Adjectives

Used to describe people, places, or things

Adjectives
Summary:
Used to describe people or things
Example:
Veronica is taking a yellow taxi.

Beginner

Possessive Determiners
Summary:
Used to show who possesses someone or something
Example:
This is your car.

High Beginner

Comparative & Superlative Adjectives

Summary:
Used to describe the difference between people or things
Example:
The iPad mini is bigger than the iPhone. The laptop is the biggest.

High Beginner

Ordinal Numbers
Summary:
Used to describe the order of something
Example:
Jessica got second place in the race.

High Beginner

Comparative Constructions
Summary:
The '...as [adjective] as...' construction is used to describe two things that are similar.
Example:
The boy is as big as his twin sister.

Low Intermediate

1
Quantifiers
Summary:
Used to indicate how many or how much there is of something
Example:
I ate a lot of pizza.

Low Intermediate

Adjective Clauses
Summary:
Adjective clauses modify nouns
Example:
People who understand physics are smart.

Intermediate

Adjective Order
Summary:
The correct order of multiple adjectives before a noun
Example:
I‟ve never seen such a beautiful young woman.

Intermediate

Adverbs
Used to give more information about verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
Adverbs
Summary:
Used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives and other adverbs
Example:
Sandra‟s dog is barking loudly in her backyard.

High Beginner

Adverbs of Degree
Summary:
Used to describe the intensity or degree of a verb, adjective or other adverb
Example:
I am really happy.

High Beginner

2
Adverbs of Definite Frequency
Summary:
Used to describe how often an action occurs, in specific terms
Example:
The newspaper is published daily.

Intermediate

Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency

Summary:
Used to describe how often an action occurs, in non-specific terms
Example:
My mom and I sometimes talk on the phone.

Intermediate

Adverbs of Certainty
Summary:
Used to describe how sure or confident we feel about an action
Example:
He is probably late because there is traffic.

Intermediate

Conjunctive Adverbs
Summary:
Used to join two main clauses or to introduce one main clause
Example:
Riding a bicycle is fun; also, it is healthy exercise.

High Intermediate

Articles
indefinite articles are used with general nouns; definite articles are used with
specific nouns
Definite Articles
Summary:
Used to talk about specific people or things
Example:
The party starts at 8:00.

Beginner

3
Indefinite Articles
Summary:
Used to talk about people or things that are not specific
Example:
I want a dog.

Beginner

Zero Articles
Summary:
Used to make generalizations
Example:
I need coffee.

Low Intermediate

Conditionals
describe possible results or consequences
Zero Conditional
Summary:
Used to talk about things that are always true under certain conditions
Example:
If I have a test, I study a lot.

High Beginner

First Conditional
Summary:
Used to talk about results of very possible conditions
Example:
If it rains, I will stay at home.

Low Intermediate

Second Conditional
Summary:
Used to talk about results of unlikely or impossible conditions
Example:
If I were you, I would go back to school.

Intermediate

Third Conditional
4
Summary:
Used to talk about possible results of something that did not happen in the past
Example:
If I had gone to the party, I would have seen you.

High Intermediate

Passive Voice
Used to emphasize action being received.
Passive Voice
Summary:
In contrast to the active voice (a subject performing an action), the passive emphasizes the
subject being acted upon.
Example:
The car was broken into at night.

Intermediate

Conjunctions
Used to connect words, sentences, phrases or clauses
Coordinating Conjunctions of Independent Clauses
Summary:
Used to join independent clauses in a sentence
Example:
Mary sings well, but her dancing is terrible.

Low Intermediate

Subordinating Conjunctions
Summary:
Used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause
Example:
I will go even though I want to stay home.

Intermediate

Modal Verbs

5
Special verbs that are used to talk about possibility, ability, and necessity; they
are often used with other verbs
Modal Verbs
Summary:
Used to talk about possibility, ability, and necessity; they are often used with other verbs
Example:
She can finish the test today, but she might finish tomorrow.

Beginner

Modal Verbs of Permission

Summary:
Used to describe what is allowed or permitted
Example:
May I use a pencil on the exam?

Intermediate

Modal Verbs of Obligation

Summary:
Used to signify what is considered to be necessary or required
Example:
I must pay my bills today.

Intermediate

Modal Verbs of Probability

Summary:
Used to show possibility, probability, a guess, or a deduction
Example:
She must be Samantha‟s cousin.

Intermediate

Modal Verbs of Ability

Summary:
Used to explain what someone or something is able to do
Example:
He can write computer code, but he cannot fix our website today because he‟s busy.

Intermediate

Modal Verbs of Advice

Summary:
Used to give or ask for recommendations

6
Example:
Students should not eat junk food.

High Intermediate

Modal Verbs in Reported Speech

Summary:
Used to report what another speaker has said.
Example:
They said they would come to the event.

High Intermediate

Summary:
Nouns made by combining other nouns
Example:
I like to wake up early to watch the sunrise.

High Beginner

Collective Nouns
Summary:
Used to describe groups of people, places, or things
Example:
Her family joined the committee to help protect flocks of birds.

High Beginner

Irregular Plural Nouns

Summary:
Nouns with irregular plural endings
Example:
The wives have many scarves.

Low Intermediate

Gendered Nouns
Summary:
Used to indicate specifically masculine or specifically feminine nouns
Example:
Our waiter is talking to his girlfriend.

Low Intermediate

Countable Nouns

7
Summary:
Used to talk about people, places, or things that can be counted
Example:
There are four nurses and two doctors in the office.

Low Intermediate

Uncountable Nouns
Summary:
Used to talk about people, places, or things that cannot be counted
Example:
Plants need light and water to live.

Low Intermediate

Noun Forms of Adjectives

Summary:
Adjectives that can be used as nouns
Example:
This is a fun game for both the young and the old.

Intermediate

Gerunds and Infinitives

Summary:
Some verbs are followed by infinitive verbs while others are only followed by gerunds.
Example:
Mark wants to eat pizza for dinner.

Intermediate

Noun Clauses
Summary:
Groups of words that function as nouns
Example:
She told me what happened in the story.

High Intermediate

Joint Possessive Nouns

Summary:
Used to indicate multiple possession of the same thing or things
Example:
Maria and John’s children are very noisy.

High Intermediate

8
Prepositions
Words used with nouns and verbs to indicate place, time, and movement
Prepositions of Time: 'At', 'In', and 'On'
Summary:
Used with time words to indicate when something happens
Example:
I have a meeting at 3:00.

High Beginner

Prepositions of Place: 'At', 'In', and 'On'

Summary:
Used to indicate where someone or something is located
Example:
James is in the park.

High Beginner

Prepositions of Place: Spatial Relationships

Summary:
Used to describe the location of a noun in relation to other nouns
Example:
The pineapple is next to the watermelon.

Low Intermediate

Prepositions of Direction: 'To' and 'Toward'

Summary:
Used to show movement in the direction of a destination
Example:
The man is walking to the Empire State Building.

Low Intermediate

Prepositions of Movement
Summary:
Used to show specific types of movement
Example:
We drove across town to visit our friends.

Intermediate

9
More Prepositions of Time
Summary:
Used to describe when and how long an action takes place
Example:
He has been sick since last Tuesday.

Intermediate

Pronouns
Used to take the place of nouns
Personal Pronouns: Subjects
Summary:
Used to replace some nouns as the subject of a sentence
Example:
Jack likes to eat. He is very fat.

Beginner

Personal Pronouns: Objects

Summary:
Used to replace some nouns as the object of a sentence
Example:
Where is my computer? I don't see it.

Beginner

Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives

Summary:
Used to specify and indicate the proximity of an object
Example:
This coffee is delicious.

High Beginner

Possessive Pronouns
Summary:
Used to show that something belongs to someone or something
Example:
The cars is yours.

High Beginner

10
Indefinite Pronouns
Summary:
Used to refer to unspecified nouns
Example:
Someone called Maya last night.

Low Intermediate

Reflexive Pronouns
Summary:
Used when the subject and the object of a sentence are the same
Example:
I talk to myself.

Low Intermediate

Questions
Words and phrases used to ask for information
Yes/No Questions with 'To Be'
Summary:
Used with the verb „to be‟ to ask for information when the answer can be „yes‟ or „no‟
Example:
Is Mary a student?

Beginner

Yes/No Questions with 'Do', 'Does', and 'Did'

Summary:
Used to ask for information when the answer can be 'yes' or 'no'
Example:
Does John study English?

