Operating System

OPERATING SYSTEM
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
OPERATING SYSTEM
• IS A SUITE OF PROGRAMS THAT MANAGES THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE USER,

APPLICATION SOFTWARE, SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND THE COMPUTER’S HARDWARE RESOURCES.
OPERATING SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE
• AN OS CAN BE THOUGHT OF IN DIAGRAMMATIC FORM AS A LAYER, WHICH IS ON TOP OF

OR WRAPPED AROUND THE HARDWARE OF THE COMPUTER SYSTEM.
• MOST OF THE TIME NON-SPECIALIST USERS WILL NOT INTERACT DIRECTLY WITH THE
OPERATING SYSTEM SOFTWARE, BUT VIA SOME APPLICATION SOFTWARE PACKAGE SUCH AS
A SPREADSHEET FOR EXAMPLE.
OPERATING SYSTEM PERSPECTIVES
• THE APPLICATION SOFTWARE CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS ONE OF THE LAYERS PLACED BETWEEN
THE END USER AND THE OPERATING SYSTEM.
• THE APPLICATION SOFTWARE TRANSLATES THE USER I/O INTO COMMANDS WHICH THE
OPERATING SYSTEM UNDERSTANDS, THEN THE OS IN TURN TRANSLATES THE COMMANDS VIA
MACHINE CODE ROUTINES INTO A FORM THE HARDWARE UNDERSTANDS.
OPERATING SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE
• KERNEL
• IS THE CORE PART OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM.
• IT PROVIDES THE MOST ESSENTIAL OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES SUCH AS, MEMORY
MANAGEMENT AND FILE ACCESS, MAINTAINS THE COMPUTER’S CLOCK; STARTS
APPLICATIONS; AND ASSIGNS THE COMPUTER’S RESOURCES, SUCH AS DEVICES PROGRAMS,
DATA, AND INFORMATION.
• IT REMAINS IN MEMORY FOR THE DURATION THAT YOUR COMPUTER IS ON. IT IS SAID TO BE
MEMORY RESIDENT.
OPERATING SYSTEM PERSPECTIVES
FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM
• MOST OPERATING SYSTEMS REGARDLESS OF THE SIZE PERFORMS THE FOLLOWING BASIC FUNCTIONS:
• BOOTING THE COMPUTER
• PROVIDES A USER INTERFACE
• MANAGES PROGRAMS
• MANAGES PROCESSES - SCHEDULES JOBS
• MANAGES MEMORY
• MONITORS PERFORMANCE
• PERFORMS FILE MANAGEMENT
• MANAGES DEVICES
• ADMINISTERS SECURITY
• MANAGES NETWORKS
BOOTING THE COMPUTER
OPERATING SYSTEM
• THE BOOT PROCESS

• IS THE PROCESS OF STARTING THE COMPUTER.
• THE COMPUTER MUST GO THROUGH A SERIES OF STEPS TO BE READY TO PERFORM COMPUTING
FUNCTIONS.
• POWER ON.
• LOAD INITIAL INSTRUCTIONS FROM ROM MEMORY.
• DETECT THE OS AND ANY ATTACHED HARDWARE.
• START CERTAIN COMPUTER APPLICATIONS.
• THE BOOT PROCESS IS LIKE WAKING UP IN THE MORNING.
• BIOS - BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT SYSTEM, IS A FIRMWARE THAT CONTAINS THE COMPUTER’S

STARTUP INSTRUCTIONS. IT EXECUTES A SERIES OF TESTS TO MAKE SURE THAT THE COMPUTER
HARDWARE IS CONNECTED PROPERLY AND OPERATING CORRECTLY. THE TESTS, COLLECTIVELY
CALLED THE POWER-ON SELF TEST(POST).
• FIRMWARE CONSISTS OF ROM CHIPS THAT CONTAIN PERMANENTLY WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS.
• BIOS
• A SET OF MESSAGE
USUALLY DISPLAYS ON
THE SCREEN DURING THE
BOOTING PROCESS, THE
ACTUAL INFORMATION
DISPLAYED VARIES
DEPENDING ON THE
MAKE OF THE COMPUTER
AND THE EQUIPMENT
INSTALLED.
• WHEN A COMPUTER IS SWITCHED ON IT NEEDS TO FOLLOW A PROGRAMMED SEQUENCE OF

EVENTS SUCH AS CHECKING THAT ALL THE HARDWARE IS WORKING AND SEARCHING FOR
ANY SPECIAL START-UP INSTRUCTIONS. IT IS THE JOB OF THAT PART OF THE OPERATING
SYSTEM PERMANENTLY RESIDENT INSIDE THE COMPUTER TO MAKE SURE THAT OTHER PARTS OF
THE OPERATING SYSTEM ARE LOADED INTO MEMORY AND STARTED UP PROPERLY.
• COLD BOOT IS THE PROCESS OF STARTING A COMPUTER THAT IS COMPLETELY POWERED OFF.
IT IS ALSO CALLED CLEAN BOOT. ENSURES ALL TEMPORARY MEMORY AND INTERNAL SETTINGS
HAVE BEEN COMPLETELY CLEARED.
• WARM BOOT IS THE PROCESS OF RESTARTING A COMPUTER THAT IS ALREADY POWERED ON.
ERASES RAM MEMORY AND RELOADS THE OS. IT IS ALSO KNOWN AS RESET.
PROVIDES A USER INTERFACE
OPERATING SYSTEM
• A USER INTERFACE IS THE COMBINATION OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE THAT HELPS PEOPLE
COMMUNICATE WITH COMPUTERS. INTERACTION WITH SOFTWARE TAKES PLACE THROUGH
ITS USER INTERFACE.
• AN OSS USER INTERFACE PROVIDES THE LOOK AND FEEL FOR ALL ITS COMPATIBLE SOFTWARE.
• COMMAND LINE INTERFACE

• REQUIRES A USER TO TYPE THE DESIRED RESPONSE AT A
PROMPT. THE MAIN INTERFACING DEVICE IS THE KEYBOARD. IT IS
USUALLY CONSIDERED MORE DIFFICULT TO LEARN AND USE
BECAUSE COMMANDS MUST BE LOOKED UP OR MEMORIZED.
HOWEVER, FAST AND EFFICIENT ONCE COMMANDS ARE LEARNT.
• MENU-DRIVEN INTERFACE
• ALLOWS THE USER TO SELECT COMMANDS FROM A LIST (MENU)
USING THE KEYBOARD OR A POINTING DEVICE SUCH AS A
MOUSE.
• GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI)

• USES MENUS AND VISUAL IMAGES SUCH AS ICONS, BUTTONS,
AND OTHER GRAPHICAL OBJECTS TO ISSUE COMMANDS.
• GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI)
• INCLUDES SOME OR ALL OF THE FOLLOWING PARTS:
• ICONS –GRAPHICAL IMAGES THAT REPRESENT ITEMS, SUCH AS FILES AND
DIRECTORIES.
• A GRAPHICAL POINTER –USED TO SELECT ICONS AND COMMANDS AND
MOVE ON-SCREEN ITEMS, CONTROLLED BY A POINTING DEVICE.
• MENU
• WINDOWS –ENCLOSES APPLICATIONS OR OBJECTS ON THE SCREEN
• OTHER GRAPHICAL DEVICES –TELLS THE COMPUTER WHAT TO DO AND
HOW TO DO IT. E.G. CHECK BOXES, DIALOG BOXES, BUTTONS, ETC.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
OPERATING SYSTEM
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• AN OPERATING SYSTEM CAN BE CLASSIFIED OR CATEGORISED

