Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
ORIGINAL ARTICLES
This article shows the application of basic mathematical and geometric principles to the normal morphology of
structures regularly involved in orthodontics and dentistry. For appreciation of beauty, it has been suggested that
the human mind functions at the limbic level in attraction to proportions in harmony with the Golden Section. This
is a proportion of 1.618 and its reciprocal 0.618 in geometry. Fibonacci numbers express precisely the same ratio
and are mathematically unique and mysterious. Questions arose regarding these geometric and mathematical
relationships in our living patients. Studies were conducted from measurements of models of the teeth of
nonal-occlusion subjects, the photographs of the faces of commercial models, and conditions found in lateral
and frontal cephalometric head films. Variations of the beautiful photographic models were analyzed together with
computerized composites of patients with ideal occlusions. Several key relationships were found. The
investigation yielded useful relationships for all aspects of dentistry and particularly for orthodontics and
orthognathic surgery. The normal face and the occlusion of the teeth have a majestic beauty. The study strongly
suggests that esthetics can indeed be made scientific rather than the need to resort to subjective perceptions as
in the past.
Key words: Golden section (1.618-0.618), phi, golden rectangle, logarithmic spiral, Thompson’s law
of growth
F unction, from an evolutionary standpoint, formance rather than reproduction. Therefore, a certain
always precedes form.’ The mesenchymal cell is acted regulation or control of mitosis is operative. Repair to
upon by its local physical environment to produce a injury and replacement for worn-out cells in the adult is
given type of tissue as connective tissue cells elaborate also a function of mitosis and the growth phenomenon .3
materials through the cell wall which are formed in tiny This monitoring and feedback arrangement pro-
ropelike fibers, arranged to protect the cell from forces duces structures that are marvelously economical in
in the surrounding medium.2 This “negative feedback” function. Biologists and morphologists speak of this in
is a process for production of morphology of the struc- terms of “laws. ” There is first the “law of conserva-
tures of the body as the system is monitored constantly tion of energy,” interpreted to be maximum per-
with the physical and chemical qualities of the nervous formance with minimum effort. Second, they refer to
system. the “law of conservation of tissue. ” This is intepreted
Cellular division takes place rapidly during growth, to mean a minimum amount of material to be employed
but growth processes are not terminated when maturity to perform the needed task. A third law, not often dis-
of the organism is reached. In addition, during devel- cussed, is a combination of the first two. It is an ar-
opment, a reservoir of cells must be laid aside for per- rangement to provide profound efficiency. Efficiency is
FIBONACCI SERIES
Add:
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233
1 -1 2 2 r 2. I2 21 34 5s 144 233 377
r 2-Y 5 8 13 21 Ti ss ss 144
L9 -233 -377 --b19
Divide:
0G.I l 0 zr+ 21 - 1.61904
1
7
l 1 - 1 ss+ 34 - 1.6176
7_ -; 1 - 2 89 +ss - 1.61818
Fig. 1. A summation series. Note that the last number is a total of the previous two terms; the fifth
addition divided by the fourth number is already a figure of 1.66. After this has been repeated fifteen
times, the number 1.616 does not change thereafter.
required for individual survival. Those most efficient keep related functional parts from becoming incongru-
are favored in natural selection. Long-term competition ous? What happens in severe dysplasia, dysfunction,
in the primitive state promotes the finest in the applica- and pathology? What are the factors of beauty and the
tion of the physical and chemical world. Integration of causes of the disasters of ugliness?