High Beginner

Wh- Questions in the Simple Present Tense

Summary:
Used to ask for specific types of information in the present tense
Example:
When does she leave?

High Beginner

11
Questions: Compound Tenses
Summary:
Used to ask questions with compound tenses
Example:
Is she looking for an apartment?

Low Intermediate

Wh- Questions in the Simple Past Tense

Summary:
Used to ask for specific types of information in the past tense
Example:
Where did she go?

Low Intermediate

Tag Questions
Summary:
Used to check understanding and agreement
Example:
We are leaving at 2pm, aren't we?

Intermediate

Negative Questions
Summary:
Used to ask for confirmation or agreement from a listener
Example:
Don't you think it's a great idea?

High Intermediate

Indirect Questions
Summary:
Used to ask for information politely
Example:
Could you tell me what time the show starts?

12
 High Intermediate

Verbs: Continuous
Used to describe ongoing actions
Present Continuous
Summary:
Used to talk about actions occurring at that moment
Example:
I am cooking dinner.

Beginner

Past Continuous
Summary:
Used to talk about actions that were in progress in the past
Example:
In 1999, I was living in Brazil.

Low Intermediate

Present Perfect Continuous

Summary:
Used to talk about something that started in the past and has continued into the present
Example:
I have been working all night long.

Intermediate

Past Perfect Continuous

Summary:
Used to describe events that were in progress before another past event
Example:
We had been waiting for three hours when the show finally started.

13
 Low Advanced

Verbs: Perfect
Used to talk about completed actions
Present Perfect
Summary:
Used to talk about things that happened at an indefinite time in the past
Example:
He has given her some important information.

Low Intermediate

Past Perfect
Summary:
Used to describe actions or events that happened before another action or event in the past
Example:
I had seen that movie before you told me about it.

Intermediate

Verbs: Simple
Used to show actions or states of being at point in time which is either specific
or non-specific
Regular Simple Past
Summary:
Used to describe things that already happened
Example:
I walked to work yesterday.

Beginner

The verb 'be'

Summary:
Used to define or describe the state of a subject
Example:
My sister is happy.

14
 Beginner

Imperative
Summary:
Used to direct a person
Example:
Eat your vegetables!

High Beginner

Regular Simple Present

Summary:
Used to describe facts, general truths, routines, and other frequent activities
Example:
I bike to work.

High Beginner

Simple Past of 'be'

Summary:
The verb to be* is irregular in the past simple tense
Example:
I was at the restaurant last night.
We were in the same class last year.

High Beginner

Simple Future
Summary:
Used to talk about events that happen in the future
Example:
I will go to the store now because I think it‟s going to rain later.

Low Intermediate

Irregular Simple Past

Summary:
Used to describe things that already happened; not conjugated regularly
Example:
I went to the store last week.

15
 Low Intermediate

Irregular Simple Present

Summary:
Used to describe facts, general truths, routines, and other frequent activities; not conjugated
regularly
Example:
She has three cats.

Low Intermediate

Used to
Summary:
Used to describes a past habit or state
Example:
I used to run marathons

Low Intermediate

Simple Future with 'going to'

Summary:
Used to talk about the future.
Example:
I'm going to call my parents.

Low Intermediate

Verbs: Phrasal
Verbs that use more than one word to describe one action
Phrasal Verb Basics
Summary:
Some verbs use two or three words to give one idea.
Example:
Please look up the definition in your dictionary.

16
 High Beginner

Separable and Inseparable Phrasal Verbs

Summary:
When you use phrasal verbs with a direct object pronoun, sometimes you need to change the
order of words.
Example:

Separable → Can you please pick up the kids from school today? BUT Can you
please pick them up today?
Inseparable → We will go over your homework at the beginning of class on
Tuesday. AND We will go over it at the beginning of class on Tuesday.

Intermediate

17
A Beginner's Guide
Learn some common English words.
Alphabet

Beginner

Numbers

Beginner

Colors

Beginner

Around Town

Beginner

Fire Station

18
Library

Museum

19
Airport

Bus Station

20
Gas Station

Hospital

21
Hotel

Pharmacy

22
Stadium

Supermarket

23
 Train Station

Food

Beginner

Apple

24
Bananas

Beans

25
Bread

Butter

26
Cheese

Chicken

27
Coffee

Corn

28
Fish

Garlic

29
Grapes

Juice

30
Lemons

Limes

31
Meat

Milk

32
Noodles

Oil

33
Onions

Pasta

34
Peas

Peppers

35
Potatoes

Rice

36
Salt

Soda

37
Strawberries

Sugar

38
Tea

Tomatoes

39
 Water

Watermelon

At Home

Beginner

40
Bedroom

Kitchen

41
Living Room

Dining Room

42
Garage

Basement

43
Attic

Bathroom

44
Closet

Bed

45
Dresser

Lamp

46
Rug

Table

47
Chair

Mirror

48
Sink

Shower

49
Bathtub

Toilet

50
Couch

Television

51
Bookcase

Cabinets

52
Microwave

Refrigerator

53
Oven

Stove

54
 Computer

Cellphone

Professions

55
 Beginner

Taxi Driver

Chef

56
Doctor

Mechanic

57
Nurse

Scientist

58
Artist

Dentist

59
Electrician

Firefighter

60
Lawyer

Police Officer

61
Professor

Teacher

62
 Waiter

Writer

Sports

63
 Beginner

Baseball

Basketball

64
Bowling

Boxing

65
Cricket

Football

66
Golf

Hiking

67
Horseback Riding

Ice Hockey

68
Ice Skating

Karate

69
Lacrosse

Rock Climbing

70
Roller Blading

Sailing

71
 Skiing

Transportation

Beginner

Airplane

72
Bicycle

Bus

73
Car

Moped

74
Motorcycle

Subway

75
Taxi

Train

76
Adjectives
Used to describe people, places, or things
Adjectives
Summary:

Used to describe people or things

Example:

Veronica is taking a yellow taxi.

Explanation:

Yellow is an adjective, and it describes the color of the taxi.

Beginner

Use
Adjectives are used to describe nouns. They give more information about the
noun.

Form
Adjectives usually come directly before the noun.
Veronica is taking a yellow taxi.
An adjective can also be at the end of a sentence if it describes the subject.
My wife is beautiful.

77
More Examples
Maria is a beautiful woman.
The pizza is hot!
He works in a big office.

Possessive Determiners
Summary:

Used to show who possesses someone or something

Example:

This is your car.

Explanation:

The possessive determiner your indicates that the car belongs to you.

High Beginner

Use
We use possessive determiners to show ownership of someone or something.

Form
Possessive determiners go before the noun that is possessed. The form
changes depending on who possesses the noun but does not change based on
the number or gender of the noun.
I have a dog. → It is my dog.
You have a dog. → It is your dog.
He has a dog. → It is his dog.
She has a dog. → It is her dog.
It (the dog) has brown eyes. → Its eyes are brown.
We have a dog. → It is our dog.
They (Paul and Julie) have a dog. → It is their dog.

More Examples
My hands are cold.
I want her gloves!
Their tickets were cheap.
Our tickets were very expensive.

Comparative & Superlative Adjectives

Summary:

Used to describe the difference between people or things

78
Example:

The iPad mini is bigger than the iPhone. The laptop is the biggest.
Explanation:

The comparative adjective bigger describes the difference in size between the iPad mini and
the iPhone. The superlative adjective biggest indicates that the size of the laptop is greater
than the iPad mini and the iPhone.

High Beginner

Use
We use comparatives adjectives to compare two nouns. We use superlative
adjectives to compare three or more nouns, and indicate that one is the highest
degree.

Form
To form the comparative or superlative with one- and two-syllable adjectives,
we add -er or -ier to the end for comparative adjectives, and -est or -iest to the
end for superlatives.
tall → taller → tallest
happy → happier → happiest
For adjectives with more than two syllable, we do not change the adjective but
add „more‟ or „less‟ before the adjective for the comparative, and „most‟ or „least‟
for the superlative.
beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful
comfortable → less comfortable → least comfortable

79
There are some adjectives with irregular comparative and superlative forms:
good → better → best
bad → worse → worst
far → farther → farthest
Comparative adjectives are followed by „than‟ unless they are at the end of a
sentence.
My sister is younger than I am.
This bag is more expensive.
Superlative adjectives are always preceded by „the‟.
Out of the three sisters, the youngest one is the most beautiful.
The laptop is the biggest.

