SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS Self-actualization (Top)

Structuralism - Morality
- First school of psychology - Creativity
- Focused on breaking down process - Spontaneity
- Wilhelm Wundt - Problem solving
Functionalism - Lack of prejudice
- As a reaction to structuralism - Acceptance of facts
- William James Esteem ( 2nd)
Behaviorism - Self esteem
- Became dominant school of thoughts - Confidence
during 1950’s - Achievement
- John Watsons - Respect of others
- Ivan Pavlov - Respect by others
- B.F skinner Love/ belonging (3rd)
- All behavior can explained by - Friendship
environmental causes, rather than by - Family
internal forces - Sexual intimacy
- Focusing on observable behavior Safety (4rth)
Cognitivism - Security of body, employment,
- Studies mental processes, including resources, morality, the family, health,
how people think, perceive, remember, property
learn Physiological (5fth)
- Related in to other disciplines - Breathing, sleep, homeostasis
neuroscience, philosophy, and - Food, excretion
linguistics - Water
- John Piaget - Sex
Gestalt HERIDETARY AND GENETICS
- Gestalt psychology that you must look at Chromosome (46)
the whole experience Autosomes (22 pairs)
- The whole is greater than the sum of its Gnosome (1 pair determine the gender)
part Mitosis – Splitting of cells
Meiosis- division of chromosomes
Gonads- develop mature and
Humanism reproductive cells
- Abraham Moslow and carl rogers Gametes- one of the cells that join
- Develop as a response to together
psychoanalysis and behaviorism Geno type- recessive genes
- Focused on individual free will, personal Phenotype- dominant genes
growth, and self-actualization
Moslow hierarchy of needs
 Chromosomal abnormalities Sensation and perception
Down syndrome Sensation
- Trisomy of the 21st pair of autosomes - For survival
Turner syndrome - and respond to the various events
- 45 chromosomes 2 function of stimulation
- One chromosomes is missing if only x - receiving information called sensation
chromosomes - receive information and past
Kline felters syndrome experiences called perception
- 47 chromosomes 2 factors
- Xxy - STIMULUS- any kind of energy capable
- 1 every 1000 male of exciting light waves sound and
Xyy or super male syndrome chemical energy taste and smell.
- 47 chromosomes - RECEPTORS – responding to energy
- Xyy Senses
Cell development - Convert stimulus energy into neutral
Zygote energy
- Fertilization up to two weeks 5 primary senses
Embryo - Vision
- 2 weeks up to 2 months - Hearing
Fetus - Smell
- 2 months up to birth - Taste
Illussions - Skin senses
- Defined as perception which is common Structure of the eye
but usually defined mistaken - Approximately one inch
Hallucination 3 layers of the eye
- An experience involving the apparent 1. The outer coat ( sclera)
perception of something not present - Opaque layer
Types of hallucination - Protector of the inner structure
- Auditory - Helps to retain the shape of the eye.
- Visual 2. The middle coat ( Choroid )
- Gastatory ( taste) - Pigmented layer that contain blood
- Tactile (touch) vessels
Agnosia - Absorb imperpectly light rays
- Can cause ability to recognize face, - Central opening of the iris
sound, places etc. - It is responsible to light or dark
adaptation and accomodation
Factors 3. The inner layer ( retina)
- Obesity, smoking, age - Receptor in the eye that contains
3 main types of agnosia 115,000,000 rods
- Visual, auditory, tacting - These are light sensitive cells
 Rods  Restibular canal
- Transfer information to the brain Hearing defects
movement white, gray, and black 1. Conduction deafness
Cones 2. Nerve deafness
- Function is bright light and provide
information on movement black, white The human nose
dimension. - 5 square milimiters of olfactory
How we see epithelium
Cornea pupil iris retina - Olfactory bulbs
Defects of vision - Olfactory nerve
1. Presbyopia The human skin
2. Hyperopia - Has 4 separate senses
3. Near sightedness or myopia  Pain
4. Astigmatism  Pressure
5. Color blindness  Coldness
Stimulus of hearing  Warmth
- Human ear can register a frequency of - Has 7 layers
16 up to 20000 per second  Epidermis
3 dimension that describe sound  Dermis
stimulus
 Blodd vessels
1. Intensity
 Muscle layer
2. Frequensy
 Fascia superficialis
3. Complexity
 Fat cells
Loudness, pitch, timbre
3 parts of the ear  Nerve fat
1. The outer ear Anosmia
- Visible part of the ear - Partial or complete loss of sense of
- It composed of pinna, the auditory smell
Pancreas
canal, and tympanic membrane
Glucagon
2. The middle ear
- Convert sugar into blood sugar
- Air filled chamber
Insulin
- It compose of 3 small bones ossicles
- Reduces amount of blood sugar
 The malleus (hammer)
Biological basis of human behavior
 The incus (anvil)
Nervous system
 The stapes (stirrup)
- The network of nerve cells and fibers
3. The inner ear
which transmits nerve impulse between
- Has cochlea and canals
parts of the body.