all the functioning units of a living body finally in-
volves ionic electrical and magnetic forces. This pro- ESTHETICS
cess of unification relates to the basic cellular level, and Esthetics is the study of beauty and, together with
tissues ultimately behave under certain mathematical ethics, logic, politics, and metaphysics, is a branch of
and geometric laws of space itself.4 basic philosophy. It has been said that beauty is in the
Bone in disuse becomes osteoporotic. Muscle that eye of the beholder, but a thing is said not to be truly
is not used undergoes atrophy. Skin under use becomes beautiful until it arouses the senses to an emotional
calloused. The brain responds to use, apparently even level of pleasure. This level of perception is not in the
to the development of enlarged neurones in active cognitive part of the brain (neocortex) but is thought to
thinkers. The monitoring with loops, circuits, and gate be located within the subconscious or primitive portion
systems is continuously in operation as the body is of the brain referred to as the reptilian complex or the
harmonized for beauty, order, organization, and econ- limbic system. The limbic system is thought to contain
omy for the purpose of maximum function and mini- the instincts. It is considered capable of conditioned
mum waste of energy and material. reflex so that, in the appreciation of beauty and art, a
Certain underlying physical laws operate in order to factor of discipline and previous exposure exists.”
produce the most efficient arrangements and maintain However, with the capacity to select beauty bj, instinct
them. How does growth take place to ensure a change and with the natural laws favoring economy of tissue
in size without a change in shape (gnomonic growth)? and energy, there probably is a natural connection with
What are the underlying factors that contribute to the the sensation of beauty and efficiency. Mankind’s mind
continued allometric form? How does a control exist to is attracted to precision; hence, survival and improve-
Volume 81 Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 353
Number 5
FIBONACCI NUMBERS
In 1202 Filius Bonacci (alias Leonardo of Pisa)
published his work, Liber Abaci, which was to change
the Roman numerical world to the Hindu-Arabic nu-
meral system. He proposed that the numbers could be
demonstrated in the multiplication of rabbits. Because
each month a rabbit matured to gestation potential,
each pair of rabbits would add to the total in a way that
an increase in numbers would not occur in an ordinary
geometric progression. As it ended up, the increase
occurred as if by adding the last two numbers together
in a series. Hence, starting with 0 and 1, the total is 1. A B
Adding those last two gives the sum of 2. Two and 1 = ,618
are 3, 2 and 3 total 5, and thus the numbers increase as
Fig. 2. The geometric method of arriving at the golden section.
follows: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, etc. Notice above that line AB is bisected and that distance is
When about this level is reached, each new addition is erected perpendicular for B as a new line AD is formed. The
precisely I .618 times the previous number, and this bisection of AD, in turn dropped down to the beginning line,
ratio of addition continues on to infinity (Fig. 1). The produces a golden section which is 0.618 the total length of the
line AB. AC, in turn, is 1.618 times the length of CB.
Fibonacci numbers have been studied .extensively by
mathematicians, and groups and societies have been
formed by scholars of this unique relationship of num- reason, attracts the attention and is recorded in the
bers. Please remember that it applies to biology. limbic system as beauty, harmony, and balance. Static
symmetry consists of absolute even balance on both
THE GOLDEN SECTION sides and will be monotonous or become boring. There
That which is known as the golden section has been is a certain quality of the golden section which stimu-
known at least since the time of the Egyptians and was lates the viewer, and this value has been called
popular in the art and architecture of the Greeks. It “dynamic symmetry, ’ ’ meaning that it portrays action
starts with a basic proposition that enters many of our and a continuum.6 Examples of this relation can be
minds as children. Where is there a place to section a found throughout nature, which has always attracted
line so that the small portion is a ratio, compared to the the art, satisfaction, serenity, and euphoria of mankind.
larger part, as the larger part would be to the complete The artist almost always is taken by the beauty of na-
line? This can be arrived at geometrically quite easily. ture and tries to put it on canvas.
By bisecting the line and erecting a vertical from one Actual measurement of the line division for the cut
end, a 90 degree angle is constructed. The connection results in the longer section being 1.618 times the
of the two ends forms a triangle. By marking off the length of the shorter one! The shorter line is 0.618 the
dimension of original bisection on the hypotenuse and length of the larger (Fig. 3). This astonishing number is
swinging an arc of the remaining distance down to the the only one in mathematics which, when subtracted by
original line, a ‘ ‘golden section ” is constructed (Fig. 2). unity (l.O), yields its own reciprocal. Strangely, this
quality is exactly the same as the Fibonacci quantum
THE PROPERTIES OF PHI jump! Because a famous Greek sculptor, Phidias, used
This golden sectioning seems to have some marvel- the golden proportion so much, it was called phi, the
ously unique properties. It is a quality which, for some Greek letter for the first part of his name. The label phi
Am. J. Orthod.
