Speed control of ac motor using smart phone

Abstract
The regular ac motor is normally controlled by regulator or variac. To control that ac motor we
have to physical go near to the regulator and the control that ac motor. To avoid this physical
work we have an idea to automation this task so no need no to physical go near to that regulator.
In our Project we can control speed of ac motor by using an android application in our mobile.
When we use the desired android application on this time our mobile transmit data by using
Bluetooth in RF signal. We decode that data by using 8051 microcontroller and desired program
for that microcontroller. Then we connect 5 relay for 5 different speed of our microcontroller.
Relays are connected to regulators.

Block Diagram
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
What is embedded system?
An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps
additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. An embedded
system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system,
autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in
diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.
An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not a
software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end
embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally 32, 64 Bit
Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc .Lower
end embedded systems - Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal operating systems
and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose.

SYSTEM DESIGN CALLS:

Figure.2(a): Embedded system design calls

EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN CYCLE

Figure:2(b) “V Diagram”

Characteristics of Embedded System

• An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a
computer.
• They will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software in
addition to those we encounter when we write applications
– Throughput – Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of
time.
– Response–Our system may need to react to events quickly
– Testability–Setting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult
– Debugability–Without a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is
doing wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem
– Reliability – embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without
human intervention
– Memory space – Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must make
the software and the data fit into whatever memory exists
 – Program installation – you will need special tools to get your software into
embedded systems
– Power consumption – Portable systems must run on battery power, and the
software in these systems must conserve power
– Processor hogs – computing that requires large amounts of CPU time can
complicate the response problem
– Cost – Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded system
projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate for the job.

• Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some have a

serial port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards, screens or disk
drives.

APPLICATIONS
1) Military and aerospace embedded software applications
2) C om m u ni c at i o n Ap p l i c at i on s
3) In d us t ri al aut om at i o n and p ro c es s co nt r ol s o ft w a r e
4) Mastering the complexity of applications.
5) Reduction of product design time.
6) Real time processing of ever increasing amounts of data.
7) Intelligent, autonomous sensors.

CLASSIFICATION
 Real Time Systems.
 RTS is one which has to respond to events within a specified deadline.
 A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer.

RTS CLASSIFICATION
 Hard Real Time Systems
 Soft Real Time System
HARD REAL TIME SYSTEM
 "Hard" real-time systems have very narrow response time.
 Example: Nuclear power system, Cardiac pacemaker.

SOFT REAL TIME SYSTEM

 "Soft" real-time systems have reduced constrains on "lateness" but still must operate very
quickly and repeatable.
 Example: Railway reservation system – takes a few extra seconds the data remains valid.

ARDUINO

Arduino interface boards provide the engineers, artists, designers, hobbyists and anyone
who tinker with technology with a low-cost, easy-to-use technology to create their creative,
interactive objects, useful projects etc., A whole new breed of projects can now be built that can
be controlled from a computer.

1.1 WHAT IS ARDUINO?

Figure 1.1 ARDUINO UNO

Arduino is a open source electronics prototyping platform based on flexible, easy-to-use

hardware and software. It’s intended for artists, designers, hobbyists, and anyone interested in
creating interactive objects or environments. It’s an open-source physical computing platform
based on a microcontroller board, and a development environment for writing software for the
board.

In simple words, Arduino is a small microcontroller board with a USB plug to connect to
your computer and a number of connection sockets that can be wired up to external electronics,
such as motors, relays, light sensors, laser diodes, loudspeakers, microphones, etc., They can
either be powered through the USB connection from the computer or from a 9V battery. They can
be controlled from the computer or programmed by the computer and then disconnected and
allowed to work independently.

Anyone can buy this device through online auction site or search engine.Since the Arduino
is an open-source hardware designs and ccreate their own clones of the Arduino and sell them,so
the market for the boards is competitive.An official Arduino costs about $30,and a clone often
less than $20.

The name “Arduino” is reserved by the original makers. However, clone Arduino designs often
have the letters “duino” on the end of their name, for example, Freeduino or DFRduino. The
software for programming your Arduino is easy to use and also freely available for Windows,
Mac, and LINUX computers at no cost.