More Examples
In New York, August is usually hotter than May.
The dinner menu is expensive, but the lunch menu is less expensive.
I had the worst day.

Ordinal Numbers
Summary:

Used to describe the order of something

Example:

Jessica got second place in the race.

Explanation:

We use the ordinal number second to describe Jessica‟s position in the race. She did not win
the race, but was number two.

High Beginner

80
Use
We use ordinal numbers to indicate the numeric position of something. Instead
of saying, “He is in number three position”, we say “He is third.”

Form
Ordinal numbers are singular and are usually used with a definite article ('the').
This is the third time I‟ve seen the movie.
They can be written as a word or shortened to a number with the ending.
third → 3rd
There are different rules for how to change an ordinal number from a regular
number. In general, you just add -th to the original number.
I have called you four times → This is the fourth time I have called you.
But from 1-12, there are several exceptions:

81
For numbers 13-19 and 100, just add -th.
13/thirteen → Maria was born on Friday the 13th. (thirteenth)
100/hundred → You are our hundredth customer!
For numbers 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, change the last -y to -ieth.
90/ninety → You are our ninetieth customer!
For compound ordinal numbers like 246, only the last number is expressed as
an ordinal number.
246/two hundred forty-six → I was the 246th person to cross the finish line. (two
hundred forty-sixth)

More Examples
Next week is my thirtieth birthday!
Turn left on sixteenth street.
Did you celebrate the Fourth of July?

Comparative Constructions
Summary:

The '...as [adjective] as...' construction is used to describe two things that are similar.
Example:

The boy is as big as his twin sister.

Explanation:

The construction as big as shows that the boy and his sister are the same size.

82
 Low Intermediate

Use
The „...as [adjective] as...‟ construction is used to describe two things that are
equal. „Like‟ and „alike‟ can also be used to explain that two things are similar.

Form

Affirmative
My brother is as tall as my father.
Laura is as smart as Maria.
This pizza is just as delicious as the pizza I‟ve had in Italy!
Negative
Kyoto isn’t as big as Tokyo.
Her dog isn‟t as cute as my cat.
The iPhone camera isn’t as good as it used to be.
Examples of 'Like' and 'Alike'
Her house is so nice. It is like a castle.
Julia and her twin sister look alike!

Quantifiers
Summary:

Used to indicate how many or how much there is of something

Example:

I ate a lot of pizza.

Explanation:

A lot of tells us that „I ate a large quantity of pizza‟.

Low Intermediate

Use
We use quantifiers to describe the quantity of a noun.

Form
The quantifier you use depends on the amount you are describing, and what
you are describing.Some quantifiers can only be used with countable nouns,
like many and few. Others can only be used with uncountable nouns,
like much and little.

83
Some quantifiers that indicate a large quantity: a lot of, lots of, much, many
I have a lot of friends.
Some quantifiers that indicate a quantity between none and a large
quantity: some, several, a number of
I have some cookies. Do you want one?
Some quantifiers that indicate a small quantity: few, little, a little of, not a lot
of, not much, not many
There are very few trees in the park.
There is not much tea left.
Any is used with negative sentences to indicate that there is zero amount.
“Is there any soup left?”
“No, there isn‟t any left.”
Enough is used to describe when no more is needed.
I have enough food, thank you.

More Examples
I have a lot of cheese and wine leftover from the party.
She needs to buy some new clothes.
I don‟t have any lemonade.
Do we have any water?
We have enough food for everyone at the barbecue.

Adjective Clauses
Summary:
Adjective clauses modify nouns
Example:
People who understand physics are smart.
Explanation:
'Who understand physics' describes the people mentioned in the sentence.

Intermediate
Use
Any clause that functions as an adjective becomes an adjective clause, also
known as a relative clause. Adjective clauses modify nouns, begin with a
relative pronoun (who, whom, that, or which) or a relative adverb (when, where,
why), and contain a subject and a verb.

Examples and Explanations

Adjective clauses modify nouns and function as adjectives do in a sentence. For
example,
The lady has a hat. (Hat is a noun)
It‟s an old hat. (Old is an adjective which modifies hat)
The hat that she is wearing is hers. ('That she is wearing' is an adjective
clause which modifies the noun, „hat‟.)

84
Note that adjectives usually come before the nouns they modify, but adjective
clauses always follow the nouns they modify.

The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns. These are
the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which. These relative
pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects
of prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.

Punctuating adjective clauses can be tricky. For each sentence, you will have to
decide if the adjective clause is essential or nonessential and then use commas
accordingly.

Adjective Order
Summary:
The correct order of multiple adjectives before a noun
Example:
I‟ve never seen such a beautiful young woman.
Explanation:
Beautiful is placed before young because adjectives describing opinion, like beautiful,
precede adjectives describing age, like young.

Intermediate
Use
When we want to describe more than one characteristic of a noun, we can use
multiple adjectives sequentially. However, it is important to remember that
there is a correct order for these multiple adjectives.

Form
When there are multiple adjectives before a noun, they follow a general order:

85
With multiple adjectives before a noun, they are not separated by a comma.
That looks like a nice tasty sandwich.
Thank you for my lovely new Japanese ink pen.

More Examples
Did you see my beautiful new red wallet?
You have a nice cozy old home.
Wow, these are delicious big chocolate cookies.

86
Adverbs
Used to give more information about verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
Adverbs
Summary:

Used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives and other adverbs

Example:

Sandra‟s dog is barking loudly in her backyard.

Explanation:

The adverb loudly modifies the verb „to bark‟ to give more information about how the dog is
barking. In this case, that the dog‟s barking is very loud.

High Beginner

Use
Like adjectives, adverbs are used to give more information about another word.
Adjectives give more information about nouns, but adverbs give more
information about verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
Rebecca speaks → How does Rebecca speak? → Rebecca speaks quietly.
Brad Pitt is handsome. → How handsome is Brad Pitt? → Brad Pitt
is veryhandsome.
Rebecca speaks quietly. → How quietly does Rebecca speak? → Rebecca
speaks very quietly.

Form
Adverbs can generally be formed by adding -ly to an adjective. The adverb
usually follows the word it is modifying.
clear → clearly
slow → slowly
If the adjective ends in -y, replace it with -ily.
easy → easily
happy → happily
If the adjective ends in -able or -ible, change the -e to -y.
fashionable → fashionably
terrible → terribly
If the adjective ends with -ic, add -ally.
basic → basically
economic → economically

More Examples
You are walking slowly.
My children ate their dinner quickly.
I finished my homework easily.

87
Note: There are several types of adverbs, including adverbs of
degree, adverbs of indefinite frequency, and adverbs of definite frequency.

Adverbs of Degree
Summary:

Used to describe the intensity or degree of a verb, adjective or other adverb

Example:

I am really happy.
Explanation:

The adverb of degree really intensifies the adjective „happy‟ to indicate that „I am happy to the
highest degree‟.

High Beginner

Use
We use adverbs of degree to increase or decrease the intensity of an action,
adjective or other adverb.

Form
An adverb of degree is usually placed before the word it is modifying.
This movie is too long.
Michael Phelps swims extremely quickly.
When it is modifying a conjugated verb with an auxiliary, it is placed between
the two.
I‟ve almost finished my homework!

More Examples
I am absolutely terrified of spiders.
You were just leaving, weren‟t you?
This book is kind of boring.
I‟m very tired.

Adverbs of Definite Frequency

Summary:

Used to describe how often an action occurs, in specific terms

Example:

The newspaper is published daily.

Explanation:

88
The adverb daily is used to describe how often the newspaper is published. We use an adverb
of definite frequency because we know that it is published every day.

Intermediate

Use
Unlike adverbs of indefinite frequency, we use adverbs of definite frequency
to tell us the exact number of times an action happens.

Form
Adverbs of definite frequency modify can directly follow the verb, or be at the
beginning or the end of a sentence.
We meet hourly to stretch in order to stay alert.
Our accountant pays our bills monthly.
Common examples are:
hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly/annually
once/twice/three times a month, every month, every other month („month‟ can
be replaced by „hour, „day‟, „week‟ or „year‟)

More Examples
He changes his socks daily.
There is a marathon held annually in Boston on Patriot‟s Day.
Americans pay their taxes yearly.
We should meet weekly to discuss company updates.
Most restaurants clean their toilets every hour.

