SOME QUESTIONS REGARDING SOURCE

ROCK:
1. Does the sediment have enough
organic materials? (richness)
2. Is the organic materials appropriate?
(type)
3. Has the organic materials been
mature? (maturity)
4. Has the hydrocarbon been expelled?
(expulsion)
Maturity based on
Rock-Eval™
 Pyrolysis Tmax:
Immature < 435oC
Early mature: 435-445oC
Peak mature: 445-450oC
Late mature: 450-470oC
Postmature > 470oC

Waples (1985)
Foster and Beaumont (1991)
Bordenave (1993)
Maturity based on
vitrinite reflectance
 Vitrinite reflectance as a tool to
assess thermal maturity
(Senftle and Landis, 1991)

 Thermal evolution (maturation) of kerogen

is chemically and physically similar to
coalification.

 When progressively buried under

sedimentary deposits, peat undergoes
chemical and physical changes passing from
lignite to bituminous coal, then to anthracite.
 Courtesy of
USGS

Buehler Ecomet 4 variable speed grinder-polisher

 Courtesy of
USGS

Leitz orthoplan microscope

Zeiss AxioImager Courtesy of
USGS
QDI CoalPro™ Vitrinite Reflectance Measurement System
Shaly coal from the
Upper Triassic
containing abundant
thick-walled cutinite
and vitrinite formed
from leaf tissue. The
cutinite shows
variable fluorescence
intensity and colour.
Vitrinite of meta-
anthracitic rank from
pre-Tertiary basement
in western Indonesia.
The vitrinite is parallel
with the polars and is
showing the maximum
reflectance of 8.05%.
The high bireflectance
is characteristic of
regionally metamorphic
effects.
 Courtesy of
USGS

Photomicrograph of low volatile bituminous coal from

West Virginia with a mean maximum reflectance of
0.879%. The maceral shown is vitrinite.
 Courtesy of
USGS

Vitrinite showing fluorescence from cell walls. 1. T5809; Hole 1109D; 387.86
mbsf. Longitudinal section of wood preserved as telovitrinite. The cell lumens
are mostly filled with humic material, but the degree of compressions is
small and some parts of the lumens are open. Cell walls are much lower in
reflectance and are strongly fluorescing. Their reflectances are within the
range normally associated with liptinite, but they do not represent
suberinite. Reflectances of the cell walls are lower in the lower part of the
field, but the cell contents have relatively consistent reflectances across the
various tissue types (reflected light; field width = 0.22 mm; vitrinite
reflectance [cell contents] = 0.37%, [cell walls] = 0.12%).
 Coal petrographers have used VR to study
coalification in detail for many decades.
 Coal rank is determined by the mean maximum
reflectance of vitrinite.
 VR has been successfully demonstrated as a
reliable indicator of organic maturation in
sedimentary rocks (Castano and Sparks, 1974).
 Early work, VR is suggested being a maturity
measurement independent of kerogen
composition, organic facies, and depositional
processes (Stach et al., 1982).
 More recent work has shown that this is not
always correct  vitrinite is identified cautiously in
shales and other clastic sedimentary rocks (Jones
and Edison, 1979; Bostick, 1979; Price and
Barker, 1985).
 Company : KNOC
Well : Wulan-1 ST
Sample Type : geochem can sample

TABL E-4
VI TRI NI TE REFL ECTANCE RESUL TS

Sample depth Plug M inimum Reflectance M aximum Reflectance

M ean Ro (% ) No. of Readings SD
(m) Type (% ) (% )