1.1.1 Microcontroller
Microcontroller can be described as a computer embedded on a rather small circuit
board.To describe the function of a microcontroller more precisely,it is a single chip that can
perform various calculations and tasks,and send/receive signals from other devices via the
available pins. Precisely what tasks and
communication with the world it does, is what is governed by what instructions we give to
the Microcontroller. It is this job of telling the chip what to do, is what we refer to as
programming on it.
However, the uC by itself, cannot accomplish much; it needs several external inputs:
power, for one; a steady clock signal, for another. Also, the job of programming it has to be
accomplished by an external circuit. So typically, a uC is used along with a circuit which
provides these things to it; this combination is called a microcontroller board. The Arduino Uno
that you have recieved, is one such microcontroller board. The actual microcontroller at its heart
is the chip called Atmega328. The advantages that Arduino offers over other microcontroller
boards are largely in terms of reliability of the circuit hardware as well as the ease of
programming and using it.

1.1.2 Open-source hardware

Open-source hardware shares much of the principles and approach of free and open-
source software.The founders of Arduino wanted people to study their hardware,to understand
how it works,make changes to it,and share those changes with the world.To facilitate this,they
release all of the original design files(Eagle CAD)for the Arduino hardware.These files are
licensed under a Creative Common Attribution Share-Alike license,which allows for both
personal and commercial derivative works,as long as they(people) credit Arduino and release
their designs under the same license.
The Arduino software is also oen-source.The source code for the Java environment is
released under the GPL and the C/C++ microcontroller libraries are under the LGPL

1.2 HISTORY OF ARDUINO

While teaching a physical computing class at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea in 2005,
Massimo Banzi’s students were unwilling to spend the 76 euros for the BASIC Stamp
microcontrollers commonly used in such applications. Banzi and his collegues looked for
alternatives, finally settling on the wiring platform developed by one of Banzi’s students. In his
own words:
“…we started to figure out how could we make the whole platform even simpler, even cheaper,
even easier to
use. And then we started to essentially reimplement the whole thing as an open source project.”
Once they had a prototype, a student wrote the software that would allow wiring programs to run
on the new platform. Upon seeing the project, visiting professor Casey Reas suggested that there
might be wider applications than just design schools for the new product. The prototype was
redesigned for mass production and a test run of 200 boards was made. Orders began coming in
from other design schools and the students looking for Arduinos, and the Arduino project was
born and Massimo Banzi and David Cuartielles became its founders.”ARDUINO” is an Italian
word,meaning “STRONG FRIEND”.The English version of the name is “Hardwin”. As of May
2011,more than 300,000 Arduino units are “in the wild”.
1.2.1 Design Goals
 Work with a Mac (as most design students use one)
 USB connectivity (MacBooks don’t have serial ports
 Look nice
 Cheap (about 20 euros, the cost of going out for pizza in Europe)
 More powerful than a BASIC stamp
 Something you could build/fix yourself
Simple and easy to use by someone without formal electronics training
1.2.2 Business Models
Since the entire project is open source, anyone can build and sell Arduino-compatible
devices. So in this sense, the Arduino project relies heavily on its branding for it’s financial
success . Other projects manufacture compatible and cheaper boards, however people are loyal to
the Arduino branded boards because they associate quality and a certain image to the
final product .
1.2.2.1 By the Numbers
Year Units Sold
2005 200
2006 10 000
2010 120 000
2011 300 000
1.2.3 Competitors
Before Arduino, the largest players in the design/hobbyist market segment were the PIC
microcontroller family (made by Microchip) and the BASIC Stamp (made by Parallax). Since
the introduction of the Arduino, other large companies have tried to enter the hobbyist market,
including Texas Instruments , and even Microsoft . However, the open-sourced tools
of the Arduino and the size of its community are large barriers for new platforms to overcome.

1.2.4 Community
Figure 2 GOOGLE trends comparing ARDUINO with its biggest competitors
As the project is aimed at
students and hobbyists who may not have any formal electronics background, there are many
excellent guides online covering everything from making a light blink to creating a laser harp.
The official forum has almost 60 000 registered users, and along with helping users with their
projects, is extremely active in developing new libraries to extend the functionality of the
Arduino . The open-source share and share alike sentiment is very strong, and the vast majority
of users freely publish the code to their projects.

