ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At this pleasing moment of having successful completed our project, we wish to
convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to the management of our college and our
beloved chairman who provided all facilities to us.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to our principal

Mr.B.BALACHANDHARAN,B.E.,M.Tech.,M.E., for forwarding us to do our
project and offering adequate duration in completing our project.

We are also thanks to the Head of the Department Mr.P.PALANISAMY,B.E.,

continues encourage and support to complete the project work successfully.

We are highly thankful to our Project Guide Mr.M.RICHARDSON,B.E., for his

constructive suggestion & encouraging during our project.
.
We also express our sincere thanks to our TEACHING & NON-TEACHING
STAFFS of DEPARTMENT of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING for their kind
co-operation to complete this project work.
 BUTTON OPERATED
ELECTROMAGNETIC GEAR
CHANGER FOR TWO WHEELER
CONTENTS
 SYNOPSIS

 INTROUCTION

 LITERATURE REVIEW

 DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS

 BLOCK DIAGRAM & EXPLANITION

 DRAWING

 WORKING PRINCIPLE

 MERITS AND DEMERITS

 APPLICATIONS

 LIST OF MATERIALS

 COST ESTIMATION

 CONCLUSION

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 PHOTOGRAPHY
SYNOPSIS
 CHAPTER - 1

ABSTRACT

The main objective of this concept is to apply the gear by using

automation system in automobiles. This is the new innovative model
mainly used for the vehicles to control the vehicle. In this project we
design the BUTTON OPERATED ELECTROMAGNETIC GEAR
CHANGER FOR TWO WHEELER by using the electronic devices.

This is very useful for the gear changing mechanism in automobile

vehicles. By using this we can easily control the vehicle and improve the
performance of the vehicle also we can avoid the wear and tear of the
gear. Button operated electromagnetic gear changer for a two wheeled vehicle
could be implemented using a electromagnetic solenoid gear changing system.

This system could be used alongside a micro controller system (which

would move the gear to the required location) and an electromagnetic solenoid for
changing the gear. This gear changing system could be used in order to operate a
reasonably large two wheeled system, such as a pedal bike. It would be
straightforward to use as well as effective .
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION

A method of controlling a gear change of an automobile, said automobile

comprising an internal combustion engine; an automatic transmission connected to
an output rotation shaft of said engine so as to transmit the rotational output of said
engine to drive wheels of said automobile through any selected one of a plurality
of gear ratios; a load device selectively connectable to said output rotation shaft of
said engine via selectively-connecting means; and means for generating a gear
change control signal for selecting one of said gear ratios of said automatic
transmission in accordance with one of operational conditions of said automobile
and said engine said method comprising the steps of controlling said selectively-
connecting means when said gear change signal-generating means generates the
control signal for shifting up the gear in said automatic transmission, in such a
manner that said selectively-connecting means connects said load device to said
output rotation shaft of said engine.
An automatic gear change control apparatus for an automobile, said
automobile comprising an internal combustion engine; an automatic transmission
connected to an output rotation shaft of said engine so as to transmit the rotational
output of said engine to drive wheels of said automobile through any selected one
of a plurality of gear ratios; said apparatus comprising a load device for applying a
load; means for connecting said load device to said output rotation shaft of said
engine and for generating a gear change control signal for selecting one of said
gear ratios of said automatic transmission in accordance with one of operational
conditions of said automobile and said engine; and load control means for
increasing the load of said load device when said gear change signal-generating
means generates the control signal for shifting up the gear in said automatic
transmission.

1.1 TRASMISSION SYSTEM CONTROL

Overview The topic of current interest in the area of controller development

for automatic transmissions with a finite number of gearshifts which transmits the
gears automatically with respect to speed. Gearshifts in automatic transmissions
involve a change in the power flow path through the transmission. Advantages of
these automatic transmissions include simplicity of mechanical design and savings
in transmission weight and size, which are beneficial in terms of fuel economy and
production costs. This enables gain in fuel economy while meeting drivability and
performance goals, these savings become more significant. The designed
automatic transmission is done in an auto-clutch featured bike which can be
applied effectively and efficiently in a clutch featured bikes with suitable control
techniques. The ultimate goal of our project is to transmit the gears without the
human interference and to attain efficient, safe and easy driving in cost effective
way. Microcontroller is the heart of the system which handles all the sub devices
connected across it. We have used Atmel 89s52 microcontroller.