Unlike adverbs of definite frequency, we use adverbs of indefinite frequency

to state in general terms how often something happens.

Form
Adverbs of indefinite frequency are usually placed in the middle of a sentence,
often before a verb.
I always brush my teeth in the morning.
However, the adverbs sometimes, occasionally, often, frequently,
and usually are often placed at the beginning or end of a sentence:
I go to the gym sometimes.

More Examples
I usually wake up before the alarm rings.
She never complains when the plans change.
You always arrive late to work.
He seldom sees his brother who lives in another country.

89
 Soccer players typically make more money than teachers.
The guard repeatedly told the tourists to stay off the grass.
Children rarely like to eat vegetables.
I occasionally go to concerts.

Adverbs of Certainty
Summary:

Used to describe how sure or confident we feel about an action

Example:

He is probably late because there is traffic.

Explanation:

We use the adverb of certainty probably to express that the speaker is reasonably sure that
traffic is the reason he is late.

Intermediate

Use
We use adverbs of certainty to say how confident we are that something is true.
Adverbs of certainty describe verbs and adjectives.

Form
Common adverbs of certainty
are certainly, definitely, probably, undoubtedly, and surely.

Generally, we use adverbs of certainty before the main verb.

She definitely ate the last cookie.
If we use the verb „to be,‟ the adverb of certainty follows the verb.
He is certainly happy that he won the game.
If there is an auxiliary verb, adverbs of certainty come between the auxiliary and
the main verb.
She will probably finish on time.
Adverbs of certainty can also come at the beginning of the sentence and are
followed by a comma.
Undoubtedly, New York is the best city in the world!

More Examples
Certainly, I locked the door when I left.
A used car definitely costs less than a new one.
I‟ve probably read that book to my son one hundred times.
After the long flight, I will undoubtedly be very tired.
Miles Davis was surely the best jazz musician ever.

90
Conjunctive Adverbs
Summary:

Used to join two main clauses or to introduce one main clause

Example:

Riding a bicycle is fun; also, it is healthy exercise.

Explanation:

The conjunctive adverbs also joins the two main clauses.

High Intermediate

Use
We can use conjunctive adverbs to join two clauses. Conjunctive Adverbs can
also introduce, interrupt, or conclude a single main clause. Conjunctive adverbs
help make smooth transitions between ideas.

Form
Some of the most commonly used conjunctive adverbs
are accordingly, also, besides, consequently, conversely, finally, furtherm
ore, hence, however, indeed, instead, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless,
next, otherwise, still, subsequently, then, and therefore. The different
conjunctive adverbs describe different relationships between the clauses.

When a conjunctive adverb connects two complete ideas, we use a semicolon

to connect the two clauses, and we use a comma after the conjunctive adverb.
He was a fast runner; however, he wasn‟t a fast swimmer.
He was a fast runner; therefore, he won many races.

When a conjunctive adverb is used to introduce, interrupt, or conclude a single

main clause, we use commas to separate the conjunctive adverb from the rest
of the sentence.
My friends are coming to visit. Therefore, we need to clean the house.
Demitri didn‟t like to cook. He liked to eat at restaurants, though.

More Examples
She travelled through South America; subsequently, she learned to speak
Spanish.
He was always afraid of heights; nevertheless, he became a pilot.
The woman lost 50kg; therefore, she had to buy new clothes. & I have short
legs; consequently, I will never be a fashion model.

91
Articles
indefinite articles are used with general nouns; definite articles are used with
specific nouns
Definite Articles
Summary:

Used to talk about specific people or things

Example:

The party starts at 8:00.

Explanation:

We use the definite article because we are talking about a specific party.

Beginner

Use
We use the definite article when we are talking about specific people or things
that we have already mentioned or that the listener already knows about.

Form
We use the definite article, the, before nouns.

More Examples
Where are the keys?
I got the scholarship!
She loves the dress she bought yesterday.

Note: To talk about general things, we use the indefinite article.

Indefinite Articles
Summary:

Used to talk about people or things that are not specific

Example:

I want a dog.
Explanation:

We use the indefinite article because we are not specifying which dog. I want a dog, but it is not
important which dog.

Beginner

92
Use
We use the indefinite article when we do not specify which person or thing we
are talking about.

Form
There are two indefinite articles: a and an. We use an before nouns that start
with vowels (a, e, i, o, or u).
an apple
an employee
an officer
We use a before consonants (all other letters).
a boy
a dog
a pen

More Examples
There is a pen on the table.
I have an idea!
Do you want a piece of pizza?

Note: To talk about specific people or things, we use the definite article

Zero Articles
Summary:

Used to make generalizations

Example:

I need coffee.
Explanation:

There is no article because we are talking about coffee in general.

Low Intermediate

Use
We use the zero article when we make generalizations about uncountable
nouns or plural nouns.

Forms
When we use the zero article, we do not use the indefinite article ('a', 'an') or
the definite article ('the'). We use the zero article with countries, states,

93
counties, provinces, lakes, and mountains. However, when the country is the
United States, this rule does not apply.

More Examples
Gold is expensive.
Tennis is fun to watch.
Bananas are healthy.
He is planning to visit New York.
Brazil is a beautiful country.

Conditionals
describe possible results or consequences
Zero Conditional
Summary:

Used to talk about things that are always true under certain conditions
Example:

If I have a test, I study a lot.

Explanation:

We use the zero conditional here because if you have a test, you always study a lot. If I have is
the „if‟ clause, and I study is the main clause.

High Beginner

Use
The zero conditional is used to talk about results that are always true, such as
scientific facts.

Form
A zero conditional sentence has an 'if' clause and a main clause. Either clause
can come first, but when the 'if' clause comes first, we use a comma. 'If' can
also be replaced by 'when'.
If/when + simple present
If it rains, I use an umbrella.
When it rains, I use an umbrella.
simple present + if/when + simple present
I use an umbrella if it rains.
I use an umbrella when it rains.

More Examples
If I eat too much, I feel sick.
Water boils when it reaches 100 degrees Celsius.

94
 If I miss the train, I'm late to work.

Note: The zero conditional is also used to form the imperative.

If you're tired, get some sleep.

First Conditional
Summary:

Used to talk about results of very possible conditions

Example:

If it rains, I will stay at home.

Explanation:

We use the first conditional here because in the case that it does rain, you will stay at home. If it
rains is the „if‟ clause, and I will stay is the main clause.

Low Intermediate

Use
The first conditional is used when talking about future events that will most likely
happen.

Form
A first conditional sentence has an „if‟ clause and a main clause. Either clause
can come first, but when the „if‟ clause comes first we use a comma.
If + simple present, simple future
If you leave now, you will arrive on time.
If you leave later, you will not arrive on time.
simple future + if + simple present
You will arrive on time if you leave now.
You will not arrive on time if you leave later.

More Examples
If he sleeps late, he will be tired tomorrow.
She will cook dinner if you go grocery shopping.
If you yell again, I will not bake cookies.

Second Conditional
Summary:

Used to talk about results of unlikely or impossible conditions

Example:

95
If I were you, I would go back to school.
Explanation:

The second conditional is used here because it is impossible to be someone else. If I were is
the „if‟ clause, and I would go is the main clause.

Intermediate

Use
The second conditional is used when talking about unlikely results because the
conditions are unlikely, such as hypothetical situations.

Form
A second conditional sentence has an „if‟ clause and a main clause. Either
clause can come first, but when the „if‟ clause comes first we use a comma.
If + simple past, would (not) + bare infinitive
If I had children, I would wake up early every morning.
If I had children, I would not give them soda.
would (not) + bare infinitive + if + simple past
I would refuse if you offered me a new car.
I would not refuse if you offered me a new car..

More Examples
If I had a bigger apartment, I’d get a dog.
I would buy my own private island if I won the lottery.
If I were you, I wouldn’t eat old fish.

Note: Even though the tense is simple past, we are talking about the present
when we use the second conditional.

Third Conditional
Summary:

Used to talk about possible results of something that did not happen in the past
Example:

If I had gone to the party, I would have seen you.

Explanation:

The third conditional is used here because you went to the party, but I did not, so we did not see
each other. If I had gone is the „if‟ clause, and I would have seen is the main clause.

High Intermediate

Use
96
The third conditional is used when talking about a possible result of something
that did not actually happen in the past. It can also be used to express regret
about mistakes or past choices.