1.3 PHYSICAL COMPUTING

Physical Computing is an approach to learn how humans communicate through computers
that starts by considering how humans express themselves physically.

Chapter 2
 PLATFORM

2.1 HARDWARE

2.1.1 ARDUINO Board Layout

Figure 3 ARDUINO board layout

2.1.2 ARDUINO pin diagram

Figure 4 ARDUINO pin diagram

2.1.2.1 ATmega8(Microcontroller)
  16 MHz
 8 Kbyte Flash RAM(1K taken by the boot loader)
 1 Kbyte RAM(eg.for auto/local variables and stack)
 14 digital Input/Output Ports

Figure 5 ATmega8

2.1.2.2 Single chip USB to async. Serial data transfer interface

 USB 2.0 compatible

 Transmit and receive LED frive signals
 256 Byte receive,128 Byte transmit buffer
 Data transfer rate from 300bits/sec to 2 Mb/sec

Fig2.1 Android Software Architecture

2.1.3 EXTERNAL power

Figure 6 AC adapter can be used

Figure 7 ARDUINO can run off with USB or EXTERNAL power source
The power requirement for ARDUINO is 9 to 12V DC,250mA or more,2.1mm plug,centre pin
positive. Figure 8 An easier way to connect a battery
The OFF-the shelf adapter
 must be a DC adapter (i.e. it has to put out DC, not AC)
 should be between 9V and 12V DC
 must be rated for a minimum of 250mA current output, although you will likely want
something more like 500mA or 1A output, as it gives you the current necessary to power
a servo or twenty LEDs if you want to.
 must have a 2.1mm power plug on the Arduino end, and
 the plug must be "centre positive", that is, the middle pin of the plug has to be the +
connection.
Current rating: Since you'll probably be connecting other
things to the Arduino (LEDs, LCDs, servos) you
should get an adapter that can supply at least 500mA,
or even 1000 mA (1 ampère). That way you can be
sure you have enough juice to make each component
of the circuit function reliably.

The Arduino's on-board regulator can actually handle

up to 20V or more, so you can actually use an adapter
that puts out 20V DC. The reasons you don't want to
do that are twofold: you'll lose most of that voltage in
heat, which is terribly inefficient. Secondly, the nice 9V pin on the Arduino board will actually
be putting out 20V or so, which could lead to potential disaster when you connect something
expensive to what you thought was the 9V pin. Our advice is to stick with the 9V or 12V DC
adapter.

2.1.4 ARDUINO flavors!!

There have been many revisions of the USB Arduino.some of them are
1. Arduino UNO:
This is the latest revision of the basic Arduino USB
board. It connects to the computer with a standard USB
cable and contains everything else you need to program
and use the board. It can be extended with a variety of
shields: custom daughter-boards with specific features.
It is similar to the Duemilanove, but has a different
USB-to-serial chip the ATMega8U2, and newly
designed labeling to make inputs and outputs easier to
identify.
2. Arduino Mega 2560:
A larger, more powerful Arduino board. Has extra digital pins, PWM pins, analog inputs,
serial ports, etc. The version of the Mega
released with the Uno, this version features the
Atmega2560, which has twice the memory, and
uses the ATMega 8U2 for USB-to-serial
communication.
3. Arduino Duemilanove:
The Duemilanove automatically selects the appropriate power supply (USB or
external power), eliminating the need for the power selection jumper found on
previous boards. It also adds an easiest to cut trace for disabling the auto-reset, along
with a solder jumper for re-enabling it.
Note: around March 1st, 2009, the Duemilanove started to ship with
the ATmega328p instead of
theATmega168.

4. Arduino Fio:
An Arduino intended for use as a wireless
node. Has a header for an XBee radio, a
connector for a LiPobattery, and a battery
chargingcircuit.
 5. LilyPad Arduino:

A stripped-down, circular Arduino board

designed for stitching into clothing and other
fabric/flexible applications. Needs an
additional adapter to communicate with a
computer.

