such as those of: Zimbroslava-Canal, Flutu-
cific names: “солоний”  (3), “солонець”  (8), “саратина”  (3) “слатина”  (2), rica, Faraoani, Arşiţa-Fântâna Gălbezei-Botoşel, Delniţa, Colacul, Runc,
“квасний” (7), “буркут” (9), “галаш” (2), “ропінний” (2), “банський” (6) etc.15 Mestecăniş, Hajul20.
Many of them were already known at the end of the Middle Ages and Copper deposits are also found in the Podolo-Volhynian Plateau, in
the beginning of modern times, being mentioned by Balthasar Hacquet: the areas between Styr–Horyn, of Zhyrychi and Rafalovka–Berestovets21. In
Koszow / Kosiv, Pistin, Utorop, Jablonow, Nadworna/Nadvirna (towards the Putila district, between the White Ceremush and the Black Ceremush,
there were identified alluvial gold deposits, copper, manganese and poly-
10
Sandu  I., Poruciuc  A., Alexianu  M., Curcă  R.-G., Weller  O. Salt and Human Health: metal compounds22.
Science, Archaeology, Ancient Texts and Traditional Practices of Eastern Romania //
Mankind Quarterly. – 2010. – Vol. 50, No. 3 (Spring). – P. 225–256. 16
Hacquet B. Neueste physikalisch-politische Reisen in den Jahren 1788 und 1789 durch
11
Bucovina în prima descriere fizico-politică. Călătorie prin Carpaţii Dacici (1788– die Dacischen und Sarmatischen oder Nördlichen Karpathen... – P. 180–206, passim:
1789)... – P.  48–51; Şandru  I. Contribuţii geografico-economice asupra exploatării http://www. literature.at/item?objid=1385.
slatinelor din Bucovina de Sud // Studii şi Cercetări Ştiinţifice. – Iaşi, 1952. – T. III. – 17
Bucovina în prima descriere fizico-politică. Călătorie prin Carpaţii Dacici (1788–1789)... –
P.  407–424; Ursulescu  N. Exploatarea sării din saramură în neoliticul timpuriu, în P. 78–83.
lumina descoperirilor de la Solca (jud. Suceava) // Studii şi cercetări de istorie veche 18
Bâgu  G., Mocanu  A. Geologia Moldovei. Stratigrafie şi consideraţii economice. –
şi arheologie. – 1977. – T.  28, Nr  3. – P.  307–317; Ejusdem. L’utilisation des sources Bucureşti, 1984. – P. 161–170.
salées dans le Néolithique de la Moldavie // Actes du Colloque International de Liège, 19
Krajewski  R. Sprawozdanie z poszukiwań rudy manganu na Prełucznym w Górach
13–17 décembre 1993. – Liège, 1995. – P. 489–497. Czywczyńskich  = Compte-rendu des recherches du minérais de manganèse sur le
12
Andronic M. Cacica – un nou punct neolitic de exploatare a sării // Studii şi cercetări de Prełuczny dans les Monts Czywczyn (Karpathes Orientales Polonais)  // Państwowy
istorie veche şi arheologie. – 1989. – T. 40, Nr 2. – P. 171–177; Andronic M., Ursu E. C. Instytut Geologiczny. Biuletyn  2. – Warszawa, 1938, passim; Паламарчук  М.  М. Гео-
Voitinel, com. Gălăneşti, Marginea, com. Marginea, jud. Suceava // Cronica cercetărilor графия Украинской ССР. – Киев, 1988. – С. 9–13.
20
arheologice din România. – Bucureşti, 2003. – P. 314. Bâgu G., Mocanu A. Geologia Moldovei... – P. 131–149.
21  
13
Bucovina în prima descriere fizico-politică. Călătorie prin Carpaţii Dacici (1788–1789)... – Emetz A., Piestrzyński A., Zagnitko V., Pryhodko L., Gaweł A. Geology, mineralogy and
P. 34–35. origin of Zhyrychi native copper deposit (North-Western Ukraine) // Annales Societatis
14
Крушельницька  Л.  І. Нові пам’ятки культури Гава-Голігради  // Пам’ятки галь- Geologorum Poloniae. – 2006. – Vol. 76. – P. 297–314.
22
штатського періоду в межиріччі Вісли, Дністра і Прип’яті. – Київ, 1993. – С. 56–122. Географія Чернівецької області: навчальний посібник / за ред Я. І. Жупанського. –
15
Кугутяк  М., Томенчук  Б. Чорногірське святилище  // Карпати: людина, етнос, Чернівці, 1993. – С.  21–23; Фігура  Л.  А. Літологія і золотоносність четвертинних
алювіальних відкладів басейну річок Чорний і Білий Черемош: автореф.  дис.  ...
цивілізація. – 2010. – № 2. – С. 97–98. канд. геол. наук: 04.00.21. – Київ, 2008.
278 D.BOGHIAN, B. P.NICULICĂ, V. BUDUI THE USAGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 279
Regarding the alluvial gold, “washed” in the Mestecăniş Občina and and Suceava rivers , as well as those from Kosiv (Koszow) in the Ukrai-
27

Feredeu Občina, it was found in the ferroxydic, cupriferous and man- nian Carpathians. Some of these deposits “survived” until today, so that
ganeous alluviums, carried downstream by the Bistritsa Aurie (Golden in certain points of the studied mountain area, one can still find flint,
Bistritsa), down to its middle course, being unsystematically exploited, cherts, jaspers and menilites28.