1.2 AUTOMATION

Automation is the use of control system to control a process replacing the

human operators. It is a step beyond mechanization, where human operators are
provided with the physical requirements of work. Automation is now often applied
primarily to reduce the human effort thereby to attain desired operation. Another
major shift in automation is the increased emphasis on flexibility and convertibility
in different process. One safety issue with automation is that it is often viewed as a
way to minimize human error in the system, increasing the degree and the levels of
automation also increase the sequence of error that accidently created in automated
systems. Different types of automation tools that exist in today’s environment are
Programmable logic controller, Microcontroller, SCADA, etc.
LITERATURE REVIEW
 CHAPTER -2

LITERATURER REVIEW

2.1. HISTORY

In 1990 the Japanese bike component manufacturer Sun Tour introduced the
Browning Electronic AccuShift Transmission a triplechainset system for mountain
bikes in which one quarter of the circle is hinged along a radius. During shifting,
this segment is pushed sideways by are lay operated mechanism like a railroad
switch and picks up the chain that is currently running on the next cog.

In 1992 the French manufacturer Mavic introduced their first electronically

controlled gear shift mechanism called Zap at the 1992 Tour de France. It was a
prototype, but it achieved neither technical success nor commercial application. A
development of this was used by Chris Boardman to win the opening time trial) of
the 1997 Tour de France. In 1994 Sachs introduced the Spintronic. In 1999 Mavic
introduced the Medtronic, its second electronic shift system, which suffered from
reliability issues and was subsequently discontinued. During the 2000s
both Shimano and Campanology experimented with electronic shifting in
professional cycle races.

There are disclosed an automatic gear change control apparatus for an

automobile and a method of controlling such apparatus. A rotational output of an
internal combustion engine is connected to drive wheels of the automobile and a
load device.

When a gear shifting-up of an automatic transmission is to be effected, the

load applied by the load device is increased, or the load is connected to an output
rotation shaft of the engine via a selectively-connecting device, thereby reducing
the rotational speed of the output rotation shaft of the engine to a required level. In
our project, two electromagnetic coils are coupled to the gear rod of the two ends.
The two buttons are used to activate the electro-magnetic coil so that the gear will
be shifted....

 ROSIE NORMAN TON ANSWERED

A button operated electromagnetic gear shifting system for a two wheeled vehicle
could be implemented using a stepper motor gear changing system. This system
could be used alongside a micro controller system (which would move the gear to
the required location) and a keypad for typing in the gear number needed. This
gear shifting system could be used in order to operate a reasonably
large two wheeled system, such as a pedal bike. It would be straightforward to use
as well as effective.

 HOW GEAR SYSTEMS WORK

Gear systems exist in order for a vehicle to be able to travel at a range of speeds
with maximum efficiency. Higher gears require less energy or fuel for the vehicle
to operate, but can only be utilized at higher speeds or the vehicle would stall or be
ineffective. Lower gears require more power per unit distance, but allow for greater
control and are effective at low speeds. If you are finding this idea difficult to
understand, consider riding a basic pedal bike. Note that when you are travelling at
a moderate speed, it is much easier to pedal in a higher gear than it is in a lower
one.
 THE BENEFITS OF USING A GEAR SYSTEM
 The main benefit of a gear system is that it saves large quantities of energy and
fuel. For manually operated vehicles, this makes travelling less strenuous - and for
petrol operated vehicles, a significant amount of money can be saved. In addition,
less pollution is released into the environment. Agar system also allows easy of
use. Drivers can select the appropriate gear for the driving speed and find their
vehicles convenient to operate. Gear systems are now installed in virtually every
car and motor vehicle, as well as on most adult pedal bikes.
2.2. ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetism manifests as both electric fields and magnetic fields. Both

fields are simply different aspects of electromagnetism, and hence are intrinsically
related. Thus, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field; conversely a
changing magnetic field generates an electric field. This effect is
called electromagnetic induction, and is the basis of operation for generators,
induction, and transformers. Mathematically speaking, magnetic fields and electric
fields are convertible with relative motion as a 2nd-order tensor or bivector.