6. Arduino Diecimila:

The main change in the Arduino Diecimila is that it can be reset from the computer, without
the need to physically press the reset button on the board. The Diecimila uses a low dropout
voltage regulator which lowers the board's power
consumption when powered by an external
supply (AC/DC adapter or battery). A resettable
polyfuse protects your computer's USB ports
from shorts and surges. It also provides pin
headers for the reset line and for 3.3V. There is a
built-in LED on pin 13. Some blue Diecimila
boards say "Prototype - Limited Edition" but are
in fact fully-tested production boards (the actual
prototypes are red).
 7. Lilypad Arduino 03

This revision has a 6-pin programming header that's

compatible with FTDI USB cables and the Sparkfun
FTDI Basic Breakout. It adds support for automatic
reset, allowing sketches to be uploaded without
pressing the reset button on the board. The header is
surface mounted, meaning that the board has no
pokey bits sticking out the back.

8. Arduino NG Rev.C

Revision C of the Arduino NG does not have a

built-in LED on pin 13 - instead you'll see two
small unused solder pads near the labels
"GND" and "13". There is, however, about
1000 ohms of resistance on pin 13, so you can
connect an LED without external resistor.

9. Arduino Extreme

The Arduino Extreme uses many more surface

mount components than previous USB Arduino
boards and comes with female pin headers. It also has RX and TX LEDs that indicate when
data is being sent to or from the board.
 10. Arduino Mini 04

On this version of the Arduino Mini, two of the pins changed. The third pin became reset
(instead of ground) and fourth pin became ground (instead of being unconnected). These
boards are
labelled
"Mini
04".

Still there
are
,Arduino
Serial,Ard
uino
Serial
v2.0,Ardu
ino Nano 3.0,Arduino Nano 2.x,Serverino(S3V3),Arduino Stamp 02,Mini USB adapter
03,Mini USB Adapter,Arduino Bluetooth.

Figure 9 Different Flavours Of ARDUINO with their Configuration

2.1.5 Basic Terminologies in ARDUINO:
1.Analog to digital converter(ADC)
The process of Analog to digital conversion is shown in figure.
The Arduino has 10 bits of Resolution when reading analog signals.
2 power 10=1024 increments
Influence also by how fast you sample

2.Pulse width modulation (PWM)

The Arduino has 8bit of resolution,when outputting a signal using PWM.The range of output
voltage is from 0 to 5 Volts
2power 8=255 Increments
Average of on/off(digital signals to make an average voltage),Duty cycle in 100% of 5Volts.
2.3 LANGUAGE REFERENCES:
The Microcontroller on the board is programmed using the Arduino programming
language(based on wiring) and the arduino development environment(based on processing).
2.3.1 Arduino Programming Language(APL)(based on wiring)
The Arduino programming language is an implementation of Wiring, a similar physical
computing platform, which is based on the Processing multimedia programming environment.
2.3.1.1 Wiring
Wiring is an open-source programming framework for microcontrollers. Wiring allows
writing cross-platform software to control devices attached to a wide range of microcontroller
boards to create all kinds of creative coding, interactive objects, spaces or physical experiences.
The framework is thoughtfully created with designers and artists in mind to encourage a
community where beginners through experts from around the world share ideas, knowledge and
their collective experience. There are thousands of students, artists, designers, researchers, and
hobbyists who use Wiring for learning, prototyping, and finished professional work production.
2.3.2 Arduino development environment(based on processing)
2.3.2.1 Processing
 Processing is an open source programming language and environment for people who
want to create images, animations, and interactions. Initially developed to serve as a software
sketchbook and to teach fundamentals of computer programming within a visual context,
Processing also has evolved into a tool for generating finished professional work. Today, there
are tens of thousands of students, artists, designers, researchers, and hobbyists who use
Processing for learning, prototyping, and production.