BASED ON THE FOLLOWING:
• NUMBER OF USERS
• NUMBER OF TASKS THAT CAN BE EXECUTED SIMULTANEOUSLY
• TYPES OF PROCESSING
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• NUMBER OF USERS
• SINGLE-USER–ALLOWS ONLY ONE USER AT A TIME TO ACCESS A COMPUTER.
MOST OPERATING SYSTEMS ON MICROCOMPUTERS ARE SINGLE-USER ACCESS
SYSTEMS.
• MULTI-USER –ALLOWS TWO OR MORE USERS TO ACCESS A COMPUTER AT THE
SAME TIME. THE ACTUAL NUMBER OF USERS DEPEND ON THE HARDWARE AND OS
DESIGN. USUALLY FOUND ON LARGER COMPUTERS BUT ALSO FOUND ON
MICROCOMPUTERS AND ON A FEW MOBILE DEVICES.
• TIME SHARING –FACILITATES MULTI-USER SYSTEMS. ALLOWS MANY USERS TO
ACCESS A SINGLE COMPUTER BY SWITCHING THE ATTENTION OF THE CPU
AMONG THE USERS ON A TIMED BASIS CONTROLLED BY THE OS. AS LONG AS
THE COMPUTER DOES NOT HAVE MORE USERS THAN IT CAN HANDLE, IT
APPEARS THAT EACH USER HAS UNINTERRUPTED ACCESS TO THE CPU.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• PROCESS
• AN INSTANCE OF A COMPUTER PROGRAM IN EXECUTION. SOMETIMES CALLED A JOB OR TASK.
• THE EXECUTION OF A PROCESS MUST PROGRESS IN A SEQUENTIAL FASHION. DEFINITION OF
PROCESS IS FOLLOWING: A PROCESS IS DEFINED AS AN ENTITY WHICH REPRESENTS THE BASIC
UNIT OF WORK TO BE IMPLEMENTED IN THE SYSTEM.
• A PROCESS CAN HAVE MANY DIFFERENT THREADS.
• A THREAD IS A FLOW OF EXECUTION THROUGH THE PROCESS CODE, WITH ITS OWN
PROGRAM COUNTER, SYSTEM REGISTERS AND STACK.
• EACH THREAD BELONGS TO EXACTLY ONE PROCESS AND NO THREAD CAN EXIST OUTSIDE A
PROCESS. EACH THREAD REPRESENTS A SEPARATE FLOW OF CONTROL.
• PUT SIMPLY, A THREAD IS A PIECE OF A PROCESS THAT IS BEING EXECUTED, NORMALLY IN
PARALLEL WITH OTHER THREADS OF THE PROCESS.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• NUMBER OF TASKS
• SINGLE TASKING–ALLOWS ONLY ONE PROGRAM TO BE
EXECUTED AT A TIME, AND THAT PROGRAM MUST FINISH
EXECUTING COMPLETELY BEFORE THE NEXT PROGRAM CAN
BEGIN. THE GOAL OF THIS OS IS MAXIMUM EASE OF USE AND
MINIMAL PROFESSIONAL SUPPORT.
• MULTITASKING–ALLOWS A SINGLE CPU TO EXECUTE WHAT
APPEARS TO BE MORE THAN ONE PROGRAM AT A TIME.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• MULTITASKING
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• MULTITASKING
• A PROGRAM THAT IS LOADED INTO MEMORY AND IS EXECUTING IS COMMONLY REFERRED TO AS A
PROCESS.
• WHEN A PROCESS EXECUTES, IT TYPICALLY EXECUTES FOR ONLY A VERY SHORT TIME BEFORE IT EITHER
FINISHES OR NEEDS TO PERFORM I/O.
• SINCE INTERACTIVE I/O TYPICALLY RUNS AT PEOPLE SPEEDS, IT MAY TAKE A LONG TIME TO
COMPLETED. DURING THIS TIME A CPU CAN BE UTILIZED BY ANOTHER PROCESS.
• OPERATING SYSTEM ALLOWS THE USERS TO SHARE THE COMPUTER SIMULTANEOUSLY. SINCE EACH
ACTION OR COMMAND IN A TIME-SHARED SYSTEM TENDS TO BE SHORT, ONLY A LITTLE CPU TIME IS
NEEDED FOR EACH USER.
• AS THE SYSTEM SWITCHES CPU RAPIDLY FROM ONE USER/PROGRAM TO THE NEXT, EACH USER IS
GIVEN THE IMPRESSION THAT HE/SHE HAS HIS/HER OWN CPU, WHEREAS ACTUALLY ONE CPU IS
BEING SHARED AMONG MANY USERS.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• MULTITASKING
• THERE ARE SEVERAL WAYS TO ACCOMPLISH MULTITASKING:
• CONTEXT SWITCHING–ALLOWS SEVERAL PROGRAMS TO
RESIDE IN MEMORY BUT ONLY ONE TO BE ACTIVE AT A TIME.
THE ACTIVE PROGRAM IS SAID TO BE IN THE FOREGROUND. THE
OTHER PROGRAMS IN MEMORY ARE NOT ACTIVE AND ARE SAID
TO BE IN THE BACKGROUND. INSTEAD OF QUITTING A
PROGRAM SIMPLY SWITCH THE PROGRAMS BETWEEN
BACKGROUND AND FOREGROUND.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• MULTITASKING
• THERE ARE SEVERAL WAYS TO ACCOMPLISH MULTITASKING:
• COOPERATIVE MULTITASKING
• ALLOWS THE BACKGROUND PROGRAM TO USE THE CPU
DURING IDLE TIME OF THE FOREGROUND PROGRAM.
• FOR EXAMPLE, THE BACKGROUND PROGRAM MAY SORT
DATA WHILE THE FOREGROUND PROGRAM WAITS FOR A
KEYSTROKE.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• MULTITASKING
• TIME-SLICE MULTITASKING –THE CPU SWITCHES ITS ATTENTION BETWEEN THE
REQUESTED TASKS OF TWO OR MORE PROGRAMS. EACH TASK RECEIVES THE
ATTENTION OF THE CPU FOR A FRACTION OF A SECOND BEFORE THE CPU MOVES ON
TO THE NEXT. THE ORDER IN WHICH TASKS RECEIVE CPU ATTENTION CAN BE
DETERMINED SEQUENTIALLY OR BY PREDETERMINED PRIORITY LEVELS.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• THREADS
• A PROCESS CAN HAVE MANY DIFFERENT THREADS.
• A THREAD IS A FLOW OF EXECUTION THROUGH THE PROCESS CODE,
WITH ITS OWN PROGRAM COUNTER, SYSTEM REGISTERS AND STACK.
• EACH THREAD BELONGS TO EXACTLY ONE PROCESS AND NO THREAD
CAN EXIST OUTSIDE A PROCESS. EACH THREAD REPRESENTS A SEPARATE
FLOW OF CONTROL.
• PUT SIMPLY, A THREAD IS A PIECE OF A PROCESS THAT IS BEING
EXECUTED, NORMALLY IN PARALLEL WITH OTHER THREADS OF THE
PROCESS.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• THREADS
MANAGES PROGRAMS
S.N. Process Thread
1 Process is heavy weight or resource intensive. Thread is light weight taking lesser resources than a
process.
1 Process switching needs interaction with Thread switching does not need to interact with
operating system. operating system.
1 In multiple processing environments each All threads can share same set of open files, child
process executes the same code but has its processes.
own memory and file resources.
1 If one process is blocked then no other While one thread is blocked and waiting, second thread
process can execute until the first process is in the same task can run.
unblocked.
1 Multiple processes without using threads use Multiple threaded processes use fewer resources.
more resources.
1 In multiple processes each process operates One thread can read, write or change another thread's
independently of the others. data.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• ADVANTAGES OF THREAD
• THREAD MINIMIZE CONTEXT SWITCHING TIME.
• USE OF THREADS PROVIDES CONCURRENCY WITHIN A PROCESS.
• EFFICIENT COMMUNICATION.
• ECONOMY- IT IS MORE ECONOMICAL TO CREATE AND CONTEXT
SWITCH THREADS.
• UTILIZATION OF MULTIPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURES TO A GREATER
SCALE AND EFFICIENCY.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• MULTITHREADING
• SUPPORTS SEVERAL SIMULTANEOUS TASKS WITHIN THE
SAME APPLICATION.
• FOR EXAMPLE, WITH ONLY ONE COPY OF A DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN MEMORY, ONE DATABASE FILE
CAN BE SORTED WHILE DATA IS SIMULTANEOUSLY ENTERED
INTO ANOTHER DATABASE FILE.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• TYPES OF PROCESSES – BATCH PROCESSING
• BATCH PROCESSING IS A TECHNIQUE IN WHICH OPERATING SYSTEM
COLLECTS ONE PROGRAMS AND DATA TOGETHER IN A BATCH BEFORE
PROCESSING STARTS.
• BATCH PROCESSING IS SUITABLE FOR COMPUTER SYSTEMS THAT ARE
RUNNING PROCESSES THAT MAY TAKE SOME TIME TO COMPLETE. THE
PROCESSES ARE ALLOWED TO CONTINUE TO COMPLETION WITHOUT
INTERVENTION FROM THE USER.
• EXAMPLES MIGHT BE A PAYROLL PROGRAM, AND BANKING SYSTEMS THAT
UPDATE A DAY’S TRADING OVERNIGHT.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• EXAMPLE
• A STOCK CONTROL PROGRAMME MAY STORE RECORDS OF
EVERY ITEM SOLD IN A SHOP THAT DAY. THEN, AT THE END OF
EACH DAY IT CALCULATES WHAT NEEDS TO BE ORDERED.
• AN ONLINE COMPETITION STORES ALL THE ENTRIES UNTIL IT IS
TIME TO FIND THE WINNER.
• ELECTRICITY, GAS AND TELEPHONE BILLS ARE USUALLY
CALCULATED ON A MONTHLY BASIS
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• OPERATING SYSTEM DOES THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO BATCH
PROCESSING.
• OS DEFINES A JOB WHICH HAS PREDEFINED SEQUENCE OF COMMANDS,
PROGRAMS AND DATA AS A SINGLE UNIT.
• OS KEEPS A NUMBER A JOBS IN MEMORY AND EXECUTES THEM WITHOUT ANY
MANUAL INFORMATION.
• JOBS ARE PROCESSED IN THE ORDER OF SUBMISSION I.E FIRST COME FIRST
SERVED FASHION.
• WHEN JOB COMPLETES ITS EXECUTION, ITS MEMORY IS RELEASED AND THE
OUTPUT FOR THE JOB GETS COPIED INTO AN OUTPUT SPOOL FOR LATER
PRINTING OR PROCESSING.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• ADVANTAGES
• BATCH PROCESSING TAKES MUCH OF THE WORK OF THE OPERATOR TO THE COMPUTER.
• INCREASED PERFORMANCE AS A NEW JOB GETS STARTED AS SOON AS THE PREVIOUS JOB
FINISHED WITHOUT ANY MANUAL INTERVENTION.
• DISADVANTAGES
• DIFFICULT TO DEBUG PROGRAM.
• A JOB COULD ENTER AN INFINITE LOOP.
• DUE TO LACK OF PROTECTION SCHEME, ONE BATCH JOB CAN AFFECT PENDING JOBS.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• TYPES OF PROCESSES – INTERACTIVE PROCESSING
• HAVE ONE OR MORE USERS PERFORMING TASKS DIRECTLY THROUGH A
WORKSTATION. IT MUST PROVIDE A USER INTERFACE THAT ALLOWS GOOD
COMMUNICATION WITH THE USER.
• THE OPERATING SYSTEM MUST RESPOND QUICKLY TO THE USER. THIS DOES NOT MEAN
THAT THE SYSTEM WILL PERFORM TASKS IMMEDIATELY, BUT IT SHOULD KEEP THE USER
INFORMED OF PROGRESS.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• TYPES OF PROCESSES – INTERACTIVE PROCESSING
• OPERATING SYSTEM DOES THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO INTERACTIVITY.
• OS PROVIDES USER AN INTERFACE TO INTERACT WITH SYSTEM.
• OS MANAGERS INPUT DEVICES TO TAKE INPUTS FROM THE USER. FOR EXAMPLE, KEYBOARD.
• OS MANAGES OUTPUT DEVICES TO SHOW OUTPUTS TO THE USER. FOR EXAMPLE,
MONITOR.
• OS RESPONSE TIME NEEDS TO BE SHORT SINCE THE USER SUBMITS AND WAITS FOR THE
RESULT.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• TYPES OF PROCESSES – REAL-TIME PROCESSING
• ALLOWS A COMPUTER TO CONTROL OR MONITOR THE TASK PERFORMANCE OF
OTHER MACHINES AND PEOPLE BY RESPONDING TO INPUT DATA IMMEDIATELY SO THAT
IT MAINTAINS A COMPLETELY UP-TO-DATE ENVIRONMENT. THEY ARE USUALLY
DEDICATED EMBEDDED SYSTEMS.
• THIS PROCESSING METHOD IS USED WHEN IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT THE INPUT REQUEST IS
DEALT WITH QUICKLY ENOUGH SO AS TO BE ABLE TO CONTROL AN OUTPUT
PROPERLY. FOR EXAMPLE, THE COMPUTER INSIDE THE ENGINE CONTROL UNIT IN A CAR
HAS TO MANAGE THE ENGINE AT EVERY MOMENT BASED ON WHAT THE DRIVER
WANTS TO DO.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• REAL-TIME SYSTEMS ALSO HAVE TO PROVIDE SOPHISTICATED PROTECTION SYSTEMS SO
THAT IT IS NOT POSSIBLE FOR DIFFERENT USERS TO UPDATE THE SAME DATA AT THE
SAME TIME.
• MOST REAL-TIME OSS ARE WRITTEN FOR AN INTENDED APPLICATION. E.G. IT MIGHT
MONITOR THE VITAL SIGNS OF A HEALTH TRANSPLANT PATIENT.
• NOTE THAT REAL-TIME PROCESSING DOES NOT HAVE TO BE ‘FAST’. FOR EXAMPLE, A
TRAFFIC LIGHT SYSTEM IS A REAL-TIME PROCESSING SYSTEM BUT IT ONLY NEEDS TO
PROCESS DATA RELATIVELY SLOWLY. ON THE OTHER HAND, CONTROLLING A CAR
ENGINE HAS TO DEAL WITH INPUT EVENTS HAPPENING EVERY THOUSANDTH OF A
SECOND SO A VERY FAST COMPUTER IS NEEDED TO DO-THIS – BUT BOTH THE TRAFFIC-
LIGHT AND CAR ENGINE COMPUTERS ARE CARRYING OUT ‘REAL-TIME PROCESSING.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• OPERATING SYSTEM DOES THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES

RELATED TO REAL TIME SYSTEM ACTIVITY:
• IN SUCH SYSTEMS, OPERATING SYSTEMS TYPICALLY READ
FROM AND REACT TO SENSOR DATA.
• THE OPERATING SYSTEM MUST GUARANTEE RESPONSE TO
EVENTS WITHIN FIXED PERIODS OF TIME TO ENSURE
CORRECT PERFORMANCE.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• TYPES OF PROCESSES – DISTRIBUTED ENVIRONMENT
• DISTRIBUTED ENVIRONMENT REFERS TO MULTIPLE INDEPENDENT

CPUS OR PROCESSORS IN A COMPUTER SYSTEM.
• OPERATING SYSTEM DOES THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES RELATED
TO DISTRIBUTED ENVIRONMENT.
• OS DISTRIBUTES COMPUTATION LOGICS AMONG SEVERAL PHYSICAL PROCESSORS.
• THE PROCESSORS DO NOT SHARE MEMORY OR A CLOCK.
• INSTEAD, EACH PROCESSOR HAS ITS OWN LOCAL MEMORY.
• OS MANAGES THE COMMUNICATIONS BETWEEN THE PROCESSORS. THEY COMMUNICATE WITH
EACH OTHER THROUGH VARIOUS COMMUNICATION LINES.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• TYPES OF PROCESSES – DISTRIBUTED ENVIRONMENT
• THE ADVANTAGES OF DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS ARE THE

FOLLOWING.
• WITH RESOURCE SHARING FACILITY USER AT ONE SITE MAY BE ABLE TO USE THE RESOURCES
AVAILABLE AT ANOTHER.
• SPEEDUP THE EXCHANGE OF DATA WITH ONE ANOTHER VIA ELECTRONIC MAIL.
• IF ONE SITE FAILS IN A DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM, THE REMAINING SITES CAN POTENTIALLY
CONTINUE OPERATING.
• BETTER SERVICE TO THE CUSTOMERS.
• REDUCTION OF THE LOAD ON THE HOST COMPUTER.
• REDUCTION OF DELAYS IN DATA PROCESSING.
MANAGES PROGRAMS
• TYPES OF PROCESSES – ONLINE PROCESSING