Electric fields are the cause of several common phenomena, such as electric
potential (such as the voltage of a battery) and electric current (such as the flow of
electricity through a flashlight). Magnetic fields are the cause of the force
associated with magnets.

In quantum electrodynamics, electromagnetic interactions between charged

particles can be calculated using the method of Feynman diagrams, in which we
picture messenger particles called virtual photons being exchanged between
charged particles. This method can be derived from the field picture
through perturbation theory.
2.3. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS

The scientist William Gilbert proposed, in his De Magnate (1600), that

electricity and magnetism, while both capable of causing attraction and repulsion
of objects, were distinct effects. Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes had the
ability to disturb a compass needle, but the link between lightning and electricity
was not confirmed until Benjamin Franklin's proposed experiments in 1752. One
of the first to discover and publish a link between man-made electric current and
magnetism was Romagna’s, who in 1802 noticed that connecting a wire across
a voltaic pile deflected a nearby compass needle. However, the effect did not
become widely known until 1820, when Rested performed a similar experiment.
work influenced Ampère to produce a theory of electromagnetism that set the
subject on a mathematical foundation.

A theory of electromagnetism, known as classical electromagnetism, was

developed by various physicists over the course of the 19th century, culminating in
the work of James Clerk Maxwell, who unified the preceding developments into a
single theory and discovered the electromagnetic nature of light. In classical
electromagnetism, the electromagnetic field obeys a set of equations known
as Maxwell's equations, and the electromagnetic force is given by the Lorentz force
law.

One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to

reconcile with classical mechanics, but it is compatible with special relativity.
According to Maxwell's equations, the speed of light in a vacuum is a universal
constant, dependent only on the electrical permittivity and magnetic
permeability of free space. This violates Galilean invariance, a long-standing
cornerstone of classical mechanics. One way to reconcile the two theories is to
assume the existence of a aluminiferous anther through which the light propagates.
However, subsequent experimental efforts failed to detect the presence of the
anther. After important contributions of Hendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincare, in
1905, Albert Einstein solved the problem with the introduction of special relativity,
which replaces classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics that is
compatible with classical electromagnetism. In addition, relativity theory shows
that in moving frames of reference a magnetic field transforms to a field with a
nonzero electric component and vice versa; thus firmly showing that they are two
sides of the same coin, and thus the term "electromagnetism".
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
 CHAPTER -3

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT

3. POWER SUPPLY

SCOPE

Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or

system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group
of loads is called a power supply unit. The term is most commonly applied to
electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.

This typically involves converting 240 volt AC supplied by a utility

company to a well-regulated lower voltage (+/-12V) DC for electronic devices.
 The ac voltage, typically 220V rms, is connected to a transformer, which
steps that ac voltage down to the level of the desired dc output. A diode rectifier
then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple
capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some
ripple or ac voltage variation.

A regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains the same dc value
even if the input dc voltage varies, or the load connected to the output dc voltage
changes. This voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of the popular
voltage regulator IC units.

Working principle

Transformer

The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-230V)
to (0-6V) level. Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be connected
to the precision rectifier, which is constructed with the help of op–amp. The
advantages of using precision rectifier are it will give peak voltage output as DC,
rest of the circuits will give only RMS output.

3.1. BRIDGE RECTIFIER

When four diodes are connected as shown in figure, the circuit is called as
bridge rectifier. The input to the circuit is applied to the diagonally opposite
corners of the network, and the output is taken from the remaining two corners.
 Let us assume that the transformer is working properly and there is a
positive potential, at point A and a negative potential at point B. the positive
potential at point A will forward bias D3 and reverse bias D4.

The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1 and reverse D2. At
this time D3 and D1 are forward biased and will allow current flow to pass through
them; D4 and D2 are reverse biased and will block current flow.

The path for current flow is from point B through D1, up through RL,
through D3, through the secondary of the transformer back to point B. this path is
indicated by the solid arrows. Waveforms (1) and (2) can be observed across D1
and D3.

One-half cycle later the polarity across the secondary of the transformer
reverse, forward biasing D2 and D4 and reverse biasing D1 and D3. Current flow
will now be from point A through D4, up through RL, through D2, through the
secondary of T1, and back to point A. This path is indicated by the broken arrows.
Waveforms (3) and (4) can be observed across D2 and D4. The current flow
through RL is always in the same direction. In flowing through RL this current
develops a voltage corresponding to that shown waveform (5). Since current flows
through the load (RL) during both half cycles of the applied voltage, this bridge
rectifier is a full-wave rectifier.

