International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology 116 (2019) 135–140

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International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijporl

Review Article

Probiotics in the treatment of otitis media. The past, the present and the T
future
Andrea Colemana,c,∗, Anders Cervinb,c
a
The Centre for Children's Health Research, 62 Graham Street, South Brisbane, QLD, 4101, Australia
b
The Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
c
The University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, Herston, Australia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Otitis media (OM) is one of the most common infectious diseases in children and the leading cause for medical
Otitis media consultations and antibiotic prescription in this population. The burden of disease associated with OM is greater
Probiotics in developing nations and indigenous populations where the associated hearing loss contributes to poor edu-
Microbiota cation and employment outcomes. Current treatment and prevention is largely focused on vaccination and
Upper respiratory tract
antibiotics. However, rates of OM, particularly in indigenous populations, remain high. With growing concerns
Bacterial interference
regarding antibiotic resistance and antibiotic-associated complications, an alternative, more effective treatment
Pediatrics
is required. Administration of probiotics, both locally and systemically have been investigated for their ability to
treat and prevent OM in children. This review explores the theoretical bases of probiotics, successful application
of probiotics in medicine, and their use in the treatment and prevention of OM. We conclude that local ad-
ministration of niche-specific probiotic bacteria that demonstrates the ability to inhibit the growth of oto-
pathogens in vitro shows promise in the prevention and treatment of OM and warrants further investigation.

1. Introduction
Otitis media (OM) refers to inflammation and/or infection in the
middle ear and encompasses a continuum of acute and chronic diseases,
clinically characterized by fluid in the middle ear (See Table 1 for de-
finitions) [1,2]. OM is one of the most common infectious diseases in
children [3]. There are approximately 709 million cases of acute OM
(acute OM (AOM)) per year worldwide, with the highest disease burden
in developing nations and indigenous populations [4–6]. Although most
episodes of OM resolve quickly without complication, the disease can
be associated with significant health and developmental sequelae. It is
estimated that approximately 21 000 people die from OM-related
complications around the world each year, the highest mortality rate is
in the first year of life [4]. Complications can include mastoiditis,
cholesteatoma, meningitis, brain abscess and lateral sinus thrombosis
[7]. OM often results in conductive hearing loss, which can impact on
speech, language and cognitive development [8,9]. In Indigenous po-
pulations, OM and its sequelae contribute to poor education and em-
ployment outcomes and greater contact with the criminal justice system
[10].
The pathogenesis of OM is multifactorial and involves the adaptive
and native immune systems, eustachian tube dysfunction, viral and
bacterial load, and genetic and environmental factors [11]. Otopatho-
gens, most commonly Streptococcus pneumoniae, Moraxella catarrhalis,
Haemophilus influenzae and/or respiratory viruses, colonize and pro-
liferate in the nasopharynx (NP), where they travel up the eustachian
tube to infect the middle ear and cause OM [1]. Management depends
on the type and severity of OM and include watchful waiting, anti-
biotics and surgery [12,13]. A Cochrane review which included 1483
otitis-prone children or children at increased risk of OM from around
the world showed that long-term antibiotics reduced the number of
episodes of AOM, with a number needed to treat of five to prevent one
case of AOM [14]. For every 12 months of antibiotic treatment per
child, 1.5 episodes of AOM were prevented [14]. None of the included
studies reported on AOM with perforated tympanic membrane
(AOMwP) or chronic suppurative OM (CSOM). Long-term treatment
regimens with antibiotics can be difficult for families to adhere to,
leading to increased risk of antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Furthermore,
despite liberal use of antibiotics, the prevalence of OM, particularly in
Australian Indigenous communities, remain unchanged [15,16].
Alternatively, attempts to prevent OM via vaccination has been
widely trialed with mixed results. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines
demonstrated a modest reduction in episodes of AOM in healthy in-
fants, and no benefit for high-risk infants or older children with a

