learning curve :

A learning curve is the representation in graph form of the rate of learning something over time or repeated experiences.

Learning curves are a visualization of the difficulty estimated in learning a subject over a period of time as well as relative
progress throughout the process of learning. The learning curve provides a way to show a subject’s learnability.

Training is teaching, or developing in oneself or others, any skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies.
Training has specific goals of improving one's capability, capacity, productivity and performance. It forms the core
of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at institutes of technology (also known as technical colleges or
polytechnics). In addition to the basic training required for a trade, occupation or profession, observers of the labor-market
recognize as of 2008 the need to continue training beyond initial qualifications: to maintain, upgrade and update skills
throughout working life. People within many professions and occupations may refer to this sort of training as professional
development.

se study is a research methodology, typically seen in social and life sciences. There is no one definition of case study
research.1However, very simply… ‘a case study can be defined as an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit,
which is aimed to generalize over several units’. 1 A case study has also been described as an intensive, systematic investigation
of a single individual, group, community or some other unit in which the researcher examines in-depth data relating to several
variables
 A case study is a research methodology that has commonly used in social sciences.
 A case study is a research strategy and an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context.
 Case studies are based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group or event to explore the causes
of underlying principles.
 A case study is a descriptive and exploratory analysis of a person, group or event.
 A case study reserach can be single or multiple case studies, includes quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources
of evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoritical propositions.
 Case studies are analysis of persons, groups, events, decisions, periods, policies, institutions or other systems that are
studied holistically by one or more methods.

 Human Resource Development (HRD) is the framework for helping employees develop their personal and
organizational skills, knowledge, and abilities.

 HRD is one of the most significant opportunities that employees seek when they consider you as an employer. The
ability, and encouragement, to continue to develop their skills help you to retain and motivate employees.

 Human Resource Development includes such opportunities as employee training, employee career
development, performance management and development, coaching, mentoring, succession planning, key employee
identification, tuition assistance, and organization development.

 The focus of all aspects of Human Resource Development is on developing the most superior workforce so that the
organization and individual employees can accomplish their work goals in service to customers.

Career planning consists of activities and actions that you take to achieve your individual career goals. Career planning is the
ongoing process where you:

 Explore your interests and abilities;

 Strategically plan your career goals; and

 Create your future work success by designing learning and action plans to help you achieve your goals.

Management development is the overall concept that describes the many ways in which organizations help
employees develop their personal and organizational skills, either as managers in a management job or with an
eventual management job in mind.

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Coaching is a form of development in which a person called a coach supports a learner or client in achieving a specific personal or
professional goal by providing training and guidance. The learner is sometimes called a coachee.
An apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and
often some accompanying study. Apprenticeship also enables practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulated profession.
Briefly explain the principles of learning.
10 Basic Principles of Active Learning
These are not the only “10 Basic Principles” but they give a good idea of what Active Learning is about. The role of the adult is a
facilitator, providing the environment, making sure toys are accessible to the learner’s hands and feet, and not involved in the
act of playing until the end or invited.

1. Every One Can Learn

Lilli has met a very few learners that could not learn – they were dying. Unless impacted by survival, every child and older learner
can learn. It is up to the parent, therapist or educator to keep finding the right situation/environment with enough support,
responsiveness and interest to engage the learner.

2. Active Learning is Hands Off

Challenged learners often act passive and are treated as passive (everything is done for them). Active Learning involves creating
supportive and responsive environments that are tuned to entice a learner to become active. When Lilli realized that blind and
disabled learners often resisted any “guided hands” approach, she set about to create environments and situations that would
increase a learner’s inclination to explore on their own. This means the “teacher” must disengage and not talk nor prompt until
the activity is concluded. Kids learn through repetition (see #8)- don’t interrupt them.

3. Auditory and Tactile Primacy

Learners with vision impairments and neurological deficits rely upon hearing as a primary sense. Vision tends to be secondary,
owing to control and processing difficulties. Tactile sense is also a prominent sense.

4. Responsive Environment, Short Sessions

The environment should provide excellent auditory and tactile feedback (not just stimulation). Use of the Resonance Board
provides key vibratory input. The Essef Board provides optimal reaction to leg movements. The Little Room provides a warm
inviting echo and exploration chamber. As Lilli says, “if the child cannot go to the room, the room must come to the child.” Many
short sessions are better than one long one, especially when first using an environment.

5. Mix Variety and Constancy, Provide Comparisons

As anyone does, a learner benefits from moderated variety. That is, don’t change everything every time, but provide enough
variation so that the environment has interest. Also, provide “alike but different” objects to invite comparison. Cycling through a
large inventory of objects/toys allows for a rich, constantly interesting environment. Change some of the objects whenever the
learner shows habituation to the objects available.

6. Work up to Weight Bearing

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 Given the discomfort of bearing weight, provide support until the learner has some control, and slowing increase the weight
load. The Support Bench and HOPSA Dress are used to control weight on the legs. Start with no weight, toes barely touching.

7. Emotional Development Involves Mastery

It’s that smile of accomplishing something, doing something to their environment, rather than the environment doing it to them
that fosters a critical step in emotional development. Related to the Active vs. Passive learning, that “ see what I can do” smile is
a crucial goal.

8. Learning is by Repetition – Allow to fail

Kids learn by repetition. They must do something over and over to invoke memory and get the variations to make sense.
Therefore, allowing them to have negative results without intervention (e.g. without moving an object into their hand as they
miss on a reach) is as important as not interrupting with any cheerleading.