354 Ricketts May 1982
I.618
.6i t
A B
0.6 I 8
I.6 I8
1.0
1.0
Fig. 7. This shows another method of producing a golden
I triangle. By taking the original AC line and dropping the dis-
tance from point C and 19, a triangle can be constructed with the
72”, 72”, 36” isosceles relationship.
‘3
4 f#f*.3619 @ .236
This produces a smaller section in the middle that is a
- kY.618 common smaller divine proportion to both ends. It is an
overlapping “area of congruence” balanced between
other parts.
H I.0
THE GOLDEN TRIANGLE
Fig. 12. By taking the phi relationships of the two inside dimensions, a golden divider can be con-
structed which, when expanded, will maintain the phi relationship continuously.
of even greater interest is the relation of the phalanges With all these relations, it causes one to ponder the
in the hand and fingers in the span. By the construction possible link with basic cellular phenomena.
of a ‘ ‘golden divider, ’ ’ an increase will always occur in
the exact same proportion (Fig. 12). When examined FACIAL ANALYSIS WITH THE GOLDEN
with the golden divider, it is observed that each pha- PROPORTION
lange is a 4 relation to the next, and each two are a C$ With the foregoing biologic facts in mind, it was
relation to the last two segments in the fingers (Fig. only natural to examine faces for alternative 4 relation-
13). In fact, the body as a whole has been studied,7 and ships. With calculator handy, several photographs of
the total height can be sectioned into the golden pro- male and female models were explored and a hypothesis
portion and it comes out to be the umbilicus (Fig. 14). was formed relative to proportions of facial components.
358 Ricketts Am. J. Orthod.
May 1982
Fig. 13. As the golden divider is applied to the hand, it will be seen that each of the phalanqes of each
finger is golden to the next in all five of the fingers.
-- r
Fig. 14. The top of the head to the chin relation (T-M) to the two cheeks forms a golden rectangle. The
height of this rectangle is quite similar to the distance from the umbilicus to the pubic triangle (UP). The
umbilicus (U) is golden from the top of the head (T) to the toes (4. The shoulders(S) and outstretched
arm (Ii) are golden to the total height (Tf). The shoulders to the umbilicus to the top of the head also
forms another golden rectangle.
Volume 81 Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 359
Number 5
Fig. 16. Taking the width of the nose as 1, the width of the
mouth is 1.618 or phi. The next progressive phi is the lateral
width of the eyes at the lateral canthus as $J~; I$~ is the width of
the head at the temporal soft tissue. 4’ is the interdacryon width
between the two eyes.
Fig. 15. The points used in the study. TRI = Trichion; TS = the
width of the head at the temporal soft tissue above the ears at Table I. Divine proportion study, frontal-
the level of the eyebrow (EB); dacryon is noted at the inner transverse dimensions (N 10 photographic
border of the orbit = DA; LC = the lateral canthus of the eye;
ZP = the zygomatic prominence; AL = alar rim; LN = the lat-
models from magazines)
eral side of the nose; CH = the point cheilion at the corner of Factor x
the mouth; ST = the break between the lips or stomion; measurement Actual Predicted C/I or 4’
ME = soft-tissue menton.
1. LN-LN 28.4 6 = 45.9 & = 74.35 Q = 120.30
2. CH-CH 45.4 c#? = 28.06 I$= 73.46 Q = 118.85
Material 3. LC-LC 75.3 4’ = 46.54 I$’ = 28.76 c$ = 121.83
In order to verify the hypothesis, a random selection 4. TS-TS 118.2 I#J’ = 73.05 @ = 45.14 @ = 27.90
of ten photographs in the frontal view were taken from Prediction TS-TS from LN-LN = 98.25% or 1.75% error (for mean
advertisements in magazines. Because proportions were values) (and these photos about 80 percent actual).
to be studied, variations in size made no difference. In Prediction CH-CH from LN-LN = 98.80 percent.