• ONLINE PROCESSING-CONNECTED TO THE COMPUTER. ONLINE SYSTEMS REFER TO
TERMINALS THAT ARE CONNECTED TO THE COMPUTER AT THE MOMENT PROCESSING
OCCURS; REAL TIME PROCESSING OF INFORMATION AS THAT INFORMATION OCCURS.
• WHEN DEVICES ARE TURNED ON AND CONNECTED. FOR EXAMPLE, PRINTERS ARE ONLINE
WHEN THEY ARE READY TO RECEIVE DATA FROM THE COMPUTER. YOU CAN ALSO TURN A
PRINTER OFFLINE. WHILE THE PRINTER IS OFFLINE, YOU CAN PERFORM CERTAIN TASKS SUCH
AS ADVANCING THE PAPER, BUT YOU CANNOT SEND DATA TO IT. MOST PRINTERS HAVE AN
ONLINE BUTTON YOU CAN PRESS TO TURN THE MACHINE ON-OR OFFLINE.
• USERS ARE CONSIDERED ONLINE WHEN THEY ARE CONNECTED TO A COMPUTER SERVICE
THROUGH A MODEM. THAT IS, THEY ARE ACTUALLY ON THE LINE.
MANAGES PROCESSES
OPERATING SYSTEM
MANAGES PROCESSES
• MULTITASKING CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED THROUGH THE USE OF

A SINGLE OR MULTIPLE PROCESSORS.
• MULTIPROCESSING - ALLOWS THE SIMULTANEOUS EXECUTION OF
PROGRAMS BY A COMPUTER THAT HAS TWO OR MORE CPUS.
• MULTIPROGRAMMING – ALLOWS THE SIMULTANEOUS EXECUTION
OF PROGRAMS BY A COMPUTER THAT HAS A SINGLE PROCESSOR.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• MULTIPROCESSING
• A COMPUTER WITH SEPARATE PROCESSORS ALSO CAN SERVE AS A FAULT-
TOLERANT COMPUTER.
• A FAULT TOLERANT COMPUTER CONTINUES TO OPERATE EVEN IF ONE OF
ITS COMPONENT FAILS.
• FAULT TOLERANT COMPUTERS HAVE DUPLICATE COMPONENTS SUCH AS
PROCESSORS, MEMORY, AND DISK DRIVES. AIRLINE RESERVATION SYSTEMS,
AUTOMATED TELLER MACHINES, AND OTHER SYSTEMS THAT MUST BE
OPERATIONAL AT ALL TIMES USE FAULT TOLERANT COMPUTERS.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• A PROCESS IS A PROGRAM IN EXECUTION. THE EXECUTION OF A PROCESS

MUST PROGRESS IN A SEQUENTIAL FASHION.
• A PROGRAM BY ITSELF IS NOT A PROCESS. IT IS A STATIC ENTITY MADE UP
OF PROGRAM STATEMENT WHILE PROCESS IS A DYNAMIC ENTITY.
PROGRAM CONTAINS THE INSTRUCTIONS TO BE EXECUTED BY THE
PROCESSOR.
• A PROGRAM TAKES A SPACE AT A SINGLE PLACE IN MAIN MEMORY AND
CONTINUES TO STAY THERE. A PROGRAM DOES NOT PERFORM ANY
ACTION BY ITSELF.
MANAGES PROCESSES
S. A Process contains the following components.
N.
1 Object Program
Code to be executed.
2 Data
Data to be used for executing the program.
3 Resources
While executing the program, it may require some resources.
4 Status
Verifies the status of the process execution. A process can run to completion only when all
requested resources have been allocated to the process. Two or more processes could be
executing the same program, each using their own data and resources.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• MULTIPROGRAMMING
• PROCESS STATES
• AS A PROCESS EXECUTES, IT CHANGES STATE. THE STATE OF A PROCESS IS DEFINED AS
THE CURRENT ACTIVITY OF THE PROCESS.
• PROCESS CAN HAVE ONE OF THE FOLLOWING FIVE STATES AT A TIME.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• IF WE FOLLOW THE PROGRESS OF A PROCESS WE NOTICE THAT MOST PROGRAM
INSTRUCTIONS ARE EXECUTED IN QUICK SUCCESSION BY THE PROCESSOR.
• THERE ARE SOME INSTRUCTIONS THAT INVOLVE THE USE OF A PERIPHERAL, FOR
EXAMPLE A DISK, TAPE, KEYBOARD, PRINTER, ETC.
• WHEN A PERIPHERAL OPERATION IS PERFORMED THE PROCESS HAS TO WAIT AS THE
PERIPHERALS OPERATE AT A MUCH SLOWER SPEED.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• WHEN A PROCESS IS WAITING THE PROCESSOR IS AVAILABLE TO EXECUTE ANOTHER
PROCESS.
• AS THE WAITING TIME FOR A PROCESS IS USUALLY MUCH LONGER THE TIME THE
PROCESS IS RUNNING IT IS POSSIBLE TO HAVE A NUMBER OF PROCESSES IN THIS
CYCLE AT THE SAME TIME.
• THE OS CAN MANAGE THIS BY MAINTAINING TWO QUEUES OF PROCESSES: A QUEUE
OF PROCESSES THAT ARE WAITING AND A QUEUE OF PROCESSES THAT ARE READY TO
RUN.
MANAGES PROCESSES
S.N State & Description
.
1 New
The process is being created.
2 Ready
The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting to have the processor
allocated to them by the operating system so that they can run.
3 Running
Process instructions are being executed (i.e. The process that is currently being executed).
4 Waiting
The process is waiting for some event to occur (such as the completion of an I/O operation).
5 Terminated
The process has finished execution.
MANAGES PROCESSES
MANAGES PROCESSES
• THE PERIPHERALS OPERATE IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE OS ISSUES A COMMAND TO THE
PERIPHERAL TO PERFORM DATA TRANSFER (FOR EXAMPLE, TRANSFER A BLOCK OF DATA
FROM A DISK TO A BUFFER) AND THE PERIPHERAL GENERATES AN INTERRUPT WHEN THE
TRANSFER IS COMPLETED.
• WHEN AN INTERRUPT IS GENERATED THE OS MOVES A PROCESS FROM THE WAIT
QUEUE TO THE READY QUEUE. (MORE ON INTERRUPTS LATER)
MANAGES PROCESSES
• MULTIPROGRAMMING – PROCESS CONTROL BLOCK (PCB)
• EACH PROCESS IS REPRESENTED IN THE OPERATING SYSTEM BY A PROCESS CONTROL
BLOCK (PCB) ALSO CALLED A TASK CONTROL BLOCK. PCB IS THE DATA STRUCTURE
USED BY THE OPERATING SYSTEM. THE OPERATING SYSTEM GROUPS ALL THE
INFORMATION THAT IT NEEDS ABOUT A PARTICULAR PROCESS.
• PCB CONTAINS MANY PIECES OF INFORMATION ASSOCIATED WITH A SPECIFIC
PROCESS. THEY ARE DESCRIBED ON THE NEXT SLIDE.
MANAGES PROCESSES
S.N. Information & Description
1
Pointer
Pointer points to another process control block. Pointer is used for maintaining the scheduling list.
2
Process State
Process state may be new, ready, running, waiting and so on.
3
Program Counter
Program Counter indicates the address of the next instruction to be executed for this process.
4
CPU registers
CPU registers include general purpose register, stack pointers, index registers and accumulators etc. number of register
and type of register totally depends upon the computer architecture.
5
Memory management information
This information may include the value of base and limit registers, the page tables, or the segment tables depending on
the memory system used by the operating system. This information is useful for deallocating the memory when the
process terminates.
6
Accounting information
This information includes the amount of CPU and real time used, time limits, job or process numbers, account numbers
etc.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• PROCESS CONTROL BLOCK INCLUDES
• CPU SCHEDULING, I/O RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, FILE MANAGEMENT
INFORMATION ETC.
• THE PCB SERVES AS THE REPOSITORY FOR ANY INFORMATION WHICH CAN
VARY FROM PROCESS TO PROCESS.
• LOADER/LINKER SETS FLAGS AND REGISTERS WHEN A PROCESS IS
CREATED. IF THAT PROCESS GET SUSPENDED, THE CONTENTS OF THE
REGISTERS ARE SAVED ON A STACK AND THE POINTER TO THE PARTICULAR
STACK FRAME IS STORED IN THE PCB. BY THIS TECHNIQUE, THE HARDWARE
STATE CAN BE RESTORED SO THAT THE PROCESS CAN BE SCHEDULED TO
RUN AGAIN.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• MULTIPROGRAMMING – PROCESS
CONTROL BLOCK (PCB)
MANAGES PROCESSES
• WHEN A PROCESS STOPS RUNNING, ITS CURRENT STATE MUST BE SAVED SO THAT IT
CAN BE RESTARTED LATER.
• THE PCB CONTAINS SPACE TO STORE ALL THE REGISTERS WHEN A PROCESS CEASES TO
OCCUPY THE PROCESSOR AND JOINS THE WAIT QUEUE. THESE CAN BE RELOADED
FROM THE PCB WHEN THE PROCESS RETURNS TO A RUNNING STATE.
• THE WAIT QUEUE AND THE READY QUEUE ARE BOTH IMPLEMENTED IN THE FORM OF
LINKED LISTS SO EACH PCB WILL CONTAIN A LINK TO ANOTHER PCB. THIS MAKES IT
VERY EASY TO MOVE A PCB FROM ONE QUEUE TO ANOTHER BY SIMPLY CHANGING
SOME LINKS.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• IN THE FIGURE ABOVE, PROCESS 239845 IS IN THE WAIT QUEUE. WHEN THE DISK
TRANSFER IS COMPLETE IT WILL BE MOVED TO THE READY QUEUE AND THE SITUATION
WILL NOW BE AS SHOWN ON THE NEXT SLIDE.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• SO THE PROCESS HAS BEEN MOVED FROM ONE QUEUE TO ANOTHER BY CHANGING
TWO LINKS. THE STATE OF ANY PROCESS IS CONTAINED IN ITS PROCESS CONTROL
BLOCK.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• MULTIPROGRAMMING – CONTEXT SWITCH
• A CONTEXT SWITCH IS THE MECHANISM TO STORE AND RESTORE THE STATE OR
CONTEXT OF A CPU IN THE PROCESS CONTROL BLOCK SO THAT A PROCESS
EXECUTION CAN BE RESUMED FROM THE SAME POINT AT A LATER TIME.
• USING THIS TECHNIQUE A CONTEXT SWITCHER ENABLES MULTIPLE PROCESSES TO
SHARE A SINGLE CPU. CONTEXT SWITCHING IS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF A
MULTITASKING OPERATING SYSTEM FEATURES.
• WHEN THE SCHEDULER SWITCHES THE CPU FROM EXECUTING ONE PROCESS TO
EXECUTE ANOTHER, THE CONTEXT SWITCHER SAVES THE CONTENT OF ALL PROCESSOR
REGISTERS FOR THE PROCESS BEING REMOVED FROM THE CPU, IN ITS PROCESS
DESCRIPTOR. THE CONTEXT OF A PROCESS IS REPRESENTED IN THE PROCESS CONTROL
BLOCK OF A PROCESS.
MANAGES PROCESSES
• CONTEXT SWITCH TIME IS PURE OVERHEAD. CONTEXT SWITCHING CAN SIGNIFICANTLY
AFFECT PERFORMANCE AS MODERN COMPUTERS HAVE A LOT OF GENERAL AND
STATUS REGISTERS TO BE SAVED.
• CONTENT SWITCHING TIMES ARE HIGHLY DEPENDENT ON HARDWARE SUPPORT.
MANAGES PROCESSES
MANAGES PROCESSES
• SOME HARDWARE SYSTEMS EMPLOY TWO OR MORE SETS OF PROCESSOR REGISTERS TO
REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF CONTEXT SWITCHING TIME. WHEN THE PROCESS IS SWITCHED,
THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION IS STORED.
• PROGRAM COUNTER
• SCHEDULING INFORMATION
• BASE AND LIMIT REGISTER VALUE
• CURRENTLY USED REGISTER
• CHANGED STATE
• I/O STATE
• ACCOUNTING
MANAGES PROCESSES - SCHEDULING
CPU SCHEDULING
DECIDE WHICH OF THE PROCESSES IN THE READY
QUEUE IS TO BE ALLOCATED TO THE CPU
74
• SCHEDULING IS THE ACTIVITY OF THE PROCESS MANAGER THAT HANDLES THE REMOVAL OF
THE RUNNING PROCESS FROM THE CPU AND THE SELECTION OF ANOTHER PROCESS ON THE
BASIS OF A PARTICULAR STRATEGY.
• PROCESS SCHEDULING IS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF A MULTIPROGRAMMING OPERATING
SYSTEM. SUCH OPERATING SYSTEMS ALLOW MORE THAN ONE PROCESS TO BE LOADED INTO
THE EXECUTABLE MEMORY AT A TIME AND THE LOADED PROCESS SHARES THE CPU USING TIME
MULTIPLEXING.
OBJECTIVES OF SCHEDULING
• MAXIMIZE THE SYSTEM THROUGHPUT