1 1720.0 - 1770.0 C 0.37 2 0.28 0.46 0.090

2 1770.0 - 1820.0 C 0.39 16 0.33 0.45 0.036
3 1820.0 - 1870.0 C 0.46 18 0.39 0.50 0.037
4 1920.0 - 1970.0 C 0.45 17 0.39 0.56 0.043
5 1970.0 - 2020.0 C 0.43 16 0.40 0.52 0.039
6 2020.0 - 2070.0 C 0.51 13 0.41 0.63 0.059
7 2070.0 - 2120.0 C 0.43 16 0.40 0.49 0.029
8 2120.0 - 2170.0 C 0.49 12 0.40 0.58 0.064
9 2170.0 - 2220.0 C 0.49 19 0.41 0.61 0.052
10 2220.0 - 2270.0 C 0.55 14 0.43 0.63 0.051
11 2270.0 - 2320.0 C 0.55 18 0.46 0.68 0.075
12 2320.0 - 2370.0 C 0.50 9 0.46 0.63 0.051
13 2370.0 - 2420.0 C 0.50 11 0.45 0.61 0.041
14 2420.0 - 2470.0 C 0.70 14 0.63 0.78 0.058
15 2520.0 - 2570.0 C 0.77 (1.16) 5 (7) 0.70 (1.01) 0.88 (1.40) 0.081 (0.152)
16 2570.0 - 2620.0 C 0.62 (3.08) 7 (14) 0.50 (2.59) 0.72 (4.19) 0.066 (0.431)
17 2620.0 - 2670.0 C (3.02) (12) (2.28) (3.86) (0.439)

C = Kerogen Concentrate SD = Standard Deviation

( ) = Oxidised population possibly reworked
 Company : KNOC
Well : Wulan-1 ST
Sample Type : Kerogen Concentrate

Appendix 1. VI TRI NI TE REFL ECTANCE RAW DATA

Sample depth
Vro % reading
(m)

1720 - 1770.0 0.28 0.46

1770 - 1820.0 0.33 0.33 0.35 0.35 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.39 0.39 0.43 0.43 0.45 0.45
1820 - 1870.0 0.39 0.39 0.41 0.41 0.45 0.45 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.50
1920 - 1970.0 0.39 0.39 0.40 0.42 0.42 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.56
1970 - 2020.0 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.42 0.42 0.45 0.45 0.52 0.52
2020 - 2070.0 0.41 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.53 0.54 0.61 0.63
2070 - 2120.0 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.42 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.49 0.49
2120 - 2170.0 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.43 0.49 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.53 0.55 0.56 0.58
2170 - 2220.0 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.51 0.52 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.54 0.56 0.61
2220 - 2270.0 0.43 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.55 0.55 0.56 0.56 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.61 0.63
2270 - 2320.0 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.56 0.56 0.59 0.59 0.60 0.60 0.64 0.64 0.68 0.68
2320 - 2370.0 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.53 0.63
2370 - 2420.0 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.61
2420 - 2470.0 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.65 0.65 0.71 0.71 0.73 0.73 0.76 0.76 0.78 0.78
2520 - 2570.0 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.85 0.88
2570 - 2620.0 0.50 0.58 0.60 0.61 0.66 0.67 0.72
2620 - 2670.0
 Semi-logarithmic
Depth (m)

1500

3000

4500

6000
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0
Vitrinite reflectance (%)
 LINEAR

Depth (m)

1500

3000

4500

6000

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Vitrinite reflectance (%)
 Among the optical properties used to characterize
OM, VR is the most common property measured.

 VR is the proportion of normally incident light

reflected by a plane and polished surface of the
substance under consideration.

 VR is expressed as a percentage of the light

incident on the surface.

 Only the amount of light reflected in the green

visible wave-lengths (546 nm) is measured.

 The amount of reflected light is a small fraction,

generally less than 4%.
VR is done on the vitrinite macerals
for at least three reasons:
 Vitrinite is the predominant maceral.

 Individual vitrinite often appears homogeneous.

 The particle size is large enough to permit

measurements.
 As with coals, vitrinite in fine-grained
clastic rocks often appears
homogeneous and is sufficiently large
to permit measurement.

 VR offers a means to evaluate organic

maturity over temperatures ranging
from early diagenesis through
catagenesis to metamorphism (next
figure).
After Sentfle and Landis, 1991
 VITRINITE REFLECTANCE
<0.5 – 0.7% diagenesis
0.7 – 1.3% catagenesis (oil window)
1.3 – 2.0% late catagenesis or primary gas
zone

>2% metagenesis (dry gas)

 DISADVANTAGES OF THE VR
METHOD
1. Vitrinite is difficult to be found in types I and II
kerogens.