Prediction LC-LC from LN-LN = 98.75 percent.
order to include races, seven were chosen as Caucasian,
two appeared to be Oriental, and one appeared to be of
the black race. A variety of facial types were present and
all were allegedly selected for outstanding beauty for nasal bridge; and TS = a point at the lateral border of
examples of products advertised. the temple at the level of the eyebrows (EB).
The findings confirmed the hypothesis (as seen in
Method and findings Table I). A progressive phi relationship was found,
Width relations. Points for measurement in the hy- with the golden proportion having the four parts in
pothesis are seen in Fig. 15. For the frontal transverse series and in “dynamic” relationship (Fig. 16). Start-
analysis, points were selected as follows: LN = the ing with the nose, the mouth is golden and, in turn, the
lateral rim of the ala of the nose; CH = chilion, a point eyes are golden to the mouth, making the eyes 4’ to the
at the angle of the mouth; LC = a point at the lateral nose. The head width at the temple was also golden to
canthus of the eves; NB = a point at the base of the the eyes’ width which made the head 4” to the nose.
360 Ricketts Am J. Orrhod.
May 1982
t
s -7-
6
I
T!
5
-7
--L i L i
Fig. 17. The explanation for these measurements is in the text. (Courtesy of Merle Norman Cosmetics
Model: Becky Storey Adele.)
Height relations. Attempts to find vertical relations a level with chilion (CH); M = soft-tissue menton-
using nasion in conventional cephalometrics broke lower border of soft-tissue chin.
down immediately. For facial esthetics the face, includ- These findings also sensibly confirmed the hypoth-
ing the forehead or the total face, needed to be ac- esis drawn. Three reciprocal golden sections were dis-
counted for. Hence, use of a point at the top of the covered, with three areas of congruence noted. Fig. 17
forehead began to bring fruit. This point was selected at demonstrates these relationships, and Table II shows
the point of intersection with the vertical and horizontal the data analysis.
planes of the skull. More precisely, it came to be a The first golden proportion taken from the total face
point at the hairline in the young or the point at the height was the forehead to the eye, represented as a
beginning of the wrinkling that took place with the value of 1.O or 4 in Fig. 17 and the eye to menton (2),
lifting of the eyebrows. Research in the literature sug- being 1.6 18 or 4. A reverse measurement from menton
gested such a point to be trichion, or a point at a upward showed to the ala of the nose as 1.O; 5 was also
triangle where the aponeurosis of the skullcap starts golden to the forehead to the nose (3). This made nose
(Fig. 15). A similar point, labeled point Fr, had been length (from the eye to the ala) the area of balance or
studied on Italian subjects by Maj. lo Points for vertical congruence. It could give the orthodontist and the or-
analysis were as follows: trichion = point at top of thognathic or plastic surgeon a starting reference!
forehead at junction of facial and skull fascia; EB = A second set of divine proportions was discovered
point at lower border of superior curve of eyebrow; from the eye to the chin border or soft-tissue menton.
LC = lateral canthus of the eye; AL = superior border From the eye to chin downward, the ala of the nose
of the alar curve of the nose; St = stomion selected on represented by 1.O(8) and the nose to the chin is 1.6 18
Volume n1
Number 5
Divine proportion and Fihonacci series 361
5 points: Trichion, lateral canthus, alar rim, chilion (lip embrasure), menton.
or 4 (5). The reverse of this finds the mouth or stomion rhythm starts with the upper lip length from the ala of
to menton to be 1.0 (7) with the mouth to the eye the nose and flows downward to the chin and upward to
representing 1.618, or 4 (6). Thus, the distance be- the eye. The progression involves the nose-chin,
tween the nose and the mouth, or actually the upper lip mouth-eye, and eye-to-forehead dimensions. These
length, represents the balance or the area of congruence three dimensions are all similar in gloriously beautiful
in this set of measurements. Again, the surgeon may faces. The flow continues to the chin-eye and the
find this length useful as a guide, and the orthodontist forehead-nose dimensions as the next progression.
may also use this for planning treatment orthopedically. Probably the total head to top of the head would find a
A third set of measurements was found in the anal- flow from eye-chin to eye-head-crown height (to
ysis of the eye-nose-lip-chin proportions. Given the bregma). When these are all in harmony (or in tune),
upper lip length from ala to stomion (measurement 9 in the rhythm is a delight to the senses!