• BE FAIR TO ALL USERS
• PROVIDE TOLERABLE RESPONSE
• DEGRADE PERFORMANCE GRACEFULLY
• BE CONSISTENT AND PREDICTABLE
76
CRITERIA FOR SCHEDULING
• PRIORITY ASSIGNED TO PROCESS
• CLASS OF JOB (BATCH OR ONLINE)
• RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS
• I/O OR CPU BOUND
• RESOURCES USED TO DATE
• WAITING TIME TO DATE
77
CPU-BOUND OR I/O-BOUND
Processor I/O device
Example: Proportional Hazard Example: Database Updates

Model
78
PREEMPTIVE VERSUS NON-PREEMPTIVE
• PREEMPTIVE
• SCHEDULER REMOVES A PROCESS FROM THE PROCESSOR SO THAT ANOTHER PROCESS CAN RUN
• GENERATES MORE CONTEXT SWITCHES
• GREATER OVERHEADS
• NECESSARY FOR ON-LINE AND ESSENTIAL FOR REAL-TIME SYSTEMS
Processor
P2 P1
Blocked or79
Ready P2 P1 ready
PREEMPTIVE VERSUS NON-PREEMPTIVE
• NON-PREEMPTIVE
• ONCE GIVEN THE PROCESSOR, A PROCESS STOPS RUNNING ONLY WHEN
• IT HAS TERMINATED
• IT HAS INCURRED AN I/O WAIT
• A PROCESS ONLY VOLUNTARILY GIVES UP PROCESSOR
Processor
terminates
P2 P1
Blocked
Ready 80
P2 P1
DISPATCHER
• MODULE THAT GIVES THE CONTROL OF THE CPU TO THE PROCESS
SELECTED BY THE SCHEDULER
• DISPATCHING INVOLVES:
• SWITCHING CONTEXT
• SWITCHING TO USER MODE
• JUMPING TO THE PROPER LOCATION IN THE USER PROGRAM
• DISPATCH LATENCY – TIME IT TAKES THE DISPATCHER TO STOP ONE
PROCESS AND START ANOTHER 81
DEFINITIONS
Throughput
Number of processes that are completed per time unit.
Turnaround time
The interval from the time of submission to the time of completion
Waiting time
Is the sum of periods spent waiting in the ready queue
Response time
Is the period from the time of submission to the first response
82
SCHEDULING POLICIES
• FIRST-COME-FIRST-SERVE (FCFS)
• SHORTEST JOB FIRST (SJF)
• PRIORITY SCHEDULING
• ROUND ROBIN (RR)
• MULTILEVEL QUEUES AND FEEDBACK QUEUES
83
FIRST-COME-FIRST-SERVE (FCFS)
Blocked
C
P
U
Exit
Ready Queue
84
FCFS
• IT IS A NON-PREEMPTIVE ALGORITHM
• THE PROCESS THAT REQUESTS THE CPU GETS IT FIRST
• IMPLEMENTED WITH A FIFO QUEUE.
• EASY TO UNDERSTAND AND IMPLEMENT.
• PCB OF A NEWLY ENTERED PROCESS IS LINKED TO THE TAIL OF THE QUEUE
• FREE CPU IS ALLOCATED TO THE PROCESS AT THE HEAD OF THE QUEUE
• THE RUNNING PROCESS IS REMOVED FROM THE QUEUE
• THE AVERAGE WAITING TIME MAY VARY SUBSTANTIALLY (BUT IS USUALLY
VERY HIGH) AND NOT OPTIMAL FOR ALL PROCESS
• THERE IS A CONVOY EFFECT : ALL PROCESSES WAIT FOR ONE BIG PROCESS
TO FREE THE CPU 85
• DISASTROUS FOR TIME-SHARING SYSTEMS

FCFS
SHORTEST JOB FIRST (SJF)
Blocked
C
P
U
2
1
Ready Queue
87
SJF
• SELECTS THE PROCESS FROM THE READY QUEUE WITH SHORTEST ESTIMATED RUN-TIME
(CPU BURST)
• ESSENTIALLY A PRIORITY SCHEME
• IT IS AN OPTIMAL ALGORITHM AS THE AVERAGE WAITING TIME IS MINIMUM
• PROBLEM: PREVENTS VERY LOG JOB FROM GETTING THE CPU - STARVATION
• SUITABLE FOR BATCH PROCESSING (HIGH LEVEL SCHEDULING)
• PROBLEM: WHAT IS THE LENGTH OF NEXT CPU BURST?
• POSSIBLE TO PREDICT THE VALUE - EXPONENTIAL AVERAGE OF THE MEASURED LENGTH
OF PREVIOUS CPU BURSTS
• PRIMARILY NON-PREEMPTIVE BUT POSSIBLE TO DESIGN A PREEMPTIVE VERSION
88
SJF
PRIORITY SCHEDULING
• A PRIORITY IS ASSOCIATED WITH EACH PROCESS
• CPU IS ALLOCATED TO THE PROCESS WITH HIGHEST PRIORITY
• EQUAL PROCESSES ARE SCHEDULED IN FCFS ORDER
• PRIORITIES CAN BE DEFINED INTERNALLY OR EXTERNALLY
• INTERNAL : RATIO OF AVERAGE I/O BURST TO AVERAGE CPU BURST, PRIORITY CAN BE DECIDED
BASED ON MEMORY REQUIREMENTS, TIME REQUIREMENTS OR ANY OTHER RESOURCE
REQUIREMENT.
• EXTERNAL: IMPORTANCE OF THE PROJECT, FUND RESOURCES
• CAN BE PREEMPTIVE OR NON-PREEMPTIVE
• MAJOR PROBLEM : STARVATION OF LOW PRIORITY PROCESSES
• SOLUTION TO STARVATION: AGING - IS A TECHNIQUE OF GRADUALLY INCREASING THE
PRIORITY OF PROCESSES THAT WAIT IN THE SYSTEM FOR A LONG TIME
90
PRIORITY SCHEDULING
ROUND ROBIN SCHEDULING (RR)
Blocked
Timeout ( 2ms)
C
P
U
Exit
Ready Queue
92
RR
• SIMILAR TO FCFS WITH PREEMPTION. A MUST FOR TIME-SHARING SYSTEM
• A PROCESS IS SELECTED FROM THE READY QUEUE IN FIFO SEQUENCE, NEW PROCESSES ARE
ADDED TO THE TAIL OF THE QUEUE
• CPU IS ALLOCATED TO EACH PROCESS FOR A FIXED LENGTH OF TIME CALLED TIME
QUANTUM OR TIME SLICE
• THEN IT IS INTERRUPTED ( BY THE HARDWARE TIMER) AND SENT BACK TO THE READY
QUEUE
• IF THE CPU BURST OF THE PROCESS IS LESS THAN THE TIME QUANTUM, THE PROCESS
RELEASES THE CPU EARLIER
• PREEMPTION OCCUR AT THE END OF TIME QUANTUM
• HAS SIGNIFICANT OVERHEAD AS THERE IS A CONTEXT SWITCH AT END OF EACH
QUANTUM. AVERAGE WAITING TIME IS PRETTY LONG
93
WHAT WILL BE THE SIZE OF
TIME QUANTUM ?
User response
time should
Minimize the
not be
overhead
reduced
Long time-quantum
RR FCFS
Typically 10-20 milliseconds 94

RR
MULTILEVEL QUEUE SCHEDULING
• PARTITION THE READY QUEUE INTO SEVERAL SEPARATE QUEUES.

• PROCESSES ARE PERMANENTLY ASSIGNED TO ONE QUEUE BASED ON
PROPERTIES LIKE TYPE, SIZE AND PRIORITY.
• EACH QUEUE WILL HAVE ITS OWN SCHEDULING ALGORITHM.
• PROCESSES DO NOT MOVE FROM ONE QUEUE TO ANOTHER.
• SCHEDULING BETWEEN THE QUEUES – FIXED PRIORITY PREEMPTIVE
SCHEDULING.
• SCHEDULING BETWEEN THE QUEUES – TIME SLICE BASED.
96
MULTILEVEL QUEUE SCHEDULING
System Processes
Interactive Processes
Interactive Editing Processes
Batch Processes
Student Processes 97
MULTILEVEL FEEDBACK QUEUE SCHEDULING (MFQ)
• PROCESSES CAN MOVE BETWEEN QUEUES.

• SEPARATE PROCESSES WITH DIFFERENT CPU BURSTS.
• PROCESSES WITH SHORT CPU BURSTS ARE PUT IN HIGHER PRIORITY QUEUES. IN OTHER
WORDS I/O BOUND PROCESSES ARE PUT IN HIGHER PRIORITY QUEUES
• IF A PROCESS USES TOO MUCH CPU TIME, IT IS MOVED TO A LOWER PRIORITY QUEUE.
• PROCESSES IN A LOWER LEVEL QUEUE ARE ALLOCATED THE PROCESSOR ONLY WHEN
HIGHER LEVEL QUEUES ARE EMPTY
• PROCESS WAITING TOO LONG IN LOWER PRIORITY QUEUE ARE MOVED UPWARDS TO
A HIGHER PRIORITY QUEUE (AGING PREVENTING STARVATION).
98
EXAMPLE - (MFQ)
8 * C
(RR)
P
U
16
(RR) *
FCFS
*
99
MFQ PARAMETERS
1. NUMBER OF QUEUES
2. SCHEDULING ALGORITHM FOR EACH QUEUE
3. WHEN TO UPGRADE A PROCESS TO HIGHER PRIORITY QUEUE?
4. WHEN TO DEMOTE A PROCESS TO LOWER PRIORITY QUEUE?
5. WHICH QUEUE A PROCESS WILL ENTER WHEN THAT PROCESS NEEDS SERVICE?
100
MANAGES PROCESSES
DEADLOCK
101
MANAGES PROCESSES
DEADLOCK IS:
• A SET OF BLOCKED PROCESSES EACH HOLDING A RESOURCE AND WAITING

TO ACQUIRE A RESOURCE HELD BY ANOTHER PROCESS IN THE SET.
• EXAMPLE (HARDWARE RESOURCES):
• SYSTEM HAS 2 TAPE DRIVES.
• P1 AND P2 EACH HOLD ONE TAPE DRIVE AND EACH NEEDS ANOTHER
ONE.
• EXAMPLE (“SOFTWARE” RESOURCE:):
• SEMAPHORES A AND B, INITIALIZED TO 1
P0 P1
WAIT (A); WAIT(B)
WAIT (B); WAIT(A)
SIGNAL(B); SIGNAL(A) SIGNAL(A); SIGNAL(B)
MANAGES PROCESSES
THE (4) CONDITIONS FOR DEADLOCK
THERE ARE THREE POLICY CONDITIONS THAT MUST HOLD FOR A DEADLOCK TO BE
POSSIBLE (THE “NECESSARY CONDITIONS”):
1. MUTUAL EXCLUSION
• ONLY ONE PROCESS AT A TIME MAY USE A RESOURCE
2. HOLD-AND-WAIT
• A PROCESS MAY HOLD ALLOCATED RESOURCES WHILE AWAITING ASSIGNMENT OF OTHERS
3. NO PREEMPTION
• A RESOURCE CAN BE RELEASED ONLY VOLUNTARILY BY THE PROCESS HOLDING IT, AFTER
THAT PROCESS HAS COMPLETED ITS TASK
• ..AND A FOURTH CONDITION WHICH MUST ACTUALLY ARISE TO MAKE A DEADLOCK