One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave rectifier is

that with a given transformer the bridge rectifier produces a voltage output that is
nearly twice that of the conventional full-wave circuit.

This may be shown by assigning values to some of the components shown in

views A and B. assume that the same transformer is used in both circuits. The peak
voltage developed between points X and y is 1000 volts in both circuits. In the
conventional full-wave circuit shown—in view A, the peak voltage from the center
tap to either X or Y is 500 volts. Since only one diode can conduct at any instant,
the maximum voltage that can be rectified at any instant is 500 volts.

The maximum voltage that appears across the load resistor is nearly-but
never exceeds-500 v0lts, as result of the small voltage drop across the diode. In the
bridge rectifier shown in view B, the maximum voltage that can be rectified is the
full secondary voltage, which is 1000 volts. Therefore, the peak output voltage
across the load resistor is nearly 1000 volts. With both circuits using the same
transformer, the bridge rectifier circuit produces a higher output voltage than the
conventional full-wave rectifier circuit.

3.2. IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units

contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and
overload protection all in a single IC. IC units provide regulation of either a fixed
positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustably set voltage. The
regulators can be selected for operation with load currents from hundreds of milli
amperes to tens of amperes, corresponding to power ratings from milli watts to
tens of watts. A fixed three-terminal voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input
voltage, Vi, applied to one input terminal, a regulated dc output voltage, Vo, from a
second terminal, with the third terminal connected to ground.
 The series 78 regulators provide fixed positive regulated voltages from 5 to
24 volts. Similarly, the series 79 regulators provide fixed negative regulated
voltages from 5 to 24 volts.

3.3. SOLENOID

A solenoid is a coil wound into a tightly packed helix. The term was
invented by French physicist André-Marie Ampère to designate a helical coil.
In physics, the term refers specifically to a long, thin loop of wire, often wrapped
around a metallic core, which produces a uniform magnetic field in a volume of
space (where some experiment might be carried out) when an electric current is
passed through it. A solenoid is a type of electromagnet when the purpose is to
generate a controlled magnetic field. If the purpose of the solenoid is instead to
dampen changes in the electric current, a solenoid can be more specifically
classified as an inductor rather than an electromagnet. Not all electromagnets and
inductors are solenoids; for example, the first electromagnet, invented in 1824, had
a horseshoe rather than a cylindrical solenoid shape.

In engineering, the term may also refer to a variety of transducer devices that
convert energy into linear motion. The term is also often used to refer to a solenoid
valve, which is an integrated device containing an electromechanical solenoid
which actuates either a pneumatic or hydraulic valve, or a solenoid switch, which
is a specific type of relay that internally uses an electromechanical solenoid to
operate an electrical switch; for example, an automobile starter solenoid, or a linear
solenoid, which is an electromechanical solenoid.

INSIDE:

An infinite solenoid is a solenoid with infinite length but finite diameter.

Continuous means that the solenoid is not formed by discrete coils but by a sheet
of conductive material.

In short: the magnetic field inside an infinitely long solenoid is

homogeneous and its strength does not depend on the distance from the axis, nor
on the solenoid cross-sectional area.

This is a derivation of the magnetic flux density around a solenoid that is

long enough so that fringe effects can be ignored. In Figure 1, we immediately
know that the flux density vector points in the positive z direction inside the
solenoid, and in the negative z direction outside the solenoid. We see this by
applying the right hand grip rule for the field around a wire. If we wrap our right
hand around a wire with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the curl
of the fingers shows how the field behaves. Since we are dealing with a long
solenoid, all of the components of the magnetic field not pointing upwards cancel
out by symmetry. Outside, a similar cancellation occurs, and the field is only
pointing downwards.