using incipient techniques, until the 19th century23. The most important good quality flint deposits are though found
Passing to the inventorying of iron and iron compound resources, east of the Carpathians, in the Moldo-Volhyno-Podolian Plateau, espe-
mention should be made that deposits were identified in the eastern side cially along the courses of Prut and Dniester rivers and of the affluent
of the Suhard Mountains, in Mestecăniş Občina and Feredeu Občina branches hereof, dated to the final Cretacic (Cenomanian and Turoni-
(Suhard east, deposits in the area of Iacobeni, Delniţa, Valea Putnei, an, approx. 99,6–89,3 M. y.). These deposits are referred to in different
Pârâul Cailor, Botoşel, Orata, Colacu, Arşiţa, Fluturica etc.) and in the ways in the specialized literature, although they have many common
neighbouring area, in Rodna Mountains24, along the centuries the Gold- elements: the Prut flint, with varied hues, from light gray, with white
en Bistriţa eroding certain deposits that it sectioned, a detailed descrip- pigmentations, to black, with occurrences between Rădăuţi Prut and
tion thereof being provided by Balthasar Hacquet25. Stânca/Costeşti29; the Dniester flint, dirty white, gray and black, with
The sedimentary rocks (Tarcău micaceous sandstone, Fusaru sand- occurrences both on the upper course (Ivano Frankivsk region), and on
stones and glauconitic sandstones, Suceviţa sandstones, Păltinoasa- the middle course (Bila Gora near Studenica, Komariv, Cormani, Ojevo,
Scorbura sandstones; siliceous sandstones, calcareous sandstones,
greywacke, bituminous marls, jaspers and cherts, especially flint), the
metamorphic ones (gneisses, black schist of Audia, clayish schist types/
shale, crystalline schist types, bituminous schist types etc.) and the vol-
canic ones (intrusive – granite, granodiorite; and effusive – andesite, ba-
salt, porphyry etc.) are spread according to the structure of the mountain
massifs, in outcrops or in the gravels of the rivers26 crossing them (Bis-
tritsa/Bistritsa, Moldova, Suceava, Ceremush, Prut, Galitian Bistritsa,
Strij, Dniester, Tissa etc.).
A special place among sedimentary rocks is occupied by the siliceous 27
Bucovina în prima descriere fizico-politică. Călătorie prin Carpaţii Dacici (1788–1789)... –
ones, which are characterized by high hardness and conchoidal quasi- P. 14–15, 36–37, 52–53.
28
Păunescu  A. Paleoliticul şi epipaleoliticul de pe teritoriul Moldovei cuprins între
regular fracture, such as flint, jaspers, the chailles, radiolarites and, to Carpaţi şi Siret... – T. I/1. – P. 48–55, with wide references from the geologic literature;
a lesser extent, by the menilites and cherts, which were used as raw Cârciumaru M., Anghelinu M., Niţu E.-C., Cosac M., Murătoreanu G. Géo-Archéologie
materials for making tools and weapons from the Palaeolithic until Antiq- du Paléolithique Moyen, Paléolithique Supérieur, Epipaléolithique et Mésolithique en
Roumanie. – Târgoviste, 2007. – P. 15–48.
uity. Such north-eastern Carpathian silexites and jaspers, from Občina 29
Păunescu  A. Paleoliticul şi mezoliticul de pe teritoriul Moldovei cuprins între Siret
Mare, were identified by Balthasar Hacquet in the valleys of Moldova şi Prut. – Vol.  I/2. – Bucureşti, 1999. – P.  45–48; Chirica  V., Borziac  I., Chetraru  N.
Gisements du Paléolithique supérieur ancien entre le Dniestr et la Tissa. – Iaşi, 1996. –
23 (Bibliotheca Archaeologica Iassiensis. – T. V); Muraru A. Considérations sur le matériel
Bucovina în prima descriere fizico-politică. Călătorie prin Carpaţii Dacici (1788–1789)... – lithique utilisé par les tribus de Cucuteni // La civilisation de Cucuteni en contexte
P. 86–91. européen / ed. M. Petrescu-Dîmboviţa, N. Ursulescu, D. Monah, V. Chirica. – Iaşi, 1987. –
24
Bâgu  G., Mocanu  A. Geologia Moldovei... – P.  161–170; Păunescu  A. Paleoliticul şi P. 193–200. – (Bibliotheca Archaeologica Iassiensis. – T. I); Idem. Le gisement de
epipaleoliticul de pe teritoriul Moldovei cuprins între Carpaţi şi Siret. – Bucureşti, 1998. – silex de la Vallée du Prut, source de matière première pour l’outillage lithique dans la
T. I/1. – P. 61. préhistoire. Étude monographique préliminaire // Le silex de sa genèse à l’outil: actes
25
Bucovina în prima descriere fizico-politică. Călătorie prin Carpaţii Dacici (1788–1789)... – du V colloque international sur le silex (Vth International Flint Symposium): Bordeaux,
P. 78–83. 17 Sept.–2 Oct. 1987 / ed. M.-R. Séronie-Vivien, M. Lenoir // Cahiers du Quaternaire. –
26
Bâgu G., Mocanu A. Geologia Moldovei... – P. 235–250; Mutihac V. Structura geologică a Bordeaux, 1990. – Nr 17. – P. 149–159; Boghian D. Unele consideraţii asupra utilajului
teritoriului României. – Bucureşti, 1990. – P. 171–195; Grasu C., Catana C., Miclăuş C., litic al comunităţilor Precucuteni-Cucuteni-Tripolie  //  Cucuteni aujourd’ hui  I  /
Boboş I. Molasa Carpaţilor Orientali. Petrografie şi sedimentogeneză. – Bucureşti, 1998; ed.  G.  Dumitroaia, D.  Monah. – Piatra-Neamţ, 1996. – P.  277–342. – (Bibliotheca
Cotoi O., Grasu C. Uneltele din piatră şlefuită din eneoliticul Subcarpaţilor Moldovei. – memoriae antiquitatis. – T. 2); Idem. Di alcune fonti di materia prima per l’utensileria
Iaşi, 2000. – P. 41–52, 80–81; Rădoane M., Rădoane N., Ichim I. Dinamica sedimentelor litica delle comunita del complesso culturale Precucuteni-Cucuteni // Cucuteni: tesori
în lungul râului Suceava // Analele Universitatii “Stefan cel Mare” Suceava. – 2003. – di una civiltà preistorica dei Carpazi: atti del Convegno italo-romeno, Roma, 18 ottobre,
T.  X. – P.  37–48; Boghian  D., Ursulescu  N., Catană  C., Romanescu  G., Ignat  M., 2007 / a cura di N. Ursulescu, R. Kogălniceanu, C. Creţu. – Iaşi: Roma, 2008. – P. 39–70;
Mareş  I., Cotiugă  V., Niculică  B., Ignătescu  S. Unele consideraţii privind identificarea Idem. Din nou despre unele surse de materie primă pentru confecţionarea utilajului
şi repertorierea resurselor utile din zona montană a judeţului Suceava utilizate în litic al comunităţilor complexului cultural Precucuteni-Cucuteni // Suceava. Anuarul
preistorie şi istorie // Codrul Cosminului (seria nouă). – 2002–2003. – T. 8–9 (18–19). – Complexului Muzeal Bucovina. – Suceava, 2007–2008, 2009. – T. 34–35–36. – P. 117–