Form
A third conditional sentence has an „if‟ clause and a main clause. Either clause
can come first, but when the „if‟ clause comes first we use a comma.
If + past perfect + would (not) have + past participle
If I had known the movie had such high ratings, I would have watched it.
If I had known the movie had such low ratings, I would not have watched it.
would (not) have + past participle + if + past perfect
I would have attended the meeting if you had told me it was mandatory.
I would not have attended the meeting if you had told me it was optional.

More Examples
If I had studied more, I would have passed the test.
We would have gone to the park if it hadn’t snowed.
If I had seen the bigger plant, I would have bought that instead.

97
Passive Voice
Used to emphasize action being received.
Passive Voice
Summary:

In contrast to the active voice (a subject performing an action), the passive emphasizes the
subject being acted upon.
Example:

The car was broken into at night.

Intermediate

Use
The passive voice is used to emphasize a subject receiving an action in a
sentence, rather than a subject performing an action. It is commonly found in
academic writing and journalism.

Form
The passive voice is made by putting the object + a form of “be” (am, is, are,
was, were, been) + the past participle of a verb. The agent of the action can
always be voluntarily added in through the use of by + noun.
Jenny is always picked last (by her classmates) in sports.
All parents are required (by the school) to provide health forms for their children.

More Examples
The restaurant was required to post a health code grade in their front window.
My parents have been told that they won the lottery!
We were asked to fill out custom forms at the border.

Conjunctions
Used to connect words, sentences, phrases or clauses
Coordinating Conjunctions of Independent Clauses
Summary:

Used to join independent clauses in a sentence

Example:

Mary sings well, but her dancing is terrible.

Explanation:

We use a coordinating conjunction here to say two different things about Mary. But is the
coordinating conjunction that joins the two ideas together in one sentence.

98
 Low Intermediate

Use
We use a coordinating conjunction when we want to place equal emphasis on
the independent clauses we are connecting. Doing this creates a compound
sentence.

Form
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.
They always come between the elements they are joining. When joining two
independent clauses, a comma comes before the coordinating conjunction.

Gabi drank some water, for she was thirsty.

Sam is in second grade, and Mac is in kindergarten.
Rebecca can‟t whistle, nor can she sing.
Allan likes strawberries, but I do not like them.
You can buy the textbook, or you can rent it from the bookstore.
Maya worked all night, yet she still had so much work to do.
Katie had no time to bake cookies for the party, so she bought donuts instead.

More Examples
I am saving my money carefully, for I plan to retire early.
Veronica bought a new bike, and Xavi sold his old one.
The doctor did not give me a flu shot, nor did she even suggest I have one.
Manuel sings like an angel, but he plays the guitar even better.
You can go to the gym now, or you can go after work.
His sister had done everything for him, yet he showed no appreciation.
Aimee likes to be healthy, so she eats a salad every day.

Note: There are unusual grammar rules for using nor as a coordinating
conjunction to join two independent clauses.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Summary:

Used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause

Example:

I will go even though I want to stay home.

Explanation:

We use a subordinating conjunction here because one clause („even though I want to stay
home') depends on the other clause („I will go‟) to create a complete sentence.

Intermediate

99
Use
Subordinating conjunctions are used when connecting a dependent, or
subordinate, clause to an independent, or main, clause. A dependent clause
does not make sense on its own, so it needs a subordinating conjunction to join
with the independent clause to make a complete sentence.

Form
Some of the most commonly used subordinating conjunctions
are after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, wh
en, where, whether, while, and until.

Subordinating conjunctions always come at the beginning of dependent

clauses, but dependent clauses can come after or before an independent
clause.

We got home before it started raining.

Aaron can‟t go to the party because he‟s sick in bed.
Kate and Sean started decorating the baby‟s room once they found out she was a
girl.

When the dependent clause comes before the independent clause, we use a
comma before the independent clause.

Before it started raining, we got home.

Because he‟s sick in bed, Aaron can‟t go to the party.
Once they found out she was a girl, Kate and Sean started decorating the baby‟s
room.

More Examples
I haven‟t seen her since her birthday party last year.
When I see kittens, I squeal with joy.
George can pat his head while rubbing his belly.

Modal Verbs
Special verbs that are used to talk about possibility, ability, and necessity; they
are often used with other verbs
Modal Verbs
Summary:

Used to talk about possibility, ability, and necessity; they are often used with other verbs
Example:

She can finish the test today, but she might finish tomorrow.
Explanation:

100
We use the modal can to express ability. We use the modal might to talk about possibility. She
is able to finish the test today, but it is possible that she will finish it tomorrow instead.

Beginner

Use
Modals express ability, probability, obligation, advice, and permission.

Form
Modals are usually used with other verbs.
The modal verbs are: can, could, may, might, must, ought
to, shall, should, will, and would.
It is possible for me to take the bus → I might take the bus.
I am required to take the bus → I must take the bus.
It is a good idea for me to take the bus → I should take the bus.
I am going to take the bus → I will take the bus.
I cannot take the bus, but I wanted to → I would take the bus, but I cannot.
Modals do not change form for different subjects.
I can drive to the airport.
She can drive to the airport.
Modals do not change form for the past tense; sometimes, a different modal is
used for the past tense.
They can go to the store → Can is used because they are able to go to the store
now, in the present tense
They could go to the store yesterday → Could is used to talk about ability in the
past tense

More Examples
We can stop them if we try. In fact, we ought to stop them; we must do it.
We should only stay for a few minutes. They will need to leave soon.
Can you open the door for me? I will drop this package if I try to open the door.
Could you hand me that drink?
I may have time to respond to this email, but I might not.
I would open the attachment now, but you didn‟t send it to me.

Notes
To ask a question with a modal, you switch the order of the subject and the
modal:
She could be elected president → Could she be elected president?
They will be on time for the train → Will they be on time for the train?
Remember that when you combine a modal with a verb, you do not use the
word 'to'.
I can run. (We don‟t use the word „to‟ before „run‟.)

101
Modal Verbs of Permission
Summary:

Used to describe what is allowed or permitted

Example:

May I use a pencil on the exam?

Explanation:

Do I have permission to use a pencil on the exam?

Intermediate

Use
We use modals of permission to express what is allowed or what is prohibited.

Form
Modals of advice are may, could, can, and mustn’t. Like all other
modals, may, could, can, and mustn’t are used with other verbs.
Students can travel free with their ID.
You mustn’t smoke in the subway station.
May is considered the most formal modal verb used to ask for
permission. Could is less formal than may. Can is the least formal.
May I have another slice of chocolate cake?
Could I have some more apple juice?
Can you pass the sugar?
Modals of permission are usually used with „I‟ because it is most common to ask
for permission for yourself. However, it is also possible to ask for another
person:
Can she sleep on the couch?
Could he throw the ball again?
Modals of permission are also commonly used with questions. However, they
can also be used to give permission.
Yes, your friend can do that if she wants.

More Examples
You can go home now if you are feeling sick.
She can borrow my computer.
You mustn’t text message at the same time as you drive.
You may open the document now.
Could you open this for me?

Modal Verbs of Probability

102
Summary:

Used to show possibility, probability, a guess, or a deduction

Example:

She must be Samantha‟s cousin.

Explanation:

It is very likely or possible that she is Samantha‟s cousin because the speaker is making a
guess or deduction based on something.

Intermediate

Use
We use modals of probability to talk about what is possible, to make a guess, or
draw a logical conclusion. Must shows a strong sense of certainty, followed by
less certain mayand might. Could shows the least amount of certainty.

Form
The modals of probability are must, might, may, could, should, will,
and can’t. Like all other modals, must, might, may, could, should, will,
and can’t are used with other verbs.
I must have been asleep when he called.
That may be the shoe I was looking for.
She could be dreaming.
She ought to know the answer to the question. She‟s the professor.
That will be the mailman at the door. He always comes at this time.
Their airplane should be arriving now.
He can’t be serious about winning the lottery.

More Examples
Why does he look like that? He must be lost.
This can’t be her coat. She‟s very tall and this is tiny.
She might be at work already because it‟s nine o‟clock.

Modal Verbs of Ability

Summary:

Used to explain what someone or something is able to do

Example:

He can write computer code, but he cannot fix our website today because he‟s busy.
Explanation:

He is able to write computer code, but he is not able to fix our website today because he is
busy.