Now consider the imaginary loop c that is located inside the solenoid.
By Ampère's law, we know that the line integral of B (the magnetic flux density
vector) around this loop is zero, since it encloses no electrical currents (it can be
also assumed that the circuital electric field passing through the loop is constant
under such conditions: a constant or constantly changing current through the
solenoid). We have shown above that the field is pointing upwards inside the
solenoid, so the horizontal portions of loop c do not contribute anything to the
integral. Thus the integral of the up side 1 is equal to the integral of the down side
2. Since we can arbitrarily change the dimensions of the loop and get the same
result, the only physical explanation is that the integrands are actually equal, that
is, the magnetic field inside the solenoid is radially uniform. Note, though, that
nothing prohibits it from varying longitudinally, which in fact it does.

OUTSIDE:

A similar argument can be applied to the loop a to conclude that the field
outside the solenoid is radially uniform or constant. This last result, which holds
strictly true only near the Centre of the solenoid where the field lines are parallel to
its length, is important in as much as it shows that the flux density outside is
practically zero since the radii of the field outside the solenoid will tend to infinity.

An intuitive argument can also be used to show that the flux density outside
the solenoid is actually zero. Magnetic field lines only exist as loops, they cannot
diverge from or converge to a point like electric field lines can. The magnetic field
lines follow the longitudinal path of the solenoid inside, so they must go in the
opposite direction outside of the solenoid so that the lines can form a loop.
However, the volume outside the solenoid is much greater than the volume inside,
so the density of magnetic field lines outside is greatly reduced. Now recall that the
field outside is constant. In order for the total number of field lines to be
conserved, the field outside must go to zero as the solenoid gets longer.

Of course, if the solenoid is constructed as a wire spiral (as often done in

practice), then it emanates an outside field the same way as a single wire, due to
the current flowing overall down the length of the solenoid.

QUANTATIVE DESCRIPTION:

Now we can consider the imaginary loop b. Take the line integral
of B around the loop of height l. The horizontal components vanish, and the field
outside is practically zero, so Ampère's Law gives us

Where is the magnetic constant, the number of turns, and the current
From this we get

This equation is valid for a solenoid in free space, which means the
permeability of the magnetic path is the same as permeability of free space,
μ0.

If the solenoid is immersed in a material with relative permeability μ r, then

the field is increased by that amount:
 In most solenoids, the solenoid is not immersed in a higher permeability
material, but rather some portion of the space around the solenoid has
the higher permeability material and some is just air (which behaves
much like free space). In that scenario, the full effect of the high
permeability material is not seen, but there will be an effective (or
apparent) permeability μeff such that 1 ≤ μeff ≤ μr.

The inclusion of a ferromagnetic core, such as iron, increases the

magnitude of the magnetic flux density in the solenoid and raises the
effective permeability of the magnetic path. This is expressed by the
formula

Where μeff is the effective or apparent permeability of the core. The

effective permeability is a function of the geometric properties of the
core and its relative permeability. The terms relative permeability (a
property of just the material) and effective permeability (a property
of the whole structure) are often confused; they can differ by many
orders of magnitude.

For an open magnetic structure, the relationship between the effective

permeability and relative permeability is given as follows:

here k is the demagnetisation factor of the core.

FINITE SOLENOID

Magnetic field line and density created by a solenoid with

surface current density

A finite solenoid is a solenoid with finite length. Continuous

means that the solenoid is not formed by discrete coils but by a
sheet of conductive material. We assume the current is uniformly
distributed on the surface of the solenoid, with a surface current
density K; in cylindrical coordinates:
The magnetic field can be found using the vector potential,
which for a finite solenoid with radius a and length L in

cylindrical coordinates is

Where

Here, , , and are

complete elliptic integrals of the first,
second, and third kind.

Using

The magnetic flux density is

obtained as
Electricity and magnetism were long thought to be separate forces until the
unification work of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. The phenomena
associated with lightning (left) and magnets (right) are both caused by
electromagnetism, one of the four fundamental forces of nature.

Electromagnetism is the branch of science concerned with the forces that occur
between electrically charged particles. In electromagnetic theory these forces are
explained using electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic force is one of the
four fundamental in nature, the other three being the strong interaction, the
weak and gravitation.