2.3.3 Software
The software used by the arduino is Arduino IDE.

he Arduino IDE is a cross-platform application written in Java, and is derived from the IDE for
the Processing programming language and the Wiringproject. It is designed to introduce
programming to artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with software development. It includes a
code editor with features such as syntax highlighting, brace matching, and automatic indentation,
and is also capable of compiling and uploading programs to the board with a single click. There
is typically no need to edit makefiles or run programs on acommand-line interface. Although
building on command-line is possible if required with some third-party tools such as Ino.

The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called "Wiring" (from the project of the same
name), which makes many common input/output operations much easier. Arduino programs are
written in C/C++, although users only need define two functions to make a runnable program:

 setup() – a function run once at the start of a program that can initialize settings
 loop() – a function called repeatedly until the board powers off
Figure 10 A screenshot of the Arduino IDE showing the "Blink"program,a simple biginner program

cXApplications
Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that
it is a rare electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.
Bluetooth HC – 05: For wireless communication, we used Bluetooth Technology
and the module used for this is HC – 05. This module can be interfaced using UART
protocol with a wide range of programmable baud rates but the default baud rate is
9600 bps. HC – 05 Bluetooth Module can be configured as either master or slave,
whereas another module HC – 06 can work only in slave mode.
The following image shows the HC – 05 Bluetooth Module used in this project. In this
module, there are pins for VCC (5V), GND, TX and RX.

BT Voice Control for Arduino: This app is developed by SimpleLabsIN for voice
based Arduino projects. This Android App will use the phone’s voice recognition feature
and will convert the voice commands to text and transfer the string via Bluetooth.

The app can be downloaded from here BT Voice Control for Arduino

If you are familiar with any other similar app, you can always use that.
Relay Board (4 Channel): –A Relay is used to connect a small current transistor
circuit with a large current AC circuit. In this project, we have used a pre-built relay
board with 4 – channels.

NOTE: Be cautious when using Relay board with AC Mains Supply.

4.11 LED
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) have recently become available that are white and bright,
so bright that they seriously compete with incandescent lamps in lighting applications. They are
still pretty expensive as compared to a GOW lamp but draw much less current and project a
fairly well focused beam.
 The diode in the photo came with a neat little reflector that tends to sharpen the beam a
little but doesn't seem to add much to the overall intensity.
When run within their ratings, they are more reliable than lamps as well. Red LEDs are
now being used in automotive and truck tail lights and in red traffic signal lights. You will be
able to detect them because they look like an array of point sources and they go on and off
instantly as compared to conventional incandescent lamps.

LEDs are monochromatic (one color) devices. The color is determined by the band gap of
the semiconductor used to make them. Red, green, yellow and blue LEDs are fairly common.
White light contains all colors and cannot be directly created by a single LED. The most
common form of "white" LED really isn't white. It is a Gallium Nitride blue LED coated with a
phosphor that, when excited by the blue LED light, emits a broad range spectrum that in addition
to the blue emission, makes a fairly white light.
There is a claim that these white LED's have a limited life. After 1000 hours or so of
operation, they tend to yellow and dim to some extent. Running the LEDs at more than their
rated current will certainly accelerate this process.
There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LED’S. One is
to use individual LED’S that emit three primary colours—red, green, and blue—and then mix all
the colours to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert
monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same
way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due to metamerism, it is possible to have quite different
spectra that appear white.
LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out
of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that
are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.
When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light
bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons
directly and not via heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Fig 3.1(a): circuit symbol

Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or
electronic equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional
lighting technologies. Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.

Types of LED’S
LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the most
common, estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the
actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared
LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages,
such as those found on blinkers and on cell phone keypads. The main types of LEDs are miniature,
high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.
Fig 3.1(b) Different types of LED’S

4.12 PUSH BUTTONS

Fig.4.8 (a): Push Buttons

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism

for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard
material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the
human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased
switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to
return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing" of the
button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch.

