SMART GARBAGE ALERT SYSTEM USING ARDUINO UNO

ABSTRACT

The rapid growth in the population has also led to the surge in the volume of waste
being generated on a daily basis. This increase in the generation of waste due to
continuous growth in the urbanization and industrialization has become a severe problem
for the local and the national government. It is also posing a serious problem for the local
authorities to manage the wastes being dumped everywhere as landfill. To ensure the
minimal risk to the environment and human health, it is necessary to take meticulous
measures when segregating and transporting waste. One of the main concerns with our
environment has been solid waste management which impacts the health and
environment of our society. The detection, monitoring and management of wastes is one
of the primary problems of the present era. The traditional way of manually monitoring
the wastes in waste bins is a cumbersome process and utilizes more human effort, time
and cost which can easily be avoided with our present technologies. This is our solution,
a method in which waste management is automated. This is our GSM Garbage
Monitoring system, an innovative way that will help to keep the cities clean and healthy.

This project is developed based on EMBEDDED and GSM Technology. The key issue in
the waste management is that the garbage bin at public places gets overflowed well in
advance before the commencement of the next cleaning process. It in turn leads to
various hazards such as bad odor & ugliness to that place which may be the root cause
for spread of various diseases. To avoid all such hazardous scenario and maintain public
cleanliness and health this work is mounted on a smart garbage system. The main theme
of the work is to develop a smart intelligent garbage alert system for a proper garbage
management.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

BUZZER

Ultrasonic
Sensor
Max 232
RESET ARDUINO

RPS
GSM
MODE
M
Gas Sensor
POWER SUPPLY:

Step Down Bridge Filter Regulator

section
Transformer Rectifier Circuit
DESCRIPTION:

In most of the cases water is the preliminary requirement to survive the People and plants.

SOFTWARE:

ARDUINO UNO

HARDWARE:

ARDUINO

Power Supply

Gas Sensor

Ultrasonic Sensor

Max232

GSM Modem
 CHAPTER-2

INTRODUCTION
2.1 Embedded Systems:
An embedded system is a combination of software and hardware to perform a dedicated
task. Some of the main devices used in embedded products are Microprocessors and
Microcontrollers. Microprocessors are commonly referred to as general purpose processors as
they simply accept the inputs, process it and give the output. In contrast, a microcontroller not
only accepts the data as inputs but also manipulates it, interfaces the data with various devices,
controls the data and thus finally gives the result.

An embedded system can be defined as a computing device that does a specific focused
job. Appliances such as the air-conditioner, VCD player, DVD player, printer, fax machine,
mobile phone etc. are examples of embedded systems. Each of these appliances will have a
processor and special hardware to meet the specific requirement of the application along with the
embedded software that is executed by the processor for meeting that specific requirement. The
embedded software is also called “firm ware”. The desktop/laptop computer is a general purpose
computer. You can use it for a variety of applications such as playing games, word processing,
accounting, software development and so on. In contrast, the software in the embedded systems
is always fixed listed below:

Embedded systems do a very specific task they cannot be programmed to do different

things. Embedded systems have very limited resources, particularly the memory. Generally, they
do not have secondary storage devices such as the CDROM or the floppy disk. Embedded
systems have to work against some deadlines. A specific job has to be completed within a
specific time. In some embedded systems, called real-time systems, the deadlines are stringent.
Missing a deadline may cause a catastrophe-loss of life or damage to property. Embedded
systems are constrained for power. As many embedded systems operate through a battery, the
power consumption has to be very low. Some embedded systems have to operate in extreme
environmental conditions such as very high temperatures and humidity.
2.1.1 Categories of Embedded System.

2.1.1.1 Application specific systems.

Embedded systems are not general-purpose computers. Embedded system designs are
Optimized for a specific application. Many of the job characteristics are known before the
hardware is designed. This allows the designer to focus on the specific design constraints of a
well defined application. As such, there is limited user reprogram ability. Some embedded
systems, however, require the flexibility of reprogrammability. Programmable DSPs are common
for such applications.

2.1.1.2 Distributed Systems

A common characteristic of an embedded system is one that consists of communicating
processes executing on several CPUs or ASICs which are connected by communication links.
The reason for this is economy. Economical 4 8-bit microcontrollers may be cheaper than a 32-
bit processors. Even after adding the cost of the communication links, this approach may be
preferable. In this approach, multiple processors are usually required to handle multiple time-
critical tasks. Devices under control of embedded systems may also be physically distributed.

2.1.1.3. Reactive Embedded systems.

A typical embedded systems model responds to the environment via Sensors and control
the environment using actuators. This requires embedded systems to run at the speed of the
environment. This characteristic of embedded system is called “reactive”. Reactive computation
means that the system (primarily the software component) executes in response to external
events.
External events can be either periodic or aperiodic. Periodic events make it easier to
schedule processing to guarantee performance. Aperiodic events are harder to schedule. The
maximum event arrival rate must be estimated in order to accommodate worst case situations.
Most embedded systems have a significant reactive component.
2.1.1.4. Heterogeneous
Embedded systems often are composed of heterogeneous architectures (Figure 4). They
may contain different processors in the same system solution. They may also be mixed signal
systems. The combination of I/O interfaces, local and remote memories, and sensors and
actuators makes embedded system design truly unique. Embedded systems also have tight design
constraints, and heterogeneity provides better design flexibility.