Electromagnetism is the interaction responsible for almost all the phenomena

encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. Ordinary matter takes its
form as a result of intermolecular forces between individual molecules in matter.
Electrons are bound by electromagnetic wave mechanics into orbital’s
around atomic nuclei to form atoms, which are the building blocks of molecules.
This governs the processes involved in chemistry, which arise from interactions
between the electrons of neighboring atoms, which are in turn determined by the
interaction between electromagnetic force and the momentum of the electrons.
3.4. SWITCHES OR BUTTON

Electrical switches. Top, left to right: circuit breaker, mercury, wafer

switch, DIP switch, surface mount switch, reed switch. Bottom, left to right: wall
switch, miniature toggle switch, in-line switch, push-button switch, rocker switch,
micro switch.

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break

an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to
another.

The most familiar form of switch is a manually

operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts,
which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts can be in one of two
states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow
between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is no
conducting. The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open
or closed) can be either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or
"momentary" (push-for "on" or push-for "off") type.
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system,
such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as
a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions
of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open
position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another workpiece.
Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow,
current, voltage, and force, acting assensors in a process and used to automatically
control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used
to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit
is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive
mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system,
providing a visible point of isolation that can be padlocked if necessary to prevent
accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.

An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no
limits on voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise timeand fall time during
state changes, and would change state without "bouncing" between on and off
positions.

Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current
and voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often
used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved,
but this can lead to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects of
non-ideal properties is required in the design of large networks of switches, as for
example used in telephone exchanges.
 Three push button switches (Tactile Switches). Major scale is inches.

3.5. ELECTONIC SWITCHES

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet

to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are
also used. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead
using a semiconductor device to perform switching often a silicon-controlled
rectifier or track.

The analogue switch uses two MOSFET transistors in a transmission

gate arrangement as a switch that works much like a relay, with some advantages
and several limitations compared to an electromechanical relay.

The power transistor(s) in a switching voltage regulator, such as a power supply

unit, are used like a switch to alternately let power flow and block power from
flowing.

Many people use metonymy to call a variety of devices "switches" that

conceptually connect or disconnect signals and communication paths between
electrical devices, analogous to the way mechanical switches connect and
disconnect paths for electrons to flow between two conductors. Early telephone
systems used an automatically operated Stronger switch to connect telephone
callers; telephone exchanges contain one or more crossbar switches today.
Since the advent of digital logic in the 1950s, the term switch has spread to a
variety of digital active devices such as transistors and logic gates whose function
is to change their output state between two logic levels or connect
different signal lines, and even computers, network switches, whose function is to
provide connections between different ports in a computer network. The term
'switched' is also applied to telecommunications networks, and signifies a network
that is circuit switched, providing dedicated circuits for communication between
end nodes, such as the public.

3.6. RACK AND PINION

RACK and PINION is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair

of gears which convert rotational motion into linear motion. A circular gear called
"the pinion" engages teeth on a linear "gear" bar called "the
rack"; rotational motion applied to the pinion causes the rack to move, thereby
translating the rotational motion of the pinion into the linear motion of the rack.

For example, in a rack railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on

a locomotive or a railcar engages a rack between the rails and forces a train up a
steep slope.
 For every pair of conjugate involute profile, there is a basic rack. This basic
rack is the profile of the conjugate gear of infinite pitch radius. A generating rack is
a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for the design of a
generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter.

Rack and pinion combinations are often used as part of a simple linear
actuator, where the rotation of a shaft powered by hand or by a motor is converted
to linear motion.

The rack carries the full load of the actuator directly and so the driving pinion is
usually small, so that the gear ratio reduces the torque required. This force, thus
torque, may still be substantial and so it is common for there to be a reduction gear
immediately before this by either a gear or worm gear reduction. Rack gears have a
higher ratio, thus require a greater driving torque, than screw actuators.

3.7. MICROCONTROLLER
 A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC, uC or MCU) is a small
computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and
programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR
flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small
amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in
contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general
purpose applications.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices,

such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote
controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded
systems. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate
microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it
economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed
signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to
control non-digital electronic systems.

Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock

rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (single-digit mill
watts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality
while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power
consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nan
watts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other
microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act
more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power
consumption.

3.8. BATTERY
In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of
excess solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are
isolated sunshine load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for
storage. In fact for small units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem
to be the only technically and economically available storage means. Since both
the photo-voltaic system and batteries are high in capital costs. It is necessary that
the overall system be optimized with respect to available energy and local demand
pattern. To be economically attractive the storage of solar electricity requires a
battery with a particular combination of properties:

(1) Low cost

 (2) Long life
(3) High reliability
(4) High overall efficiency
(5) Low discharge
(6) Minimum maintenance
(A) Ampere hour efficiency
(B) Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel
for lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.