HAPPEN
MANAGES PROCESSES
THE CONDITIONS FOR DEADLOCK
• IN THE PRESENCE OF THESE NECESSARY CONDITIONS, ONE MORE CONDITION
MUST ARISE FOR DEADLOCK TO ACTUALLY OCCUR:
• 4. CIRCULAR WAIT
• A CLOSED CHAIN OF PROCESSES EXISTS, SUCH THAT EACH PROCESS HOLDS AT
LEAST ONE RESOURCE NEEDED BY THE NEXT PROCESS IN THE CHAIN
THE CONDITIONS FOR DEADLOCK
• DEADLOCK OCCURS IF AND ONLY IF THE CIRCULAR WAIT CONDITION IS UNRESOLVABLE
• THE CIRCULAR WAIT CONDITION IS UNRESOLVABLE IF THE FIRST 3 POLICY CONDITIONS HOLD
• SO THE 4 CONDITIONS TAKEN TOGETHER CONSTITUTE NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT

CONDITIONS FOR DEADLOCK
MANAGES PROCESSES
RESOURCE ALLOCATION GRAPH:
A CYCLE BUT NO DEADLOCK
Multiple instances
of resources R1
and R2:
P2 and P4 can
complete, freeing
up resources for
P1 and P3
Chapter 8 106
MANAGES PROCESSES
APPROACHES TO HANDLING DEADLOCKS
• DEADLOCK PREVENTION
• DISALLOW 1 OF THE 3 NECESSARY CONDITIONS OF DEADLOCK OCCURRENCE, OR PREVENT THE
CIRCULAR WAIT CONDITION FROM HAPPENING
• DEADLOCK AVOIDANCE
• DO NOT GRANT A RESOURCE REQUEST IF THIS ALLOCATION MIGHT LEAD TO DEADLOCK
• DEADLOCK DETECTION AND RECOVERY

• GRANT RESOURCE REQUESTS WHEN POSSIBLE, BUT PERIODICALLY CHECK FOR THE PRESENCE OF
DEADLOCK AND THEN TAKE ACTION TO RECOVER FROM IT
107
MANAGES PROCESSES
DEADLOCK AVOIDANCE
• WE ACCEPT THE 3 POLICY CONDITIONS BUT MAKE JUDICIOUS CHOICES TO ASSURE

THAT THE DEADLOCK POINT IS NEVER REACHED
• ALLOWS MORE CONCURRENCY THAN PREVENTION
• TWO APPROACHES:
• DO NOT START A PROCESS IF ITS TOTAL DEMAND MIGHT LEAD TO DEADLOCK: (“PROCESS
INITIATION DENIAL”), OR
• DO NOT GRANT AN INCREMENTAL RESOURCE REQUEST IF THIS ALLOCATION COULD LEAD
TO DEADLOCK: (“RESOURCE ALLOCATION DENIAL”)
• IN BOTH CASES: MAXIMUM REQUIREMENTS OF EACH RESOURCE MUST BE STATED IN
ADVANCE
MANAGES PROCESSES
RESOURCE ALLOCATION DENIAL
• A BETTER APPROACH:
• GRANT INCREMENTAL RESOURCE REQUESTS IF WE CAN PROVE THAT THIS LEAVES THE
SYSTEM IN A STATE IN WHICH DEADLOCK CANNOT OCCUR.
• BASED ON THE CONCEPT OF A “SAFE STATE”
• BANKER’S ALGORITHM:
• TENTATIVELY GRANT EACH RESOURCE REQUEST
• ANALYZE RESULTING SYSTEM STATE TO SEE IF IT IS “SAFE”.
• IF SAFE, GRANT THE REQUEST
• IF UNSAFE REFUSE THE REQUEST (UNDO THE TENTATIVE GRANT)
• BLOCK THE REQUESTING PROCESS UNTIL IT IS SAFE TO GRANT IT.
MANAGES PROCESSES
INTERRUPT
110
MANAGES PROCESSES
INTERRUPT
• AN INTERRUPT IS A SIGNAL SENT TO THE PROCESSOR, TO ALERT THE OPERATING SYSTEM
WHEN ANY SPECIAL EVENT OCCURS, SO THAT IT CAN SUSPEND ITS CURRENT ACTIVITY AND
DEAL APPROPRIATELY WITH THE NEW SITUATION.
• HERE THE CURRENT SEQUENCE OF INSTRUCTIONS IS TEMPORARILY SUSPENDED, AND A
SEQUENCE APPROPRIATE TO THE INTERRUPTION IS STARTED IN ITS PLACE.
MANAGES PROCESSES
INTERRUPT
• USUALLY AN INTERRUPT GIVES A SIGNAL FROM A DEVICE ATTACHED TO A COMPUTER OR
FROM A PROGRAM WITHIN THE COMPUTER THAT CAUSES THE MAIN PROGRAM THAT
OPERATES THE COMPUTER (THE OS) TO STOP AND FIGURE OUT WHAT TO DO NEXT.
• ALMOST ALL PERSONAL (OR LARGER) COMPUTERS TODAY ARE INTERRUPT–DRIVEN. THAT IS,
THEY START DOWN THE LIST OF COMPUTER INSTRUCTIONS IN ONE PROGRAM (PERHAPS AN
APPLICATION SUCH AS A WORD PROCESSOR) AND KEEPS RUNNING THE INSTRUCTIONS UNTIL
EITHER:
• THEY CAN’T GO ANY FURTHER OR
• AN INTERRUPT SIGNAL IS SENSED.
• AFTER THE INTERRUPT IS SENSED, THE COMPUTER EITHER RESUMES RUNNING THE PROGRAM IT
WAS RUNNING OR BEGINS ANOTHER PROGRAM.
MANAGES PROCESSES
INTERRUPT
• INTERRUPT HANDLER
• PRIORITISES THE INTERRUPTS AND SAVES THEM IN A QUEUE IF MORE THAN ONE IS WAITING TO BE
HANDLED.
• THE SCHEDULER THEN FIGURES OUT WHICH PROGRAM TO GIVE CONTROL TO NEXT.
MANAGES PROCESSES
INTERRUPT
• TYPES OF INTERRUPTS
• INTERRUPT GENERATED BY THE RUNNING PROCESS
• INPUT / OUTPUT INTERRUPT
• EXTERNAL INTERRUPT
• RESTART INTERRUPT
MANAGES PROCESSES
INTERRUPT
• INTERRUPT GENERATED BY THE RUNNING PROCESS
• VOLUNTARY EVENTS WITHIN PROCESSES
• A PROCESS WISHING TO USE THE SERVICES OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM MAY USE A SPECIFIC TYPE OF
INTERRUPT, A SUPERVISOR CALL (SVC) AS A MEANS OF NOTIFYING THE SUPERVISOR.
• INVOLUNTARY EVENTS WITHIN PROCESSES
• A PROCESS THAT ATTEMPTS AN UNDEFINED OR PROHIBITED ACTION WILL CAUSE AN INTERRUPT THAT WILL
NOTIFY THE SUPERVISOR.
• ACTION BY OPERATORS
• AN OPERATION WISHING TO COMMUNICATE WITH THE SUPERVISOR MAY CAUSE AN INTERRUPT.
• TIMER INTERRUPT
• MANY SYSTEMS INCORPORATE A TIMER THAT CAUSES A FIXED INTERVAL OF TIME AS A MEANS OF
GUARANTEEING THAT THE SUPERVISOR WILL BE ENTERED PERIODICALLY.
MANAGES PROCESSES
INTERRUPT
• INPUT / OUTPUT INTERRUPT
• THESE INTERRUPTS OCCUR WHEN THE CHANNEL SUBSYSTEM SIGNALS A CHANGE OF STATUS, SUCH
AS AN INPUT / OUTPUT (I/O) OPERATION COMPLETING, AN ERROR OCCURRING, OR AN I/O DEVICE
SUCH AS A PRINTER HAS BECOME READY FOR WORK.
• EXTERNAL INTERRUPT
• A HARDWARE SIGNAL ON A SPECIFIED INPUT OR OUTPUT LINE THAT CAUSES AN INTERRUPT IN THE
RECEIVING COMPUTER
• RESTART INTERRUPT
• THESE INTERRUPTS OCCUR WHEN THE OPERATOR SELECTS THE RESTART FUNCTION AT THE CONSOLE
OR WHEN A RESTART SIGP (SIGNAL PROCESSOR) INSTRUCTION IS RECEIVED FROM ANOTHER
PROCESSOR.
MANAGES MEMORY
OPERATING SYSTEM
MANAGES MEMORY
• PURPOSE IS TO OPTIMIZE USE OF RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM).

• MAIN MEMORY (RAM) TEMPORARILY HOLDS DATA AND INSTRUCTIONS WHILE THE PROCESSOR
INTERPRETS AND EXECUTES THEM.
• THE OS ALLOCATES, OR ASSIGNS, THESE ITEMS TO AN AREA OF MEMORY WHILE THEY ARE
BEING PROCESSED. THEN, IT CAREFULLY MONITORS THE CONTENTS OF MEMORY.
• FINALLY THE OS CLEARS THESE ITEMS FROM MEMORY WHEN THE PROCESSOR NO LONGER
REQUIRES THEM.
MANAGES MEMORY
• INSTRUCTIONS AND DATA TO MEMORY ADDRESSES CAN BE DONE IN FOLLOWING WAYS
• COMPILE TIME -- WHEN IT IS KNOWN AT COMPILE TIME WHERE THE PROCESS WILL RESIDE,
COMPILE TIME BINDING IS USED TO GENERATE THE ABSOLUTE CODE.
• LOAD TIME -- WHEN IT IS NOT KNOWN AT COMPILE TIME WHERE THE PROCESS WILL RESIDE
IN MEMORY, THEN THE COMPILER GENERATES RE-LOCATABLE CODE.
• EXECUTION TIME -- IF THE PROCESS CAN BE MOVED DURING ITS EXECUTION FROM ONE
MEMORY SEGMENT TO ANOTHER, THEN BINDING MUST BE DELAYED TO BE DONE AT RUN TIME
MANAGES MEMORY
• LOGICAL VS PHYSICAL ADDRESS SPACE
• AN ADDRESS GENERATED BY THE CPU IS A LOGICAL ADDRESS WHEREAS
ADDRESS ACTUALLY AVAILABLE ON MEMORY UNIT IS A PHYSICAL ADDRESS.
LOGICAL ADDRESS IS ALSO KNOWN AS A VIRTUAL ADDRESS.
• VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL ADDRESSES ARE THE SAME IN COMPILE-TIME AND
LOAD-TIME ADDRESS-BINDING SCHEMES. VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL
ADDRESSES DIFFER IN EXECUTION-TIME ADDRESS-BINDING SCHEME.
• THE SET OF ALL LOGICAL ADDRESSES GENERATED BY A PROGRAM IS
REFERRED TO AS A LOGICAL ADDRESS SPACE. THE SET OF ALL PHYSICAL
ADDRESSES CORRESPONDING TO THESE LOGICAL ADDRESSES IS REFERRED
TO AS A PHYSICAL ADDRESS SPACE.
MANAGES MEMORY
• LOGICAL VS PHYSICAL ADDRESS SPACE
• THE RUN-TIME MAPPING FROM VIRTUAL TO PHYSICAL ADDRESS IS DONE BY THE MEMORY
MANAGEMENT UNIT (MMU) WHICH IS A HARDWARE DEVICE. MMU USES FOLLOWING
MECHANISM TO CONVERT VIRTUAL ADDRESS TO PHYSICAL ADDRESS.
• THE VALUE IN THE BASE REGISTER IS ADDED TO EVERY ADDRESS GENERATED BY A USER
PROCESS WHICH IS TREATED AS OFFSET AT THE TIME IT IS SENT TO MEMORY. FOR EXAMPLE, IF
THE BASE REGISTER VALUE IS 10000, THEN AN ATTEMPT BY THE USER TO USE ADDRESS
LOCATION 100 WILL BE DYNAMICALLY REALLOCATED TO LOCATION 10100.
• THE USER PROGRAM DEALS WITH VIRTUAL ADDRESSES; IT NEVER SEES THE REAL PHYSICAL
ADDRESSES.
MANAGES MEMORY
• SWAPPING
• SWAPPING IS A MECHANISM IN WHICH A PROCESS CAN BE SWAPPED TEMPORARILY OUT OF MAIN
MEMORY TO A BACKING STORE , AND THEN BROUGHT BACK INTO MEMORY FOR CONTINUED
EXECUTION.
• BACKING STORE IS A USUALLY A HARD DISK DRIVE OR ANY OTHER SECONDARY STORAGE WHICH
FAST IN ACCESS AND LARGE ENOUGH TO ACCOMMODATE COPIES OF ALL MEMORY IMAGES FOR
ALL USERS. IT MUST BE CAPABLE OF PROVIDING DIRECT ACCESS TO THESE MEMORY IMAGES.
• MAJOR TIME CONSUMING PART OF SWAPPING IS TRANSFER TIME. TOTAL TRANSFER TIME IS
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE AMOUNT OF MEMORY SWAPPED. LET US ASSUME THAT THE USER
PROCESS IS OF SIZE 100KB AND THE BACKING STORE IS A STANDARD HARD DISK WITH TRANSFER
RATE OF 1 MB PER SECOND. THE ACTUAL TRANSFER OF THE 100K PROCESS TO OR FROM MEMORY
WILL TAKE
• 100KB / 1000KB PER SECOND
• = 1/10 SECOND
• = 100 MILLISECONDS
MANAGES MEMORY
MANAGES MEMORY
• MEMORY ALLOCATION
• MAIN MEMORY USUALLY HAS TWO PARTITIONS
• LOW MEMORY -- OPERATING SYSTEM RESIDES IN THIS MEMORY.
• HIGH MEMORY -- USER PROCESSES THEN HELD IN HIGH MEMORY.
• Operating system uses the following memory allocation mechanism
S.N.
Memory Allocation Description
1
Single-partition In this type of allocation, relocation-register scheme is used to protect user processes from each
allocation other, and from changing operating-system code and data. Relocation register contains value of
smallest physical address whereas limit register contains range of logical addresses. Each logical
address must be less than the limit register.
2
Multiple-partition In this type of allocation, main memory is divided into a number of fixed-sized partitions where
allocation each partition should contain only one process. When a partition is free, a process is selected
from the input queue and is loaded into the free partition. When the process terminates, the
partition becomes available for another process.
MANAGES MEMORY
• FRAGMENTATION
• AS PROCESSES ARE LOADED AND REMOVED FROM MEMORY, THE FREE MEMORY SPACE IS BROKEN
INTO LITTLE PIECES. IT HAPPENS AFTER SOMETIMES THAT PROCESSES CAN NOT BE ALLOCATED TO
MEMORY BLOCKS CONSIDERING THEIR SMALL SIZE AND MEMORY BLOCKS REMAINS UNUSED. THIS
PROBLEM IS KNOWN AS FRAGMENTATION.
• FRAGMENTATION IS OF TWO TYPES