9. Talk and Reward at the End of Play

At the end of play is the time for the adult input, the language and commentary to describe what the learner was doing, and to
positively reinforce their activity. Point at and jiggle the objects and talk about what they did. Ask questions and use short
sentences. When a learner is ready and can engage in turn-taking games, then a new level has been achieved.

10. Limit Input, Wait for Response

As a general principle, remember that neurologically impacted learners usually need more time to take in, process and assemble
a response. If you ask a question, remain quiet as long as possible before asking something again, and try not to supply their
answer without some sign. This is always subject to judgment, as after a while the question may be forgotten. Repeat using the
exact same words, so additional processing to understand new input is not needed.

Discuss any five methods of on the job training.

1. On-the-job Training (OJT) Methods:
This is the most common method of training in which a trainee is placed on a specific job and taught the skills and knowledge
necessary to perform it.

The advantages of OJT are as follows:

1. On the job method is a flexible method.

2. It is a less expensive method.

3. The trainee is highly motivated and encouraged to learn.

4. Much arrangement for the training is not required.

On-the-job training methods are as follows:

1. Job rotation:

This training method involves movement of trainee from one job to another gain knowledge and experience from different job
assignments. This method helps the trainee understand the problems of other employees.

2. Coaching:

Under this method, the trainee is placed under a particular supervisor who functions as a coach in training and provides
feedback to the trainee. Sometimes the trainee may not get an opportunity to express his ideas.

3. Job instructions:

Also known as step-by-step training in which the trainer explains the way of doing the jobs to the trainee and in case of
mistakes, corrects the trainee.

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4. Committee assignments:

A group of trainees are asked to solve a given organizational problem by discussing the problem. This helps to improve team
work.

5. Internship training:

Under this method, instructions through theoretical and practical aspects are provided to the trainees. Usually, students from the
engineering and commerce colleges receive this type of training for a small stipend.

2. Off-the-job Methods:
On the job training methods have their own limitations, and in order to have the overall development of employee’s off-the-job
training can also be imparted. The methods of training which are adopted for the development of employees away from the
field of the job are known as off-the-job methods.

The following are some of the off-the-job techniques:

1. Case study method:

Usually case study deals with any problem confronted by a business which can be solved by an employee. The trainee is given
an opportunity to analyse the case and come out with all possible solutions. This method can enhance analytic and critical
thinking of an employee.

2. Incident method:

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Incidents are prepared on the basis of actual situations which happened in different organizations and each employee in the
training group is asked to make decisions as if it is a real-life situation. Later on, the entire group discusses the incident and
takes decisions related to the incident on the basis of individual and group decisions.

3. Role play:

In this case also a problem situation is simulated asking the employee to assume the role of a particular person in the situation.
The participant interacts with other participants assuming different roles. The whole play will be recorded and trainee gets an
opportunity to examine their own performance.

4. In-basket method:

The employees are given information about an imaginary company, its activities and products, HR employed and all data related
to the firm. The trainee (employee under training) has to make notes, delegate tasks and prepare schedules within a specified
time. This can develop situational judgments and quick decision making skills of employees.

5. Business games:

According to this method the trainees are divided into groups and each group has to discuss about various activities and
functions of an imaginary organization. They will discuss and decide about various subjects like production, promotion, pricing
etc. This gives result in co-operative decision making process.

6. Grid training:

It is a continuous and phased programme lasting for six years. It includes phases of planning development, implementation and
evaluation. The grid takes into consideration parameters like concern for people and concern for people.

7. Lectures:

This will be a suitable method when the numbers of trainees are quite large. Lectures can be very much helpful in explaining the
concepts and principles very clearly, and face to face interaction is very much possible.

8. Simulation:

Under this method an imaginary situation is created and trainees are asked to act on it. For e.g., assuming the role of a
marketing manager solving the marketing problems or creating a new strategy etc.
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 9. Management education:

At present universities and management institutes gives great emphasis on management education. For e.g., Mumbai University
has started bachelors and postgraduate degree in Management. Many management Institutes provide not only degrees but also
hands on experience having collaboration with business concerns.

10. Conferences:

A meeting of several people to discuss any subject is called conference. Each participant contributes by analyzing and discussing
various issues related to the topic. Everyone can express their own view point.

Describe the steps involved in the career planning

Five Steps to Career Planning

Step 1: Reflection and Self-Evaluation Step

The first step in career planning should be to gather information about yourself to assist in making a decision about a One
career.

Step 2: Exploration Step

The second step in career planning is to explore and research your options. Exploring takes your self-assessment a step Two
further by looking at your personal interests, skills, values, and work-life needs and narrowing down areas of possibilities.

Step 3: Decision-Making and Goal Setting Step

After having completed your self-assessment and explored your options you should be ready to make some career Three
decisions. The question now is how you will decide.

Step 4: Gaining Experience Step

Career related experience can help you develop the skills, abilities and knowledge to solidify your career goals. Four

Step 5: Implementation
This is the step in the process where you implement what you have learned and move forward towards a new job or
more advanced education. You should also continue to evaluate your options and make adjustments as needed.

Examine the need and importance of management development

Management development is important to businesses who want to take a proactive approach to growth. Training opportunities
increase employee retention and motivate employees, resulting in a knowledge and driven workforce. If your business is to
grow, you need to invest in the most asset, your employees, and upskilling is an essential growth strategy which can be
successfully initiated with our help.

Develop a culture of innovation

Your managers have a thorough knowledge of your business and they are some of the best-placed people to be suggested new
products, services or improvements. With training and confidence, you can develop a team of innovation managers, which will
ultimately lead the way in business improvement and product development.