Fig. 17) as a value of 1.0, the eye to nose was 4 to it (8) This rhythm is seen in the data in Table II. Given
and the mouth to chin was $ to it (7). one value, the C#J
relationships were predicted almost to
Therefore, three values in these faces were approx- a measurement error. The only real problem in the
imately even. They were the forehead to the eye, the study was the obvious difficulty of selecting trichion in
eye to the mouth, and the nose to the chin (mea- commercial photographs.
surements 4, 5, and 6).
Analysis of facial depth on the profile view
Discussion Because of hair styles and the availability of frontal
In the final analysis, in the frontal view a natural views only, it was impossible to measure the previously
progression takes place in the face (if it is beautiful)! A studied sample in profile for facial depth. Therefore,
face will have rhythm! Ghyka’ has said, “Rhythm is one female patient at maturity, whose occlusion had
produced by the dynamic action of proportion on a been corrected orthodontically, was selected. It was
uniform recurrence. ” The word rhythm comes from immediately apparent that the vertical points employed
“rhythmos-arithmos,” and from “rhein,” which means for the frontal analysis were useful. However, a unit of
to flow. Rhythm is seen in time, dimension, music, and depth was needed in order to establish an organization
poetry. It is pleasing to the ear, the eye, and the psyche. of observations. This was found in the nose tip to the
The beautiful human face has rhythm, both transversely base of the tragus of the ear. Oriented to Frankfort
and vertically or in width and height. The basic width 4 plane, there emerged three golden rectangles. The same
unit is the nose at the ala as it flows rhythmically or trichion-eye, eye-mouth, and nose-chin were found
gracefully to the mouth, to the eyes, to total facial width. with the overlapping area of congruence the nose-lip
Vertically (or in facial height), the progression or area. Furthermore, the lateral canthus of the eye sec-
Am. J. Orzhod.
362 Ricketts Mav 1982
CHEEK LOCATION AND EYE RHYTHM Finally, the value of eye balance in width entered
Looking still further at oblique views of beautiful the exploration. Hypertelorism and hypotelorism are
faces, a pattern soon emerged for a hypothesis for loca- problems in congenital deformities, and eye cosmetol-
tion of the cheek prominence (or malar eminence on the ogy is a great art. Given the width of one eye (lateral
zygoma). When the points at the lower border of the arc canthus to dacryon at the medial border of the orbit) as
of the eyebrow were taken, together with the lateral a unit 1.0, it was found that the bridge of the nose
canthus of the eye (at the limits of the eyelid), a golden added to the width of the other eye came to be a 4
rectangle was formed with the ala of the nose (Fig. 19). relationship. Thus, as in nose width for the face, the
The cheek prominence appears to be in golden propor- nasal bridge between the two eyes represents an area of
tion. Thus, with zygomatic prominence (Zp) to alar rim congruence or an area of overlapping golden sections!
height used as 1.0, the eyebrow to Zp is 4. This will
DIVINE PROPORTIONS IN THE HUMAN DENTITION
not only help the plastic surgeon with the location of
cheek augmentation (often with Proplast) but also can With the foregoing findings, it was natural to seek
help properly locate the site for plastic reconstruction or divine proportions in the dentition. Data were available
cosmetics for the eyebrow (given normal eyes and nose for consideration from several sources. Personal mea-
and cheek). surements made on thirty ideal normal subjects collected
Volume 81 Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 363
Number 5
X 8.82X2 =I?-
p’=Kii
x 5.42 X 2 = 10.84 mm.
g : 17.53
--I
Fig. 20. Tables from research on the tooth size indicate that the 57.0
value for the width of the lower central incisor is golden to the
width of the upper incisors.