P. 135–160. 146.
280 D.BOGHIAN, B. P.NICULICĂ, V. BUDUI THE USAGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 281
Polivanov Jar) ; the “Galitian” flint and the Podolian-Volhynian flint,
30 31
sources , and also to the specificity of the mountain habitat (compact or
33

gray – black, “striped”, which is found in the “quarries” of the left side af- less compact communities spread along favourable living places, along
fluent rivers of the Dniester, especially in the areas Zbrucz-Dniester and the water courses).
Styr-Horyn (Bodaki), Dubno, Zhitomir32.
As shown above, many of the natural resources which nowadays are III. The cultural-historical context
industrially exploited were already known in Prehistory as a consequence The Neolithic brings about important economic, social, spiritual and
of natural phenomena of erosion (erosion of mountain waters that were ethno-cultural changes also to the northeastern Carpathian space. In this
crossing various deposits, phenomena of gully erosion and fault creation, regard, the spreading to the north and east of the Starčevo-Crish (Körösh)
the exposures / outcrops etc.), being discovered by the communities of Neolithic communities also took place in the conditions of the research of
those times. new natural resources imperiously necessary to the daily life of the mo-
Some of these resources, such as the rocks, especially the flint and ment (lands to be laboured, meadows, forests, rocks for implements and
the ochre, have been used since the Palaeolithic, in the Neolithic and the weapons, especially flint, salt and pigments for decorating the ceramic
wares and not only)34. These human communities demonstrated the power
Aeneolithic salt, the other mineral oxides of manganese and iron, copper
to adapt, occupying spaces with rather different resources compared to the
and gold being added thereto. The density of the Carpathian and Sub-
initial zones, gradually abandoning the resources in the areas of origin and
Carpathian settlements is tightly connected to the existence of these re- using the resources available in the new spaces where they settled.
30
The Starčevo-Crish (Körösh) communities of the evolved phases (III-IV)
Бибиков С. Н. Раннетрипольское поселение Лука-Врублевецкая на Днестре: К исто-
рии ранних земледельческо-скотоводческих племен на юго-востоке Европы // Ма- were also those that crossed the Southern and Eastern Carpathians, in
териалы и исследования по археологии СССР. – Москва; Ленинград, 1953. – Т. 38. – this latter case reaching even the Dniester. In this regard, the discovery
С. 79–80; Его же. Древние кремневые выработки в среднем Поднестровье // Sborník of certain traces of exploitation of salted water at Solca-Slatina Mare and
Národního muzea v Praze. – 1966. – Č. 20. – S. 3–6; Пассек Т. С. Трипольские поселения
на Днестре  // Краткие сообщения Института истории материальной культуры. – Lunca-Oglinzi-Slatina indicate that these communities exploited certain
1950. – Вып.  32. – С.  40–56; Её  же. Раннеземледельческие (трипольские) племена mountain resources. At the same time, these communities also used other
Поднестровья  // Материалы Института археологии. – Москва; Ленинград, 1961. – resources, especially the lithic ones (jaspers, cherts, sandstones, bitumi-
Вып. 84; Черныш Е. К. Трипольские мастерские по обработке кремня // Краткие
собщения Института археологии. – Москва, 1967. – Вып.  111. – С.  60–67; Збено- nous marls with Carpathian occurrence or from the areas of the courses
вич В. Г. Ранний этап трипольской культуры на территории Украины. – Киев, 1989. – of the Dniester and the Prut35. Even if in the Chernivtsi County only traces
С. 47; Відейко М. Ю. Трипільська цивілізація. – Київ, 2003. – С. 48–51; Його ж. Біла of the habitats of the communities of Bug-Dniester culture have been at-
Гора // Енциклопедія трипільської цивілізації. – Київ, 2004. – Т. 2. – С. 47–48; Пе-
трунь  В.  Ф. Використання мінеральної сировини населенням трипільської культу- tested36, we consider these archaeological materials should be reassessed
ри // Енциклопедія трипільської цивілізації. – Київ, 2004. – Т. 1. – С. 199–218. from the perspective of the new researches.
31
Searching for good flint for the flintlock guns, Balthasar Hacquet specifies the deposits
33
of “Zbrucz, Podhorcze, Hlemboka [Hliboka], Dolina and Dniester”, Marianpol, Nižniow, Калинович Н., Ситник О. Історія заселення Українських Карпат // Праці наукового
Zaleščik and in Pocuţia; see: Hacquet  B. Neueste physikalisch-politische Reisen in товариства ім. Шевченка. – Т. ХII: Екологічний збірник. Екологічні проблеми Кар-
den Jahren 1788 und 1789 Durch die Dacischen und Sarmatischen oder Nördlichen патського регіону. – Львів, 2003. – С.  44–53. – http://ekontsh.civicua.org/praci%20
Karpathen. – Nürnberg, 1791. – P. 38–39, see also pages 40–82, passim. – http://www. NTSH/ekolog%25zbirnyk%253/ekol_zb3.htm; Andronic  M. Istoria Bucovinei. De la
literature.at/item?objid=1385; Idem. Physischen und sechniethen Beschreibung der începuturi până la epoca cuceririi romane a Daciei. – Suceava, 2008.