- There are 3 canals in cohlea
 Cochlear canal
 Tympanic canal
 2 parts of nervous system  Auditory
1. Central nervous system  Memory
2. Peripheral nervous system  Speech
Central nervous system Cerebellum
Brain - It regulates motor movement
- Largest most complex organs - Posture, balance, coordination, and
- 100 billion nerve synapse- trillion of speech
connections Diencephalon
Spinal cord 2 structures of diencephalon
- Long fragile tube 1. Thalamus
6 main section of the brain - Direct sensory impulse to the cerebrum
 Cerebrum 2. Hypothalamus
 Cerebellum - Controls and regulates temperature,
 Diencephalon appetite, water balance, sleep and blood
 Midbrain vessels.
 Pons 4 parts of diencephalon
 Medulla oblongata  Hypothalamus
Cerebrum  Right thalamus
- Is the most largest part  Left thalamus
- It is responsible for voluntary function  Cerebellum
- Process information from our sense Mid – brain
organs - Important function in motor movement
2 hemispheres of the cerebrum - Movement of the eye
 Right - Auditory and visual
 Left Pons
4 lobes of the cerebrum - Upper part of brain stem
- Frontal lobe - Controls breathing and communication
 Reasoning to other parts
 Planning Medulla oblongata
 Speech - Lowest part
 Movement - Heart and blood vessels function
 Emotion - Digestion
 Problem solving - Respiration
- Parietal lobe - Swallowing
 Perception - Coughing
 Movement - Sneezing, blood pressure
Spinal cord
- Occipital lobe
- Link between the brain and nerve of the
 Visual processing
whole body
- Temporal lobe
-
 4 region of the spinal cord
 Cervical
- Neck area, entry and exit port of
extensive sensory
 Thoracic
- Mid back area, contains cells bodies,
efferent sympathetic nerve smooth
muscles as a neuron.
 Lumbar
- Lower back entry, innervation from
lower limits
 Afferent and Efferent Spinal Nerve
 Afferent
Carries information from the body to the
brain
 Efferent
Carries information from the brain to the
body
Peripheral nervous system
- All the nerves that go from the skin
- Muscle and organs to the spinal cord
Somatic nervous system
- Responsible for carrying motor and
sensory information
- Its made up of nerves that connect to
the skin
- Sensory organs and skeletal muscles
Afferent neurons
- Take information from the nerves to the
central nervous system
Efferent neurons
- Take information from the central
nervous system to the muscle fibers
throughout the body
Autonomic nervous system
- Division of the peripheral neurons
system
- That supplies smooth muscle and
glands
Sympathetic nervous system
- Primary process is to stimulate the
bodys FIGHT or FLIGHT response
Parasympathetic nervous system
- Part of autonomic nervous system
- It does the opposite thing of sympathetic
nervous system
Endocrine system
- is made up of glands that produce
secrete hormones
- chemical substances produced in the
body
- regulate the activity of cell or organs
hormones
- are chemical messengers created by
the body.
- they transfer information from one set of
cells to another
hypothalamus
- lower central part of the brain
- important in regulation of satiety,
metabolism, body temp.
pituitary gland
- no larger than pea
- it produces hormones that control many
function
- most important part of endocrine
system.