17.5
by me had been measured in arch dimensions. Gard-
28.3
ner’s12 findings in 104 stable, long-term, treated patients 0 ’ 45.7
were available. Data were taken from G. V. Black’s
tables from standard dental anatomy texts. Finally, the Fig. 21. From Fig. 20, it will be seen that a progressive series
values found by Hamilton for tooth mass correlation obtains. A line from the lower and central incisors to the upper
charts, distributed by Dental Corporation of America, and central incisors to the distal apse& of the upper lateral
incisors across the arch and then on to the width of the upper
were used as reference. Thus, not just tooth size but
first premolars forms a progressive golden series.
“arch form in perspective” data were analyzed. Fig. 22. Another progressive series. The width of the four lower
The studies immediately began to show promise. incisors is golden to the upper canines which, in turn, are gold-
The lower incisor became a basic unit. The upper in- en to the width of the upper second molars. Another relationship
cisor was golden to the width of the lower incisor (Fig. is seen from the distal aspect of the lower canines to the buccal
groove of the lower first molars.
20). Taking both the upper and lower central incisors as
a unit, the r#~relationship is a mark of dynamic sym-
metry. A progression is seen as the two upper incisors is harmony from the lower to the upper arch and har-
are compared to the four upper incisors-not in a mony within the upper arch itself.
straight line, but as they appear to the eye in the chord A third golden proportion was seen from the distal
of the arc of the arch form (Fig. 21). Taking data from aspect of the lower canines. This measurement as a
charts, the next progression is the width of the upper base revealed the lower first molars at the mesial cusps
first premolars as also viewed from the anterior (Fig. to be in the 4 relationship. Thus, the normal human
21). Thus, a rhythm is seen in the natural normal ideal dentition represents a concert of harmony-undoubt-
occlusion with the lower incisor as a basic unit and $J edly a factor in natural selection at the subliminal level.
for the upper central incisors, $9 for the lateral incisor
widths, and $3 for premolars. It can be imagined what ASSOCIATION OF DIVINE RELATIONS WITH
happens to esthetics and beauty with teeth missing and DENTURE AND FACE
collapsed arches in the first premolar areas. Any magazine will show smiling faces to portray
A second series of divine proportions was dis- happiness with the product advertised. Ten photo-
covered in the teeth. Starting with the widths of all four graphs were studied to test possible association. By
lower incisors (across the arch) as 1.0 value, a 4 rela- dropping vertical lines from the lateral margin of the
tion to the tips of the upper canine widths was found nose during the smile, the nasal width was found al-
(Fig. 22). A 4” relationship to the four lower incisors most consistently to be the same as the upper inter-
was found at the widths of the upper second molars. canine width at the canine tips (Fig. 23). However, the
Therefore, the molar width for the upper molars is ala are drawn slightly outward in a broad smile. If this
2.618 times the width of the arc of the four lower is true (and ten patients do not prove a complete
incisors in great beauty. Thus, in the broad smile, there theory), then the four lower incisors form a basic unit
364 Ricketts Am. J. Orrhod.
May 1982
Fig. 23. Direct photocopies from current magazines. A line was drawn from the ala of the nose vertically
in each of nine different subjects. Note the strong relationship from the ala of the nose to the tip of the
canines. During the smile the nostrils are spread slightly.
of 1.0 with C#J relations going to the nose to the mouth need for removal of a lower incisor? Or who would
@ to the eyes C#I~ and the head +4. Lower incisor width have believed that prediction of the orbit would be re-
would be 0.2360 the width of the eyes. Who would lated in any way to an indication for arch expansion?
ever have suspected that upper intercanine width could
be related to the distance between the outer canthus of ANALYSIS OF THE CELHALOMETRIC MATRIX
the eyes (0.3819)? Who would have suspected that Extensive computer research and clinical analysis
anyone could measure the width of the eyes to deter- kept pointing to the use of certain points and planes for
mine a possible indication for stripping and positioning reference, not only for convenience but also for bio-
of the four lower incisors? Who would believe that the logic significance. With all these golden associations
width of the eyes could be used to help determine the in the soft-tissue face and hard-tissue teeth. the next
Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 365
PM
Fig. 31. The molar width is golden to the AG in this adult com-
posite. Note also the same vertical relations seen in the lateral
head film. Note also that from foramen rotundum through the
lower first molar to the border of the mandible a golden relation-
ship is seen in the oblique direction.