Uses:
In industrial and commercial applications push buttons can be linked together by a
mechanical linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released.
In this way, a stop button can "force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used
in simple manual operations in which the machine or process have no electrical circuits for
control.
Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the
operator will not push the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the
machine or process and green for starting the machine or process.
 Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (mushroom shaped) for easy operation and to
facilitate the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop buttons and
are mandated by the electrical code in many jurisdictions for increased safety. This large
mushroom shape can also be found in buttons for use with operators who need to wear gloves for
their work and could not actuate a regular flush-mounted push button. As an aid for operators
and users in industrial or commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly added to draw the
attention of the user and to provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is
included into the center of the pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk.
The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on the
back of the pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way a start button when
pushed will cause the process or machine operation to be started and a secondary contact
designed into the operation or process will close to turn on the pilot light and signify the action
of pushing the button caused the resultant process or action to start.
In popular culture, the phrase "the button" refers to a (usually fictional) button that a
military or government leader could press to launch nuclear weapons.

Push to ON button:

Fig. 4.8(b): push on button

Initially the two contacts of the button are open. When the button is pressed they become
connected. This makes the switching operation using the push button.

4.13 BC547

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:
 The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a
general-purpose transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and
amplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.

BC 547 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

An NPN Transistor Configuration

We know that the transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and that a large current
(Ic) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals. However,
this only happens when a small biasing current (Ib) is flowing into the base terminal of the
transistor thus allowing the base to act as a sort of current control input. The ratio of these two
currents (Ic/Ib) is called the DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or
nowadays Beta, (β). Beta has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the current gain from the emitter to
the collector terminal, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, (α), and is a function of the transistor itself. As the
emitter current Ie is the product of a very small base current to a very large collector current the
value of this parameter α is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this
value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999.

4.14 RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by
producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance
with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-
known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum
permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends
upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by
design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated
circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors
must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the
constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger
value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors
are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may
require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law;
this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A
family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of
the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing
of circuits using them.
Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ =
103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens
(SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

VARIABLE RESISTORS
Adjustable resistors
A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be
changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wire wound power
resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or
smaller part of the resistance to be used.
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is
required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a
device is called a rheostat and has two terminals.

Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a manually adjustable resistor. The way this device works is relatively simple.
One terminal of the potentiometer is connected to a power source. Another is hooked up to ground (a
point with no voltage or resistance and which serves as a neutral reference point), while the third
terminal runs across a strip of resistive material. This resistive strip generally has a low resistance at
one end; its resistance gradually increases to a maximum resistance at the other end. The third terminal
serves as the connection between the power source and ground, and is usually interfaced to the user by
means of a knob or lever. The user can adjust the position of the third terminal along the resistive strip
in order to manually increase or decrease resistance. By controlling resistance, a potentiometer can
determine how much current flow through a circuit. When used to regulate current, the potentiometer
is limited by the maximum resistivity of the strip.

The power of this simple device is not to be underestimated. In most analog devices, a
potentiometer is what establishes the levels of output. In a loud speaker, for example, a potentiometer
directly adjusts volume; in a television monitor, it controls brightness.

A potentiometer can also be used to control the potential difference, or voltage, across a circuit.
The setup involved in utilizing a potentiometer for this purpose is a little bit more complicated. It
involves two circuits: the first circuit consists of a cell and a resistor. At one end, the cell is connected
in series to the second circuit, and at the other end it is connected to a potentiometer in parallel with
the second circuit. The potentiometer in this arrangement drops the voltage by an amount equal to the
ratio between the resistance allowed by the position of the third terminal and the highest possible
resistivity of the strip. In other words, if the knob controlling the resistance is positioned at the exact
halfway point on the resistive strip, then the output voltage will drop by exactly fifty percent, no
matter how high the potentiometer's input voltage. Unlike with current regulation, voltage regulation is
not limited by the maximum resistivity of the strip

4.15 CAPACITORS
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly
separated conductors.
 An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and
quality factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic
circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-
conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other
purposes.
 A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Theory of operation
Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric

(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region The non-

conductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms,
the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper,
vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no
influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges
on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of
one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt
across the device. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric
circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the
ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in
a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric
field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium
position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored,
is given by:[11]

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow
of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the
dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one
that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge
on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus
the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the
voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to
represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,
 .
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the
electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

DC circuits

A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of
voltage V0 is known as a charging circuit. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch
is open, and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation,

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The
initial current is then i (0) =V0 /R. With this assumption, the differential equation yields

where τ0 = RC is the time constant of the system.