103
 Intermediate

Use
We use modals of ability to talk about what people or animals or things are able
to do.
He can play the piano
My computer is broken and cannot send files to the printer.
Her dog can jump onto the sofa.
We can also use these modals to talk about things that are generally true and
happen sometimes.
The weather can be chilly at night.
The train can be slow sometimes.
The car can’t stop well in the rain.

Form
The modals of ability are can, can’t, and cannot. Like all other
modals, can and cannotare used with other verbs. Modals do not change form
with other verbs.

More Examples
I can understand what you are saying.
I can’t hear you. Can you speak a little louder?
I cannot work because the music is so loud.
They can go to the movies if it is raining.
Can you help me?
Why can’t you help me?

Modal Verbs of Advice

Summary:

Used to give or ask for recommendations

Example:

Students should not eat junk food.

Explanation:

Students are advised against eating junk food.

High Intermediate

Use
We use modals of advice to express advice in the present and future.

104
 You should take a break if you‟re tired.
You ought to find a new job that pays more.

Form
Modals of advice are should and ought to. Like all other
modals, should and ought toare used with other verbs.

More Examples
They should go to the doctor since they were injured.
You ought to brush your teeth every day.
We should send an e-mail to all of the clients.

Note: The modal verb would is also used to give advice, but in hypothetical
situations.
If I were you, I would eat salad every day.
I would study for the exam if I were you.
Though not a modal, had better also expresses advice.
I think you‟ll be late, you had better take the subway.

Modal Verbs in Reported Speech

Summary:

Used to report what another speaker has said.

Example:

They said they would come to the event.

High Intermediate

Rules & Use

When we change an original statement or direct speech that has a modal
verb into a reported speech, the modal verb sometimes changes.

Could, would, should, might, ought to, and used to are words and phrases that
do not change in reported speech.
Paul said, "You should see the movie." Paul said I should see the movie.

In reported speech, will changes to would, can changes to could,

and may changes to might.
They said, "We will come. They said they would come.
He said, "You can visit." He said I could visit.
Paul said, "I may call you tonight." Paul said he might call me tonight.

105
Nouns
a person, place, or thing
Concrete Nouns
Summary:

Used to describe things that we can touch, smell, hear, or taste

Example:

Please pass me the milk and sugar.

Explanation:

Milk and sugar are concrete nouns because they refer to things you can touch, see, and taste.

Beginner

Use
Concrete nouns are words that refer to anything that we can touch, smell, hear,
or taste.

Form
Concrete nouns are different from abstract nouns.

More Examples
Don‟t pet the dog.
These jackets are made of leather.
Where is the computer?

Gerunds
Summary:

Words that look like verb forms but are used as nouns
Example:

I recommend going on vacation at least once a year. Traveling in April is a good idea.
Explanation:

Going and traveling are nouns even though they look like verbs

Beginner

Use
Gerunds are nouns that can be used as subjects, direct objects, indirect
objects, and objects of prepositions.

106
Form
A gerund looks like a verb because it is made of the base form of the verb
followed by the -ing ending.

More Examples
Dancing is one of her favorite hobbies.
He enjoys biking more than running.
The team is invested in winning the tournament.

Note: Be careful because the -ing form is also used with continuous verb
tenses.

Regular Plural Nouns

Summary:

Used to talk about more than one person, place, or thing

Example:

There are two cars and one bicycle.

Explanation:

We use the plural noun cars to show that there is more than one car.

Beginner

107
Use
If there is more than one of something, we use the plural noun.

Form
We make plural nouns in English by adding -s to most singular nouns.
girl + -s → girls
schools
cats
If a singular noun ends with -sh, -ch, -s, -x, or -z, then add -es.
bush + -es → bushes
peaches
guesses
boxes
buzzes
If the singular noun ends with a consonant and then -y, then omit -y and add -
ies.
baby → bab- + -ies → babies
ladies
parties

More Examples

108
 How many boys are in your class?
I like wearing dresses in the summer.
They come from very big families.

Note: There are nouns that do not follow these patterns. They are irregular
plural nouns.

Proper Nouns
Summary:

Used to refer to specific people, places, or things.

Example:

Obama lives in Washington with his family.

Explanation:

Obama and Washington are proper nouns because they are names of specific people and
places. The noun „family‟ is not a proper noun because it is not a name given to a specific
person, place, or thing.

High Beginner

Use
We use proper nouns as names for specific people, places, or things.

Form
We capitalize the first letter of proper nouns to show that they are different from
all other nouns. Here are some types of proper nouns in English:
Countries and cities
The United States of America
Sao Paulo
Nationalities
Korean
Companies
Facebook
Apple
Names
Rebecca
Kevin
Days
Monday
Tuesday
Months
January
February

109
More Examples
My brother is working at McDonald’s.
Rhode Island is the smallest state.
Did you see Michael at the party?

Note: Proper nouns can sometimes be plural nouns.

Singular Possessive Nouns

Summary:

Used to show ownership

Example:

This is John's house.

Explanation:

The possessive noun John’s shows that John owns the house.

High Beginner

Use
We use the possessive noun to show that somebody owns something.

Form
To form a possessive with a singular noun, add -‟s.
Bob’s book
The company’s assets
If the singular nouns ends with -s, -z, or -x, just add „.
The boss’ shoes
Mr. Jones’ hat
The possessive of „it‟ is a special case. We use „its‟.
Its color is pretty
Another way to show possession is by using the preposition „of‟. This form can
be more formal.
The table is in the corner of the room.
I can‟t find my wallet because it is all the way at the bottom of my bag.

More Examples
Where is the teacher’s pen?
My friend’s favorite color is blue.
This is Chris’ sister.
I like the song’s rhythm and its melody.
We‟ve reached the top of the mountain!

110
Note: See plural possessives to learn how to express things that belong to
plural nouns.

Abstract Nouns
Summary:

Used to talk about thoughts, ideas, philosophies, and concepts

Example:

I believe in love.
Explanation:

Love is an abstract noun because it refers to a concept.

High Beginner

Use
We use abstract nouns to talk about things that we cannot touch, smell, see,
hear or taste. Abstract nouns refer to thoughts, ideas, philosophies, and
concepts.

Form
Abstract nouns are usually used without articles („a‟, „an‟, „the‟). However, it is
possible to use abstract nouns with articles to talk about specific cases of
abstract nouns.
Congress has the power to change the law.

More Examples
We must fight for our freedom!
I admire her bravery.
Success comes from hard work and passion.

Plural Possessive Nouns

Summary:

Used to show ownership by more than one person or thing

Example:

All the students' test scores are good.

Explanation:

The test scores belong to more than one student, so we use the plural possessive
noun students’.

111
 High Beginner

Use
Plural possessive nouns show what plural nouns own or have.

Form
For plural nouns ending in -s, just add „.
Kids’ favorite snack
The books’ covers
For plural nouns that do not end in -s, add „s.
Women’s clothing
Children’s songs
Another way to show possession is by using the preposition „of‟. This form can
be more formal.
The thoughts of the people is important to him.

More Examples
The dogs’ food is in the bowl.
Do you agree with the men’s opinions?
The girls’ dresses are beautiful.
The style of her poems is interesting

Note: See singular possessives to learn how to show what singular nouns
own.

Compound Nouns
Summary:

Nouns made by combining other nouns

Example:

I like to wake up early to watch the sunrise.

Explanation:

Sunrise is a compound noun made up of the nouns „sun‟ and „rise‟.

High Beginner

Use
Compound nouns are nouns that are made from other nouns. The meaning of a
compound noun is related to the meaning of each of the nouns that forms it.

112
Form
You construct compound nouns by combining other nouns.
earth + quake → earthquake
air + planes → airplanes
down + side → downside

More Examples
The policeman inspected the scene of the crime.
When I want to be alone, I spend time in my bedroom.
There was a lot of rainfall in Florida this year.

Collective Nouns
Summary:

Used to describe groups of people, places, or things

Example:

Her family joined the committee to help protect flocks of birds.

Explanation:

Family and committee are nouns that refer to groups of people.Flock is a noun that describes
a group of birds. These are all collective nouns.

High Beginner

Use
We use collective nouns to describe groups of people or groups of animals.

Form
Collective nouns are used with the third person singular form of the verb, and
can be used with an indefinite article („a‟, „an‟).
A soccer team has eleven players.

More Examples
There is a flock of geese flying over the pond.
A committee works together to make decisions.
The singer likes it when the audience sings along to her music.
A herd of elephant travels together.