2.1.2. Requirements
Embedded systems are unique in several ways, as described above. When designing
Embedded systems, there are several categories of requirements that should be Considered:
· Functional Requirements
· Temporal Requirements (Timeliness)
· Dependability Requirements.

Functional Requirements
Functional requirements describe the type of processing the system will perform. This
Processing varies, based on the application. Functional requirements include the Following;
· Data Collection requirements
· Sensor requirements
· Signal conditioning requirements
· Alarm monitoring requirements
· Direct Digital Control requirements
· Actuator control requirements
· Man-Machine Interaction requirements
(Informing the operator of the current state of a controlled object for example. These interfaces
can be as simple as a flashing LED or a very complex GUI-based system. They include the ways
that embedded systems assist the operator in controlling the object/system.)
2.1.2.2. Temporal Requirement
Embedded systems have many tasks to perform, each having its own deadline.
Temporal requirements define the stringency in which these time-based tasks must complete.
Examples include;
Minimal latency jitter
Minimal Error-detection latency
Temporal requirements can be very tight (for example control-loops) or less stringent
(for example response time in a user interface).

2.1.2.3. Dependability Requirements

Most embedded systems also have a set of dependability requirements. Examples of
dependability requirements include;
Reliability: this is a complex concept that shoulda always be considered at the System rather than
the individual component level. There are three dimensions to Consider when specifying system
reliability;

Hardware reliability: Probability of a hardware component failing

Software reliability: Probability that a software component will produce an Incorrect result
Operator reliability: How likely that the operator of a system will make an Error.

2.1.3.Processor selection.

2.1.3.1. General factors that govern the selection are:

· Complexity of overall design
· Design reuse.
· Performance
· Power size
· Cost tools.
 · OS Support and availability.
The design's complexity helps determine the CPU to use. If the design calls for the
deployment of a single state machine with interrupts from a small set of peripherals, then a small
CPU and/or micro controller such as the MCS51 or the Z80 could be the best choice. Many
systems such as industrial timer may fit this category, as the memory footprint is small, the signal
is slow and battery consumption must be extremely low. The application and its interaction will
dictate the design's complexity and may also determine whether it requires a real-time operating
system (RTOS).

Typically, as the application complexity increases, the need for a greater bit-width
processor increases. The selection of the CPU will greatly impact performance of the overall
system. Specifically, features like 8 / 16 / 24 / 32 bit architecture, RISC / CISC / DSP
architecture, cache, MMU, pipelining, branch prediction and super-scalar architecture, all affect
the speed of a system.Depending on system needs, these features may be necessary to achieve
peak performance of the system.

There are various benchmarking threshold data available for various 8/16/32 bit processors
like MIPS (Million Instructions per Second), EEMBC, Dhrystone, MIPS/MHz etc, which can be
taken as reference or comparison base.
CISC Vs RISC.

CISC is an acronym for Complex Instruction Set Computer and are chips that are easy to
program and which make efficient use of memory. Since the earliest machines were programmed
in assembly language and memory was slow and expensive, the CISC philosophy made sense,
and was commonly implemented in such large computers as the PDP-11 and the DECsystem 10
and 20 machines. Most common microprocessor designs such as the Intel 80x86 and Motorola
68K series followed the CISC philosophy. But recent changes in software and hardware
technology have forced a re-examination of CISC and many modern CISC processors are
hybrids, implementing many RISC principles.

The design constraints that led to the development of CISC (small amounts of slow memory
and fact that most early machines were programmed in assembly language) give CISC
instructions sets some common characteristics:
· A 2-operand format, where instructions have a source and a destination. Register to
register, register to memory, and memory to register commands. Multiple addressing modes
for memory, including specialized modes for indexing through arrays
· Variable length instructions where the length often varies according to the addressing
mode
· Instructions which require multiple clock cycles to execute.
· Most CISC hardware architectures have several characteristics in common:
· Complex instruction-decoding logic, driven by the need for a single instruction to support
multiple addressing modes.
· A small number of general purpose registers. This is the direct result of having
instructions which can operate directly on memory and the limited amount of chip space not
dedicated to instruction decoding, execution, and microcode storage.
· Several special purpose registers. Many CTSC designs set aside special registers for the
stack pointer, interrupt handling, and so on. This can simplify the hardware design somewhat,
at the expense of making the instruction set more complex.
· A 'Condition code" register which is set as a side-effect of most instructions. This register
reflects whether the result of the last operation is less than, equal to, or greater than zero and
records if certain error conditions occur.