Growth hormones
- stimulates growth of bone and tissue
growth hormone deficiency
- results in growth failure
prolactin
- hormones that stimulates milk
production in females
antidiuretic hormone
- controls water loss by the kidneys
 oxytocin  Perceptual Ability
- contracts the uterus during child birth  Verbal Ability
and stimulates milk production Savant Syndrome
thyroid gland - The studied Savant Syndrome with
- produce hormone for the metabolism exceptional abilities , including those
- it help to bone growth who excell in only one
parathyroid glands Componential intelligence
- two pairs of small glands, produced - Refers to metacomponents,
hormone for regulating calcium and performance, components, and
bone metabolism knowledge acquisition
Adrenal glands Experimental
- triangular shale, located at the top of - It deals with novelty and to automatize
kidney processing
 The Outer Part Contextual
- Adrenal cortex - Practical as well as social intelligence
 The Inner Part Classical condoning
- Adrena Medulla - Ivan Pavlov
Pineal Gland Basic principles of conditioning
- Located at the middle of the brain Extinction
- Hormone called Melatonin it regulates - Weakening and eventual dis
wake sleep cycle appearance of the conditional reflex
Reproductive Gland (Male) Spontaneous recovery
- The main source of sex hormone, - This is the return of the reflex
hormones called Androgends Inhibition
- The most important is testosterone - Actively suppressed a learned reflex
Female General and discrimination
- Produce estrogen, Generalization
- progesterone eggs - Implies that the organism is capable of
Pacreas responding two or more similar stimuli
- has digestive and hormonal functions Discrimination
Parts of Pacreas - Is a process that organisms learn to
 Exocrine Pacreas distinguish important features of object
 Secretes Digestive Enzymes Elements of classical conditioning
Intelligence , Learning & Cognitive Unconditioned stimulus
Theory of Primary Mental Abilities - Capable of producing a particular
 Word Fluency reflexive response
 Memory Conditioned response
 Reasoning - A methone of some other suitable
 Numerical Ability stimulus such as tone
 Spatial Visualization -
 Unconditioned response Extremes of intelligence
- The reflexive response to unconditioned Giftedness
stimulus - Having of intelligence of 120 to 130
Operant conditioning - 2 to 3 percent of population
- A learning process through which the Mental retardation
strength of a behavior is modefied by a - Is a developmental dis ability under
reinforcement or punishment children age of 18
- Change behavior because of the - Functioning below average
consequences - Limitations of person skill
Reinforcement Levels of mental retardation
- A positive rewarding event this cause Mild
the behavior to occur more often - 50 to 70 IQ score
Punishment - May learn academically up to sixth
- A negative or punishing event this cause grade
the behavior to occur less often Moderate
Extinction - 35 to 49
- No events follow so the behavior has no - Second grade level
consequence Severe
Principles of operant conditioning - 20 to 34
Positive reinforcement - May perform simple tasks under
- Behavior is increased by reward supervision
Negative reinforcement Pro-found
- Behavior is increased by advance/ - Below 20
escape - Required constant aid and supervision
Punishment Forms of intelligence
- Behavior is decrease by a suppression  Non- academic
Extinction  Non – cognitive
- Behavior is eliminated by non-  Non – intellective
reinforcement Social intelligence
Nature - Ability to understand others
- Refers to all of the genes and hereditary - Behave wisely
factors that influence who we are Theory of multiple intelligence
- Physical appearance to personality Inter personal
characteristics - Understanding others
Nurture Intra personal intelligence
- Refers to all the environmental variables - Is the ability to understand oneself
that impact who we are
- Early childhood experiences how we
were raised
- Social relationship, surrounding culture
 9 types of multiple intelligence
 Naturalist
 Musical 5 theories of emotion
 Logical  James – Lange Theory
 Existential Events Trigger specific arousal patterns
 Bodily (kinestetic) and actions. Emotions result from our
 Lingustic appraisal of our body responses.