∗
Corresponding author. The Centre for Children's Health Research, 62 Graham Street, South Brisbane, QLD, 4101, Australia.
E-mail addresses: a.coleman2@uq.edu.au (A. Coleman), a.cervin@uq.edu.au (A. Cervin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2018.10.023
Received 29 August 2018; Received in revised form 16 October 2018; Accepted 16 October 2018
Available online 19 October 2018
0165-5876/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Coleman, A. Cervin International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology 116 (2019) 135–140

Table 1
Otitis media definitions.
Adapted from Kong et al. [2].
Type of OM Definition

Acute otitis media (AOM) without perforation
AOM with perforation
Recurrent AOM (rAOM)
Otitis media with effusion (OME)
Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM)
Presence of middle ear fluid with symptoms or signs of suppurative infection, which may include otalgia, fever, irritability,
vomiting or diarrhoea.
Acute suppurative infection with recent discharge from the middle ear or through a tympanostomy tube (within the past 7 days).
Recurrent bouts of AOM — three episodes in 6 months or four to five in 12 months.
Presence of middle ear fluid without symptoms or signs of suppurative infection.
A persistent discharge from the middle ear through a tympanic membrane perforation for more than 6 weeks. CSOM may include
a chronic perforation with or without acute or chronic otorrhoea.

history of OM [17]. Furthermore, disease displacement with non-vac-
cine S. pneumoniae serotypes and H. influenzae have been widely re-
ported [1,18,19]. The outcomes of vaccination targeting both S. pneu-
moniae and H. influenzae (PHiD-CV10) are also equivocal. In Australian
Indigenous children PHiD-CV10 has resulted in some reduction in rates
of suppurative OM, however these coincided with an increase in OME
[20,21]. In Finnish children there was a non-significant trend towards
reduction in the number of AOM episodes [22]. In contrast, im-
plementation of PHiD-CV10 did not change the prevalence of the three
main otopathogens in middle ear fluid or NP of New Zealand children
with recurrent AOM or OME [23].
OM treatment and prevention continues to provide a great challenge
for researchers and clinicians. An emerging field of research aims at
treating and preventing OM using probiotics. Effective probiotic treat-
ment is based on a comprehensive understanding the microbiota in
healthy and OM states, and how this can be manipulated to treat and
prevent OM. This review explores the history of successful applications
of probiotics in medicine, the development of the upper respiratory
tract (URT) microbiota, bacterial interference and probiotics in OM,
and finally highlights future opportunities for the use of probiotics in
OM.
2. Probiotic success in medicine
Probiotics are “live microorganisms which, when administered in
adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host” [24]. In 1958, a
landmark paper described the use of fecal transplantation to treat pa-
tients with Clostridium difficile enterocolitis, restoring the dysbiosis
caused by antibiotics, and resulting in dramatic health improvement
[25]. Despite this success, no further research was conducted on fecal
transplantation for another 50 years. Recently, fecal transplantation
was tested in a randomized control trial (RCT) for the treatment of C.
difficile enterocolitis against vancomycin and vancomycin plus bowel
lavage [26]. This study was stopped after the interim analysis. Of the 16
patients who received the fecal transplantation, 13 had resolution of
symptoms after the first infusion, another two after second transfusion
from a different donor. This compared to resolution of symptoms in just
four of the 13 patients receiving vancomycin and three of the 13 re-
ceiving vancomycin and bowel lavage [26]. This results has been re-
plicated in a number of RCTs [27], and is now offered as treatment for
appropriate patients. This is a striking example of where the use of
probiotics has been more effective than antibiotics.
Probiotics have also demonstrated impressive results when used in
premature infants. Prophylactic administration of probiotics containing
Lactobacillus spp. alone or in combination with Bifidobacterium spp via
enteral feeding has been shown to significantly reduced the incidence of
severe necrotizing enterocolitis and all causes of mortality in preterm
infants [28]. There were no reports of systemic infection with probiotic
species [28]. Probiotic prophylaxis is now routinely used in many
neonatal intensive care units around the world.
3. The microbiota and development of respiratory immunity
To determine potential candidates for probiotic therapy in OM, a
comprehensive understanding of the development of the healthy URT
microbiota is required. The URT is colonized by commensal flora during
birth [29,30]. Soon afterwards the URT microbiota rapidly changes to
develop niche-differentiation. Henceforth, one of several microbial
profiles develop, defined by dominant key species [30,31]. Profiles
dominated by early colonization with Moraxella and Corynebacterium/
Dolosigranulum are more stable than those dominated by Haemophilus or
Streptococcus, and appear to protect against URT infections (URTI)
[31,32]. The healthy URT microbiota has greater richness and diversity
when compared to patients with pneumonia, URTIs and AOM [33,34].
For example, healthy children had twice (n = 15) the number of op-
erations taxonomic units (OTUs) identified in the URT compared to
children with pneumonia (n = 8) [33].
Resident microbial flora contributes to the protection of the host
against pathogen proliferation, but is also integral to the development
of a competent immune system [35,36]. Experiments using germ-free
mice have demonstrated the importance of the bacterial microbiota on
mediation of immune cell differentiation and subsequent modulation of
inflammation [36]. It is now well established that birth via caesarian
section is related to a higher risk of inflammatory disease, where the
immune system have difficulties distinguishing self from non-self or
where external antigens elicit an over the top response such as seen in
food allergy, atopy, allergic rhinitis, and asthma [36]. There is spec-
ulation that the respiratory microbiota, shaped by method of delivery,
may be contributing to this disruption to the developing immune
system [29,30,36]. Disruption of the respiratory microbiota can impact
local immunity, infection susceptibility and the development of chronic
respiratory inflammatory diseases [37]. It is believed that there is a
critical period in infancy/childhood when the influence of microbes on
the developing immune system establishes a system of homeostasis, this
is likely to happen during the first year of life [36]. The local admin-
istration of probiotics in the upper airways in infancy/childhood may
enable the development of a stable, resilient microbiota, and promote
the establishment of a healthy immune system with the ability to dis-
tinguish self from non-self as well as deliver a measured response to
external antigens.
4. Bacterial interference of the upper respiratory tract
Bacterial interference as a means of preventing disease has been
reported since the late 1800s [38], however, it has struggled to trans-
late into clinical practice. Bacterial interference is defined as “a dy-
namic antagonistic interaction between at least two different strains of
bacteria that affects the life cycle of each” [39]. Microorganisms on the
mucosal surface of the URT interact in a multitude of ways, one of
which is antagonistically, competing for ecological space and inter-
fering with each other's growth [40]. It is believed that this ‘bacterial
interference’ by normal mucosal flora prevents colonization and pro-
liferation of respiratory pathogens, thereby maintaining respiratory
health [40].