At the time of their initial development, CISC machines used available technologies to
optimize computer performance.

· Microprogramming is as easy as assembly language to implement, and much less

expensive than hardwiring a control unit.
· The ease of microcoding new instructions allowed designers to make CISC machines
upwardly compatible: a new computer could run the same programs as earlier computers
because the new computer would contain a superset of the instructions of the earlier
computers.
· As each instruction became more capable, fewer instructions could be used to implement
 a given task. This made more efficient use of the relatively slow main memory.
· Because microprogram instruction sets can be written to match the constructs of high-
level languages, the compiler does not have to be as complicated.

Designers soon realized that the CISC philosophy had its own problems, including:
· Earlier generations of a processor family generally were contained as a subset in every
new version - so instruction set & chip hardware become more complex with each generation
of computers.
· So that as many instructions as possible could be stored in memory with the least possible
wasted space, individual instructions could be of almost any length - this means that different
instructions will take different amounts of clock time to execute, slowing down the overall
performance of the machine.
· Many specialized instructions aren't used frequently enough to justify their existence
-approximately 20% of the available instructions are used in a typical program.
· CISC instructions typically set the condition codes as a side effect of the instruction. Not
only does setting the condition codes take time, but programmers have to remember to
examine the condition code bits before a subsequent instruction changes them.

As memory speed increased, and high-level languages displaced assembly language, the
major reasons for CISC began to disappear, and computer designers began to look at ways
computer performance could be optimized beyond just making faster hardware.
One of their key realizations was that a sequence of simple instructions produces the same results
as a sequence of complex instructions, but can be implemented with a simpler (and faster)
hardware design. (Assuming that memory can keep up.) RISC (Reduced Instruction Set
Computers) processors were the result. CISC and RISC implementations are becoming more and
more alike. Many of today’s RISC chips support as many instructions as yesterday's CISC chips.
And today's CISC chips use many techniques formerly associated with RISC chips.
2.2 SCOPE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded systems. The
embedded system market is one of the highest growth areas as these systems are used in very
market segment- consumer electronics, office automation, industrial automation, biomedical
engineering, wireless communication, data communication, telecommunications, transportation,
military and so on.

2.2.1 Consumer appliances:

At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital camera, digital
diary, DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV and air-conditioner,
VCO player, video game consoles, video recorders etc. Today’s high-tech car has about 20
embedded systems for transmission control, engine spark control, air-conditioning, navigation
etc. Even wrist watches are now becoming embedded systems. The palmtops are powerful
embedded systems using which we can carry out many general-purpose tasks such as playing
games and word processing.

2.2.2 Office automation:

The office automation products using embedded systems are copying machine, fax
machine, key telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc.

2.2.3 Industrial automation:

Today a lot of industries use embedded systems for process control. These include
pharmaceutical, cement, sugar, oil exploration, nuclear energy, electricity generation and
transmission. The embedded systems for industrial use are designed to carry out specific tasks
such as monitoring the temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc., and then take
appropriate action based on the monitored levels to control other devices or to send information
to a centralized monitoring station. In hazardous industrial environment, where human presence
has to be avoided, robots are used, which are programmed to do specific jobs. The robots are
now becoming very powerful and carry out many interesting and complicated tasks such as
hardware assembly.
2.2.4 Medical electronics:
Almost every medical equipment in the hospital is an embedded system. These
equipments include diagnostic aids such as ECG, EEG, blood pressure measuring devices, X-ray
scanners; equipment used in blood analysis, radiation, endoscopy etc. Developments in medical
electronics have paved way for more accurate diagnosis of diseases.

2.2.5 Computer networking:

Computer networking products such as bridges, routers, Integrated Services Digital
Networks (ISDN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), X.25 and frame relay switches are
embedded systems which implement the necessary data communication protocols. For example,
a router interconnects two networks. The two networks may be running different protocol stacks.
The router’s function is to obtain the data packets from incoming pores, analyze the packets and
send them towards the destination after doing necessary protocol conversion. Most networking
equipments, other than the end systems (desktop computers) we use to access the networks, are
embedded systems.

2.2.6 Telecommunications:
In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be categorized as
subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as key telephones,
ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded systems. The network equipment
includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet Assemblers Dissemblers (PADs),
sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP gateway, IP gatekeeper etc. are the latest embedded systems
that provide very low-cost voice communication over the Internet.

2.2.7 Wireless technologies:

Avances in mobile communications are paving way for many interesting applications
using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels of the last decade of the 20’h
century. It is a very powerful embedded system that provides voice communication while we are
on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants and the palmtops can now be used to access
multimedia services over the Internet. Mobile communication infrastructure such as base station
controllers, mobile switching centers are also powerful embedded systems.
2.2.8 Insemination:
Testing and measurement are the fundamental requirements in all scientific and
engineering activities. The measuring equipment we use in laboratories to measure parameters
such as weight, temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc. are all embedded systems.
Test equipment such as oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, logic analyzer, protocol analyzer, radio
communication test set etc. are embedded systems built around powerful processors. Thank to
miniaturization, the test and measuring equipment are now becoming portable facilitating easy
testing and measurement in the field by field-personnel.