3.8.1. LEAD-ACID WET CELL:

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the
type most commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid
(H₂SO₄). In the application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile,
for example, the load current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One
cell has a nominal output of 2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series
combination of three for a 6-V battery and six for a 12-V battery.

The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be
recharged. The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore
the output voltage, as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat
with excessive charge and discharge currents short ends the useful life to about 3 to
5 years for an automobile battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the
lead-acid type has the highest output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a
specified battery voltage.
3.8.2. CHARGING THE LEAD-ACID BATERY:

The requirements are illustrated in figure. An external D.C. voltage source

is necessary to produce current in one direction. Also, the charging voltage must
be more than the battery e.m.f. Approximately 2.5 per cell are enough to over the
cell e.m.f. so that the charging voltage can produce current opposite to the direction
of discharge current.

Note that the reversal of current is obtained just by connecting the battery
VB and charging source VG with + to + and –to-, as shown in figure. The
charging current is reversed because the battery effectively becomes a load
resistance for VG when it higher than VB. In this example, the net voltage
available to produce charging currents is 15-12=3V.
A commercial charger for automobile batteries is essentially a D.C. power
supply, rectifying input from the AC power line to provide D.C. output for
charging batteries.

Float charging refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are
always connected to each other for supplying current to the load. In figure the
charger provides current for the load and the current necessary to keep the battery
fully charged. The battery here is an auxiliary source for D.C. power.

It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery is in a floating-charge

circuit. The battery charger is an AC generator or alternator with rectifier diodes,
driver by a belt from the engine. When you start the car, the battery supplies the
cranking power. Once the engine is running, the alternator charges he battery. It is
not necessary for the car to be moving. A voltage regulator is used in this system
to maintain the output at approximately 13 to 15 V.

The constant voltage of 24V comes from the solar panel controlled by the
charge controller so for storing this energy we need a 24V battery so two 12V
battery are connected in series.

It is a good idea to do an equalizing charge when some cells show a

variation of 0.05 specific gravity from each other. This is a long steady
overcharge, bringing the battery to a gassing or bubbling state. Do not equalize
sealed or gel type batteries.

With proper care, lead-acid batteries will have a long service life and work
very well in almost any power system. Unfortunately, with poor treatment lead-
acid battery life will be very short.
BLOCK DIAGRAM &
EXPLANATION
 CHAPTET – 4

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT AND DRAWING

4. COMPONENTS AND ITS SPECIFICATION

Sl. No. PARTS Qty. Material

i. Frame Stand 1 Mild Steel
ii. Battery 1 Lead Acid
iii. Electromagnetic solenoid 3 Coil
iv. Clutch plate 1 M.S
v. spring 2 M.S
vi Gear plate 1 M.S
viii. Button 2 -
ix. Bolt and Nut - M.S
x Connecting wires - -

BLOCK DIAGRAM
 CLUT
CH

SPRING

SOLENOID

LEFT
BUTTO
N
BATTERY RIGHT
BUTTO
N

SOLENOID SOLENOID

GEAR
BOX

BUTTON OPERATED ELECTOMAGNETIC GEAR CHANGER

FOR TWO WHEELER

BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

 The presented project is aimed to perform operations such as
automatic gear transmission. Here the speed is the inputs to the
microcontroller unit.

The two buttons are connected to a battery respectively. And

there is three solenoid are present in which one is connected by clutch
function and other two for gear functions. The both button are shown,
in that a single button individually is connected to the two in which
one is connect with gear box and other one is toward the clutch.
DRAWING
Figure (a)

Figure (b)
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 CHAPTER – 5

WORKING PRINCIPLE
Here we have two electromagnetic solenoid arrangements which
are arranged on either side of the vehicle pedal rest for applying the
gear. The electromagnetic solenoid is fixed at the end of the flat pedal
rest. The plate rest is pivoted at the center. The solenoids are operated
with the help of electric power supply and it is controlled by the
control unit.
The control unit is nothing but the microcontroller is a small
chip, it is already programmed and feed in the chip for working. One
of the solenoid is used to apply the gear and another one for reducing
the gears. A button is placed which gives the output signal to the
control unit. Depending up on the signal the clutch and gears will
automatically change with the help of the control unit. The
arrangement is clearly shown in the above diagram.
MERITS & DEMERITS
 CHAPTER - 6