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Fig. 1. Possible mechanisms in which probiotics/commensal flora maintain a healthy upper respiratory tract; 1) commensal flora/probiotics bind to respiratory
epithelium thereby preventing pathogens from adhering; 2) they change the mucosal environment, for example by reducing pH; 3) they release bacteriocins and
other inhibitory substances which target pathogenic bacteria: 4) they stimulate local mucosal immunity; 5) complete for nutritional substances; and 6) simulate
systemic immune response.

Table 2
Randomized controlled trials investigating local (intranasal) administration of probiotics to prevent/treat otitis media.
Study n Age Population Treatment Primary Outcome Results P value
Measure(s)

Roos 2001 [45] 108 6 months–6 Otitis-prone Local: Streptococcus mitis, S. No AOM + normal TM Treatment (n = 53) = 42% 0.02
years sanguinis, Streptococci oralis Placebo (n = 55) = 22%
OME Treatment = 31% 0.05
Placebo = 56%
Tano 2002 [46] 36 < 4 years Otitis-prone Local: S. mitis, S. sanguinis, S. oralis Recurrence of AOM Treatment (n = 16) = 44% n.s
Placebo (n = 20) = 40%
Skovbjerg 2008 54 1–8 years Otitis-prone Local: S. sanguinis OR L. rhamnosus Resolution OME S. sanguinis (n = 19) = 37% 0.05
[49] L. rhamnosus (n = 18) = 17%
Placebo (n = 17) = 6% 0.06
Marchisio 2015 97 1–5 years Otitis-prone Local: Streptococcus salivarius Recurrence of AOM Treatment (n = 50) = 70% 0.08
[47] 24SMB Placebo (n = 47) = 85%
NP colonized (n = 28) = 57% not 0.03
colonized (n = 22) = 86%

Note: AOM, acute otitis media; NP, nasopharynx; n.s., non-significant (no p value reported); TM, tympanic membrane.