 Intra personal
 Spatial

5 psycho sexual of human development

Oral  Cannon – Bard Theory

- 0–1 - Events are First processed by brain.
Anal Body patterns of arousal, action, and
- 2–3 our emotional responses are then
Phalic triggered simultaneously
- 4–5 -
Latent
- 6 puberty
Genital
- Puberty and up
Emotion and motivation
Emotion
- Emotion is derived from the Latin verb  Schachter – Singer Theory (Cognitive
‘Emoverse’ which means to stir up or to Appraisal)
move. - Events and arousal are appraised by the
Mood individual. The emotional response
- Moods are mild emotions which last stems from the person’s appraisal of the
longer and are more temporary in nature situation and his or her level of arousal.
Components of Emotion
3 key element of emotion
 Subjective experience
 Physiological response
 Behavioral response

Common-Sense View of Emotion

-
 Lazarus Theory ( Appraisal )
- “The interpretation of stressful events is
more important than the events
themselves." - Lazarus
 Facial Feedback Theory
- The facial feedback hypothesis asserts
that facial expressions are capable of
influencing our emotions.
Factors Affecting Emotion
1. Imitation
2. Conditioning
3. Understanding
Motivation
PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVES
 NEED FOR AFFECTION, NEED TO
BELONG
 NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENTS, SELF-
ESTEEM, SOCIAL RECOGNITION
 NEED FOR INDEPENDENCE
CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS
TYPES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
 CONSCIOUS (100%)
 PRECONSCIOUS/SUBCONSCIOUS
(50%)
 UNCONSCIOUS (40%)
Classification of incentive
 . intrinsic
- When you do something because you
enjoy it or find it interesting
- You strive towards a goal for personal
satisfaction or accomplishment
 Extrinsic
- Doing something for external rewards or
to avoid negative consequences.
- Some outside demand, obligation or
reward that requires the achievement of
a particular goal.
Micro expression
- Half second reaction of face
- Small details of emotion
Supression
- Concious hiding feelings
Repression
- Unconcious multivated
Alfred adlers
- Individual motivated by superior
- Inferiority feelings
- Man strive for power
- neurotism
Direct conpensation
- Kung saan k mahina pumush ka dun
Indirect
- Kung saan ka malakas pumush k dun
Superiority complex
- Mataas tingin sa sarili
Inferiority complex
- Mababa tingin sa sarili
 CLASSIFICATION OF EMOTIONS • Anxiety
 PAUL EKMAN’S SIX BASIC • Bipolar Disorder
EMOTIONS • Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
- Anger • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
- Disgust • Hoarding Disorder
- Fear Stress, Conflict, and Coping
- Happiness Mechanism
- Sadness Stress
- Surprise - Stress is a multi-faceted process that
 ROBERT PLUTCHIK’S occurs in reaction to events or situations
COMBINING EMOTIONS in life which are termed as stressors
- Anger, surprise 3 stages in its response to stressors
- Fear, anticipation  First stage is alarm
- Sadness, trust  Second stage is resistance
- Disgust, joy  Third stage exhaustion
Psychoevolutionary Theory of Emotions Major Types of Stress
is based:  Frustration
 Animals and Human  Conflict
 Evolutionary History  Change
 Survival Issues  pressure
 Prototype Patterns
 Basic Emotions 4 types of conflict
 Combinations  the approach-approach
 Hypothetical Construct  the avoidance-avoidance
 Opposites  the approach-avoidance
 Similarity  the multiple approach-avoidance
 Intensity
Plutchik theorized that emotions serve
at least eight distinct functions (adaptive
behaviours): Effects of Stress
 Impaired task performance
 Disruption of cognitive functioning
 Unhealthy lifestyle
 . Psychological problems and
disorders
 . Burnout
 . Post traumatic stress disorders
(PTSD)
List of Emotional Disorders:  Physical Illness
• Depression Strategies for Coping with Stress
- Defense Mechanisms
- Other Positive Strategies for Alleviating
or for Coping with Stress
Psychological Relaxation
 Developing a different attitude
 . Relaxation
3 ways of coping with stress
 developing self-awareness
 learn your own limits
 and recognize signs of potential
troubles
Physical Relaxation
 Exercise
 Get a check up
 Get adequate rest.