As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the voltage across the resistor and
the current through the entire circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged
capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage
replacing V0 and the final voltage being zero.
Applications
Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that
it is a rare electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.

4.14 1N4007

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1.Maximum forward current capacity
2.Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3.Maximum forward voltage capacity

Fig: 1N4007 diodes

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market
are as follows:
 Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have
maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity of 1
Amp.
 Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more
capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be used
in place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be
used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by
company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes
IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

Fig:PN Junction diode

PN JUNCTION OPERATION

Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials are joined
together to form a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our discussion with the
operation of the PN junction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we must
first consider current flow in the materials that make up the junction and what happens initially
within the junction when these two materials are joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper

wire. That is, with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal
just as current would flow in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive potential
of the battery will attract the free electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal
and flow into the positive terminal of the battery. As an electron leaves the crystal, an electron
from the negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal, thus completing the current path.
Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-type material (electrons) are repelled by the
negative side of the battery and move through the crystal toward the positive side of the battery.

Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material is by
positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive terminal of the P
material to the negative terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal
of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the positive terminal, electrons
are removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new holes. This process continues as the
steady stream of holes (hole current) moves toward the negative terminal.

AC Motor

AC Motor has two leads. It has bidirectional motion

If we apply +ve to one lead and ground to another motor will rotate in one direction, if we
reverse the connection the motor will rotate in opposite direction.
If we keep both leads open or both leads ground it will not rotate (but some inertia will be
there).
If we apply +ve voltage to both leads then braking will

H-Bridge
This circuit is known as H-Bridge because it looks like ” H”
Working principle of H-Bridge
If switch (A1 and A2 )are on and switch (B1 and B2) are off then motor rotates in clockwise
direction
If switch (B1 and B2 )are on and switch (A1 and A2) are off then motor rotates in Anti
clockwise direction
we can use Transistor, mosfets as a switch Study the transistor as a a switch.

WHAT IS ANDROID?

Android is a Linux-based operating system designed primarily for touch

screen mobile devices such as smart phones and tablet computers. Initially
developed by Android, Inc., which Google backed financially and later bought in
2005, Android was unveiled in 2007 along with the founding of the Open Handset
Alliance: a consortium of hardware, software, and telecommunication companies
devoted to advancing open standards for mobile devices. The first Android-
powered phone was sold in October 2008.
FACTORS THAT LED ANDROID TO BECOME WORLD’S MOST
POPULAR OS

Android is open source and Google releases the code under the Apache
License. This open-source code and permissive licensing allows the software to be
freely modified and distributed by device manufacturers, wireless carriers and
enthusiast developers. Additionally, Android has a large community of developers
writing applications ("apps") that extend the functionality of devices, written
primarily in a customized version of the Java programming language. In October
2012, there were approximately 700,000 apps available for Android, and the
estimated number of applications downloaded from Google Play, Android's
primary app store, was 25 billion. A developer survey conducted in April–May
2013 found that Android is the most popular platform for developers, used by 71%
of the mobile developer population.
These factors have contributed towards making Android the world's most widely
used Smartphone platform, overtaking Symbian in the fourth quarter of 2010, and
the software of choice for technology companies who require a low-cost,
customizable, lightweight operating system for high tech devices without
developing one from scratch. As a result, despite being primarily designed for
phones and tablets, it has seen additional applications on televisions, games
consoles, digital cameras and other electronics. Android's open nature has further
encouraged a large community of developers and enthusiasts to use the open-
source code as a foundation for community-driven projects, which add new
features for advanced users or bring Android to devices which were officially,
released running other operating systems.

Android's share of the global Smartphone market, led by Samsung products, was
64% in March 2013. In July 2013 there were 11,868 models of Android device,
scores of screen sizes and eight OS versions simultaneously in use. The operating
system's success has made it a target for patent litigation as part of the so-called
"Smartphone" between technology companies. As of May 2013, 48 billion apps
have been installed from the Google Play store, and as of September 3, 2013, 1
billion Android devices have been activated.