Fragmentation Description
Total memory space is enough to satisfy a request or to

External fragmentation reside a process in it, but it is not contiguous so it can not
be used.
Memory block assigned to process is bigger. Some

Internal fragmentation portion of memory is left unused as it can not be used
by another process.
MANAGES MEMORY
• FRAGMENTATION
• EXTERNAL FRAGMENTATION CAN BE REDUCED BY COMPACTION OR SHUFFLE MEMORY CONTENTS
TO PLACE ALL FREE MEMORY TOGETHER IN ONE LARGE BLOCK. TO MAKE COMPACTION FEASIBLE,
RELOCATION SHOULD BE DYNAMIC.
MANAGES MEMORY
• PAGING
• EXTERNAL FRAGMENTATION IS AVOIDED BY USING PAGING TECHNIQUE. PAGING IS A TECHNIQUE
IN WHICH PHYSICAL MEMORY IS BROKEN INTO BLOCKS OF THE SAME SIZE CALLED PAGES (SIZE IS
POWER OF 2, BETWEEN 512 BYTES AND 8192 BYTES). WHEN A PROCESS IS TO BE EXECUTED, IT'S
CORRESPONDING PAGES ARE LOADED INTO ANY AVAILABLE MEMORY FRAMES.
• LOGICAL ADDRESS SPACE OF A PROCESS CAN BE NON-CONTIGUOUS AND A PROCESS IS
ALLOCATED PHYSICAL MEMORY WHENEVER THE FREE MEMORY FRAME IS AVAILABLE. OPERATING
SYSTEM KEEPS TRACK OF ALL FREE FRAMES. OPERATING SYSTEM NEEDS N FREE FRAMES TO RUN A
PROGRAM OF SIZE N PAGES.
• ADDRESS GENERATED BY CPU IS DIVIDED INTO
• PAGE NUMBER (P) -- PAGE NUMBER IS USED AS AN INDEX INTO A PAGE TABLE WHICH CONTAINS
BASE ADDRESS OF EACH PAGE IN PHYSICAL MEMORY.
• PAGE OFFSET (D) -- PAGE OFFSET IS COMBINED WITH BASE ADDRESS TO DEFINE THE PHYSICAL
MEMORY ADDRESS.
MANAGES MEMORY
MANAGES MEMORY
MANAGES MEMORY
• SEGMENTATION
• SEGMENTATION IS A TECHNIQUE TO BREAK MEMORY INTO LOGICAL PIECES WHERE EACH PIECE REPRESENTS A
GROUP OF RELATED INFORMATION. FOR EXAMPLE ,DATA SEGMENTS OR CODE SEGMENT FOR EACH PROCESS,
DATA SEGMENT FOR OPERATING SYSTEM AND SO ON. SEGMENTATION CAN BE IMPLEMENTED USING OR
WITHOUT USING PAGING.
• UNLIKE PAGING, SEGMENTS HAVE VARYING SIZES AND THUS ELIMINATES INTERNAL FRAGMENTATION.
EXTERNAL FRAGMENTATION STILL EXISTS BUT TO LESSER EXTENT.
MANAGES MEMORY
• SEGMENTATION
• ADDRESS GENERATED BY CPU IS DIVIDED INTO
• SEGMENT NUMBER (S) -- SEGMENT NUMBER IS USED AS AN INDEX INTO A SEGMENT TABLE WHICH CONTAINS BASE
ADDRESS OF EACH SEGMENT IN PHYSICAL MEMORY AND A LIMIT OF SEGMENT.
• SEGMENT OFFSET (O) -- SEGMENT OFFSET IS FIRST CHECKED AGAINST LIMIT AND THEN IS COMBINED WITH BASE
ADDRESS TO DEFINE THE PHYSICAL MEMORY ADDRESS.
MANAGES MEMORY
• VIRTUAL MEMORY
• VIRTUAL MEMORY IS A TECHNIQUE THAT ALLOWS THE EXECUTION OF PROCESSES WHICH ARE NOT
COMPLETELY AVAILABLE IN MEMORY. THE MAIN VISIBLE ADVANTAGE OF THIS SCHEME IS THAT PROGRAMS CAN
BE LARGER THAN PHYSICAL MEMORY. VIRTUAL MEMORY IS THE SEPARATION OF USER LOGICAL MEMORY FROM
PHYSICAL MEMORY.
• THIS SEPARATION ALLOWS AN EXTREMELY LARGE VIRTUAL MEMORY TO BE PROVIDED FOR PROGRAMMERS
WHEN ONLY A SMALLER PHYSICAL MEMORY IS AVAILABLE. FOLLOWING ARE THE SITUATIONS, WHEN ENTIRE
PROGRAM IS NOT REQUIRED TO BE LOADED FULLY IN MAIN MEMORY.
MANAGES MEMORY
• VIRTUAL MEMORY
• USER WRITTEN ERROR HANDLING ROUTINES ARE USED ONLY WHEN AN ERROR OCCURRED IN THE DATA OR
COMPUTATION.
• CERTAIN OPTIONS AND FEATURES OF A PROGRAM MAY BE USED RARELY.
• MANY TABLES ARE ASSIGNED A FIXED AMOUNT OF ADDRESS SPACE EVEN THOUGH ONLY A SMALL AMOUNT
OF THE TABLE IS ACTUALLY USED.
• THE ABILITY TO EXECUTE A PROGRAM THAT IS ONLY PARTIALLY IN MEMORY WOULD COUNTER MANY BENEFITS.
• LESS NUMBER OF I/O WOULD BE NEEDED TO LOAD OR SWAP EACH USER PROGRAM INTO MEMORY.
• A PROGRAM WOULD NO LONGER BE CONSTRAINED BY THE AMOUNT OF PHYSICAL MEMORY THAT IS
AVAILABLE.
• EACH USER PROGRAM COULD TAKE LESS PHYSICAL MEMORY, MORE PROGRAMS COULD BE RUN THE SAME
TIME, WITH A CORRESPONDING INCREASE IN CPU UTILIZATION AND THROUGHPUT.
MANAGES MEMORY
MANAGES MEMORY
• VIRTUAL MEMORY – DEMAND PAGING
• VIRTUAL MEMORY IS COMMONLY IMPLEMENTED BY DEMAND PAGING. IT CAN ALSO BE IMPLEMENTED IN A
SEGMENTATION SYSTEM. DEMAND SEGMENTATION CAN ALSO BE USED TO PROVIDE VIRTUAL MEMORY.
• A DEMAND PAGING SYSTEM IS QUITE SIMILAR TO A PAGING SYSTEM WITH SWAPPING. WHEN WE WANT TO
EXECUTE A PROCESS, WE SWAP IT INTO MEMORY. RATHER THAN SWAPPING THE ENTIRE PROCESS INTO
MEMORY, HOWEVER, WE USE A LAZY SWAPPER CALLED PAGER.
MANAGES MEMORY
• WHEN A PROCESS IS TO BE SWAPPED IN, THE PAGER GUESSES WHICH PAGES WILL BE
USED BEFORE THE PROCESS IS SWAPPED OUT AGAIN. INSTEAD OF SWAPPING IN A
WHOLE PROCESS, THE PAGER BRINGS ONLY THOSE NECESSARY PAGES INTO MEMORY.
THUS, IT AVOIDS READING INTO MEMORY PAGES THAT WILL NOT BE USED IN ANYWAY,
DECREASING THE SWAP TIME AND THE AMOUNT OF PHYSICAL MEMORY NEEDED.
• HARDWARE SUPPORT IS REQUIRED TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THOSE PAGES THAT ARE IN