2. Transformation rate may be different among

kerogens although their maturity level is similar.

3. Failure in maceral identification.

4. Source rocks older than Silurian do not contain

vitrinite.
 VR can be measured either in a whole rock or
in an isolated kerogen samples.

 The advantage using the whole rock is the

clarity of the VR measurement (primary versus
reworked vitrinites).

 The disadvantage is the number of vitrinite in

whole rock is usually limited, since the
percentage of vitrinite is often less than 5%.

 Jones and Edison (1979) note that in many

samples, not enough individual measurements
are available to calculate a statistically
significant average.
 Generally, 20 measurements are needed to
evaluate a sample.

 Concentrated kerogen preparations are widely

used within the petroleum industry.

 This permits the acquisition of a large number

of measurements (50-100 readings) from
humic OM.

 A range of reflectance histograms may be

encountered in well section (see the next
figure).
 Most reflectance histograms represent multiple
populations of vitrinite due to incorporation of
caved overlying rocks during drilling, vitrinite
and inertinite identificationproblems and
reworked vitrinites of higher reflectance
deposited into the sedimentary section.

 Identification of indigenous vitrinite population

can be assisted through study of samples from
the well taken above and below the sample
interval and the comparison with additional
maturity indicators.
 Coal seams within well sections serve as
reference points in maturity profiles 
abundant and, in most cases, forms in situ.

 The vitrinite population in coals is relatively less

complicated compared with clastic rocks.

 If dealing with ditch cuttings, care must be taken

to sample indigenous lithologies  coals are
prone to cave and washout.
 VR profiles can contribute to studies of common
geological problems.

 Common VR profiles encountered from thick

sections reflect a range of basin-scale
geological processes (see the next figure).

 Case study-2
After Sentfle and
Landis (1991)
Unconformity
Up-lifting

Normal and Change of

thrust faults heat-flow

Over- Intrusion
pressure

Cooper (1990)
 NEGATIVE ANOMALY (SUPPRESSION) (next figure)

 Many studies have linked anomalously low VR values to

significant concentrations of exinite, including
amorphous organic matter in coals and rocks (Sentfle
and Landis, 1991 and references therein).
 Other studies indicate that anomalous VR data may
relate to depositional environment, plant communities,
and hydrogen-enriched “saprovitrinites” in some coals
and shales.
 Low-reflecting, hydrogen-enriched vitrinites are
common in type I and type II kerogens. Enrichment
happens during deposition in anoxic environments and
early diagenesis.
 Vitrinite is impregnated by bitumen or mobile
hydrocarbons.
Correlation table of
common organic
maturation
parameters with coal
rank and
hydrocarbon
generation (Sanftle
and Landis, 1991).
SOME QUESTIONS REGARDING SOURCE
ROCK:
1. Does the sediment have enough
organic materials? (richness)
2. Is the organic materials appropriate?
(type)
3. Has the organic materials been
mature? (maturity)
4. Has the hydrocarbon been expelled?
(expulsion)
Migration “in”

Migration “out”

Tissot and Welte (1985)

VITRINITE REFLECTION CORRECTION
(Lo, 1993)

Case study-3 (in the end of this session)

 Suppressed VR is mainly due to the
difficulties faced by organic petrographers to
find vitrinite particles in a kerogen whose
hydrogen content is high.

 The next figure shows how to make a

correction based on diagram proposed by Lo
(1993).
 2
Measured Vitrinite Reflectance (%Ro)
HIo < 100

HIo = 300

1.5
HIo = 600

HIo = 900
1

0.5

0.5 1 1.5 2

Maximum True Vitrinite Reflectance (%Ro)

A proposed VR correction model by Lo (1993).

 Initial hydrogen index is needed in the
modelling process.

 HIo is HI when the sample (sediment) is still

immature.

 HIo value decreases with increasing maturity.

Initial hydrogen index (HIo) can be:

• assumed based on pyrolysis data for similar

and same level sample that is immature.