Retain your best employees

Employees want to feel as though they are progressing in their chosen career path and improving their skill-set. Ensure you
invest in your employee’s professional development. If you fail to do so, this could lead to your employees leaving in search for
other opportunities. After all, if employees feel you are investing in their future, they will be more willing to remain where they
are, ultimately reducing your costs.

Gain competitive advantage

Maintaining a competitive advantage against your competition is vital. Ensure your managers are equipped with the essential
skill sin order to distinguish your business from competition. Whether it is a short intervention to instantly improve an individual
or a company-wide training programme, we are able to successful development your managers.

Management success

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 Management succession planning allows a business to keep moving forward when the inevitable occurs. Succession planning
encourages staff development and makes employees aware that you are serious about developing people. Having a successor
from within the company can also save time and expenses as well as aiding continuity.

Mention about the leader centered technique of management.

Leader-centered styles achieve organizational success through the self-realization and self-projection of the leader. These styles
are primarily found in organizations that rely on authority, specific directions and strict deadlines for success. These
organizations have top-down, hierarchical structures. They function in the way that the leader envisions. Employees are expected
to follow the leader’s directions. The question “why?” is answered with, “because I said so.” Examples of leader-centered styles
are authoritarian, transactional and charismatic leadership.

This is a complex process: effective leadership requires the leader’s qualities and skills to connect with people and their needs as
well as the needs of the leadership situation.
This complexity is reflected in the evolution of leadership theory over the past 80 years. Early leadership theories focused on the
qualities and behaviour of successful leaders.

Leadership theory evolved with greater understanding of the:

 Needs and expectations of people at work;

 Impact of different leadership styles on followers and how the attitudes, behaviour and competence of followers impact
leaders; and the
 Effectiveness of different leadership styles in different situations.
Later leadership theories recognise the needs of modern employees. Today’s leaders need to understand the increased
expectations of their people to be consulted and involved in decision-making, and to have the autonomy to achieve objectives
in the way they see as most effective.

The main approaches to leadership theory are:

The Qualities or Traits approach: leaders are born, not made; leadership consists of certain inherited personality traits or
qualities.
The Functional or Group approach: leadership can be learned and developed. Focuses on the accountabilities, responsibilities
and functions of the leader and the nature of the group. Examines how the leader’s behaviour affects and is affected by the
group of followers.
 One of the key theories of the functional approach is Adair's Action-Centred Leadership. This approach focuses on what
leaders do and the need to balance the needs of the individual, the task and the team.
Training and Development are complementary to each other. Explain
Training and development play an important role in the effectiveness of organisations and to the experiences of people in work.
Training has implications for productivity, health and safety at work and personal development. All organisations employing people
need to train and develop their staff. Most organisations are cognisant of this requirement and invest effort and other resources in
training and development. Such investment can take the form of employing specialist training and development staff and paying
salaries to staff undergoing training and development. Investment in training and development entails obtaining and maintaining
space and equipment. It also means that operational personnel, employed in the organisation's main business functions, such as
production, maintenance, sales, marketing and management support, must also direct their attention and effort from time to time
towards supporting training development and delivery. This means they are required to give less attention to activities that are
obviously more productive in terms of the organisation's main business. However, investment in training and development is
generally regarded as good management practice to maintain appropriate expertise now and in the future.
Training and development is vital part of the human resource development. It is assuming ever important role in wake of
the advancement of technology which has resulted in ever increasing competition, rise in customer’s expectation of quality and
service and a subsequent need to lower costs. It is also become more important globally in order to prepare workers for new
jobs. In the current write up, we will focus more on the emerging need of training and development, its implications upon
individuals and the employers.

Noted management author Peter Drucker said that the fastest growing industry would be training and development as a result
of replacement of industrial workers with knowledge workers. In United States, for example, according to one estimate
technology is de-skilling 75 % of the population. This is true for the developing nations and for those who are on the threshold
of development. In Japan for example, with increasing number of women joining traditionally male jobs, training is required not
only to impart necessary job skills but also for preparing them for the physically demanding jobs. They are trained in everything
from sexual harassment policies to the necessary job skills.

The need for Training and Development

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 Before we say that technology is responsible for increased need of training inputs to employees, it is important to understand
that there are other factors too that contribute to the latter. Training is also necessary for the individual development and
progress of the employee, which motivates him to work for a certain organisation apart from just money. We also require
training update employees of the market trends, the change in the employment policies and other things.

The following are the two biggest factors that contribute to the increased need to training and development in organisations:

1. Change: The word change encapsulates almost everything. It is one of the biggest factors that contribute to the need
of training and development. There is in fact a direct relationship between the two. Change leads to the need for
training and development and training and development leads to individual and organisational change, and the cycle
goes on and on. More specifically it is the technology that is driving the need; changing the way how businesses
function, compete and deliver.

2. Development: It is again one the strong reasons for training and development becoming all the more important.
Money is not the sole motivator at work and this is especially very true for the 21st century. People who work with
organisations seek more than just employment out of their work; they look at holistic development of self. Spirituality
and self awareness for example are gaining momentum world over. People seek happiness at jobs which may not be
possible unless an individual is aware of the self. At ford, for example, an individual can enrol himself / herself in a
course on ‘self awareness’, which apparently seems inconsequential to ones performance at work but contributes to the
spiritual well being of an individual which is all the more important.