 Watch your diet
 Adapt to your environment
realistically
 Pray to God.
 Take a break.
 Take a vacation
 Listen to music
 Slow down.
ATTRIBUTES OF LEARNING
 Learning is continuous, it happens at
all stages of life of an individual.
 Learning is a gradual process, it
extends and sometimes progresses
slowly over a period of time.
 Learning causes improvement in
behavior as a result of maturation,
practice or experience.
OTHER FORMS OF LEARNING
 Learning By Listening or Reading
 Language Learning
 Motor Skills Learning
 Concept Formation Learning
 Social Learning
 E-Learning or Online Learning
Laws Of Learning
 The Law of Readiness
 The Law of Exercise
- Law of Use:
other things being equal, the more
frequently a modifiable connection
between a situation and response is
used, the stronger is that connection.
- Law of Disuse:
other things being equal, when a
modifiable connection between a
situation and a response is not used
over time, the strength of that
connection is weakened.
 The Law of Effect
Five Secondary Characteristics
 The Law of Mindset – mental condition
when a reaction is made
 Multiple Response – Trial-and-error
learning
 Partial Activity – an aspect of a
situation may be “prepotent” in causing
a response
 Analogy – react by interpreting the
situation in light with similar experiences
 Associative Shift – related to condition
reflex
OTHER LAWS OF LEARNING
 The Law of Association
(Immanuel Kant)
 The Law of Use and Disuse (Gates)
 The Law of Frequency & Recency
(Watson
 Law of Intensity (Carr) ATTITUDE
 The Law of Primacy (Watson) Attitude is a feeling, belief, or opinion of
 The Law of Forgetting (Ebbinghause) approval or disapproval towards
something. Behavior is an action or
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY reaction that occurs in response to an
event or internal stimuli (i.e., thought).
COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE
 Affective
 Behavioral
 Cognitive
DEFINING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Role of Perception
◦ Person perception relates to how we
form impression of others.
Person scheme or
Social scheme
◦ Studies have shown that people have a
bias toward :
◦ viewing attractive men
◦ women as intelligent,
◦ competent
◦ talented
◦ pleasant
SOCIAL INFLUENCE ◦ interesting

◦ kind and sensitive.

Physical Cues
 Appearance and behavior are key
determinants of our first impressions.
Stereotypes
ATTRIBUTION THEORY - can guide the way we perceive people,
FRITZ HEIDER (1958) make attributions
for their behavior, remember them and
evaluate them.
Prejudice
- Negative emotional attitude held toward
members of a specific social group
- Discrimination: Unequal treatment of
people who should have the same rights
as others
- Personal Prejudice: When members of
another racial or ethnic group are
perceived as a threat to one’s own
interests
- Group Prejudice: When a person
conforms to group norms
- is a negative attitude toward a group of
people that is made without sufficient
evidence and is not easily changed.
Prejudice
o can be overcome through education,
legislation, and bringing groups into
contact with one another
to work toward a common goal.
The scapegoat theory of stereotypes
- proposed that people who are frustrated
and unhappy about something will
choose a relatively powerless group to
take the blame for a situation that is not
their fault.
The social identity theory
- proposed that we favor the groups to
which we belong in order to enhance
our self-esteem.
The cognitive approach to
stereotypes
 proposed that the tendency to divide
people into social groups is a normal
cognitive process.
 They help us simplify and organize our
world.
SOCIAL INFLUENCE
 Refers to those processes whereby our
attitudes and behaviors are influenced
by the real or imagined presence of
other people
3 important group influence processes
1) Conformity
2) Compliance
3) Obedience
3 types of norms
 Folkways
 Mores
 Taboo
DETERMINANTS OF CONFORMITY
• SIZE OF THE GROUP
• SIZE OF THE MINORITY
• NATURE OF THE TASK
• PUBLIC OR PRIVATE EXPRESSION
OF BEHAVIOUR
• PERSONALITY
• INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE
• NORMATIVE INFLUENCE
Compliance strategies:
common persuasion techniques
FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR TECHNIQUE
 Begins by making a small request &
once it is carried out, bigger requests
are made
THE DEAD LINE TECHNIQUE
 People comply more when there is a
dead line
DOOR-IN-THE-FACE TECHNIQUE
 Begins with a large request & when this
is refused a later request for something
smaller (actually desired) is made,
which is usually granted.