MEMORY AND THOSE PAGES THAT ARE ON THE DISK USING THE VALID-INVALID BIT
SCHEME. WHERE VALID AND INVALID PAGES CAN BE CHECKED BY CHECKING THE BIT.
MARKING A PAGE WILL HAVE NO EFFECT IF THE PROCESS NEVER ATTEMPTS TO ACCESS
THE PAGE. WHILE THE PROCESS EXECUTES AND ACCESSES PAGES THAT ARE MEMORY
RESIDENT, EXECUTION PROCEEDS NORMALLY.
MANAGES MEMORY
MANAGES MEMORY
• ACCESS TO A PAGE MARKED INVALID CAUSES A PAGE-FAULT TRAP. THIS TRAP IS THE RESULT OF THE
OPERATING SYSTEM'S FAILURE TO BRING THE DESIRED PAGE INTO MEMORY. BUT PAGE FAULT CAN BE
HANDLED AS FOLLOWING
MANAGES MEMORY
Step Description
Step 1 Check an internal table for this process, to determine whether the reference was a valid or it was
an invalid memory access.
Step 2 If the reference was invalid, terminate the process. If it was valid, but page have not yet brought
in, page in the latter.
Step 3 Find a free frame.
Step 4 Schedule a disk operation to read the desired page into the newly allocated frame.
Step 5 When the disk read is complete, modify the internal table kept with the process and the page
table to indicate that the page is now in memory.
Step 6 Restart the instruction that was interrupted by the illegal address trap. The process can now access
the page as though it had always been in memory. Therefore, the operating system reads the
desired page into memory and restarts the process as though the page had always been in
memory.
MANAGES MEMORY
• ADVANTAGES
• FOLLOWING ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF DEMAND PAGING
• LARGE VIRTUAL MEMORY.
• MORE EFFICIENT USE OF MEMORY.
• UNCONSTRAINED MULTIPROGRAMMING. THERE IS NO LIMIT ON DEGREE OF MULTIPROGRAMMING.
• DISADVANTAGES
• FOLLOWING ARE THE DISADVANTAGES OF DEMAND PAGING
• NUMBER OF TABLES AND AMOUNT OF PROCESSOR OVERHEAD FOR HANDLING PAGE INTERRUPTS ARE
GREATER THAN IN THE CASE OF THE SIMPLE PAGED MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES.
• DUE TO THE LACK OF AN EXPLICIT CONSTRAINTS ON A JOBS ADDRESS SPACE SIZE.
MONITORS PERFORMANCE
OPERATING SYSTEM
MONITORS PERFORMANCE
• OSS TYPICALLY CONTAIN A PERFORMANCE MONITOR. A PERFORMANCE MONITOR IS A
PROGRAM THAT ASSESSES AND REPORTS INFORMATION ABOUT VARIOUS SYSTEM RESOURCES
AND DEVICES.
• FOR EXAMPLE, YOU CAN MONITOR THE PROCESSOR, DISKS, MEMORY, AND NETWORK USAGE.
A PERFORMANCE MONITOR ALSO CHECKS THE NUMBER OF READS AND WRITES TO A FILE
• THE INFORMATION IN PERFORMANCE REPORTS CAN HELP YOU IDENTIFY A PROBLEM WITH
RESOURCES SO YOU CAN TRY TO RESOLVE THE PROBLEM.
• IF YOUR COMPUTER IS RUNNING EXTREMELY SLOW, THE PERFORMANCE MONITOR MAY
DETERMINE THAT YOU ARE USING THE COMPUTER’S MEMORY TO ITS MAXIMUM.
MANAGES FILES
OPERATING SYSTEM
MANAGES FILES
• FILE
• A FILE IS A NAMED COLLECTION OF RELATED INFORMATION THAT IS RECORDED ON SECONDARY
STORAGE SUCH AS MAGNETIC DISKS, MAGNETIC TAPES AND OPTICAL DISKS.IN GENERAL, A FILE IS
A SEQUENCE OF BITS, BYTES, LINES OR RECORDS WHOSE MEANING IS DEFINED BY THE FILES
CREATOR AND USER.
MANAGES FILES
• FILE STRUCTURE
• FILE STRUCTURE IS A STRUCTURE, WHICH IS ACCORDING TO A REQUIRED FORMAT THAT OPERATING
SYSTEM CAN UNDERSTAND.
• A FILE HAS A CERTAIN DEFINED STRUCTURE ACCORDING TO ITS TYPE.
• A TEXT FILE IS A SEQUENCE OF CHARACTERS ORGANIZED INTO LINES.
• A SOURCE FILE IS A SEQUENCE OF PROCEDURES AND FUNCTIONS.
• AN OBJECT FILE IS A SEQUENCE OF BYTES ORGANIZED INTO BLOCKS THAT ARE UNDERSTANDABLE
BY THE MACHINE.
• WHEN OPERATING SYSTEM DEFINES DIFFERENT FILE STRUCTURES, IT ALSO CONTAINS THE CODE TO
SUPPORT THESE FILE STRUCTURE. UNIX, MS-DOS SUPPORT MINIMUM NUMBER OF FILE STRUCTURE.
MANAGES FILES
• FILE TYPE
• FILE TYPE REFERS TO THE ABILITY OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM TO DISTINGUISH DIFFERENT TYPES OF
FILE SUCH AS TEXT FILES SOURCE FILES AND BINARY FILES ETC. MANY OPERATING SYSTEMS SUPPORT
MANY TYPES OF FILES. OPERATING SYSTEM LIKE MS-DOS AND UNIX HAVE THE FOLLOWING TYPES
OF FILES:
• ORDINARY FILES
• THESE ARE THE FILES THAT CONTAIN USER INFORMATION.
• THESE MAY HAVE TEXT, DATABASES OR EXECUTABLE PROGRAM.
• THE USER CAN APPLY VARIOUS OPERATIONS ON SUCH FILES LIKE ADD, MODIFY, DELETE OR EVEN
REMOVE THE ENTIRE FILE.
• DIRECTORY FILES
• THESE FILES CONTAIN LIST OF FILE NAMES AND OTHER INFORMATION RELATED TO THESE FILES
MANAGES FILES
• FILE TYPE
• SPECIAL FILES:
• THESE FILES ARE ALSO KNOWN AS DEVICE FILES.
• THESE FILES REPRESENT PHYSICAL DEVICE LIKE DISKS, TERMINALS, PRINTERS, NETWORKS, TAPE DRIVE
ETC.
• THESE FILES ARE OF TWO TYPES
• CHARACTER SPECIAL FILES - DATA IS HANDLED CHARACTER BY CHARACTER AS IN CASE OF
TERMINALS OR PRINTERS.
• BLOCK SPECIAL FILES - DATA IS HANDLED IN BLOCKS AS IN THE CASE OF DISKS AND TAPES.
MANAGES FILES
• FILE ACCESS MECHANISM

• FILE ACCESS MECHANISM REFERS TO THE MANNER IN WHICH THE RECORDS OF A
FILE MAY BE ACCESSED. THERE ARE SEVERAL WAYS TO ACCESS FILES
• SEQUENTIAL ACCESS
• DIRECT/RANDOM ACCESS
• INDEXED SEQUENTIAL ACCESS
MANAGES FILES
• FILE ACCESS MECHANISM

• FILE ACCESS MECHANISM REFERS TO THE MANNER IN WHICH THE RECORDS OF A
FILE MAY BE ACCESSED. THERE ARE SEVERAL WAYS TO ACCESS FILES
MANAGES FILES
• A SEQUENTIAL ACCESS IS THAT IN WHICH THE RECORDS ARE ACCESSED IN SOME SEQUENCE I.E THE INFORMATION IN
THE FILE IS PROCESSED IN ORDER, ONE RECORD AFTER THE OTHER. THIS ACCESS METHOD IS THE MOST PRIMITIVE ONE.
EXAMPLE: COMPILERS USUALLY ACCESS FILES IN THIS FASHION.
• RANDOM ACCESS FILE ORGANIZATION PROVIDES, ACCESSING THE RECORDS DIRECTLY.
• EACH RECORD HAS ITS OWN ADDRESS ON THE FILE WITH BY THE HELP OF WHICH IT CAN BE DIRECTLY ACCESSED FOR
READING OR WRITING.
• THE RECORDS NEED NOT BE IN ANY SEQUENCE WITHIN THE FILE AND THEY NEED NOT BE IN ADJACENT LOCATIONS ON
THE STORAGE MEDIUM.