The critical question however remains the implications and the contribution of training and development to the bottom line of
organisations performance. To assume a leadership position in the market space, an organisation will need to emphasise on the
kind of programs they use to improvise performance and productivity and not just how much they simply spend on learning!

How training needs are determined? Explain various methods available and their relative merits.
how should an organization best determine its training needs? Here are eight ideas to consider:

1. First, ask your workforce. Your front line employees, supervisors and managers live the day-to-day problems and challenge
areas of your business. Front line folks interact with your organization’s customers and must defend against your competitors.
Because of their ground-level exposure, they can help you identify areas in which training is most needed. Balance this input
with what you learn from your industry’s associations and discussion boards, other senior leaders, your customers and your
suppliers.
2. Define your need area(s). Once you believe you have identified a need area in which your organization should be trained or
developed, define the need area with specifics. Can you validate that the need exists? What could excellence in this area do for
your organization? How will excellence impact your organization’s overall KPIs (key performance indicators)?
3. Analyze and assess your current state. In addition to traditional analysis, use an assessment. You can find an assessment
today that will measure just about anything, from technical skills to soft skills, from leadership competencies to attitudes, and
from behavioral tendencies to teaming skills, and everything in between. Look for instruments that are research-backed and will
reliably measure the specific area(s) you identify. A good assessment should provide comparative norms against which you
could benchmark your organization, and then measure individual’s progress following training.
4. Develop your plan. Effective training and development should change behaviors and performance, so it is never something
into which to enter without a plan. With Step 3’s benchmark in hand, establish your goals and objectives that describe where
you want to be, and when you want to be there. Determine the resources you will need. Think about what can go wrong during
the execution of your plan and develop contingency plans. Focus on measurable outcomes that result from employees
successfully applying on what they have learned.
5. Engage experts. Face it – if you had the expertise in house already, then you would not have the gaps in performance,
knowledge and/or behaviors! Instead, you need the expertise of outside resources with a proven track record of helping clients
succeed. The good ones will help you design your plan and may recommend assessments and tools that will help you
benchmark and measure progress. The best ones will help you to become self-sufficient (note to self: beware of those
organizations that want to perpetually train you).
6. Train your leaders first. Always train your leaders first. Leaders should model the new skills and behaviors themselves. And
they must know the training well enough to accurately observe performance, reinforce the training, and coach employees who
are trying to apply and master the training. Effective leaders schedule observation time to follow up training, and have the
necessary tools to provide formal and informal feedback to employees. Unless management observation and feedback is
intentional, what is learned will not be retained and the organization will have wasted the opportunity and resources spent on a
training program.
7. Train your staff and institutionalize the training. The most effective training programs are those which follow this sage
advice: Never do for the learner what the learner should do for himself. The learner will only master a skill or behavior through

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 repeated application. Repetition is the heart of learning, so what is learned during the training must be reinforced in the days,
weeks, and months following the training.
8. Catch them doing it right. Leaders should plan on catching their people correctly applying the training and provide
immediate feedback to encourage continued use and development. An excellent practice following training is to dedicate a
portion of staff meetings for employee discussion and skills reinforcement. Recognize those staffers who have done well in
applying what was learned. Finally, remember that people don’t always do what you expect, but they do what you inspect.

Write an essay on transaction analysis. How does it assist managers development as a programme.
When people transact and exchange ideas and information, they are either comfortable or uncomfortable communicating with
each other. Transactional analysis is a technique which helps to understand the behaviour of other person so that
communication becomes effective. Understanding human behaviour helps to motivate, guide and direct other persons.

Transactional Analysis (TA), thus, facilitates communication. TA studies transactions amongst people and understands their
interpersonal behaviour. It was developed by Eric Berne, a psychotherapist. He observed there are several ‘people’ inside each
person who interact with other people in different ways.

To understand TA, one should understand the following:

1. Ego States,

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2. Life Position and

3. Analysis of Transactions.

1. Ego States:

It represents a person’s way of thinking, feeling and behaving. There are three ego states present in everyone: child, parent and
adult. They are related to behaviour of a person and not his age. However, they are present in every person in varying degrees.
There may be more of one ego state than another at a specific point of time. When two persons communicate with each other,
communication is affected by their ego states. These are;

(a) Child ego:

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Child behaviour reflects a person’s response to communicate in the form of joy, sorrow, frustration or curiosity. These are the
natural feelings that people learn as children. It reflects immediate action and immediate satisfaction. It reflects childhood
experience of a person gained generally up to the age of five years.

A child can be:

(i) Natural child:
He is naturally curious, joyous or scornful. He does what comes his way naturally.

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(ii) Adaptive child:

He reacts the way his parents want him to react. He is trained to act.

(iii)Rebellious child:
He has the experience of fear, frustration and anger.

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(b) Parent Ego:

Parent behaviour is acquired through external environment. As young children, their parents’ behaviour remains embedded in
their minds which is reflected as parental ego when they grow up. It usually reflects protection, displeasure, reference to rules
and working on the basis of past precedents.
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This can be:
(i) Nurturing parent ego:
As nurturing parents, managers praise good performance of the workers. They interact with them and help them during times of
distress. They reflect nurturing behaviour towards others.

(ii) Negative or critical parent ego:

As critical parents, managers criticize or ignore poor performance of the workers rather than help them to improve. They have a
critical attitude while interacting with others.

(c) Adult ego:

Adult behaviour reflects the ability to analyse the situation and take logical decisions. He overcomes the emotional feelings and
takes decisions based on facts and figures. This state is based upon reasoning, thinking, experience, rationality and discussion
based on facts.