2.2.9 Security:
Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need to protect
our homes and offices; and also the information we transmit and store. Developing embedded
systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative businesses nowadays. Security
devices at homes, offices, airports etc. for authentication and verification are embedded systems.
Encryption devices are nearly 99 per cent of the processors that are manufactured end up in~
embedded systems.

Embedded Systems find applications in every industrial segment consumer electronics,

transportation, avionics, biomedical engineering, manufacturing, process control and industrial
automation, data communication, telecommunication, defense, security etc used to encrypt the
data/voice being transmitted on communication links such as telephone lines. Biometric systems
using fingerprint and face recognition are now being extensively used for user authentication in
banking applications as well as for access control in high security buildings.

2.2.10 Finance:
Financial dealing through cash and cheques are now slowly paving way for transactions
using smart cards and ATM (Automatic Teller Machine, also expanded as Any Time Money)
machines. Smart card, of the size of a credit card, has a small micro-controller and memory; and
it interacts with the smart card reader! ATM machine and acts as an electronic wallet. Smart card
technology has the capability of ushering in a cashless society. Well, the list goes on. It is no
exaggeration to say that eyes wherever you go, you can see, or at least feel, the work of an
embedded system.

Overview of Embedded System Architecture

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central
Processing Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is
loaded. The software residing on the memory chip is also called the ‘firmware’.

Fig 2.1 The building blocks diagram

The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above
the operating system as shown in figure. The same architecture is applicable to any computer
including a desktop computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not compulsory to
have an operating system in every embedded system. For small appliances such as remote
control units, air conditioners, toys etc., there is no need for an operating system and you can
write only the software specific to that application.

For applications involving complex processing, it is advisable to have an operating

system. In such a case, you need to integrate the application software with the operating system
and then transfer the entire software on to the memory chip. Once the software is transferred to
the memory chip, the software will continue to run for a long time you don’t need to reload new
software.

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an embedded
system.
As shown in Fig. the building blocks are;
· Central Processing Unit (CPU)
· Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)
· Input Devices
· Output devices
· Communication interfaces
.Application-specific circuitry

Fig 2.2 Working of cpu in arm7

Central Processing Unit (CPU):
The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following:
microcontroller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is a low-
cost processor. Its main attraction is that on the chip itself, there will be many other components
such as memory, serial communication interface, analog-to digital converter etc. So, for small
applications, a micro-controller is the best choice as the number of external components required
will be very less. On the other hand, microprocessors are more powerful, but you need to use
many external components with them. D5P is used mainly for applications in which signal
processing is involved such as audio and video processing.

Memory:
The memory is categorized as Random Access 11emory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the chip, whereas
ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the firmware is stored in the
ROM. When power is switched on, the processor reads the ROM; the program is program is
executed.

Input devices:
Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited
capability. There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the embedded
system is no easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you press one key to
give a specific command. A keypad may be used to input only the digits. Many embedded
systems used in process control do not have any input device for user interaction; they take
inputs from sensors or transducers 1’fnd produce electrical signals that are in turn fed to other
systems.

Output devices:
The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability. Some
embedded systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the health status of
the system modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
may also be used to display some important parameters.
Interfaces:
The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at they may
have to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are provided with one
or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485, Universal Serial Bus (USB),
IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc.

Application-specific circuitry:
Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat an
embedded system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the processor to
carry out the necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power supply either through
the 230 volts main supply or through a battery. The hardware has to design in such a way that the
power consumption is minimized.

Wireless Communication:
Wireless communication, as the term implies, allows information to be exchanged
between two devices without the use of wire or cable. A wireless keyboard sends information to
the computer without the use of a keyboard cable; a cellular telephone sends information to
another telephone without the use of a telephone cable. Changing television channels, opening
and closing a garage door, and transferring a file from one computer to another can all be
accomplished using wireless technology. In all such cases, information is being transmitted and
received using electromagnetic energy, also referred to as electromagnetic radiation. One of the
most familiar sources of electromagnetic radiation is the sun; other common sources include TV
and radio signals, light bulbs and microwaves. To provide background information in
understanding wireless technology, the electromagnetic spectrum is first presented and some
basic terminology defined.
 CHAPTER 3

ARDUINO
Overview:

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a
16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer
with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.

The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver
chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a
USB-to-serial converter.
The Uno board has a resistor pulling the 8U2 HWB line to ground, making it easier to put
into DFU mode.

The board has the following new features:

1.0 pinout: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other new pins placed near
to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to the voltage provided from the board.
In future, shields will be compatible with both the board that uses the AVR, which operates with 5V
and with the Arduino Due that operates with 3.3V. The second one is a not connected pin, that is
reserved for future purposes.