• backtrack from measured HI and Tmax (be

careful!)

• HIo can be assumed from organic petrology

data:
0 – 50 for inertinite
100 – 200 for vitrinite
400 – 600 for exinite
600 – 800 for alginite
 Jarvie et al. (2007)

HIo value can be computed from visual kerogen assessments and assigned
kerogen-type HIo average values using the following equation:
% type I % type II % type III % type IV
HIo = ----------- x 750 + ------------ x 450 + ------------- x 125 + ------------- x 50
100 100 100 100

This equation requires input of maceral percentages from visual kerogen

assessment of a source rock.

For example: using certain shale that is 95% type II and 5% type III, the
calculated HIo would be 434 mg HC/g TOC.

At 100% type II, HIo would be 450 mg HC/g TOC.

AAPG Bulletin vol. 91, April 2007

 Vitrinite suppression (Lo, 1993)

• An example of VR suppression in
Williston Basin (Price dan Barker, 1985).
• VR suppression in the Bakken Shale is
given in the next figure.
• It seems that VR suppression in the
Bakken Shale is too high compared with
the regional VR trend.
• Suppressed to 0.8% from the regional
assumption of 2.2%.
 0

Middle Jurassic - Tertiary

Depth (1000 feet)

5
Devonian – Early Jurassic
?
?
10 Bakken
?
Shale

15
0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0

Vitrinite Reflectance (%Ro)

An example of VR suppression in a well-profile (from Price and Barker, 1985).

 Vitrinite suppression (Lo, 1993)

• Hydrogen index (HI) of coals influence

their VR suppression.
• The next figure shows VR coals
collected with a depth interval of 70
meters.
• VR seems to decrease with the
increasing of HI (Bostick, 1986)
• Data from a 70 m of Pa
coal seam (Bostick,
1986)
• These coals should
have the same maturity
(Ro)
• Hydrogen index (HI) is
a factor affecting Ro

An example of VR suppression in coals (from Lo, 1993).

 Vitrinite suppression (Lo, 1993)

• Comparison in measuring reflectance on

vitrinite and sporinite (next figure).
 Table 1. Data showing a correlation among hydrogen index (HI),
vitrinite reflectance (Ro), and equivalent vitrinite reflectance (EqVR).

Sedimentary
No. Well Name Depth (ft) Basin HI Ro (%) EqVR
1 BW-1 3870 C. Sumatra 0 0.63 0.72
2 PD-1 3410 C. Sumatra 0 0.51 0.57
3 PD-1 3728 C. Sumatra 34 0.61 0.64
4 LH-1 7950 Kutai 64 0.6 0.6
5 LH-1 4450 Kutai 89 0.51 0.51
6 BW-1 3673 C. Sumatra 103 0.58 0.73
7 BW-1 3733 C. Sumatra 107 0.59 0.72
8 LH-1 6850 Kutai 107 0.51 0.57
9 SB-43 4100 Kutai 116 0.48 0.48
10 BW-1 3622 C. Sumatra 119 0.61 0.7
11 PD-1 3150 C. Sumatra 182 0.51 0.64
12 PD-1 3100 C. Sumatra 190 0.47 0.59
13 PD-1 3620 C. Sumatra 200 0.53 0.65
14 BW-1 3642 C. Sumatra 272 0.54 0.71
15 BW-1 3575 C. Sumatra 353 0.44 0.77
16 PG-54 4874 C. Sumatra 413 0.56 0.1.1
17 PG-54 4846 C. Sumatra 467 0.57 1.05
18 PG-54 4886 C. Sumatra 467 0.59 1.13
19 PG-54 4852 C. Sumatra 476 0.61 1.15
20 PG-54 4840 C. Sumatra 480 0.62 1.12
21 PG-54 4327 C. Sumatra 513 0.51 1.08
22 PG-54 4870 C. Sumatra 544 0.56 1.13
23 PG-54 3997 C. Sumatra 590 0.46 0.98
24 PG-54 4127 C. Sumatra 628 0.47 0.97
 A proposed model for the suppression of vitrinite reflectance