It updates the parental ego to determine what is right and wrong and child ego to determine what feelings to express and what
not to express. These ego states are present in all human beings at some time or the other. People respond to different
situations in different ways depending on their ego state.

2. Life Position:

Behaviour of a person depends upon his experience at different stages of his life. He develops a philosophy towards work from
early childhood which becomes part of his identity and remains with him for lifetime unless some external factor changes it.
These positions are called life time positions.
They fall into four categories:
(a) I am OK, You are OK.

(b) I am OK, You are not OK.

(c) I am not OK, You are OK.

(d) I am not OK, You are not OK.

(a) I am OK, You are OK:

This life position represents adult ego of a person. It becomes the philosophy of a person who has good and positive
experiences with others. They feel confident about themselves and others. Managers with this life position believe in give and
take. They are competent to take decisions and also allow others to participate in the decision-making processes. They delegate
authority and express confidence and consistency in others. They are not threatened by others and express freely what they
want to express.

(b) I am OK, You are not OK:

This life position represents parent ego of a person who is brought up as a rebellious child. They have critical attitude towards
others. They believe whatever they do is right and blame others for their wrong acts. This usually happens when a person is
ignored as a child.

Managers with this life position have critical attitude towards others. They find faults with others and lack trust, faith and
confidence in them. They believe whatever they do is right and, therefore, do not delegate tasks to others.

(c) lam not OK, You are OK:

This life position represents a state of distrust in the person himself. He lacks confidence in whatever he does. He believes he
cannot do things that people around him can do and, therefore, keeps grumbling most of the times about something or the
other.

Managers with this life position are usually not good managers. They do not perform well, have an erratic behaviour, feel guilty
for their acts and often use excuses to act against others.

(d) I am not OK, You are not OK:

This life position represents a desperate state of persons who have lost interest in life. They have been brought up as neglected
children and, therefore, have negative attitude towards life. In extreme situations, they may even commit suicide. Managers with

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this life position do not believe in themselves and others. They make mistakes in work, do not make proper decisions and also
do not believe in decisions made by others.

One of these life positions dominates every person at a point of time. The optimum position is ‘I am OK, You are OK where a
person believes in himself and others. It represents an adult- adult transaction and a psychologically matured state of mind. This
position can be achieved through education and managers should try to reach this stage through training and development
programmes in their interest and interest of the organisation.

3. Analysis of Transactions:

When two persons interact or communicate with each other, there is a transaction between them. While transacting, both of
them are at different ego states.

Based on the ego states, two types of transactions can take place:
(a) Complementary and

(b) Crossed.

(a) In complementary transactions, sender of information gets an expected response from the receiver.

People get expected response from each other because both are in the expected ego states. Both are, therefore, satisfied and
communication is complete. In complementary transactions, ego states of two persons are parallel to each other. Stimulus and
response patterns are as predicted.

There can be nine types of complementary transactions:

adult – adult Parent – parent child – child

adult – parent Parent – child child – parent

adult – child Parent – adult child – adult

(b) In crossed transactions, sender gets unexpected response from the receiver which obstructs the process of communication.
Stimulus – response lines are not parallel in these transactions. Rather, they cross each other. The person who initiates the
transaction or creates a stimulus gets a response he does not expect.

If manager acts as adult but the employee responses as child, the communication process will get blocked. Either the manager
will come down to the level of child or try to make the employee behave as an adult so that communication is resumed.

For example, a manager says to his employee “you misbehaved with your colleague yesterday and I don’t expect this behaviour
to be repeated.” The communication represents parent ego of the manager and child ego of the worker. The worker, rather than
being apologetic, responds, “I did not do anything wrong. I shall not apologies.”

This is an unexpected behaviour where the parent of the worker talks to the child of the manager.

This transaction appears like this:

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 When parent ego of manager talks to child ego of the worker and child ego of the worker talks back to parent ego of the
manager, communication is effective but where egos get crossed, communication breakdown takes place. The above interaction
between manager and worker would have been effective if the worker had said, “I am sorry sir, I’ll take care not to behave like
this again.”

This would appear like this:

By proper understanding of one’s own ego state and that of the other, communication barriers on account of behavioural mal-
adjustments can be reduced. Transaction Analysis transforms negative attitude of people into positive attitude. It changes
failure, fear and defeat to victory, optimism and courage. It makes people strong and directed towards positive thinking.

It improves interpersonal relationships amongst people by understanding their ego states. Crossed transactions can be
converted into complementary transactions and communication process can be improved. People will be more comfortable
interacting with each other. This will improve effectiveness of the organisation.

Positive thinking and complementary transactions help to understand human needs and improve motivation. People can
perform jobs which give them positive energy. It focuses more on intrinsic satisfaction than extrinsic satisfaction.

It also changes the managerial style from autocratic to participative by changing the life position from ‘I am OK, You are not OK’
to ‘I am OK, You are OK. It makes people move from Theory X assumptions of McGregor’s motivational theory to Theory Y
assumptions. This is beneficial for the employees and organisation as a whole.

he conference method is an approach to cost estimation that pools together data, analyses, and knowledge from expert sources in
order to make decisions about costs. In other words, this method looks at several different parts of an organization to get different
perspectives about how to estimate costs.
Job rotation is a strategy where employees rotatebetween jobs at the same business. Employees take on new tasks at a
different job for a period of time before rotating back to their original position. With ajob rotation system, employees gain
experience and skills by taking on new responsibilities.
Organization development (OD) is the study of successful organizational change and performance. OD emerged from human
relations studies in the 1930s, during which psychologists realized thatorganizational structures and processes influence worker
behavior and motivation.
OD process steps?
Organizational Development Process: 7 Steps

he seven major steps in the organisational development process, i.e, (1) Initial Diagnosis, (2) Data Collection, (3) Data
Feed
Back, (4) Planning Strategy, (5) Intervention, (6) Team Building, and (7) Evaluation.