34
Flintensteine, wie sie in der Erde vorkommen und deren Zurichtung zum oekonomischen Bánffy E. Eastern, Central and Western Hungary – variations of Neolithisation models //
Gebrauche. – Wien, 1792. – P. 2–7. Documenta Praehistorica. – 2006. – Vol.  XXXIII. – P.  125–142; Sümegi  P., Kestérsz  R.,
32
Свешников И. К. Кремневые копи у с. Городок Ровенской области // Краткие собще- Hertelendi E. Enviromental change and human adaptation in the Carpathian basin at the
late glacial/postglacial transition // Proceedings of the 31st International Symposium on
ния Института археологии. – Москва, 1969. – Вып. 117. – С. 136; Свєшніков І. К. Історія Archaeometry / ed. by E. Jerem and K. T. Biró. – Oxford, 2002. – P. 171–177. – (Central
населення Передкарпаття, Поділля і Волині в кінці ІІІ – на початку ІІ тисячоліття до Europe Series. – No. 1); Mester Z., Rácz B., The spread of the Körös culture and the raw
нашої ери. – Київ, 1974. – С. 97; Скакун Н. Н. Вивчення енеолітичного поселення- material sources in the northeastern part of the Carpathian basin: a research project //
майстерні біля с.  Бодаки  // Тези доповідей і повідомлень 1-ої Тернопільської Neolithization of the Carpathian Basin: Northernmost distribution of the Starčevo/Körös
обласної наукової історико-краєзнавчої конференції. – Тернопіль, 1990. – Ч.  1. – culture... – P. 23–36; Luca S. A., Suciu C. I., Dumitrescu-Chioar F. Starčevo-Criş Culture in
С. 43; Skakun N. Le rôle et l’importance du silex dans le Chalcolithique du sud-est de western part of Romania – Transylvania, Banat, Crişana, Maramureş, Oltenia and western
l’Europe (sur la base du matériel provenant des fouilles du campement de Bodaki) // Muntenia: repository, distribution map, state of research and chronology // Neolithization
La Préhistoire au Quotidien: mélanges offerts à Pierre Bonenfant. – Grenoble, 1996. – of the Carpathian Basin: Northernmost distribution of the Starčevo/ Körös culture... –
P. 223–235; Скакун Н. Н. Новые данные о раскопках трипольского поселения Бода- P. 103–118; Biagi P., Starnini E. The Early Neolithic chipped stone assemblages of the
ки // Археологічні дослідження в Україні в 1998–99 рр. – Київ, 1999. – С. 133–135; Carpathian Basin: typology and raw material circulation // Neolithization of the Carpathian
Петрунь  В. Використання мінеральної сировини населенням трипільської культу- Basin: Northernmost distribution of the Starčevo/Körös culture... – P. 119–136.
ри // Енциклопедія трипільської цивілізації. – Київ, 2004. – Т. 1. – С. 199–218; Бурдо 35
Cârciumaru M., Anghelinu M., Niţu E. C., Cosac M., Murătoreanu G. Géo-archéologie
Н.  Б. Кременева індустрія пам’яток трипільської культури на середньому Дністрі du Paléolithique Moyen, Paléolithique supérieur, Epipaléolithique et Mésolithique de la
(за матеріалами колекцій Наукових фондів із розвідок Середньодністровської Roumanie. –Târgovişte, 2007. – P. 13–40.
36
експедиції 1964–1970 рр.) // Археологія. – 2008. – № 4. – С. 3–8. Даниленко  В.  Н. Буго-Днестровская культура  // Археология Украинской ССР. –
Киев, 1985. – Т.  1. – С.  118–125; Маркевич  В.  И. Буго-Днестровская культура на
территории Молдавии. – Кишинев, 1974.
282 D.BOGHIAN, B. P.NICULICĂ, V. BUDUI THE USAGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 283
In the present phase of the researches, it seems that the north-east- The good quality flint (of Volhynia, Dniester and Prut) was well known
ern Carpathian area was neolithized both by the late Crish culture com- by the Neolithic, Aeneolithic and Bronze Age communities. We think we
munities and by those of the linear ceramic culture (”LBK”) ones37, each are not mistaken to consider the movement of certain communities took
of them coming from different directions. The discovery of settlements place also for this resource, which was very important for making certain
belonging to these communities on the upper course of the Dniester, in edged implements. Equally important were the native copper or copper
the Carpathian and Sub-Carpathian areas, demonstrates that among compound deposits, not to speak of the iron and manganese oxides large-
the ways for travelling from the Middle Danube Plain, there were also ly used in painting the ceramic wares. As a matter of fact, the resources
those of the Carpathian passes. In the new territories where they settled, of the northeast Carpathian area were disputed over by the local com-
these Neolithic communities started also exploiting the local resources. munities, the north-Pontic ones, those on the Middle Danube and those
If the crystallized and the late Neolithic is “brought” by the southern of the Peri-Baltic space, competition which was more obvious in the Ae-
and Danubian communities, the civilizations of the eastern Carpathian neolithic, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, in the framework of peaceful
Aeneolithic are formed at least on one local background. The vigorous relationships of exchange over the short and the long distance, and also
Boian-Giuleti communities penetrate both in Transylvania and in the unpeaceful, battleful relationships, that led to conquests, colonization
eastern Carpathian territory, reaching the Dniester, forming, together and interesting processes of cultural mixes (acculturations), but discus-
with the late linear ceramic (”LBK”) tribes, the Precucuteni-Trypillia A sions pertaining to such topics exceed the content of the present study.
culture38. The new synthesis, which continued with the communities These facts are very well observed at the end of the Aeneolithic
Cucuteni-Trypillia (BI, BI–BII, BII, CI–CII/Υ I–ΥII Phases) for more than and beginning of the Bronze Age, posterior to the phase Cucuteni B /
one millennium and a half, exploited, according to the areas, rather in- Trypillia BII, within which the discoveries of the tip Horodiştea-Erbiceni-
tensively the local resources. Gordineşti41 / Trypillia CI-CII/Υ I- ΥII type are included. Although it was
The Carpathian and Sub-Carpathian salt, generally from brine, was for a long while considered as a transition period, we consider this syn-
frequently used by the Neolithic and Aeneolithic communities, especially tagm needs to be reassessed and the post-Cucutenian / Late Trypillian
the Precucuteni-Cucuteni-Trypillia, many specialists speaking of salt cultural manifestations must be fully included in the initial phase of the
cones obtained by evaporation, in special vessels, named briquetages39. Bronze Age, respectively the early period hereof. From our perspective, it
As specified above, salt has become indispensable in human and espe- is also here that need to be placed the discoveries belonging to the Globu-
cially animal alimentation (increasing and definitive installation of lacta- lar Amphora and Yamnaya cultures, and also what we considered to be
tion), within the so-called revolution of the secondary animal products40. the first synthesis at the beginning of the Bronze Age in the north of Mol-
davia: the flat incineration cemetery of Suceava – “The Fortress Park”,
37
Пассек  Т.  С., Черныш  Е.  К. Памятники культуры линейно-ленточной керамики expression of the Suceava cultural group, defined by N. Ursulescu42.