As early as the 1970s Viridians Streptococci (part of the alpha he-
molytic streptococcus (AHS) group) were shown to inhibit a range of
potential pathogens in vitro including Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella
spp., Beta-hemolytic Streptococci, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, S.
pneumoniae, S. aureus, and Escherichia coli [40,41]. In vitro studies have
confirmed significant bactericidal effects from various strains of AHS
against S. pneumoniae, NTHi, and M. catarrhalis, which are strain spe-
cific [39]. In vivo, bacterial interference is thought to be achieved by
several mechanisms. These mechanisms include occupying specific sites
on the epithelial cell surfaces, thus preventing the adherence of pa-
thogens, changes in the microenvironment by, for example, lowering of
pH, production of antagonistic substances, and competition for nutri-
tional substances (Fig. 1) [40]. AHS owe their inhibitory potential to
their production of bacteriocins (peptide toxins) which have inhibitory
activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria [40]. Cor-
ynebacterium spp., a URT commensal, is more often found in the URT in
children who aren't colonized by S. pneumoniae [42]. In vitro, Cor-
ynebacterium accolens was shown to inhibit the growth of S. pneumoniae
by hydrolyzing skin surface triacylglycerols to produce anti-pneumo-
coccal free fatty acids [42]. This is an example how a commensal mi-
crobe uses human resources to positively shape the URT microbiota.
Local administration of probiotics is the application of bacterial inter-
ference to treat and prevent infections in vivo.
5. Probiotics in the upper respiratory tract, past and present
evidence for local administration
Roos et al. provided the proof of concept that commensal flora from
URT of healthy individuals can prevent recurrence of streptococcal
tonsillitis [43]. The authors isolated four strains of AHS from the throats
of healthy individuals that had a strong ability to inhibit the growth of
Group A Streptococcus in vitro. One hundred and thirty children with
recurrent streptococcal tonsillitis were treated with antibiotics and then
randomized to receive a daily throat spray containing either the pro-
biotic strains or a placebo for 10 days [44]. In the eight weeks post
baseline, bacteriologically-verified tonsillitis recurrence occurred in
only 2% (1/50) of the children in the probiotic treatment group, whilst
it occurred in a much larger proportion, 23% (14/61), of children in the
placebo group [44]. Having demonstrated such efficacy in recurrent
streptococcal tonsillitis, the authors applied the concept to OM.
There have been several RCTs investigating the local administration
of probiotics to treat/prevent OM in otitis-prone children (see Table 2).

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Table 3
Randomized controlled trials investigating systemic (oral) administration of probiotics to prevent/treat otitis media.
Study n Age Population Treatment Primary Outcome Result(s) P value
Measure(s)

Hatakka 2001 [50] 513 1–6 years Healthy Systemic: Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG Incidence AOM Treatment 0.08
(n = 252) = 31%
Placebo (n = 261) = 39%
Hatakka 2007 [57] 269 10 mo-6 Otitis-prone Systemic: L. rhamnosus GG and LC705, Bifidobacterium Incidence AOM Treatment n.s
years breve 99 and Propionibacterium freudenreichii JS (n = 135) = 72%
Placebo (n = 134) = 65%
Rautava 2008 [52] 72 <2 Healthy Systemic: L. rhamnosus GG & Bifidobacterium lactis BB-12 Incidence AOM 1st 7 Treatment 0.01
months months (n = 32) = 22%
Placebo (n = 40) = 50%
Recurrent (> 3) AOM Treatment = 13% 0.18
in 1st year Placebo = 25%
Stecksen-Blicks 186 1–5 years Healthy Systemic: L. rhamnosus LB21, fluoride No. days with AOM Treatment < 0.01
2009 [51] (n = 110) = 0.5
Placebo (n = 76) = 1.0
Taipale 2011 [53] 69 1–2 months Healthy Systemic: B. lactis BB-12 Incidence AOM Treatment 0.50
(n = 34) = 26%
Placebo (n = 35) = 17%
Cohen 2013 [58] 166 7–13 Healthy Systemic: Streptococcus thermophiles, S. salivarius, L. No. episodes of AOM Treatment (n = 83) = 249 0.80
months rhamnosus + preB Raftilose/Raftiline Placebo (n = 83) = 237
Incidence recurrent Treatment = 30% 0.90
AOM Placebo = 30%
Di Peirro 2016 [56] 222 3 years Healthy Systemic: S. salivarius K12 (BLIS K12) Incidence AOM Treatment < 0.01
(n = 111) = 44%
Placebo (n = 111) = 80%