MERITS

 It requires simple maintenance cares

 Automatic method
 System is helpful for the drive
 Avoid fear while driving the vehicle
 Quick respond is achieve
 Simple in construction
 Easy to maintain and repair
 Continuous operation is possible without stopping
 The safety system for automobile.
 Checking and cleaning are easy, because of the main parts are
screwed.
 Easy to Handle.
 Cost of the unit is less
 Replacement of parts is easy.

DEMERITS

 If the solenoid is fail, it can’t be repaired. We have to replace it.

APPLICATIONS
 CHAPTER - 7

APPLICATIONS

 It is applicable in all types of two wheeler vehicles.

 CHAPTER-8
LIST OF MATERIALS

8. FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The various factors which determine the choice of material are
Discussed below.
1. Properties:
The material selected must possess the necessary properties for the
Proposed application. The various requirements to be satisfied can be
Weight, surface finish, rigidity, ability to withstand environmental
attack from chemicals, service life, reliability etc.
The following four types of principle properties of materials
decisively affect their selection
a. Physical
b. Mechanical
c. From manufacturing point of view
d. Chemical
The various physical properties concerned are melting point, thermal
Conductivity, specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific
gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic purposes etc. The various
Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile, Compressive
shear, bending, torsional load and buckling load, fatigue resistance,
impact resistance, elastic limit, endurance limit, and modulus of
elasticity, hardness, wear resistance and sliding properties. The
various properties concerned from the manufacturing point of view
are,
a) Cast ability
b) Weld ability
c) Forge ability
d) Surface properties
e) Shrinkage
f) Deep drawing etc.
2. Manufacturing case:
Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or
surface qualities obtainable by the application of suitable coating
substances may demand the use of special materials.
3. Quality Required:
This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately the
material. For example, it would never be desirable to go casting of a
less number of components which can be fabricated much more
economically by welding or hand forging the steel.
4. Availability of Material:
Some materials may be scarce or in short supply, it then becomes
obligatory for the designer to use some other material which though
may not be a perfect substitute for the material designed. The delivery
of materials and the delivery date of product should also be kept in
mind.
5. Space consideration:
Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the
forces involved are high and space limitations are there.
6. Cost:
As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of material
plays an important part and should not be ignored. Sometimes factors
like scrap utilization, appearance, and no maintenance of the designed
part are involved in the selection of proper materials.
COST ESTIMATION
 CHAPTER - 9

COST ESTIMATION
1. LABOUR COST
LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW,
GAS CUTING
Cost =1500

2. OVERHEAD CHARGES
The overhead charges are arrived by” manufacturing cost”
Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labor Cost
=3000+1500
=4500
Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost
=700
3. TOTAL COST
Total cost = Material Cost + Labor Cost + Overhead Charges
= 3000+1500+700
= 5200
Total cost for this project =5200
CONCLUSION
 CHAPTER - 10

Conclusion

The project presented has involved the development and

implementation of automatic transmissions for bikes. The motivation
of this work is to implement this idea in clutch featured bikes with a
suitable clutch control. The automatic transmission can be also used
in 5 and 6 speed versions by altering few changes in the program.

According to the achieved results the mechanism done is

reliable if it is installed in bikes. Using the simplest microcontroller
and the required hardware enables to convert the old traditional semi-
automatic gear transmission mechanism to a fully automated one. The
application of this mechanism leads to make the driving process
easier and fuel efficient driving can be achieved.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER – 11
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

AUTOMOBILE ENGG. - N.M AGGARWAL

S.K.KATARIA & SONS

ADVANCES IN AUTOMOBILE ENGG. - S.SUBRAMANIAM

ALLIED PUBLISHERS LTD.

THEORY & PERFORMANCE OF - J.B.GUPTA

ELECTRICAL MACHINES - S.K.KATARIA & SONS

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONICS - V.K.METHTA

PHOTOGRAPHY