Low – balling
 Making a request and gaining
agreement from a person, then
changing the terms of the deal at the
last minute
 Abnormal behavior
Model of psychopathology
 The Biological Model
 Learning Model
 Cognitive Model
 Humanist- Extential Mode
 Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic
model
Somatoform Disorders
 - are conditions in which individual
experiences the symptoms of physical
health problems that have the
psychological rather than physical
causes.
Types of Somatoform Disorders
• Somatization Disorders
• Hypochondriasis
• Conversion Disorders
• Somatoform Pain Disorders
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
 - A category of conditions involving
sudden cognitive changes, such as a
sudden loss of memory or loss of one’s
identity.
Kinds of Dissociative Disorders
 Depersonalization
 Dissociative Amnesia
 Dissociative Fugue
 Dissociative Identity Disorders
MOOD DISORDERS
 - Psychological Disorders involving
depression and/or abnormal elation.
Two Primary Forms of Mood
Disorders
 Major Depression
 Bipolar Disorder/Mania
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
- Psychological disorders that are
believed to result from personalities that
developed improperly during childhood.
-Types of personality disorders are
grouped into three clusters.
Cluster A personality disorders
-Cluster A personality disorders are
characterized by odd, eccentric thinking
or behavior. They include paranoid
personality disorder, schizoid
personality disorder and schizotypal
personality disorder
Cluster A personality disorders
Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD)
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Cluster B Personality Disorders
-Cluster B personality disorders are
characterized by dramatic, overly
emotional or unpredictable thinking or
behavior. They include antisocial
personality disorder, borderline
personality disorder, histrionic
personality disorder and narcissistic
personality disorder.
Cluster B Personality Disorders
 Antisocial Personality Disorder
 Borderline Personality Disorder
 Histrionic Personality Disorder
 Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Cluster C Personality Disorders
- Cluster C personality disorders are
characterized by anxious, fearful
thinking or behavior. They include
 avoidant personality disorder,
dependent personality disorder and
obsessive-compulsive personality
disorder.
Cluster C Personality Disorders
 .Avoidant Personality Disorder
 Dependent Personality Disorder
 Obsessive-Compulsive Personality
Disorder
ATYPICAL AND ABNORMAL SEXUAL
BEHAVIOR
- Sexual practice that differs
considerably from the norm.
PARAPHILIAS - recurrent, intensely
arousing sexual fantasies ,urges, or
behaviors that involve at least one of the
FF.
1. Non-human subjects
2.suffering or humiliation involving
oneself or one's own partner
3. children or other non-consenting
adults
TRANSVESTISM AND
TRANSSEXUALISM
• TRANSVESTISM - the practice of
obtaining sexual pleasure by dressing in
the clothes of the opposite sex.
• TRANSSEXUALISM - a condition in
which an individual feel trapped in the
body of the wrong sex.
. FETISHISM
- the practice of obtaining sexual
arousal primarily or exclusively from
specific object.
SEXUAL SADISM
- the practice of obtaining sexual
pleasure by inflicting pain on others.
SEXUAL MASOCHISM - a condition in
which receiving pain is sexual exciting.
. VOYEURISM - the practice of
obtaining sexual pleasure by watching
members of the opposite sex
undressing or engaging in sexual
activities.
EXHIBITIONISM - the practice of
obtaining sexual pleasure by exposing
one's genitals to others.
FROTTEURISM
- deriving sexual pleasure from rubbing
one's genitals against an unsuspecting,
non-consenting person
- PEDOPHILIA - the practice of obtaining
pleasure from sexual contact with
children 13 years old and below.