на территории СССР. – Москва, 1963; Hoffmann  E. Die Kultur der Bandkeramik in Regarding the content of the Early Bronze Age and also of the Middle
Sachsen. – Berlin, 1963. – T. 1: Die Keramik, Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften;
Kulczycka-Leciejewiczowa A. Bandkeramik and Strocked Culture // The Neolithic in Bronze Age, in the north-eastern Carpathian space, we have to admit the
Poland / ed. T. Wiślański. – Wrocław; Warszawa; Kraków, 1970. – P. 14–75; Ursulescu N. influences of the Corded Ware culture, of the Globular Amphora culture,
La civilisation de la céramique rubanée dans les régions orientales de la Roumanie // Le
Paléolithique et le Néolithique de la Roumanie en contexte européen / eds. V. Chirica, 41
Andronic M., Batariuc P.-V. Contribuţii la cunoaşterea habitatului uman în zona limitrofă
D. Monah. – Iaşi, 1991. – P. 188–224; Larina O. Culturi din epoca neolitică. – Chişinău, a oraşului Suceava // Suceava. – 1993. – T. XVII–XVIII–XIX. – P. 9–24; Mareş I. Sondajul
1994; Ларина  О. Культура линейно-ленточной керамики Пруто-Днестровского ре- arheologic de la Sfântu Ilie – “Silişte” (1991) // Suceava. – 1993. – T. XVII–XVIII–XIX. –
гиона // Stratum plus. – 1999. – № 2. – С. 10–140; Ленартович О. Культура лінійно- P. 496–502; Boghian D. Evoluţia habitatului uman pre- şi protoistoric în zona oraşului
стрічкової кераміки на території України: Історія дослідження  // Археологічні Suceava // Codrul Cosminului (seria nouă). – 1997–1998. – Nr 3–4 (13–14). – P. 5–12;
дослідження Львівського університету. – 2009. – Вип. 12. – С. 226–261. Ларина  О. Позднетрипольское погребение гординештского типа на Днестре  //
38
Marinescu-Bîlcu S. Cultura Precucuteni pe teritoriul României, Editura Academiei. – Interferenţe cultural-cronologice în spaţiul nord-Pontic. – Chişinău, 2003; Andronic M.,
Bucureşti, 1974. Batariuc  P.-V., Hău  F., Gogu  M., Niculică  B.-P., Mareş  I. Noi cercetări arheologice de
39
Ursulescu N. Exploatarea sării din saramură în neoliticul timpuriu // Studii şi cercetări teren în judeţul Suceava // Suceava. – 2004. – T. XXIX-XXX (I). – P. 117–226; Ignat M.
de istorie veche şi arheologie. – 1977. – T. 28, Nr 3. – P. 307–317; Andronic M., Ursu E. C. Metalurgia în epoca bronzului şi prima epocă a fierului din Podişul Sucevei. – Suceava,
Voitinel, com. Gălăneşti, Marginea, com. Marginea, jud. Suceava... – P. 314. 2000; Andronic M. Istoria Bucovinei... – P. 103–111.
40 42
Sherratt A. Plough and pastoralism: aspects of the secondary products revolution // Ursulescu  N. Apariţia înmormântărilor tumulare şi a incineraţiei la est de Carpaţi  //
Pattern of the Past: Studies in honour of David Clarke / ed. by I. Hodder, G. Isaac Memoria Antiquitatis. – 1994. – T.  XIX. – P.  193–199; Idem. Les commencements
and N. Hammond. – Cambridge, 1981. – P. 261–305; Greenfield H. J., The origins of de l’utilisation du rite de l’inicineration dans le monde proto-thrace du nord de la
milk and wool production in the Old World: A zooarchaeological perspective from the Moldavie // The Thracian World at the Crossroads of Civilisations. – Bucharest, 1997. –
Central Balkans // Current Anthropology. – 1988. – Vol. 29, no 4. – P. 573–593; Idem. A Vol. I. – P. 447–464; Niculică B. P. Observations concernant le début de l’Âge du Bronze
reconsideration of the secondary products revolution: 20 years of research in the central sur le territoire du département de Suceava // Codrul Cosminului. – 2007. – T. 13. –
Balkans // The Zooarchaeology of Milk and Fats: Proceedings of the 9th ICAZ Conference, P. 25–26. For Yamnaya and Globular Amphora discoveries from Bukovina see also:
Durham 2002 / ed. by J. Mulville and A. Outra. – Oxford, 2005. – P. 14–31. Andronic  M. Istoria Bucovinei... – P. 111–120.