Note: AOM, acute otitis media; n.s., non-significant (no p value reported).

Roos et al. appear to be the first to investigate the use of a probiotic
treatment made of bacterial strains with a demonstrated ability to in-
hibit the growth of otopathogens [45]. Roos and colleagues isolated
AHS from the opening of the eustachian tube of healthy children and
identified five strains that were powerful inhibitors of S. pneumoniae, M.
catarrhalis, and S. pyogenes [45]. They developed a probiotic nasal spray
containing two strains of Streptococcus sanguinis, two strains of Strep-
tococcus mitis and one strain of Streptococcus oralis. One-hundred and
eight otitis-prone children were randomized to receive either the pro-
biotic or a placebo. All children received 10 days of antibiotics, fol-
lowed by either the probiotic or placebo nasal spray twice daily for 10
days, then for another 10 days after 55–60 days. There was a significant
reduction in the rate of recurrence amongst those who received the
probiotic, with 42% (22/53) children in the treatment group experi-
encing no AOM and having healthy tympanic membranes, compared to
22% (12/55) in the placebo group [45]. Significantly less children
without recurrence of AMO in treatment group had OM with effusion
(OME) at the last visit (31%; 10/32), compared to those in the placebo
group (56%; 15/27) [45].
An attempt to replicate the Roos result by Tano et al., whom did not
pre-treat participants with antibiotics, was unsuccessful [46]. Specifi-
cally, Tano et al. conducted a smaller RCT (n = 36) testing a probiotic
treatment comprised of a mixture of AHS strains that had demonstrated
in vitro a good ability to inhibit the growth of otopathogens, as well as
good adherence to adenoid epithelial cells [46]. The study recruited
children with a history of recurrent AOM. Despite four months of
treatment, there was no difference in the number of children with AOM,
44% (7/16) in the treatment groups vs. 40% (8/20) in the placebo
group [46]. Prior dosing with antibiotics may be required to reduce the
bacterial load, allowing the probiotic strains more ecological space to
adhere to the mucosal epithelial cells and proliferate. Testing the NP for
the presence and abundance of the probiotic strains after treatment
would have informed on whether this contributed to the failure of the
treatment.
A noteworthy RCT conducted by Marchisio et al. [47] provides in-
sight into the ability of a probiotic treatment to colonize the participant.
Otitis-prone children were randomized to test a probiotic treatment
consisting of Streptococcus salivarius 24SMB; a strain obtained from the
nose of a healthy child and shown to produce bacteriocin-like sub-
stances with activity against otopathogens [48]. The children were
treated with antibiotics and then randomized to receive either the
probiotic or placebo nasal spray twice daily for five consecutive days
each month for three consecutive months. Quantitative PCR of NP swab
samples was used to detect the presence of S. salivarius 24SMB. After
treatment, the proportion of children who did not experience AOM in
the probiotic group (30%; 15/50) was double what it was in the control
group (15%; 7/47) (p = 0.075) [47]. When the authors limited their
analysis to children in the treatment group who yielded an NP swab
sample that contained the probiotic, they found that children who were
successfully colonized with S. salivarius 24SMB were significantly more
likely to have no episodes of AOM (43%; 12/28); compared to those
who were not colonized with S. salivarius 24SMB (14%; 3/22)
(p = 0.03) [47]. These data suggest that colonization with the probiotic
strain may be playing a role in treatment efficacy.
The above studies focused on the prevention of AOM, one study by
Skovbjerg et al., explored the use of probiotics to treat OME [49]. A
double-blinded pilot study was conducted on 60 children with OME,
using a nasal spray containing either S. sanguinis, Lactobacillus rham-
nosus or placebo for 10 days; no antibiotics were given prior to the
commencement of the treatment [49]. There were significantly more
children with complete or significant clinical recovery following
treatment with S. sanguinis (7/19) compared to placebo (1/17)
(p= < 0.05), but not for those who received L. rhamnosus (3/18)
compared to placebo (p = 0.60) [49]. Interestingly, there was no evi-
dence of colonization with S. sanguinis in the NP following treatment,
although culture-bases analysis was used, which may not have suffi-
cient sensitivity. Alternatively, the probiotic may have been exerting its
action via the immune system.
5.1. Probiotics in the upper respiratory tract, past and present evidence for
systemic administration
These studies have explored local probiotic administration. Other
studies have investigated the systemic probiotic administration on the
prevention of OM (Table 3). In healthy children, several RCTs used L.
rhamnosus GG and/or Bifidobacterium lactis BB-12 orally to investigate