0.8

0.7

0.6
Measured Ro

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2

Corrected Ro

HI < 150 (Sumteng) HI 150-300 (Sumteng) HI 300-500 (Sumteng) HI > 500 (Sumteng)
HI < 150 (Kutai) HI 150-300 (Kutai) Linear (HI 150-300 (Sumteng)) Linear (HI 300-500 (Sumteng))
Linear (HI > 500 (Sumteng)) Linear (HI < 150 (Sumteng))
 Table 2. Data of Measured, Corrected Vitrinite Reflectance, and EqVR

Depth Measured Corrected

No (feet) HI VR VR EqVR
Well: BW-1
1 3575 353 0.44 0.77 0.77
2 3622 119 0.61 0.71 0.7
3 3642 272 0.54 0.71 0.71
4 3673 103 0.58 0.68 0.73
5 3733 107 0.59 0.7 0.72
6 3870 0 0.63 0.76 0.72
Well: PD-1
1 3100 190 0.47 0.58 0.59
2 3150 182 0.51 0.64 0.64
3 3410 0 0.51 0.51 0.57
4 3620 200 0.53 0.67 0.65
5 3728 34 0.61 0.71 0.64
Well: PG-54
1 3997 590 0.46 0.97 0.98
2 4127 628 0.47 0.97 0.97
3 4327 513 0.51 1.05 1.08
4 4840 480 0.62 1.16 1.12
5 4846 467 0.57 1.06 1.05
6 4852 476 0.61 1.14 1.15
7 4870 544 0.56 1.13 1.13
8 4874 413 0.56 1.04 1.04
9 4886 467 0.59 1.12 1.13
VITRINITE REFLECTION CORRECTION
USING FAMM (FLUORESCENCE
ALTERATION OF MULTIPLE MACERALS)
TECHNIQUE

Case study-3
 SAMPLE EqVR DATA VR DATA

Depth CSIRO EqVR Range 1 VR

Formation Rmo Range (%) n s
(m/ft) Sample No.
(%) (%) Suppression

1750.2/5
55833 Brown Shale 0.64 0.53-0.77 Minimal- 0.49 0.40- 0.62 25 0.06
742 moderate

1750.8/5
744
55834 Brown Shale 0.63 0.56-0.67 Minimal 0.59 0.48- 0.64 25 0.04

1755.3/5
759
55835 Brown Shale 0.60 0.53-0.70 Minimal 0.62 0.51- 0.69 25 0.05

1756.6/5
763
55836 Brown Shale 0.66 0.56-0.74 Minimal 0.50 0.32- 0.62 21 0.08

1760.2/5
775
55837 Brown Shale 0.72 0.62-0.77 Moderate 0.50 0.41- 0.65 28 0.06

1764.5/5
789
55838 Brown Shale n.a - - 0.32 0.28- 0.36 3 0.04

1765.4/5
792
55839 Brown Shale ~0.74 - Severe 0.42 0.35- 0.49 2 0.10

1766.0/5
794
55840 Brown Shale 0.73 0.66-0.86 Moderate 0.44 0.38- 0.53 26 0.04

1776.7/5
829
55841 Brown Shale n.a - - n/a - - -

1807.2/5
929
55842 n.a - - 0.60 0.58- 0.62 4 0.02
N.a. = Not available due to a lack of indigenous organic matter
EqVR = FAMM-derived equivalent vitrinite reflectance calibrated against Rmo%.
Rmo% = Mean vitrinite reflectance measured under oil immersion on randomly oriented phytoclasts in nonpolarised light.
n = Number of vitrinite reflectance readings; σ = standard deviation.
Readings taken from dispersed organic matter (DOM) and coal.
The ranges in EqVR are based on plotted positions of vitrinite data in relation to iso-EqVR lines on the FAMM diagrams
1
The degree of vitrinite reflectance suppression/enhancement is based on the position of the vitrinite data
points in relation to iso-correction curves superimposed on the fluorescence alteration diagram; minimal (0.0-
0.1%), moderate (>0.1-0.2%) and severe (>0.2%); enhancement shown in parentheses