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1. Initial Diagnosis of the Problem:

In the first step, the management should try to find out an overall view of the situation to find the real problem. Top
management should meet the consultants and the experts to determine the type of programme that is needed. In the first stage
only, the consultants will meet various persons in the organisation and interview them to collect some information.

2. Data Collection:

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In this stage, the consultant will make the surveys to determine the climate of the organisation and the behavioural problems of
the employees.

The consultant will meet groups of people away from their work environment to get some answers to the questions
such as:
(i) What specific job conditions contribute most to their job effectiveness?

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(ii) What kind of conditions interferes with their job effectiveness?

(iii) What changes would they like to make in the working of the organisation?

3. Data Feedback and Confrontation:

The data which has been collected in the second step will be given to the work groups, who will be assigned the job of reviewing
the data. Any areas of disagreement will be mediated among themselves only and priorities will be established for change.

4. Planning Strategy for Change:

In this stage, the consultant will suggest the strategy for change. He will attempt to transform diagnosis of the problem into a
proper action plan involving the overall goals for change, determination of basic approach for attaining these goals and the
sequence of detailed scheme for implementing the approach.

5. Intervening in the System:

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Intervening in the system refers to the planned programmed activities during the course of an OD programme. These planned
activities bring certain changes in the system, which is the basic objective of OD. There may be various methods through which
external consultant intervene in the system such as education and laboratory training, process consultation, team development
etc.
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6. Team Building:

During the entire process, the consultant encourages the groups to examine how they work together. The consultant will
educate them about the value of free communication and trust as essentials for group functioning. The consultant can have
team managers and their subordinates to work together as a team in OD sessions to further encourage team building. Following
the development of small groups, there may be development among larger groups comprising several teams.

7. Evaluation:

OD is a very long process. So there is a great need for careful monitoring to get precise feedback regarding what is going on
after the OD programme starts. This will help in making suitable modifications whenever necessary. For evaluation of OD
programme, the use of critique sessions, appraisal of change efforts and comparison of pre and post training behavioural
patterns are quite effective.

The steps in OD are part of a whole process, so all of them need to be applied if a firm expects to get the full benefits of OD. An
organisation which applies only a few steps and leaves the others will be disappointed with the results.

Elaborate on the role and functions of Training Institutes in India. SECTION–C (1×15

Despite being world’s youngest country in terms of demographic dividend, India has only 2% of the workforce skilled compared
with 96% in South Korea, 45% in China, 50-55% in USA & 74% in Germany. All these years, we focussed on building Higher
Education and very little did we think of enhancing the Employability Quotient (EQ) and produce skilled manpower through skill
training Interventions.

Indian Education sector has seen rapid growth in nos. of Institutions and students over last few decades. As per UGC report, in
1950-51 there were approx. 750 colleges affiliated to 30 universities, which has grown to over 727 universities, 35000 colleges &
13000 standalone Institutions in 2014-15 and counting.

Regardless of the tremendous growth, higher education has not proved too efficient to make youths of the country employable
as per need of the employer due to low Skill Quotient (SQ).

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 In today’s world of Globalisation, Skill Training is an Integral component of increasing efficiency & productivity for sound
economic development of any economy, In India, it’s still at a nascent stage, however the demand for skilled manpower is huge
and to cover this gap, it is very pertinent to re-engineer the skill ecosystem.

As India paves its path to be a Global Economic Powerhouse, it is imperative to equip its working population with employability
skills. Today, India is one of the youngest country in the world with more than 62% of the population in the working age group
(15-59 years) and more than 54% of the total population below 25 years of age.

Skill based learning focuses on increasing employability through series of inputs to:

 Equip students with appropriate hands-on skills which helps them to be job- ready.

 Core focus on job role based skills leads to comprehensive specialisation, thereby increasing efficacy of the candidate.

Skill Training interventions raises confidence, improves productivity & competency of an individual through focussed outcome
based learning.

In 2014, Skill Development started getting booster from the Govt. under the visionary leadership of our Hon’ble Prime Minister,
Shri. Narendra Modi-he encouraged Skill India Mission and also formed Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship Skill
(MSDE) to coordinate all skill development activities, capacity & technical/ vocational training framework building, assessments
framework. The Ministry is dedicated to skill 400 million workforce by 2022.

MSDE has launched Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) which is the flagship outcome- based skill training scheme,
the objective of this skill certification and reward scheme is to enable & mobilise a large no. of Indian youths to take up outcome
based skill training & become employable and earn their livelihood.

National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) is a central nodal agency under MSDE responsible to build strong skill training
capability through funding training partners.

NSDC has been working to define and align all the training nationally under National Skill Qualification Pack (NSQF) as defined
in the National Skill Development Policy which aims at bringing standardised ecosystem well- recognised by the industry across
the Globe.

India is poised to standout as one of the Skilled nations in coming years and it’s time for Higher Education & Skill Training to
exists in same space with seamless Integration as part of curriculum. To enable this, it is very important for the Industry and
Academia to work together to generate focussed hands- on candidates with right blend of learning and employability traits.

How are lectures different form Conferences?