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whether OM could be prevented. Milk supplemented with L. rhamnosus
GG was given to 513 day care children for seven months and showed no
significant differences in the number of episodes of AOM in the pro-
biotic (31%; 79/252) compared to placebo groups (39%; 101/261)
(p = 0.08) [50]. Stecksen-Blicks et al. gave 186 healthy children milk
with L. rhamnosus GG for 21 months and measured the number of days
with OM [51]. They found children who received the probiotic milk
(n = 110) had fewer days with OM (0.5) compared to placebo (n = 76)
(1.0) (p = 0.003) [51]. In a younger cohort of infants < 2 months old,
L. rhamnosus GG + B. lactis BB-12 supplemented infant formula was
given for 12 months and shown to significantly reduce the incidence of
AOM in the first 7 months of life, 22% (7/32) had AOM in treatment
group vs. 50% (20/40) in the placebo group (p = 0.014) [52]. How-
ever, there were no statistically significant differences in the number of
children who suffered recurrent AOM (≥3 episodes); four (13%) in the
treatment group and 10 (25%) in the placebo group (p = 0.183) [52].
Another study gave B. lactis BB-12 to infants via slow-release tablets for
seven months and showed no significant difference in the incidence of
self-reported OM compared to placebo; (26%; 9/34 and 17%; 6/35
respectively (p = 0.455)) [53]. Whether L. rhamnosus GG and B. lactis
BB-12 can prevent OM in healthy children is equivocal. L. rhamnosus GG
was originally isolated from the healthy gastrointestinal system [54]
and B. lactis BB-12 was a dairy culture [55]. Therefore, their poor ef-
ficacy in preventing disease from respiratory pathogens may be due to
them being used beyond their niche environment.
One study by Di Pierro et al. investigated whether oral adminis-
tration of a probiotic strain niche to the URT, S. salivarius K12, could
prevent AOM in healthy children attending kindergarten [56]. They
delivered the probiotics via dissolving oral tablet and found a sig-
nificant reduction in the incidence of AOM in the treatment (44%; 49/
111) compared to placebo group (80%; 89/111) and the number of
episodes of AOM, 53 in the treatment group vs 101 in the placebo group
[56]. S. salivarius has been shown to adhere to the URT and strongly
inhibit the growth of the main respiratory pathogens in vitro. This study
suggests that there may be a role for niche specific probiotic strains in
preventing AOM in healthy children and further research is required.
In otitis-prone children a range of probiotic mixtures have been
administered systemically to determine whether recurrence of OM can
be prevented. Two hundred and sixty-nine otitis-prone children were
given a probiotic capsule containing two strains of L. rhamnosus GG,
Bifidobacterium breve 99, and Propionibacterium freudenreichii spp. sher-
mani JS [57]. There were no differences in the incidence of AOM; 72%
(n = 135) vs. 65% (n = 134) for treatment vs. placebo (OR = 1.48
(95% CI 0.87–2.52)) or recurrent AOM (18% vs 17% respectively;
OR = 1.04 (95% CI 0.55–1.96)) [57]. Correspondingly, 166 “high-risk”
children were given formula supplemented with Streptococcus thermo-
philus, S. salivarius, L. rhamnosus LPR and a prebiotic for 12 months and
found no difference in the number of episodes of AOM in the treatment
(249) (n = 83) compared to control (237) (n = 83) [58]. Cumulatively,
these results demonstrate that ingestion of non-specific systemic pro-
biotics does not prevent AOM in healthy children or reduce the number
of episodes in otitis-prone/“high-risk” children, regardless of the
duration of treatment. In contrast, local administration using strains
isolated from the URT of healthy children showed more promising re-
sults in preventing OM in otitis-prone children.
6. The future, opportunities ahead
The use of probiotics to prevent and treat OM shows promise and
proof of concept exists. For such a probiotic to be effective it likely
needs to be niche-specific, demonstrate in vitro bacterial inference