Irregular Plural Nouns

Summary:

Nouns with irregular plural endings

113
Example:

The wives have many scarves.

Explanation:

Wives and scarves are irregular plural nouns because they are not formed by simply adding -s
to the end of the singular noun.

Low Intermediate

Use
Most plural nouns are formed by adding -s (see regular plural nouns), but
some plural nouns are irregular.

Form
Here are some rules to follow to form irregular plural nouns:
If the noun ends with -fe, change the „f‟ to „v‟ and then add -s:
knife → knives
wife → wives
If the noun ends with -f, change the „f‟ to „v‟ and then add -es:
wolf → wolves
scarf → scarves
If the noun ends with -o, add -es:
potato → potatoes
tomato → tomatoes
If the noun ends with -us, change the -us to -i:
cactus → cacti
syllabus → syllabi
If the noun ends with -is, change the -is to -es:
analysis → analyses
crisis → crises
If the noun ends with -on, change the -on to -a:
criterion → criteria
phenomenon → phenomena
Some irregular plural nouns do not follow any of these rules.
Sometimes, we change the vowel:
man → men
foot → feet
Other times, we add a different ending:
child → children
Sometimes, we change the word altogether:
person → people
mouse → mice
For some nouns, the singular and plural versions are the same:
deer
sheep

114
 moose

More Examples
Some people say that cats have nine lives.
I need to buy three loaves of bread at the store.
There are plenty of fish in the sea!

Gendered Nouns
Summary:

Used to indicate specifically masculine or specifically feminine nouns

Example:

Our waiter is talking to his girlfriend.

Explanation:

Waiter is a specifically masculine noun and girlfriend is a specifically feminine noun.

Low Intermediate

Use
Most nouns do not have genders, but some nouns specifically indicate
masculine or feminine.

Form
Here are some nouns that indicate masculine or feminine people or animals.
Masculine:
king
boyfriend
waiter
actor
rooster
sheep
Feminine:
queen
girlfriend
waitress
actress
hen
ewe

If a noun can be either masculine or feminine, it is a common gender noun.

teacher
friend

115
 customer
employee

More Examples
The princess is wearing her crown.
Did you hear the widow talk about her late husband?
You should talk to your manager.

Countable Nouns
Summary:

Used to talk about people, places, or things that can be counted

Example:

There are four nurses and two doctors in the office.

Explanation:

Nurses and doctors are countable nouns, because we can say how many of each one there
are. Office is also a countable noun, but it is singular in this sentence because we know that
there is only one.

Low Intermediate

Use
Countable nouns are people, places, or things that we can easily count. When
we use a countable noun, we know how many there are.

Form
Countable nouns have plural forms that can be regular or irregular.
I like to wear scarves.
Do you prefer to eat apples or bananas?
The singular form of countable nouns can have an indefinite article („a‟, „an‟) or
the definite article („the‟).
There is a computer in the office that you can use.
Countable nouns can be used with quantifiers.
She has some ideas.

More Examples
There is a plate on the table.
Do you like tomatoes?
Many people are scared of dog.

Uncountable Nouns
Summary:

116
Used to talk about people, places, or things that cannot be counted
Example:

Plants need light and water to live.

Explanation:

Light and water are uncountable nouns because they are abstract. We cannot say how many
of each thing there are. „Plant‟ is a countable noun because we can count how many there are.

Low Intermediate

Use
All nouns are either countable nouns or uncountable nouns. Uncountable
nouns cannot be counted because they are abstract or part of a larger mass.

Form
We cannot use indefinite articles („a‟, „an‟) with uncountable nouns.
Correct
Do you have information about this?
I like studying English.
Incorrect
Do you have an information about this?
I like studying an English.

Uncountable nouns do not have plural forms.

Correct
We have bread for sale.
Incorrect
We have breads for sale.
We have a bread for sale.

You can use quantifiers with countable nouns.

There is some cheese in the refrigerator.
He doesn‟t have any coffee.

More Examples
She does not like studying chemistry or physics.
The boys play basketball every day after school.
Walking is a great way to get exercise.

Note: There are some nouns that can be both countable and uncountable,
depending on the context. Generally, uncountable nouns refer to
generalizations and countable nouns refer to specific examples.
Basketball is fun. There are 2 basketballs in my garage.
I like beer. Last night, I drank a few beers.

117
Noun Forms of Adjectives
Summary:

Adjectives that can be used as nouns

Example:

This is a fun game for both the young and the old.
Explanation:

Young and old are both adjectives, but they are used as nouns in this sentence that talk about
the group of people who are young and the group of people who are old.

Intermediate

Use
We use adjectives as nouns to describe groups of people who have something
in common.

Form
By putting the definite article („the‟) before an adjective, you can turn it into a
noun.

More Examples
The bold and the reckless love extreme sports.
Only the rich can afford business class tickets.
Many organizations collect donations of food for the homeless.

Gerunds and Infinitives

Summary:

Some verbs are followed by infinitive verbs while others are only followed by gerunds.
Example:

Mark wants to eat pizza for dinner.

Explanation:

In this sentence, the verb 'want' is followed by an infinitive verb.

Intermediate

Use
When verbs follow verbs, it's important to note that the structure may vary
depending on the first verb. Some verbs are always followed by gerunds while
other verbs are always followed by the infinitives. In a few cases, a verb may be

118
followed by the gerund or the infinitive without a change in meaning. Other
verbs can also be followed by either a gerund or infinitive, but the meaning will
change.

Examples
Common verbs followed by gerunds

Suggest
→ She suggested traveling to Europe
Enjoy
→ Kristina enjoys swimming to Europe

Common verbs followed by infinitives

Want
→ Karina wants to eat at an Italian restaurant for dinner
Need
→ I need to go to the hospital

Common verbs followed by gerunds or infinitives that do not change meaning

Like
→ I like eating chocolate OR I like to eat chocolate
Hate
→ I hate waking up early OR I hate to wake up early

Common verbs followed by gerunds or infinitives that change meaning

Stop
→ I stopped to eat (This means the person stopped what they were doing
in order to eat.)
→ I stopped eating (This means that the person is not eating any longer.)
Forget
→ I forgot to visit my uncle (This means that this person had a plan to visit
his uncle, but he didn‟t remember to go.)
→ I forget visiting my uncle (This means that this person has no memory
of visiting his uncle.)

Noun Clauses
Summary:

Groups of words that function as nouns

119
Example:

She told me what happened in the story.

Explanation:

A noun clause is a group of nouns that acts as a noun in a sentence. In this sentence, what
happened in the story is a noun clause that refers to the thing that she told me.

High Intermediate

Use
Noun clauses are a groups of words that function as nouns in a sentence.

Form
A noun clause has a subject and a verb, but it is not a complete sentence. It can
function as a subject, complement, object, or as the object of a preposition.

Here are some words that are commonly used to introduce noun clauses:
that
if whether
how
what
when
where
however
whatever
whenever
Words that introduce noun clauses cannot be omitted, except for „that‟, which
can be omitted if it is not the first word in a sentence.
Olivia admitted that she was dating him.
Olivia admitted she was dating him.
That Olivia admitted to dating someone surprised her family.

More Examples
What he said surprised the rest of the group.
I don‟t know where the keys are.
They decided that they will travel to wherever their friends recommend.
Do you know why she is crying?

Joint Possessive Nouns

Summary:

Used to indicate multiple possession of the same thing or things

Example:

120
Maria and John’s children are very noisy.
Explanation:

The children belong to both Maria and John.

High Intermediate

Use
Joint possessives are used to show that multiple people or things possess the
same object or objects.

Form
Of the two nouns that possess the thing, add -‟s to the second noun.
Maria and John have the same children → Maria and John’s children

More Examples
Barack Obama and Joe Biden’s presidential campaign was successful.
I was sad when my mother and father’s marriage ended.
I‟m feeding Kate and Sean’s dog this week.

121
Prepositions
Words used with nouns and verbs to indicate place, time, and movement
Prepositions of Time: 'At', 'In', and 'On'
Summary:

Used with time words to indicate when something happens

Example:

I have a meeting at 3:00.

Explanation:

We use the preposition at to say the meeting is at a specific time, 3.00.

High Beginner

Use
At, in, and on can be used with time words to show when something happens.
We use specific prepositions of time with specific time words.