Conferences tend to be the largest events vs. smaller workshops and seminars. They can number anywhere between fifty attendees
to thousands of attendees, and the largest may host even more visitors that that. You'll come across both national and international
conferences – national conferences are typically attended primarily by people living within the country which is hosting the event,
while international conferences can attract visitors from all over the world.
A lecture is an oral presentation intended to present information or teach people about a particular subject, for example by a
university or college teacher. Lectures are used to convey critical information, history, background, theories, and equation
Discuss the different self-learning techniques that may be appropriate for the employees of Indian Manufacturing Organisations.

Learning independently can be challenging, even for the brightest and most motivated students. As a means of better
understanding the processes involved in this mode of study, this Teaching Tip outlines key components of four key stages to
independent learning, known as self-directed learning: being ready to learn, setting learning goals, engaging in the learning
process, and evaluating learning.

Step 1: Assess readiness to learn

Students need various skills and attitudes towards learning for successful independent study. This step involves students
conducting a self-evaluation of their current situation, study habits, family situation, and support network both at school and at
home and also involves evaluating past experiences with independent learning. For a detailed Learning Skills Assessment Tool,

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read our Readiness to LearnTeaching Tip. Signs of readiness for self-directed learning include being autonomous, organised,
self-disciplined, able to communicate effectively, and able to accept constructive feedback and engage in self-evaluation and
self-reflection.

Step 2: Set learning goals

Communication of learning goals between a student and the advising instructor is critical. We've developed a set of questions
for students to consider as they map out their learning goals: our Unit Planning Decision Guide). Also critical in developing a
clear understanding of learning goals between students and instructors are learning contracts. Learning contracts generally
include:

 Goals for the unit of study

 Structure and sequence of activities

 Timeline for completion of activities

 Details about resource materials for each goal

 Details about grading procedures

 Feedback and evaluation as each goal is completed

 Meeting plan with the advising instructor

 Agreement of unit policies, such as a policy on late assignments

Once created, contracts should be assessed by the advising faculty member and questions about feasibility should be raised
(e.g., What could go wrong? Is there too much or too little work? Is the timeline and evaluation reasonable?).

Step 3: Engage in the learning process

Students need to understand themselves as learners in order to understand their needs as self-directed learning students —
referring students to our resource on learning preferences may be helpful. Students should also consider answering the
following questions:

 What are my needs re: instructional methods?

 Who was my favourite teacher? Why?

 What did they do that was different from other teachers? Students should reflect on these questions throughout their
program and substitute “teacher” with “advising instructor”

Students also need to understand their approach to studying:

 A deep approach to studying involves transformation and is ideal for self-directed learning. This approach is
about understanding ideas for yourself, applying knowledge to new situations and using novel examples to explain a
concept, and learning more than is required for unit completion.

 A surface approach involves reproduction: coping with unit requirements, learning only what is required to complete a
unit in good standing, and tending to regurgitate examples and explanations used in readings.

 A strategic approach involves organization: achieving the highest possible grades, learning what is required to pass
exams, memorizing facts, and spending time practicing from past exams.

Earlier academic work may have encouraged a surface or strategic approach to studying. These approaches will not be sufficient
(or even appropriate) for successful independent study. Independent study requires a deep approach to studying, in which

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 students must understand ideas and be able to apply knowledge to new situations. Students need to generate their own
connections and be their own motivators.

Step 4: Evaluate learning

For students to be successful in self-directed learning, they must be able to engage in self-reflection and self-evaluation of their
learning goals and progress in a unit of study. To support this self-evaluation process, they should:

 regularly consult with the advising instructor,

 seek feedback, and

 engage in reflection of their achievements, which involves asking:

o How do I know I’ve learned?

o Am I flexible in adapting and applying knowledge?

o Do I have confidence in explaining material?

o When do I know I’ve learned enough?

o When is it time for self-reflection and when is it time for consultation with the advising faculty member?

Sensitivity training is a form of training with the goal of making people more aware of their own goals as well as their prejudices,
and more sensitive to others and to the dynamics of group interaction.

Psychodrama is an action method, often used as a psychotherapy, in which clients use spontaneous dramatization, role playing,
and dramatic self-presentation to investigate and gain insight into their lives. [1]

Developed by Jacob L. Moreno, psychodrama includes elements of theater, often conducted on a stage, or a space that serves as
a stage area, where props can be used. A psychodrama therapy group, under the direction of a licensed psychodramatist,
reenacts real-life, past situations (or inner mental processes), acting them out in present time. Participants then have the
opportunity to evaluate their behavior, reflect on how the past incident is getting played out in the present and more deeply
understand particular situations in their lives. [2]
Psychodrama offers a creative way for an individual or group to explore and solve personal problems. It may be used in a variety
of clinical and community-based settings; in which, other group members (audience) are invited to become therapeutic agents
(stand-ins) to populate the scene of one client.

Brainstorming is a group creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a
list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its members.
Draft a step-by-step procedure that has to be followed in implementing the following student centred techniques. (a) Brain-
storming (b) Sensitivity Training (c) Psycho Drama

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An in-basket test or an in-basket exercise is a test used by companies and governments in hiring and promoting employees.
During the test, job applicants receive a number of mails, telephone calls, documents and memos.

Examine the Government policy on training.