· Stronger RESET circuit.

· Atmega 16U2 replace the 8U2.

"Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino 1.0. The Uno
and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino, moving forward. The Uno is the latest
in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for a
comparison with previous versions, see the index of Arduino boards.

Summary
Microcontroller ATmega328

Operating Voltage 5V

InputVoltage (recommended) 7-12V

Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

Analog Input Pins 6

DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA

DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader

SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)

EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)

Clock Speed 16 MHz

Length 68.6 mm

Width 53.4 mm

Weight 25 g
Schematic & Reference Design

Note: The Arduino reference design can use an Atmega8, 168, or 328, Current models use
an ATmega328, but an Atmega8 is shown in the schematic for reference. The pin configuration is
identical on all three processors.
 Power
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply. The
power source is selected automatically.

External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery.
The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power
jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER
connector.

The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V,
however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using
more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended
range is 7 to 12 volts.

The power pins are as follows:

· VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as
opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can supply voltage
through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
· 5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be supplied
with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board
(7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board.
We don't advise it.

· 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50 mA.

· GND. Ground pins.

· IOREF. This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with which the
microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and select the
appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the outputs for working with the 5V or 3.3V.
 Memory
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM
and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).

Input and Output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output,
using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), anddigitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin
can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected
by default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

· Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These pins are
connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
· External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low value,
a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for details.

· PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.

· SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication using the SPI
library.

· LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the LED
is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution
(i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible
to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function.
Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality:

· TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the Wire library.
Communication

The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another
Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the
board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. The Arduino software
includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino
board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-
to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0
and 1).

A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital pins.

The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino software
includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for details. For SPI
communication, use the SPI library.

Programming
The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select "Arduino
Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your board). For details,
see the reference and tutorials.

The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with a bootloader that allows you to
upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates
using the original STK500 protocol (reference, C header files).
 You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the ICSP (In-
Circuit Serial Programming) header using Arduino ISP or similar; see these instructions for
details.

The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware source code is available .
The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a DFU bootloader, which can be activated by:

· On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board (near the map of Italy)
and then resetting the 8U2.
· On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2 HWB line to ground,
making it easier to put into DFU mode.

You can then use Atmel's FLIP software (Windows) or the DFU programmer (Mac OS X and
Linux) to load a new firmware. Or you can use the ISP header with an external programmer
(overwriting the DFU bootloader). See this user-contributed tutorial for more information.

Automatic (Software) Reset

Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the Arduino Uno is
designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a connected computer. One of
the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of theATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset line of
the ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset
line drops long enough to reset the chip. The Arduino software uses this capability to allow you
to upload code by simply pressing the upload button in the Arduino environment. This means
that the bootloader can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated
with the start of the upload.

This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a computer running Mac
OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via USB). For the
following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the Uno. While it is programmed to
ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new code), it will intercept the first
few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is opened. If a sketch running on the board
receives one-time configuration or other data when it first starts, make sure that the software with
which it communicates waits a second after opening the connection and before sending this data.

The Uno contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads on either side of the
trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN". You may also be able to
disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset line; see this forum
thread for details.

USB Over current Protection

The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB ports from shorts
and overcurrent. Although most computers provide their own internal protection, the fuse
provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied to the USB port, the fuse
will automatically break the connection until the short or overload is removed.

Physical Characteristics

The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches respectively, with the
USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former dimension. Four screw holes allow
the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note that the distance between digital pins 7 and 8
is 160 mil (0.16"), not an even multiple of the 100 mil spacing of the other pins.

SWITCHES AND PUSHBUTTONS

Ther is nothing simpler than this! This is the simplest way of controlling appearance of some
voltage on microcontroller’s input pin. There is also no need for additional explanation of how
these components operate.
Nevertheless, it is not so simple in practice... This is about something commonly unnoticeable
when using these components in everyday life. It is about contact bounce- a common problem
with m e c h a n i c a l switches. If contact switching does not happen so quickly, several
consecutive bounces can be noticed prior to maintain stable state. The reasons for this are:
vibrations, slight rough spots and dirt. Anyway, whole this process does not last long (a few
micro- or miliseconds), but long enough to be registered by the microcontroller. Concerning
pulse counter, error occurs in almost 100% of cases!
3.3 Embedded C language

Embedded C is a set of language extensions for the C Programming language by the C Standards
committee to address commonality issues that exist between C extensions for different embedded
systems. Historically, embedded C programming requires nonstandard extensions to the C language in
order to support exotic features such as fixed-point arithmetic, multiple distinct memory banks, and basic
I/O operations.

The C programming language is perhaps the most popular programming language for
programming embedded systems. We mentioned other popular programming languages).