Fig. 30. The golden relationship of the orbit to the nasal width at
dacryon. Below will be seen the golden relationship from the
periform aperture to the distance to lateral articulare. A 4’ rela-
tionship is seen at the jugal process, and a 4” relationship is
seen at the lateral articulare. The height of the nasal cavity to its
width forms, essentially, a golden rectangle.
of the biologic process as is birth, but the process per- 7. Ghyka, Matila: The geometry of art and life, New York, 1977,
Dover Publications.
mits the sustaining of form of the structure throughout
8. Runion, Garth E.: The golden section and related curiosa,
life. Perhaps, also, the wild proliferation of cells in Glenview, Ill., 1972, Scott, Foresman & Co.
cancer constitutes a disturbance in the ratio of reproduc- 9. Thompson, D’Arcy W.: On growth and form, London, 1961,
ing and working cells. Cambrige University Press.
The key to growth and form and beauty may ulti- 10. Maj, G., Luzi, C., and Lucchese, P.: A new method of
cephalometric analysis suitable for the different constitutional
mately reside in the mathematics of space, time, and
types of head, Dent. Practit. 8: 358. 1958.
rhythm. 11. Ricketts, R. M., et al: An overview of computerized cephalo-
Mankind might be at the end of a chain of an metrics, AM. J. ORTHOD. 61: l-28, 1972.
evolutionary development. Those of religious persua- 12. Gardner, Martin: The second Scientific American book of math-
sion may take comfort from this magnificent and ematical puzzles and diversions, New York, 1961. Simon &
majestic organization of the human face. Any further Schuster, Book 2, chap. 8, pp. 89-99.
13. Ricketts, Robert M: Introducing computerized cephalometrics,
improvement may be only more of the population Denver, Colo., 1969, Rocky Mountain Communicators.
reaching this potential of beauty rather than a major 14. Ricketts, Robert M: New findings and concepts emerging from
change in an already perfect form. the clinical use of the computer. In Transactions of European
Orthodontic Society, 1973, pp. 507-515.
15. Ricketts, Robert M: A four-step method to distinguish orthodon-
REFERENCES tic changes from natural growth, J. Clin. Orthod. 9: 208-228,
1. Ardrey, Robert: African Genesis, New York, 1963, Dell Pub- 1975.
lishing Company. 16. Lessier, P., and Kawamoto, H.: Personal communications.
2. Rodbard, Simon: Negative feedback mechanisms in the architec- 1980.
ture and function of the connective and cardiovascular tissues, 17. Ricketts, Robert M.: New perspectives on orientation and their
Perspect. Biol. Med. 13: 4, 1970. benefit to clinical orthodontics. Parts I and II, Angle Orthod. 45:
3. Ricketts, Robert M.: Growth and development, In Morrey and 238-248, 1975; 46: 26-36, 1976.
Nelsen (editors): Dental Science Handbook, Washington, D. C., 18. Moss, Melvin L., Moss-Salentijin, Letty, and Ostreicher, Her-
1970, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, pp. bert P.: The logarithmic properties of active and passive man-
57-86. dibular growth, AM. J. ORTHOD. 66: 645-664, 1974.
4. Moss, Melvin L.: Space and space-time in cranial facial growth, 19. Ricketts, Robert M.: A principle of arcial growth of the mandi-
AM. J. ORTHOD. 77: 591-612, 1980. ble, Angle Orthod. 42: 368-386, 1972.
5. Huntley, H. E.: The divine proportion, New York, 1970, Dover 20. Mann, John A.: Secrets of life extension, San Francisco, 1980,
Publications. Harbor Publishing, Inc.
6. Hambridge, Jay: The elements of dynamic symmetry, New
York, 1967, Dover Publications. 881 Alma Real Dr. (90272)