284 D.BOGHIAN, B. P.NICULICĂ, V. BUDUI THE USAGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 285
of the Yamnaya culture , and also of the Moldavian facies of the Early
43
mediately following historical period, that is the Middle Bronze Age (e. g.:
Bronze Age, represented in the Suceava zone by the horizon of discover- stone ring in the tumulus no. 2 of the cemetery of Adâncata, Suceava
ies of the type of the settlements of Izvoare III-Târpeşti-Dolheştii Mari- County, belonging to the Komariv culture), circular ditches, rectangular
Bosanci44 or of the above mentioned incineration cemetery of Suceava – ditches, stone constructions of the cist and pseudo-cist type, specific to
“The Fortress Park”, where N. Ursulescu studied synthesis burials, rep- the cord ceramic culture and the spherical amphora culture, all of them
resenting a mixture between the Horodiştea-Erbiceni-Gordineşti cul- representing traditions taken over and perpetuated in the local environ-
tures  / Kasperivitsi, Krutoborodintsi, Kosilovče groups  / the Globular ment of the Middle Bronze Age in the north of Moldavia51. The whole cul-
Amphora culture. All these are the first elements of cultural manifesta- minates with the beginning of usage of the incineration, in tumular and
tion that define the Early Bronze Age in the area of the Suceava Plateau, flat tombs, which became a normal practice of the epoch.
and also of the eastern-Carpathian area45. According to us, it is to this Concerning also the chronological level of the Middle Bronze Age, men-
period that should be dated the megalithic monument of Gura Haitii (the tion should be made of the twelve bronze items, of maximal chronological
commune Şaru Dornei, Suceava County)46, whose character shall have and cultural importance, more precisely the axes with disk (type A2) and
to be rediscussed by the specialists of the period. mushroom-disk (B1), discovered in Cajvana, Suceava County52, which
At the level of the Early Bronze Age, and also of the Middle Bronze have to be considered as imported items / stipendiums from the Oto-
Age, it is worth pointing out a series of discoveries indicating the circula- mani / Wietenberg environments into the autochthonous cultural area of
tion throughout large distances of different types of objects with various the Suceava Plateau, characterized by the Komariv culture.
functionalities, typological variables and social assignments. Thus, men- An indication of the usage of the natural resources in the relatively
tion should be made of: the copper axe of the Baniabic type of Rotunda, nearby areas is represented by the fact that the hammer axes discovered
Suceava County dated to the early Bronze Age and the copper axes of the in the Komariv tombs of Adâncata were made of basaltoid andesite and
Darabani type of Darabani (Ukraine)47 and of Solca (Suceava County)48, basalt, rocks that could have been brought from the group of the vol-
the last two being specific to the Komariv civilization. It is in this category canic mountains of the Eastern Carpathians, even from the Occidental
that are also included a series of boat-shaped hammer – axes, made Carpathians53.
of magmatic rocks (sometimes used not only as weapons / implements The discovery in the 1950s of a fragment of a cup with over-height-
but also as symbols of the social value of an individual or of a group / ened ear, with ansa lunata, dated to the late phase (II) of the Monteoru
collectivity)49, as well as a series of striped flint axes, belonging to the culture, is also interesting, confirming the contact between the commu-
Globular Amphora culture brought from the area of the prehistoric flint nities of the Komariv and Monteoru type over large distances, thus add-
mines of Krzemionki (Poland)50. Other “import” elements attesting the ing to the circle of relationships practiced by the Komariv communities
non-mediated contact between “archaeological civilizations” are: the us- with the intra-mountain populations54.
age of rings and other stone constructions for building tumuli in the im- Regarding the late Bronze Age, the attention needs to be directed to
the communities of the Noua culture, which also developed in the geo-
43
Petrescu-Dîmboviţa M. Date noi asupra înmormântărilor cu ocru în Moldova // Studii graphic space we refer to. A short review of the settlements indicates the
şi Cercetări de Istorie Veche. – 1950. – T. I. – P. 110–125; Comşa E. Date despre uneltele
de piatră şlefuită din epoca neolitică şi din epoca bronzului, de pe teritoriul României // predilection for inhabiting areas with easy access ways, the positioning
Studii şi Cercetări de Istorie Veche. – 1977. – T. 23, Nr 2. – P. 245–262. on the lower and middle terraces; for instance the case study under-
44
45
Niculică B. P. Observations concernant le début de l’Âge du Bronze... – P. 27. taken for Suceava Plateau shows the fact that the Noua settlements are
A recent synthesis on the early period of the Bronze Age east of the Carpathians in: concentrated not only on Siret Valley but also on the central-western
Burtănescu F. Epoca timpurie a bronzului între Carpaţi şi Prut, cu unele contribuţii la
problemele perioadei premergătoare epocii bronzului în Moldova. – Bucureşti, 2002. side hereof (e. g. the Soloneţ hydrographic basin)55, as well as along the
46
Naum T., Cârciumaru M., Niţoi E. Megalitul gravat de la de Gura Haitii (comuna Şaru mountain frame of the eastern Carpathians, in the neighbourhood of salt
Dornei, judeţul Suceava) // Studii şi cercetări de istorie veche şi arheologie. – 1988. – resources: we refer to the series of brine springs that we showed as hav-
T. 39, Nr 2. – P. 143–157.
47
Ignat  M. Contribuţii la cunoaşterea epocii bronzului şi a Hallstatt-ului timpuriu în
ing been used throughout Pre- and Protohistory56.
judeţul Suceava // Thraco-Dacica. – 1981. – T. II. – P. 133; Niculică B. P., Cojocaru I. 51
Quelques considérations sur deux haches en cuivre appartenant à l’Âge du Bronze, Niculică  B.  P. Epoca mijlocie şi târzie a bronzului în Podişul Sucevei. – Iaşi, 2006. –
découvertes dans le nord de la Moldavie // Studia Antiqua et Archaeologica. – 2003. – PhD thesis, mss.
52
Nr. IX. – P. 141–154. Ignat M. Contribuţii la cunoaşterea epocii bronzului... – P. 137–139; Idem. Metalurgia în
48
Andronic M. Istoria Bucovinei... – P. 133–134 and pl. 10/3. epoca bronzului... – P. 31–35.
53
49
Niculică B. P., Budui V., Mareş I. Consideraţii privind unele topoare de piatră, din epoca Niculică B. P. Epoca mijlocie şi târzie a bronzului.... – P. 80–100.
54
bronzului, descoperite în Podişul Sucevei  // Suceava. – 2004. – T.  XXIX–XXX  (I). – Ibidem. – P. 60.
55
P. 267–315. Andronic M. Evoluţia habitatului uman în bazinul hidrografic Soloneţ din paleolitic până
50
Archeological materials in the collections of the Museum of Bukovine, Suceava. la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea. – Iaşi, 2007.