Examine the Government policy on training.
It will aim to provide an umbrella framework to all skilling activities being carried out within the country, to align them to common
standards and link the skilling with demand centres. In addition to laying down the objectives and expected outcomes, the effort will
also be to identify the various institutional frameworks which can act as the vehicle to reach the expected outcomes. The national
policy will also provide clarity and coherence on how skill development efforts across the country can be aligned within the existing
institutional arrangements.This policy will link skills development to improved employability and productivity.
he mission of the OPM Training and Executive Development Group is to design policy and programs to ensure the
Government's learning and development efforts support strategic human capital investments in Leadership, Knowledge and
Talent Management. We do this through the:

 Development of policy frameworks and flexibilities to establish Government-wide systems to support effective learning
and development programs in the agencies, particularly leadership development programs for managers and
executives;

 Promulgation of flexible policies and strategic Government-wide advice and guidance to implement systems to support
employee learning and development and leadership employee engagement strategies.

We also provide technical advice on complex Governmentwide HRD issues to help Federal agencies develop and implement
their management programs with desired mission results.

difference between micro and macro levels

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 Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
MICROECONOMICS MACROECONOMICS
COMPARISON

Meaning The branch of economics that studies the The branch of economics that studies the behavior
behavior of an individual consumer, firm, of the whole economy, (both national and
family is known as Microeconomics. international) is known as Macroeconomics.

Deals with Individual economic variables Aggregate economic variables

Business Applied to operational or internal issues Environment and external issues

Application

Scope Covers various issues like demand, supply, Covers various issues like, national income,
product pricing, factor pricing, production, general price level, distribution, employment,
consumption, economic welfare, etc. money etc.

Importance Helpful in determining the prices of a Maintains stability in the general price level and
product along with the prices of factors of resolves the major problems of the economy like
production (land, labor, capital, inflation, deflation, reflation, unemployment and
entrepreneur etc.) within the economy. poverty as a whole.

Limitations It is based on unrealistic assumptions, i.e. In It has been analyzed that 'Fallacy of Composition'
microeconomics it is assumed that there is involves, which sometimes doesn't proves true
a full employment in the society which is because it is possible that what is true for
not at all possible. aggregate may not be true for individuals too.

. Explain the components of Managerial Development Programs.

4 important components of a management development programme are as given below:
1. Ascertaining development needs:

These needs call for an evaluation of the future growth. This will include the expansion policies of the organisation as well as the
competitive situation the organisation is in, as far as the managerial techniques are concerned.

2. An appraisal of present management talent:

This would include a complete and comprehensive file on each manager with his talents, his potential for growth. An objective
analysis of his personal traits is also made.

3. Planning of individual development programmes:

Individual attention is paid and each development programme is tailor made to meet the needs of different individuals, keeping
in view their differences in their attitudes and behaviour and in their physical, emotional and intellectual qualities.

In general, some comprehensive development programmes are prepared in the form of concentrated brief courses and these
courses may be in the field of human relations, creative thinking, time and motion studies, memory training decision making,
leadership development etc.

4. Evaluation of development programmes:

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 The evaluation of the effects of these training programmes is an attempt to obtain feedback on the effects of the training
programme and to assess the value of the training in the light of this feedback. This evaluation is helpful because:

(i) It discloses the relevance of the programmes to an organisation's needs.

(ii) It reveals whether the programmes have contributed to the effectiveness of an organisation.

(iii) It ascertains whether the programmes be continued, modified or placed.

Measure the relative effectiveness of Training Techniques.

The goal of training measurement is to deliver useful information for decision-making. You must collect consistent, repeatable data
so you can make meaningful comparisons of programs, audiences, instructors, delivery methods and other factors. The most
practical approach is through standardized, end-of-program assessments for learners and their managers. At Eaton University,
KPMG and AT&T, learners must complete standard, end-of-course assessments that include satisfaction and effectiveness measures.
The organization can then plot trends over time to identify well-designed programs and problem areas.

Use Job-Impact Indicators

One of the most important measures of a well-designed program is direct impact on job performance (called Kirkpatrick Level
3). A simple and powerful approach to measuring job impact is to use a series of standard assessments such as: How much
impact did this training program have on your job? (standard numeric ranges); how well can you apply the skills and knowledge
you received in this program on the job? (standard numeric ranges); what are the biggest obstacles that will prevent you from
using these skills and knowledge on the job? (multiple choice answers).

These indicators will give you significant understanding of how the program is used and applied. As KPMG Canada discovered,
many learning programs rated high for learning impact do not score nearly as well on job impact.

As you apply standardized assessments, you might find one program with a slightly lower satisfaction or effectiveness rating
than another. Don’t jump to conclusions based on a single score. You must do additional analysis to understand which programs
succeed, which fail, and why.

If you want to quantify the business benefit of training, you must collect quantitative data upfront. Randstadt uses a simple
approach. Every organization that requests a learning program must submit a training request form. If a business manager has a
$5 million problem in processing errors and a training program scores 80 percent in effectiveness, the program likely returned
approximately $3 to $4 million in savings.

Collect Business Measures

If your organization collects consistent business metrics, you can use this information for trend analysis. The data will not tell you
the precise impact of training, but when analyzed over time, you can draw inferences about training impact. For instance, Merck
measures sales-rep effectiveness through fieldtrip reports managers complete. The reports are used to identify field problems
and training needs. Subsequent reports indicate whether behaviors change after training.

Assign a Dedicated Resource

Organizations that excel at measurement have assigned individuals to own the measurement process and supervise reporting.
Program managers and consultants cannot be expected to create a companywide approach, develop the right assessments or
collect and analyze data on a consistent basis. A dedicated employee can do the research, evaluate tools and identify best
practices.

If you focus on building a consistent, reliable and easy-to-analyze process using the principles above, you will find yourself with
valuable, credible information that will support important decision-making

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