Most C programmers are spoiled because they program in environments where not only there is a
standard library implementation, but there are frequently a number of other libraries available for use. The
cold fact is, that in embedded systems, there rarely are many of the libraries that programmers have
grown used to, but occasionally an embedded system might not have a complete standard library, if there
is a standard library at all. Few embedded systems have capability for dynamic linking, so if standard
library functions are to be available at all, they often need to be directly linked into the executable.
Oftentimes, because of space concerns, it is not possible to link in an entire library file, and programmers
are often forced to "brew their own" standard c library implementations if they want to use them at all.
While some libraries are bulky and not well suited for use on microcontrollers, many development
systems still include the standard libraries which are the most common for C programmers.

C remains a very popular language for micro-controller developers due to the code efficiency and
reduced overhead and development time. C offers low-level control and is considered more readable than
assembly. Many free C compilers are available for a wide variety of development platforms. The
compilers are part of an IDEs with ICD support, breakpoints, single-stepping and an assembly window.
The performance of C compilers has improved considerably in recent years, and they are claimed to be
more or less as good as assembly, depending on who you ask. Most tools now offer options for
customizing the compiler optimization. Additionally, using C increases portability, since C code can be
compiled for different types of processors.
Figure. 3.4 Embedded System Development Environment
 CHAPTER-4

GSM

(GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION)

GSM (GLOPAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION) is the most popular

standard for mobile telephony systems in the world. The GSM Association, its promoting

industry trade organization of mobile phone carriers and manufacturers, estimates that 80% of

the global mobile market uses the standard. GSM is used by over 1.5 billion people across more

than 212 countries and territories. This ubiquity means that subscribers can use their phones

throughout the world, enabled by international roaming arrangements between mobile network

operators. GSM differs from its predecessor technologies in that both signaling and speech

channels are digital, and thus GSM is considered a second generation (2G) mobile phone

system. This also facilitates the wide-spread implementation of data communication

applications into the system.

The GSM standard has been an advantage to both consumers, who may benefit from the

ability to roam and switch carriers without replacing phones, and also to network operators,

who can choose equipment from many GSM equipment vendors. GSM also pioneered low-cost

implementation of the short message service (SMS), also called text messaging, which has since

been supported on other mobile phone standards as well. The standard includes a worldwide

emergency telephone number feature (112).

Newer versions of the standard were backward-compatible with the original GSM

system. For example, Release '97 of the standard added packet data capabilities by means of

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). Release '99 introduced higher speed data transmission

using Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).

4.1 History

In 1982, the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations

(CEPT ) created the Group Special Mobile (GSM) to develop a standard for a mobile telephone

system that could be used across Europe. In 1987, a memorandum of understanding was signed

by 13 countries to develop a common cellular telephone system across Europe. In 1989, GSM

responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)

and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990. The first GSM network was

launched in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland with joint technical infrastructure maintenance from

Ericsson. By the end of 1993, over a million subscribers were using GSM phone networks being

operated by 70 carriers across 48 countries.

4.2 Technical Details:

GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching

for cells in the immediate vicinity. There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro,

micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the

implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station

antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells

whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas.

Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres; they are mainly used

indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and

connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells

are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those

cells.

Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and

propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers. The

longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is 35 kilometers (22 mi). There

are also several implementations of the concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could
be double or even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain and the timing

advance.

Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor

picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through power

splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor

distributed antenna system. These are typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed

indoors; for example, in shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since

indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of the radio signals from any

nearby cell.

The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of

continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the carrier

is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency modulator,

which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels (adjacent-channel interference).

4.3 GSM carrier frequencies

GSM networks operate in a number of different carrier frequency ranges (separated into

GSM frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G), with most 2G GSM networks

operating in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Where these bands were already allocated, the

850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands were used instead (for example in Canada and the United

States). In rare cases the 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries

because they were previously used for first-generation systems.

Most 3G networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band. Regardless of the

frequency selected by an operator, it is divided into timeslots for individual phones to use. This

allows eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency. These eight radio

timeslots (or eight burst periods) are grouped into a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use

alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s,

and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.

The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM850/900 and 1

watt in GSM1800/1900.

4.4 Architecture of the GSM Network:

The GSM mobile telephony service is based on a series of contiguous radio cells which

provide complete coverage of the service area and allow the subscriber operation anywhere

within it. Prior to this cellular concept, radiophones were limited to just the one transmitter

covering the whole service area. Cellular telephony differs from the radiophone service because

instead of one large transmitter, many small ones are used to cover the same area. The basic

problem is to handle the situation where a person using the phone in one cell moves out of

range of that cell. In the radiophone service there was no solution and the call was lost, which is

why the service area was so large. In cellular telephony, handing the call over to the next cell

solves the problem. This process is totally automatic and requires no special intervention by the

user, but it is a complex technical function requiring significant processing power to achieve a

quick reaction.

The functional architecture of a GSM system can be broadly divided into the Mobile

Station, the Base Station Subsystem, and the Network Subsystem. Each subsystem is comprised

of functional entities that communicate through the various interfaces using specified protocols.