56
Niculică B. P. Epoca mijlocie şi târzie a bronzului... – P. 200–204.
286 D.BOGHIAN, B. P.NICULICĂ, V. BUDUI THE USAGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 287
Equally, the presence of bronze deposits of eastern influence must be resources carried out so far, contains an important quantity of archaeo-
minutely analyzed. This is the case of the jewel deposit of Suceava –“The logical material belonging to the Cucuteni and Gava-Holihrady cultures.
Princely Court”, which contains “cross-shaped” bronze pendants, char- We are of the opinion that it guarded an access way from Transylvania
acteristic to the north-Pontic area; the same deposit also contains amber to Moldavia62, while other fortifications would serve local politico-military
items, suggesting the exchange over long-distances, possible sources for groups, as was the case for those of Siret and Preuteşti (Romania), Voloca
this material being the area of the Black Sea, the area of Buzáuand Pra- and Suceveni (Ukraine) etc.
hova or even the nowadays Ukraine, where several spots of amber occur- The existence of typological relationships between the celts, sickles,
rence had been used in Prehistory57. bracelets dated to the Early Hallstatt to those of Galitia, the south of Po-
Characteristic to the first Iron Age throughout north-eastern Carpath- land, eastern Slovakia, north-western Hungary, that is throughout the
ian space is the Gáva-Holihrady culture58, represented by the Grăniceşti whole area of manifestation of the Gava-Holihrady culture, is obvious. A
cultural group, defined by Professor A. László59, and whose ceramic and concrete example is represented by the recently published63 bronze items
metallurgic products draw the attention of researchers over the years. discovered at Şipeniţ (north of Bukovine), as well as by the bronze sword
M. Ignat also detailed and compared the funeral rite and ritual of the discovered in winter 2010 in the water of Suceava river, at Costâna, near
early and late Hallstatt in the north-eastern Carpathian space, and iden- the city of Suceava, and which belongs to the Vollgriffschwert type64.
tified funeral behaviour patterns specific to the 11th – 5th centuries BC60. Thus, the analysis of the bronze items belonging to the Gáva-Holi-
Obviously, the occurrence of this population (characterized by the hrady culture also indicates the trajectory along which not only the items
grooved ceramic wares) must not be assigned only to a demographic ex- themselves travelled but even the communities of this culture, which ar-
cess specific to their zones of origin or to military conflicts, but also to the rived in the north-eastern Carpathian space after crossing the Carpath-
necessity of identification of certain new exploitable resources: salt, cop- ians, probably in the area of the complex of intra-mountain passes in
per etc. In this regard, the occurrence of fortified polarizing settlements, the northern Carpathians; the study of T. Bader of 2001, systematically
some of which of large dimensions (e.g. Siret-“Ruina Hill”, Suceava analyzing the presence of bronze finds in the mountain passes, is rel-
County, Romania – over 35 ha), some others smaller: Suceveni (Cher- evant for the understanding of the communication ways of those times,
nivtsi County, Ukraine), Vârvata (Suceava County), Preuteşti (Suceava that linked the flanks of the Carpathians65.
County, Romania)61 needs to be studied hereinafter. One needs also to From the perspective of the analysis of the bronze deposits, for in-
explain the necessity of controlling further or closer territorial resources: stance, one can assert that the post-Noua finds, that belong to the Gáva-
for instance, the brine springs in the series Voitinel-Cacica-Solca-Dor- Holihrady culture, respectively the Grăniceşti cultural group, are more
oteia, which were exploited during Pre- and Protohistory. The presence numerous and compositionally and quantitatively diversified66. In direct
of the fortified settlement of Vârvata, as resulting from the superficial connection to the first occurrences of the bronze deposits of the eastern-
57 Carpathian space, M. Ignat showed that in spite of certain close analo-
Chiţescu  L. Depozitul de obiecte de podoabă, din epoca bronzului, de la Suceava //
Studii şi cercetări de istorie veche şi arheologie. – 1976. – T.  27, Nr  1. – P.  103–108; gies with the bronze finds specific to the Noua environment in Transyl-
Ignat  M. Metalurgia în epoca bronzului... – P.  47–52; Мацуй  В.  М., Беліченко  О.  П., vania, certain bronze deposits in the north-eastern Carpathian space
Єфименко В.  Ю. Історичне минуле бурштину Украіни (від пізнього палеоліту до must be connected to the incipient Gáva environment. We refer to the
середньовіччя) // “Український бурштиновий світ” (Бурштиновий шлях – історія та
сучасність): збірник тез матеріалів ІІІ Міжнародної науково-практичної конференції. – deposit discovered at Prelipca, on the right bank of the Dniester (north
58
Рівне, 2011. of Bukovine)67.
Mozsolics A. Archäologische Beiträge zur Geschichte der grossen Wanderung // Acta Regarding the composition of the bronze deposits in the north-east-
Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. – 1957. – Vol. 8. – P. 119–121;
Smirnova  G.  I. Complexele de tip Gáva-Holihrady – o comunitate cultural-istorică  // ern Carpathian space, one can notice a strong “occidental” influence:
59
Studii şi cercetări de istorie veche şi arheologie. – 1974. – T. 25, Nr 3. – P. 359–380. series of items that were produced in the north-eastern area of Hungary,
László A. Un grup hallstattian timpuriu în Podişul Moldovei // Cercetări Istorice (seria the southeast of Slovakia, the southeast of Poland, and the northwest of
nouă). – 1983–1984. – T. XIV–XV. – P. 65–84; Idem. Începuturile epocii fierului la est
de Carpaţi. Culturile Gáva-Holihrady şi Corlăteni-Chişinău pe teritoriul Moldovei. – 62
Bucureşti, 1994. – P. 48–104. Ibidem. – С. 389–390.
63
60
Idem. Necropola hallstattiană de la Volovăţ-“Dealul Burlei” // Suceava. – 1978. – T. V; Niculică  B.  P. Două obiecte de bronz descoperite la sfârşitul secolului al XIX-lea la
Ignat M. Necropolele tumulare din zona Rădăuţi în cadrul lumii traco-getice (sec. VII–V Şipeniţ (nordul Bucovinei) // Studii şi cercetări de istorie veche şi arheologie. – 2011. –
a. Ch.). – Târgovişte, 2006. T. 62, Nr 1–2. – P. 107–128.