• THIS MECHANISM IS BUILT UP ON BASE OF SEQUENTIAL ACCESS.
• AN INDEX IS CREATED FOR EACH FILE WHICH CONTAINS POINTERS TO VARIOUS BLOCKS.
• INDEX IS SEARCHED SEQUENTIALLY AND ITS POINTER IS USED TO ACCESS THE FILE DIRECTLY.
MANAGES FILES
• SPACE ALLOCATION
• FILES ARE ALLOCATED DISK SPACES BY OPERATING SYSTEM. OPERATING SYSTEMS
DEPLOY FOLLOWING THREE MAIN WAYS TO ALLOCATE DISK SPACE TO FILES.
• CONTIGUOUS ALLOCATION
• LINKED ALLOCATION
• INDEXED ALLOCATION
MANAGES FILES
• CONTIGUOUS ALLOCATION
• EACH FILE OCCUPY A CONTIGUOUS ADDRESS SPACE ON DISK.
• ASSIGNED DISK ADDRESS IS IN LINEAR ORDER.
• EASY TO IMPLEMENT.
• EXTERNAL FRAGMENTATION IS A MAJOR ISSUE WITH THIS TYPE OF ALLOCATION TECHNIQUE.
• LINKED ALLOCATION
• EACH FILE CARRIES A LIST OF LINKS TO DISK BLOCKS.
• DIRECTORY CONTAINS LINK / POINTER TO FIRST BLOCK OF A FILE.
• NO EXTERNAL FRAGMENTATION
• EFFECTIVELY USED IN SEQUENTIAL ACCESS FILE.
• INEFFICIENT IN CASE OF DIRECT ACCESS FILE.
MANAGES FILES
• INDEXED ALLOCATION
• PROVIDES SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OF CONTIGUOUS AND LINKED ALLOCATION.
• A INDEX BLOCK IS CREATED HAVING ALL POINTERS TO FILES.
• EACH FILE HAS ITS OWN INDEX BLOCK WHICH STORES THE ADDRESSES OF DISK SPACE OCCUPIED
BY THE FILE.
• DIRECTORY CONTAINS THE ADDRESSES OF INDEX BLOCKS OF FILES.
MANAGES DEVICES
OPERATING SYSTEM
MANAGES DEVICES
• DEVICE DRIVER
• IN ORDER TO MANAGE A RANGE OF I/O DEVICES (KEYBOARD, PRINTER, MOUSE, ETC.) THE
OPERATING SYSTEM USES DEVICE DRIVERS.
• EACH DEVICE HAS A SMALL PROGRAM (THE DEVICE DRIVER) THAT CONTROLS THE OPERATIONS OF
ONE TYPE OF DEVICE AND ALSO PROVIDES A STANDARD INTERFACE TO THE OPERATING SYSTEM.
• THE OPERATING SYSTEM CAN TREAT EACH DEVICE IN THE SAME MANNER AND YET IT CAN ALLOW A
WIDE RANGE OF DEVICES TO BE CONNECTED TO THE COMPUTER SYSTEM.
MANAGES DEVICES
• DEVICE DRIVER
• THE DEVICE DRIVER WILL GENERATE THE APPROPRIATE SIGNALS TO OPERATE THE DEVICE. THE
PROCESS OF SENDING AND RECEIVING SIGNALS TO/FROM ANOTHER DEVICE IN ORDER TO
COMMUNICATE IS CALLED HANDSHAKING.
• AN EXAMPLE MIGHT BE A COMPUTER SYSTEM THAT IS ATTEMPTING TO SEND SOME DATA TO A
PRINTER. THE DEVICE WOULD SEND A SIGNAL TO SAY ‘ARE YOU READY TO RECEIVE?’. THE PRINTER
WILL REPLY WITH A SIGNAL TO SAY ‘YES’ OR ‘NO’.
MANAGES DEVICES
• BUFFERS
• WHEN DATA ARE TRANSFERRED FROM A DEVICE, THE PART OF THE MEMORY THAT WILL HOLD THE
DATA TO BE TRANSFERRED IS CALLED A BUFFER. IN THE CASE OF A DISK OR TAPE WHERE BLOCKS OF
DATA ARE TRANSFERRED IN ONE OPERATION, THE BUFFER HAS TO BE LARGE ENOUGH TO HOLD THE
COMPLETE BLOCK.
• A BLOCK OF DATA USUALLY CONTAINS SEVERAL RECORDS. AFTER THE BLOCK IS READ INTO THE
BUFFER THE RECORDS ARE SUPPLIED TO THE PROGRAM BY THE OPERATING SYSTEM. WHEN THE
OPERATING SYSTEM COMES TO THE END OF THE BUFFER IT READS THE NEXT BLOCK.
MANAGES DEVICES
• BUFFERS
• THE DISK SUPPLIES DATA AT A MUCH SLOWER RATE THAN THE PROGRAM CAN READ IT FROM THE
BUFFER AND, WHEN THE BUFFER IS EMPTY, THE PROGRAM HAS TO WAIT FOR THE DISK TO REFILL THE
BUFFER.
• IN ORDER TO REDUCE THE WAITING TIME, DOUBLE BUFFERING IS OFTEN USED. DOUBLE BUFFERING
USES TWO BUFFERS AND THE DISK CAN BE FILLING ONE BUFFER WHILE THE PROGRAM IS
REMOVING RECORDS FROM THE OTHER.
MANAGES DEVICES
• THIS TECHNIQUE IS EQUALLY APPLIED TO THE OUTPUT OF DATA. THIS IDEA CAN BE EXTENDED
BY PROVIDING DISK DRIVES WITH ADDITIONAL MEMORY, CALLED DISK CACHE, THAT IS USED
TO STORE BLOCKS OF DATA.
• DATA ARE TRANSFERRED INTO CACHE MEMORY WHENEVER THEY ARE READ OR WRITTEN TO
THE DISK. IT IS OFTEN THE CASE THAT DATA THAT HAVE BEEN READ ONCE ARE REQUIRED
AGAIN WITHIN A SHORT SPACE OF TIME. IF THEY ARE STILL IN THE CACHE THEN THE PROCESS
IS SPEEDED UP. THE CACHE WILL ALSO CONTAIN THE DISK DIRECTORY AND ANY OTHER
INDEXES AS THESE ARE USED REGULARLY.
ADMINISTERS SECURITY
OPERATING SYSTEM
• SECURITY REFERS TO PROVIDING A PROTECTION SYSTEM TO COMPUTER SYSTEM RESOURCES SUCH AS
CPU, MEMORY, DISK, SOFTWARE PROGRAMS AND MOST IMPORTANTLY DATA/INFORMATION STORED IN
THE COMPUTER SYSTEM.
• IF A COMPUTER PROGRAM IS RUN BY UNAUTHORIZED USER THEN HE/SHE MAY CAUSE SEVERE DAMAGE
TO COMPUTER OR DATA STORED IN IT. SO A COMPUTER SYSTEM MUST BE PROTECTED AGAINST
UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS, MALICIOUS ACCESS TO SYSTEM MEMORY, VIRUSES, WORMS ETC.
• AUTHENTICATION
• ONE TIME PASSWORDS
• PROGRAM THREATS
• SYSTEM THREATS
• AUTHENTICATION
• AUTHENTICATION REFERS TO IDENTIFYING THE EACH USER OF THE SYSTEM AND ASSOCIATING THE EXECUTING
PROGRAMS WITH THOSE USERS. IT IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM TO CREATE A
PROTECTION SYSTEM WHICH ENSURES THAT A USER WHO IS RUNNING A PARTICULAR PROGRAM IS AUTHENTIC.
OPERATING SYSTEMS GENERALLY IDENTIFIES/AUTHENTICATES USERS USING FOLLOWING THREE WAYS:
• USERNAME / PASSWORD - USER NEED TO ENTER A REGISTERED USERNAME AND PASSWORD WITH OPERATING
SYSTEM TO LOGIN INTO THE SYSTEM.
• USER CARD/KEY - USER NEED TO PUNCH CARD IN CARD SLOT, OR ENTER KEY GENERATED BY KEY GENERATOR
IN OPTION PROVIDED BY OPERATING SYSTEM TO LOGIN INTO THE SYSTEM.
• USER ATTRIBUTE - FINGERPRINT/ EYE RETINA PATTERN/ SIGNATURE - USER NEED TO PASS HIS/HER ATTRIBUTE
VIA DESIGNATED INPUT DEVICE USED BY OPERATING SYSTEM TO LOGIN INTO THE SYSTEM.
• ONE TIME PASSWORDS
• ONE TIME PASSWORDS PROVIDES ADDITIONAL SECURITY ALONG WITH NORMAL AUTHENTICATION. IN ONE-
TIME PASSWORD SYSTEM, A UNIQUE PASSWORD IS REQUIRED EVERY TIME USER TRIES TO LOGIN INTO THE
SYSTEM. ONCE A ONE-TIME PASSWORD IS USED THEN IT CAN NOT BE USED AGAIN. ONE TIME PASSWORD
ARE IMPLEMENTED IN VARIOUS WAYS. RANDOM NUMBERS - USERS ARE PROVIDED CARDS HAVING NUMBERS
PRINTED ALONG WITH CORRESPONDING ALPHABETS. SYSTEM ASKS FOR NUMBERS CORRESPONDING TO FEW
ALPHABETS RANDOMLY CHOSEN.
• SECRET KEY - USER ARE PROVIDED A HARDWARE DEVICE WHICH CAN CREATE A SECRET ID MAPPED WITH
USER ID. SYSTEM ASKS FOR SUCH SECRET ID WHICH IS TO BE GENERATED EVERY TIME PRIOR TO LOGIN.
• NETWORK PASSWORD - SOME COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS SEND ONE TIME PASSWORD TO USER ON
REGISTERED MOBILE/ EMAIL WHICH IS REQUIRED TO BE ENTERED PRIOR TO LOGIN.
• PROGRAM THREATS
• OPERATING SYSTEM'S PROCESSES AND KERNEL DO THE DESIGNATED TASK AS INSTRUCTED. IF A USER PROGRAM MADE
THESE PROCESS DO MALICIOUS TASKS THEN IT IS KNOWN AS PROGRAM THREATS. ONE OF THE COMMON EXAMPLE
OF PROGRAM THREAT IS A PROGRAM INSTALLED IN A COMPUTER WHICH CAN STORE AND SEND USER CREDENTIALS
VIA NETWORK TO SOME HACKER. FOLLOWING IS THE LIST OF SOME WELL KNOWN PROGRAM THREATS.
• TROJAN HORSE - SUCH PROGRAM TRAPS USER LOGIN CREDENTIALS AND STORES THEM TO SEND TO MALICIOUS USER
WHO CAN LATER ON LOGIN TO COMPUTER AND CAN ACCESS SYSTEM RESOURCES.
• TRAP DOOR - IF A PROGRAM WHICH IS DESIGNED TO WORK AS REQUIRED, HAVE A SECURITY HOLE IN ITS CODE AND
PERFORM ILLEGAL ACTION WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE OF USER THEN IT IS CALLED TO HAVE A TRAP DOOR.
• LOGIC BOMB - LOGIC BOMB IS A SITUATION WHEN A PROGRAM MISBEHAVES ONLY WHEN CERTAIN CONDITIONS MET
OTHERWISE IT WORKS AS A GENUINE PROGRAM. IT IS HARDER TO DETECT.
• VIRUS - VIRUS AS NAME SUGGEST CAN REPLICATE THEMSELVES ON COMPUTER SYSTEM .THEY ARE HIGHLY
DANGEROUS AND CAN MODIFY/DELETE USER FILES, CRASH SYSTEMS. A VIRUS IS GENERALLY A SMALL CODE EMBEDDED
IN A PROGRAM. AS USER ACCESSES THE PROGRAM, THE VIRUS STARTS GETTING EMBEDDED IN OTHER FILES/
PROGRAMS AND CAN MAKE SYSTEM UNUSABLE FOR USER.
• SYSTEM THREATS
• SYSTEM THREATS REFERS TO MISUSE OF SYSTEM SERVICES AND NETWORK CONNECTIONS TO PUT USER IN
TROUBLE. SYSTEM THREATS CAN BE USED TO LAUNCH PROGRAM THREATS ON A COMPLETE NETWORK CALLED
AS PROGRAM ATTACK. SYSTEM THREATS CREATES SUCH AN ENVIRONMENT THAT OPERATING SYSTEM
RESOURCES/ USER FILES ARE MIS-USED. FOLLOWING IS THE LIST OF SOME WELL KNOWN SYSTEM THREATS.
• WORM -WORM IS A PROCESS WHICH CAN CHOKED DOWN A SYSTEM PERFORMANCE BY USING SYSTEM
RESOURCES TO EXTREME LEVELS. A WORM PROCESS GENERATES ITS MULTIPLE COPIES WHERE EACH COPY USES
SYSTEM RESOURCES, PREVENTS ALL OTHER PROCESSES TO GET REQUIRED RESOURCES. WORMS PROCESSES
CAN EVEN SHUT DOWN AN ENTIRE NETWORK.
• PORT SCANNING - PORT SCANNING IS A MECHANISM OR MEANS BY WHICH A HACKER CAN DETECTS SYSTEM
VULNERABILITIES TO MAKE AN ATTACK ON THE SYSTEM.
• DENIAL OF SERVICE - DENIAL OF SERVICE ATTACKS NORMALLY PREVENTS USER TO MAKE LEGITIMATE USE OF
THE SYSTEM. FOR EXAMPLE USER MAY NOT BE ABLE TO USE INTERNET IF DENIAL OF SERVICE ATTACKS
BROWSER'S CONTENT SETTINGS.
MANAGES NETWORKS
OPERATING SYSTEM
MANAGES NETWORKS
• SOME OSS ARE NETWORK OSS. A NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM, ALSO CALLED NOS, IS AN
OS THAT SUPPORTS A NETWORK.
• A NETWORK OS ORGANIZES AND COORDINATES HOW MULTIPLE USERS ACCESS AND SHARE
RESOURCES ON THE NETWORK.
• SOME OSS HAVE NETWORK FEATURES BUILT INTO THEM. IN OTHER CASES, THE NETWORK OS
IS A SET OF PROGRAMS SEPARATE FROM THE OPERATING SYSTEM ON THE CLIENT
COMPUTERS.
MANAGES NETWORKS
• WHEN THEY ARE NOT CONNECTED TO THE NETWORK, THE CLIENT COMPUTERS USE THEIR
OWN OPERATING SYSTEM. WHEN CONNECTED TO THE NETWORK, THE NETWORK OS
ASSUMES MOST OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE OS.
REFERENCES
• HTTP://WWW.TUTORIALSPOINT.COM/OPERATING_SYSTEM/OS_PROCESS_SCHEDULING.HTM
• HTTP://WWW.TEACH-ICT.COM/GCSE_NEW/COMPUTER%20SYSTEMS
/OPERATING_SYSTEM_TYPES/MINIWEB/PG5.HTM
• DISCOVERING COMPUTERS
• LETTS A’LEVEL COMPUTING
• UNDERSTANDING COMPUTING

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OPERATING SYSTEM

• IS A SUITE OF PROGRAMS THAT MANAGES THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE USER,

• AN OS CAN BE THOUGHT OF IN DIAGRAMMATIC FORM AS A LAYER, WHICH IS ON TOP OF

• THE BOOT PROCESS

• BIOS - BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT SYSTEM, IS A FIRMWARE THAT CONTAINS THE COMPUTER’S

• WHEN A COMPUTER IS SWITCHED ON IT NEEDS TO FOLLOW A PROGRAMMED SEQUENCE OF

• COMMAND LINE INTERFACE

• GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI)

• AN OPERATING SYSTEM CAN BE CLASSIFIED OR CATEGORISED

• OPERATING SYSTEM DOES THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES

• DISTRIBUTED ENVIRONMENT REFERS TO MULTIPLE INDEPENDENT

• THE ADVANTAGES OF DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS ARE THE

• TYPES OF PROCESSES – ONLINE PROCESSING

• MULTITASKING CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED THROUGH THE USE OF

• A PROCESS IS A PROGRAM IN EXECUTION. THE EXECUTION OF A PROCESS

• MAXIMIZE THE SYSTEM THROUGHPUT

Processor I/O device

Example: Proportional Hazard Example: Database Updates

• DISASTROUS FOR TIME-SHARING SYSTEMS

Typically 10-20 milliseconds 94

• PARTITION THE READY QUEUE INTO SEVERAL SEPARATE QUEUES.

Interactive Editing Processes

• PROCESSES CAN MOVE BETWEEN QUEUES.

• A SET OF BLOCKED PROCESSES EACH HOLDING A RESOURCE AND WAITING

• ..AND A FOURTH CONDITION WHICH MUST ACTUALLY ARISE TO MAKE A DEADLOCK

• DEADLOCK OCCURS IF AND ONLY IF THE CIRCULAR WAIT CONDITION IS UNRESOLVABLE

• SO THE 4 CONDITIONS TAKEN TOGETHER CONSTITUTE NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT

• DEADLOCK DETECTION AND RECOVERY

• WE ACCEPT THE 3 POLICY CONDITIONS BUT MAKE JUDICIOUS CHOICES TO ASSURE

• INPUT / OUTPUT INTERRUPT

• PURPOSE IS TO OPTIMIZE USE OF RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM).

• FRAGMENTATION IS OF TWO TYPES

Total memory space is enough to satisfy a request or to

Memory block assigned to process is bigger. Some

• HARDWARE SUPPORT IS REQUIRED TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THOSE PAGES THAT ARE IN

• FILE ACCESS MECHANISM

• FILE ACCESS MECHANISM

• INDEXED SEQUENTIAL ACCESS

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