Interface
Android's user interface is based on manipulation, using touch inputs that loosely
correspond to real-world actions, like swiping, tapping, pinching and reverse
pinching to manipulate on-screen objects. The response to user input is designed to
be immediate and provides a fluid touch interface, often using the vibration
capabilities of the device to provide hap tic feedback to the user. Internal hardware
such as accelerometers, gyroscopes and proximity sensors are used by some
applications to respond to additional user actions, for example adjusting the screen
from portrait to landscape depending on how the device is oriented, or allowing the
user to steer a vehicle in a racing game by rotating the device, simulating control of
a steering wheel.

Android devices boot to the home screen, the primary navigation and information
point on the device, which is similar to the desktop found on PCs. Android home
screens are typically made up of app icons and widgets; app icons launch the
associated app, whereas widgets display live, auto-updating content such as the
weather forecast, the user's email inbox, or a news ticker directly on the home
screen. A home screen may be made up of several pages that the user can swipe
back and forth between, though Android's home screen interface is heavily
customizable, allowing the user to adjust the look and feel of the device to their
tastes. Third party apps available on Google Play and other app stores can
extensively re-theme the home screen, and even mimic the look of other operating
systems, such as Windows Phone. Most manufacturers, and some wireless carriers,
customize the look and feel of their Android devices to differentiate themselves
from their competitors.

Present along the top of the screen is a status bar, showing information about the
device and its connectivity. This status bar can be "pulled" down to reveal a
notification screen where apps display important information or updates, such as a
newly received email or SMS text, in a way that does not immediately interrupt or
inconvenience the user. In early versions of Android these notifications could be
tapped to open the relevant app, but recent updates have provided enhanced
functionality, such as the ability to call a number back directly from the missed call
notification without having to open the dialer app first. Notifications are persistent
until read or dismissed by the user.
Source Code:-
char data = 0; //Variable for storing received data
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600); //Sets the data rate in bits per second (baud) for serial data
transmission
pinMode(13, OUTPUT);
pinMode(12, OUTPUT);
pinMode(11, OUTPUT);
pinMode(10, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(13, HIGH);
digitalWrite(12, HIGH);
digitalWrite(11, HIGH);
digitalWrite(10, HIGH);
}
void loop()
{
if(Serial.available() > 0) // Send data only when you receive data:
{
data = Serial.read(); //Read the incoming data and store it into variable data
Serial.print(data); //Print Value inside data in Serial monitor
Serial.print("\n"); //New line
if(data == '0')
{
digitalWrite(13, HIGH);
digitalWrite(12, HIGH);
digitalWrite(11, HIGH);
digitalWrite(10, HIGH);
delay(100);

}
else if(data == '1')
{
digitalWrite(13, LOW);
delay(100);
}
//If value is 1 then LED turns ON
else if(data == '2')
{
digitalWrite(13, HIGH);
delay(100);
}
else if(data == '3')
{
digitalWrite(12, LOW);
delay(100);
 }
else if(data == '4')
{
digitalWrite(12, HIGH);
delay(100);
}
else if(data == '5')
{
digitalWrite(11, LOW);
delay(100);
}
else if(data == '6')
{
digitalWrite(11, HIGH);
delay(100);
}
else if(data == '7')
{
digitalWrite(10, LOW);
delay(100);
}
else if(data == '8')
{
digitalWrite(10, HIGH);
delay(100);
}
else if(data == '9')
{
digitalWrite(13, LOW);
digitalWrite(12, LOW);
digitalWrite(11, LOW);
digitalWrite(10, LOW);
delay(100);

}
}
}
Conclusion:
In this project we successfully control ac motor using android application. It’s a experience
towards automation of electrical concept.

Future Scope:-
In future it can be implemented both in industries as well as homes for easier operation of dc
motor.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

TEXT BOOKS REFERED

1. “The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded systems” by Muhammad Ali Mazidi and Janice
Gillispie Mazidi , Pearson Education.
2. ATMEL 89S52 Data Sheets.

WEBSITES
 www.atmel.com
 www.beyondlogic.org
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.howstuffworks.com
 www.alldatasheets.com