64
61
Niculică  B.  P. Aşezarea de tip Gava-Holihrady (grupul Grăniceşti), de la Vârvata – Unpublished item, collections of the Museum of Bukovine, Suceava.
65
“Cetăţuie”, judeţul Suceava // Наука і освіта: крок у майбутнє. Матеріали Bader T. Passfunde aus der Bronzezeit in den Karpaten... – P. 15–39.
66
VI  Міжнародної наукової конференції “Кайндлівські читання”, присвяченої Ignat  M. Metalurgia în epoca bronzului... – P.  57–65; Niculică  B.  P. Două obiecte de
145-річчю від дня народження Р. Ф. Кайндля. Чернівці, 29 квітня 2011 р. – Чернівці; bronz... – P. 118.
67
Вижниця, 2011. – С. 388–398. Ignat M. Metalurgia în epoca bronzului... – P. 98.
288 D.BOGHIAN, B. P.NICULICĂ, V. BUDUI THE USAGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 289
Ukraine, occur in the north-eastern Carpathian space, in Bukovine, gen- ly identifiable, due to the current unsatisfactory level of the researches,
erally complying with the characteristics and the specificity of the bronze there are still enough elements to suggest such internal compartmenting
deposits in the above mentioned areas. In this regard, we can invoke of the culture, respectively of the above cultural group, at least at the
the bronze artifacts of Şipeniţ68, the bronze deposit of Prisăcăreni (which level of the zone.
contained a bronze cauldron, an ash urn and 12 celts laid around it)69, as
IV. Conclusions
well as the stone mould for casting small celts, decorated with horizontal
In conclusion, we stress the fact that the model of analysis of prehis-
nervures and lateral facettes (“pseudo-wings”), found in the area of the
tory and history of the north-eastern Carpathian space cannot be but in-
well known fortified settlement of the Gáva type of Siret-“Ruina Hill”,
terdisciplinary or even transdisciplinary. The identification and elabora-
Suceava County70. Naturally, the theory of the “extra-Carpathian” pro-
tion of a repertory of the natural resources used in old times, correlated
duction of the bronze items found in the northeastern Carpathian space
with the archaeological, ethnographic data, with the written information,
must be accepted and understood as possible, from the point of view of
happily complete the multicultural, heterogeneous picture of the consid-
the local resources.
ered geographic zone.
When it is proved that tin is also found in the Eastern Carpathians,
Inter-human contacts permanently took place between neighbour-
we shall have another strong argument for accepting the existence of
ing geographic-historical areas: north-south and east-west, whatever the
a local bronze metallurgy71, without being necessary to bring this alloy
direction, with contributions sometimes considerable from the Transyl-
element from a long distance. Even if resources were more limited and
vanian intra-mountain space and the western intra-Carpathian basin, as
the direct proofs of bronze processing are still few, we can assert there
well as the north-Pontic and Balkanic ones.
were certain local workshops, within the perimeter of important politico-
Local communities, whichever they were, adapted and shaped their
military centers. A good example can be the settlement of Siret- “Ruina
requirements of developing and becoming, both according to the exist-
Hill”, where, during the excavation, there were identified casting drops,
ing natural resources and own traditions, and according to the mod-
several celts, bracelets and the above mentioned mould. In fact, M. Ignat
els offered or brought by various allogenous populations and cultures,
has recently assumed the existence of such a workshop for the produc-
tion/processing of bronze items in the zone of Siret72.
The absence of numerous solid proofs regarding the bronze metal-
lurgy – we refer here to direct proofs of practicing this craft, as could be
indicated by ingots, cakes, casting drops and stone moulds / casting
patterns – must not induce the idea of a lack of a consistent metallurgic
activity in the area considered in the present paper. On the contrary, this
fact represents only a research gap, as, for instance, in the settlement
of the Gáva-Holihrady type of Grăniceşti (Suceava County)73 there were
discovered ingots for casting the melted metal.
The analysis of the bronze deposits which in phase Hallstatt A con-
tain items of large sizes compared to those of the phases Hallstatt B-C,
characterized by smaller items and the occurrence of the first deposits in
bronze cauldrons, indicates the complex internal evolution of the Gáva-
Holihrady culture, respectively of the Grăniceşti cultural group, in the
analyzed area. Although in the ceramic repertory modifications are hard-
68
Niculică B. P. Două obiecte de bronz... – P. 107–128.
69
Idem. Un depozit de bronzuri uitat: descoperirea de la Prisăcăreni (nordul Bucovinei). –
Mss. 2012.
70
Ibidem.
71
Каврук  В. Олово и соль в Карпатском Бассейне в бронзовом веке  // Revista
Arheologică. – Chişinău, 2011. – Vol. VII, Nr 1–2. – P. 5–46.
72
Ignat M. Metalurgia în epoca bronzului... – P. 21.
73
László A. Începuturile epocii fierului... – P. 143, fig. 13/1; Ignat M. Metalurgia în epoca
bronzului... – P. 19–23. Fig. 1. North-Eastern Carpathian Area.
290 D.BOGHIAN, B. P.NICULICĂ, V. BUDUI THE USAGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 291
resulting from exchanges over large distances, conquests, colonization,
ethno-cultural mélanges and cultural transformations, leading to origi-
nal syntheses, within complex and interesting phenomena of manifesta-
tion of individualities within multiculturalism.
Obviously, current researches reveal only to a little extent the com-
plexity of the ethno-cultural processes of other times. The permanent
and perseverant collaboration between specialists of all current zones, of
different scientific fields, based on a solid mutual understanding and the
culture of dialogue, shall undoubtedly lead to considerably completing
our present knowledge.

Fig. 2. Carpathian passes – crossroads, bridges, and open doors between worlds
(after T. Bader)

Fig. 3. Salt and metallic deposits in North-Eastern Carpathian Area.

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