against the main respiratory pathogens, and able to colonize the NP.
Although, there may also be a systemic effect through activation of the
immune system. In otitis-prone children, antibiotics may be required
prior to giving the probiotic to reduce the overall bacterial load and
facilitate colonization. Further research is required in both the
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International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology 116 (2019) 135–140
prevention and treatment of all types of OM, and particularly in de-
veloping nations and indigenous communities. To facilitate such re-
search agreement on how to define the diagnosis of different middle ear
infections is paramount. It is equally important to investigate the
complete microbiome in the upper respiratory tract, not only the pa-
thogens as in the past. Infection is a sign of dysbiosis and pathogens in
isolation can no longer be considered as solely responsible.
Microbiological methods, both culture dependent and molecular
methods, need to be aligned across the OM research community. This
should be a priority agenda for interest groups such as the International
Society for Otitis Media.
Another area for consideration, particularly in the prevention of
OM, is the influence that the mother and ingestion of breastmilk may
have on the development of the URT microbiota in infants. Breastmilk
has demonstrated protection against AOM in children under two year of
age [59]. It may exert as least some of its effect through manipulating
commensal flora of the URT and gut as a probiotic and prebiotic
[59,60]. Breastmilk has its own microbiome which may influence the
infant's microbiome, particularly gut microbiome, and confer health
benefits without supplementation [61]. Research is beginning to
emerge into whether the health of the infant can be influenced by de-
livering probiotics to the mother prenatally and whilst breastfeeding. In
randomized controlled trials, providing probiotics to mothers in their
last trimester of pregnancy and through the breastfeeding infants' first
3–6 months of life has demonstrated reduced risk of atopic dermatitis
[62,63]. However, this effect does not appear to be mediated by the
probiotic strains being delivered through the breastmilk [64]. The
provision of probiotics prenatally and in breastfeeding mothers in the
prevention of OM, particularly in high risk populations should be
considered.
There is a significant, ongoing burden of disease caused by OM in
developing nations and Indigenous populations, despite vaccinations
and antibiotic treatment. The causes are multi-factorial and include
social, environmental, biomedical and possible immune and genetic
factors [65]. A multi-pronged approach to the treatment and prevention
of OM is required, however from a biomedical perspective “strategies to
reduce the exposure to high doses of multiple OM causing bacteria are
urgently needed” [65]. Antibiotics may temporarily resolve OM and
reduce the number of otopathogens, however they likely disrupt the
normal protective flora and allow for recolonization with otopathogens
and recurrent infections. In addition to growing global concerns re-
garding antibiotics resistance, an alternative, more effective treatment
is required. Local administration of a probiotic that is niche-specific for
the URT and demonstrates the ability to interfere with the growth of
otopathogens needs to be evaluated as an alternative treatment for the
refractory problem of OM, particularly in developing nations and In-
digenous populations.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Health and Medical
Research Council [APP1133366]; Queensland Health Junior Doctor
Fellowship; and Garnett Passe & Rodney Williams Memorial
Foundation.
Conflicts of interest
None.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr. Diane Maresco-Pennisi for her con-
tribution in editing the manuscript.
A. Coleman, A. Cervin
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