The subscriber carries the mobile station; the base station subsystem controls the radio link with

the Mobile Station. The network subsystem, which is the main part of which is the Mobile

services Switching Center, performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed

or mobile network users, as well as management of mobile services, such as authentication.

 Figure 4.1 GSM Block Diagram

The Mobile Station (MS) represents the only equipment the GSM user ever sees from the

whole system. It actually consists of two distinct entities. The actual hardware is the Mobile

Equipment (ME), which is anonymous and consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio

transceiver, display and digital signal processors. The subscriber information is stored in the

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), implemented as a Smart Card. The mobile equipment is

uniquely identified by the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). The SIM card

contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI), identifying the subscriber, a secret

key for authentication, and other user information. The IMEI and the IMSI are independent,

thereby providing personal mobility.

 Thus the SIM provides personal mobility, so that the user can have access to all

subscribed services irrespective of both the location of the terminal and the use of a specific

terminal. By inserting the SIM card into another GSM cellular phone, the user is able to receive

calls at that phone, make calls from that phone, or receive other subscribed services. The SIM

card may be protected against unauthorized use by a password or personal identity number.

The Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts, the Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

and the Base Station Controller (BSC). The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell

and transmits and receives signals on the cells' allocated frequencies with the mobile station.

A BSC operates with a group of BTSs and manages the radio resources for one or more

of them. The BSC is the connection between the MS and the Network Subsystem. It manages the

radio channel (setup, tear down, frequency hopping, etc.) as well as handovers and the

transmission power levels and frequency translations of the voice channel used over the radio

link to the standard channel used by the Public Switched Telephone Network or ISDN.

The central component of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile services Switching

Center (MSC). It acts like a normal switching node of the normal telephones of the land lines

and in addition provides all the functionality needed to handle a mobile subscriber, including

registration, authentication, location updating and inter-MSC handovers. These services are

provided in conjunction with several functional entities, which together form the Network

Subsystem. The MSC provides the connection to the public fixed network (PSTN or ISDN) and

is the interface between the GSM and the PSTN networks for both telephony and data.

Thus the MSC is primarily responsible for:

· Traffic management

· Call set-up

· Call Routing to a roaming subscriber

· Termination
 · Charging and accounting information

CHAPTER-5
Hardware Requirements

The following hardware required to develop the project

· Arduino

· Max232

· Sensors

· GSM

5.1. Design

5.1.1 Block Diagram:

Power Supply Buzzer

ARDUINO

Sensor Unit GSM

Figure 5.1 block diagram

5.2 LCD
5.2.1 Introduction
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light
modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs does not emit light directly.
They are used in a wide range of applications including: computer monitors, television,
instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signal, etc. They are common in consumer devices
such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have
displaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact,
lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes. They are available in
a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use
phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in.

LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical
power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an
electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid
crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in color
or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the
discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888. By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD
screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two
transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters the axes of transmission of which are (in most
of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing
filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. In
most of the cases the liquid crystal has double refraction
5.2.2Passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs

Figure 5.2 LCD diagram.

LCDs with a small number of segments, such as those used in digital watches and pocket
calculators, have individual electrical contacts for each segment. An external dedicated circuit
supplies an electric charge to control each segment. This display structure is unwieldy for more
than a few display elements.

The most commonly used Character based LCDs are based on Hitachi's HD44780
controller or other which are compatible with HD44580. In this tutorial, we will discuss about
character based LCDs, their interfacing with various microcontrollers, various interfaces (8-bit/4-
bit), programming, special stuff and tricks you can do with these simple looking LCDs which can
give a new look to your application.

5.2.3Pin Description
The most commonly used LCDs found in the market today are 1 Line, 2 Line or 4 Line
LCDs which have only 1 controller and support at most of 80 characters, whereas LCDs
supporting more than 80 characters make use of 2 HD44780 controllers.
 Figure 5.3 pin description of LCD

5.2.4 Pin No. Name Description

Pin no. 1 VSS
Power supply (GND) Pin no. 2 VCC Power supply (+5V) Pin no. 3 VEE
Contrast adjust Pin no. 4 RS
0 = Instruction input
1 = Data input Pin no. 5 R/W
0 = Write to LCD module
1 = Read from LCD module Pin no. 6 EN
Enable signal Pin no. 7 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB) Pin no. 8 D1 Data bus line 1 Pin no. 9 D2Data
bus line 2
Pin no. 10 D3
Data bus line 3
Pin no. 11 D4
Data bus line 4
Pin no. 12 D5
Data bus line 5
Pin no. 13 D6
Data bus line 6
Pin no. 14 D7
Data bus line 7 (MSB)

5.2.5 Commands and Instruction set

The instruction register (IR) and the data register (DR) of the LCD can be controlled by
the MCU. Before starting the internal operation of the LCD, control information is temporarily
stored into these registers to allow interfacing with various MCUs, which operate at different
speeds, or various peripheral control devices. The internal operation of the LCD is determined by
signals sent from the MCU. These signals, which include register selection signal (RS),
read/write signal (R/W), and the data bus (DB0 to DB7), make up the LCD instructions (Table
3). There are four categories of instructions that:
· Designate LCD functions, such as display format, data length, etc.
· Set internal RAM addresses
· Perform data transfer with internal RAM
MAX232
In telecommunications, RS-232 (Recommended Standard 232) is a standard for serial
binary single-ended data and control signals connecting between a DTE (Data Terminal
Equipment) and a DCE (Data Circuit-terminating Equipment). It is commonly used in computer
serial ports. The standard defines the electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning
of signals, and the physical size and pin out of connectors.