OTHER KINDS OF PARAPHILIAS
• TELEPHONE SCATOLOGIA
• NECROPHILIA
• ZOOPHILIA
• COPROPHILIA
• KLISMAPHILIA
• UROPHILIA
FORCED SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
RAPE - the act of forcing sexual activity
on an unwilling person.
CHILD MOLESTATION - Sexual
behavior with a child without force or
direct threat of force.
SEXUAL HARASSMENT - unwanted
sexual advances, comments, or any
other form of coercive sexual behavior
by others.
Sexual Dysfunction and Sexual
Health
• Sexual Dysfunction - An inability to
engage successfully or comfortably in
normal sexual activities
Dysfunction of Sexual Desire
Inhibited Sexual Desire - A condition in
which a person desires sex rarely or not
at all.
Sexual Aversion Disorder - A
condition in which a person fearfully
avoids sexual behavior.
Dysfunction of Sexual Arousal
Female Sexual Arousal Disorder - A
condition in which sexual arousal does
not occur in appropriate circumstances
in a female.
Vaginismus - A female sexual
dysfunction in which the individual
experiences involuntary contractions of
the vaginal walls making the vagina too
narrow to allow penis to enter
comfortably.
Dyspareunia - A sexual dysfunction in
which the individual experiences pain
during intercourse.
Male Sexual Arousal Disorders -
Conditions in which sexual arousal does
not occur in appropriate circumstances
in a male.
Erectile Dysfunction - A condition in
which the penis does not become erect
enough for intercourse under sexual
arousing circumstances.
Orgasm Dysfunctions
Inhibited Female Orgasm - A female
sexual dysfunction in which the
individual is unable to experience
orgasm.
Premature Ejaculation - A male sexual
dysfunction in which the individual
reaches orgasm and ejaculates sperm
too early.
Retarded Ejaculation - A condition in
which a male does not ejaculate despite
adequate sexual stimulation.
Schizophrenia
- Person with schizophrenia have an alter
perception of reality, and may see or
hear things that are not real.
3 Symptoms of Schizophrenia
1. Positive Symptoms
 Agitation – It is a state of increased
Irritability and Tension.
 Delusions – false beliefs about reality.
Hallucination – false perception of
sound or voices, visual, smells, and
taste.
2. Negative Symptoms
 Lack of Emotional Response- Lacking
signs of emotions such as lack facial
expressions.
 Social Withdrawal – being unaware of
their surroundings.
 Lack of Initiative –
 Lacking self-care and motivation.
 Apathy – lack interest in life.
Types of Schizophrenia
1. Paranoid Schizophrenia
2. Disorganized Schizophrenia
3. Catatonic Schizophrenia
4. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
Depth perception
- is the visual ability to perceive the
world in three dimensions (3D) and the
distance of an object.
- arises from a variety of depth cues.
Monocular cues provide depth
information when viewing a scene with
one eye.
Motion parallax - When an observer
moves, the apparent relative motion of
several stationary objects against a
background gives hints about their
relative distance.
depth from optical expansion - the
retinal projection of an object expands
over a period of time, which leads to the
perception of movement in a line toward
the observer
Kinetic depth effect - is placed in front
of a point source of light so that its
shadow falls on a translucent screen, an
observer on the other side of the screen
will see a two-dimensional pattern of
lines.
Perspective - The property of parallel
lines converging in the distance, at
infinity, allows us to reconstruct the
relative distance of two parts of an
object, or of landscape features.
Relative size
If two objects are known to be the same
size (e.g., two trees) but their absolute
size is unknown, relative size cues can
provide information about the relative
depth of the two objects.
Familiar size - since the visual angle of
an object projected onto the retina
decreases with distance, this
information can be combined with
previous knowledge of the object's size
to determine the absolute depth of the
object.
Absolute size - even if the actual size
of the object is unknown and there is
only one object visible, a smaller object
seems further away than a large object
that is presented at the same location
Aerial perspective - due to light
scattering by the atmosphere, objects
that are a great distance away have
lower luminance contrast and lower
color saturation.