Fig 5.6 max232

Scope of the standard
The Electronics Industries Association (EIA) standard RS-232 as of 1969 defines:
· Electrical signal characteristics such as voltage levels, signaling rate, timing and slew-
rate of signals, voltage with stand level, short-circuit behavior, and maximum load
capacitance.
· Interface mechanical characteristics, pluggable connectors and pin identification.
· Functions of each circuit in the interface connector.
· Standard subsets of interface circuits for selected telecom applications.
· The standard does not define such elements as
o character encoding (for example, ASCII, Baudot code or EBCDIC)
o the framing of characters in the data stream (bits per character, start/stop bits,
parity)
o bit rates for transmission, although the standard says it is intended for bit rates
lower than 20,000 bits per second. Many modern devices support speeds of
115,200 bit/s and above
o power supply to external device
Ultrasonic transducer:

Ultrasonic transducers are transducers that convert ultrasound waves

to electrical signals or vice versa. Those that both transmit and receive may
also be called ultrasound transceivers; many ultrasound sensors besides
being sensors are indeed transceivers because they can both sense and
transmit. These devices work on a principle similar to that of transducers
used in radar and sonar systems, which evaluate attributes of a target by
interpreting the echoes from radio or sound waves, respectively. Active
ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency sound waves and evaluate the
echo which is received back by the sensor, measuring the time interval
between sending the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance
to an object. Passive ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect
ultrasonic noise that is present under certain conditions, convert it to an
electrical signal, and report it to a computer.
GAS DETECTOR:

A Gas detector also called a smoke alarm is a device that detects smoke, typically as an indicator
of fire. Commercial, industrial, and mass residential devices issue a signal to a fire alarm system,
while household detectors, known as smoke alarms, generally issue a local audible or visual
alarm from the detector itself.

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Gas detectors are typically housed in a disk-shaped plastic enclosure about 150 millimeters (6 in)
in diameter and 25 millimeters (1 in) thick, but the shape can vary by manufacturer or product
line. Most smoke detectors work either by optical detection (photoelectric) or by physical
process (ionization), while others use both detection methods to increase sensitivity to smoke.
Sensitive alarms can be used to detect, and thus deter, smoking in areas where it is banned such
as toilets and schools. Smoke detectors in large commercial, industrial, and residential buildings
are usually powered by a central fire alarm system, which is powered by the building power with
a battery backup. However, in many single family detached and smaller multiple family
housings, a smoke alarm is often powered only by a single disposable battery.

In the United States, the National Fire Protection Association estimates that nearly two-thirds of deaths
from home fires occur in properties without working smoke alarms/detectors.

CHAPTER - 6
SOFTWARE
Arduino software
The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software. Select "Arduino Uno from the
Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your board).For details, see the
reference and tutorials. The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with a boot loader
that allows you to upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It
communicates using the original STK500 protocol (reference, C header files).We can also bypass
the boot loader and programs the microcontroller through the ICSP (In-Circuit Serial
Programming) header; see these instructions for details. The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1
and rev2 boards) firmware source code is available. The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a
DFU boot loader, which can be activated by:
·On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board (near the map of
Italy) and then resetting the 8U2.
·On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2 HWB line to ground,
making it easier to put into DFU mode.
The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another
Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the
board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, an .information file is required. The Arduino
software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the
Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via
the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on
pins 0 and 1). A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's
digital pins. The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes aWire library to simplify use of the I2C bus

CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

The project “smart garbage alert system using Arduino UNO” been successfully
designed and tested. It has been developed by integrating features of all the
hardware components used. Presence of every module has been reasoned out
and placed carefully thus contributing to the best working of the unit.
Secondly, using highly advanced IC’s and with the help of growing technology the
project has been successfully implemented.
 BIBLOGRAPHY

The 8051 Micro controller and embedded systems

Muhammad Ali Mazidi

Janice Gillispie Mazidi

The 8051 Micro controller Architecture, Programming & Applications

Kenneth J. Ayala

Fundamentals of Micro processors and Micro computers

B. Ram

Micro processor Architecture, Programming & Applications

 Ramesh S. Gaonkar

Electronic Components

D.V. Prasad

References on the Web:

www.national.com

www.atmel.com

www.microsoftsearch.com

www.geocities.com