Accommodation - this is an oculomotor
cue for depth perception. When we try
to focus on far away objects, the ciliary
muscles stretch the eye lens, making it
thinner, and hence changing the focal
length.
Occultation - occultation (also referred
to as interposition) happens when near
surfaces overlap far surfaces.
Curvilinear perspective - at the outer
extremes of the visual field, parallel lines
become curved, as in a photo taken
through a fisheye lens. This effect,
although it is usually eliminated from
both art and photos by the cropping or
framing of a picture, greatly enhances
the viewer's sense of being positioned
within a real, three-dimensional space.
Texture gradient - fine details on
nearby objects can be seen clearly,
whereas such details are not visible on
faraway objects.
Lighting and shading - the way that
light falls on an object and reflects off its
surfaces, and the shadows that are cast
by objects provide an effective cue for
the brain to determine the shape of
objects and their position in space.
Defocus blur - Selective image blurring
is very commonly used in photographic
and video for establishing the
impression of depth.
Elevation - when an object is visible
relative to the horizon, we tend to
perceive objects which are closer to the
horizon as being farther away from us,
and objects which are farther from the
horizon as being closer to us.
Binocular cues provide depth
information when viewing a scene with
both eyes.
Stereopsis, or retinal (binocular)
disparity, or binocular parallax -
animals that have their eyes placed
frontally can also use information
derived from the different projection of
objects onto each retina to judge depth.
By using two images of the same scene
obtained from slightly different angles, it
is possible to triangulate the distance to
an object with a high degree of
accuracy.
Convergence - this is a binocular
oculomotor cue for distance/depth
perception. Because of stereopsis the
two eyeballs focus on the same object.
In doing so they converge.
Shadow Stereopsis - Antonio Medina
Puerta demonstrated that retinal images
with no parallax disparity but with
different shadows are fused
stereoscopically, imparting depth
perception to the imaged scene. He
named the phenomenon "shadow
stereopsis". Shadows are therefore an
important, stereoscopic cue for depth
perception.
Group dynamics - deals with the
attitudes and behavioral patterns of a
group.
Forming: The first stage in the life of a
group is concerned with forming a
group. This stage is characterized by
members seeking either a work
assignment (in a formal group) or other
benefit, like status, affiliation, power, etc.
Storming: The next stage in this group
is marked by the formation of dyads and
triads. Members seek out familiar or
similar individuals and begin a deeper
sharing of self.
Norming:
The third stage of group development is
marked by a more serious concern
about task performance. The
dyads/triads begin to open up and seek
out other members in the group. Efforts
are made to establish various norms for
task performance.
Performing:
This is a stage of a fully functional group
where members see themselves as a
group and get involved in the task. Each
person makes a contribution and the
authority figure is also seen as a part of
the group.
Adjourning:
In the case of temporary groups, like
project team, task force, or any other
such group, which have a limited task at
hand, also have a fifth stage, This is
known as adjourning.
formal groups are established by an
organization to achieve its goals,
informal groups merge spontaneously.
1. Command Groups:
Command groups are specified by the
organizational chart and often consist of
a supervisor and the subordinates that
report to that supervisor. An example of
a command group is a market research
firm CEO and the research associates
under him.
2. Task Groups:
Task groups consist of people who work
together to achieve a common task.
Members are brought together to
accomplish a narrow range of goals
within a specified time period. Task
groups are also commonly referred to as
task forces.
3. Functional Groups:
A functional group is created by the
organization to accomplish specific
goals within an unspecified time frame.
Functional groups remain in existence
after achievement of current goals and
objectives.
i. Interest Group:
Interest groups usually continue over
time and may last longer than general
informal groups. Members of interest
groups may not be part of the same
organizational department but they are
bound together by some other common
interest.
ii. Friendship Groups:
Friendship groups are formed by
members who enjoy similar social
activities, political beliefs, religious
values, or other common bonds.
Members enjoy each other’s company
and often meet after work to participate
in these activities.
iii. Reference Groups:
A reference group is a type of group that
people use to evaluate themselves. The
main objectives of reference groups are
to seek social validation and social
comparison.