Form
The prepositions at, in, and on come directly before the words for the days,
months, years or hours.

We use in to talk about the year and the month.

The party is in 2013.
The party is in March.
The party is in March, 2013

We use on to talk about specific days.

The party is on June 22nd.
The party is on June 22nd, 2013.
The party is on Monday.
The party is on New Year‟s Day.

We use at for a specific time.

The party is at three o'clock.
The party is at 3:00.
The party ends at midnight.
The party starts at noon.

More Examples
The plane arrives at 2:30.
I‟ll see you on Friday.
Let‟s meet on Tuesday at 4:30.
Where will you be in 2020?

122
Note: The prepositions at, in, and on can also be used to show place.

Prepositions of Place: 'At', 'In', and 'On'

Summary:

Used to indicate where someone or something is located

Example:

James is in the park.

Explanation:

We use the preposition in to say where James is. The park is James' current location.

High Beginner

Use
At, in, and on can be used with place words to show where something
happens. We use specific prepositions of place to describe the positions of
nouns. The examples below show the location of the man, James, and drinks in
the picture.

The preposition in is used when an object or a person is surrounded by an

area.
James is in the park.

The preposition on is used when an object or person is on top of a place.

The drinks are on the hot dog cart.

The preposition at is used when an object or person has arrived at a place or is

in a position.
James is at the hot dog cart.

123
Form
Prepositions of place at, in, and on go before the word for the location. This is
how we create a prepositional phrase using the prepositions of place at, in,
and on:
at/in/on + (article + location noun
They live in Brazil.
The food is on the table.
My books are at school.

More Examples
Put the books in the box.
The store is on 5th Avenue.
Let‟s meet at the library.

Note: There are many exceptions to these rules. Here are some common
idiomatic expressions:
I saw it on TV.
I heard it on the radio.
I saw it on the internet.
She is talking on the phone.

Prepositions of Place: Spatial Relationships

Summary:

Used to describe the location of a noun in relation to other nouns

124
Example:

The pineapple is next to the watermelon.

Explanation:

We use the preposition next to to describe the position of the watermelon in relation to the
pineapple.

Low Intermediate

Use
There are many prepositions of place. These prepositions describe different
locations and proximities in reference to other objects. The examples below
show the location of the objects in the picture.

The prepositions over and above describe positions that are higher than a
specific noun.
The pineapple is above the cupcakes.

The prepositions under, underneath, and below describe positions that are
lower than a specific noun.
The cupcakes are below the pineapple.

The preposition next to describes positions that are side-by-side.

The spinach is next to the cupcakes.

The preposition between describes a position in relation of one object that is in

the middle of two other objects.
The cupcakes are between the spinach and the cherry tomatoes

125
The prepositions near, by, and close to describe positions that are in close
proximity to a specific point.
John goes to a gym that is near his home.
There is a grocery store by my apartment.

Form
We use this structure to create a prepositional phrase using prepositions of
place:
preposition of place + (article) + noun
The cupboard is over the sink.
Look under the table.
The folder is underneath all the papers.

More Examples
There is a bookshelf over the desk.
I found my sock under the bed.
I sat next to Jane at lunch.
My sandwich has cheese between two pieces of bread.

Prepositions of Place: Spatial Relationships

Summary:

Used to describe the location of a noun in relation to other nouns

Example:

126
The pineapple is next to the watermelon.

Low Intermediate

Prepositions of Direction: 'To' and 'Toward'

Summary:

Used to show movement in the direction of a destination

Example:

The man is walking to the Empire State Building.

Explanation:

The preposition to indicates that the man is going to a specific destination, the Empire State
Building.

Low Intermediate

Use
We generally use the prepositions to and toward to talk about movement in the
direction of an end point. The examples below show direction of movement as
shown on the map below.
To is used when the specific destination is mentioned.
The man is walking to the Empire State Building.

Toward is used to express movement in the general direction of a place.

The man is walking toward 33rd Street.

127
Form
We use this structure to create a prepositional phrase with prepositions of
direction to and toward:
to/toward + (article) + destination noun
If you drive toward the beach, you will find many seafood restaurants.
I took the books to the library.

More Examples
We drive to work together.
Plants grow toward the sunlight.
Please, go to the store before it closes!

Prepositions of Movement
Summary:

Used to show specific types of movement

Example:

We drove across town to visit our friends.

Explanation:

The preposition across indicates that we drove from one end of town to the other.

Intermediate

128
Use
There are many prepositions of movement. These prepositions are used with
place words to describe the types of movement in a space.

Some common prepositions of movement

are across, over, along, around, down, up, and through. Some of these
prepositions, like across and over, are also prepositions of place.

The preposition of movement across describes movement from one side to the
other side of the same place.
We walked across the street to catch the bus.

The preposition of movement over describes movement in an upward and

forward direction.
They drove over the bridge to get to the island.

The preposition along describes movement parallel to a place.

We walked along Main Street and saw many shops.

The preposition around can describe a movement in which a person or object

returns to the starting point.
It took all day to walk around Central Park.

The preposition down describes movement to a lower point.

She skied down the hill.

The preposition up describes movement to a higher point.

They climbed up the mountain.

The preposition through can describe movement from one end to another end
of the same place.
The train went through the tunnel.

Form
Prepositions of movement go before the word that references the place,
environment or surrounding.

This is how we create a prepositional phrase with prepositions of movement:

preposition of movement + (article/determiner) + destination noun
The plane flew over my house.
Kevin runs around the neighborhood every morning.

More Examples
There are many rocks along this beach.

129
 I live near the airport; airplanes fly over my house every day.
We walked around the train station, but we couldn‟t find the ticket office.
She ran across the park to catch her dog!
Go through that door to get to Dr Jensen‟s office.
I walked up the stairs because the elevator was broken.

More Prepositions of Time

Summary:

Used to describe when and how long an action takes place

Example:

He has been sick since last Tuesday.

Explanation:

The preposition since is used to indicate the point in time when he started to be sick, last
Tuesday.

Intermediate

Use
We use prepositions of time to describe when actions started and the duration
of them. Some prepositions of time
are since, for, by, from...to, from...until, during, and within.

The preposition since is used to describe when an action started. Sentences

with sinceusually describe actions that are still happening.
I have been working here since last year.

The preposition for is used to describe the duration of an action in the past,
present or future.
I will be attending university for the next two years.

The preposition by is used to describe an action that will be finished before a

specific point in time.
I will give you an answer by tomorrow.

The prepositions from...to are used together to describe when an action starts
and ends.
My dad will be visiting me from Monday to Friday.

The prepositions from...until are used together to describe the duration of

events.
We can visit the Christmas tree at Rockefeller
Center from December until January.

130
The preposition during describes an action that occurs while a separate event
is happening.
My telephone rang during the movie.

The preposition within describes an action that will happen at some point
during a specific timeframe.
I will be getting a raise within a month.

Form
The prepositions of time since, for, by, during, and within go before the words
that reference the time. This is how we create a prepositional phrase with
prepositions of time:
preposition of time + (article) + time word(s)
I‟ll be on vacation for the rest of the month.
I‟ve been waiting since noon.

The prepositions of time combinations from...to and from...until are used with
two words of time and follow this structure:
from + time word that indicates the start of an action + to/until + time word that
indicates the end of an action
His presentation is from 1:00 to 2:00.

More Examples
I‟m going to Paris for two weeks.
The concert will be finished by 11:00pm.
The laundry will be ready by 2:00.
The shop is open from 9:00 to 4:00.
The park is open from April until November.

Note: The most common prepositions of time are at, in, and on.

131
Pronouns
Used to take the place of nouns
Personal Pronouns: Subjects
Summary:

Used to replace some nouns as the subject of a sentence

Example:

Jack likes to eat. He is very fat.

Explanation:

The personal pronoun he is used instead of the name Jack.

Beginner

Use
Personal pronouns can be used instead of specific names. We replace names
with personal pronouns only when we know who or what someone is talking
about. We use pronouns so we don‟t have to say the name again.
Bob went to Miami. He had fun.
He is used in place of the name Bob.

Form
The personal pronouns that can be used as subjects are I, you, he, she, it, we,
and they. These pronouns come before the verb.
I live in Miami.
You live in Miami.
The personal pronouns he, she, it, we, and they replace the specific name of
the subject.
Bob lives in Miami → He went to Miami.
Maria lives in Miami → She lives in Miami.
The dog lives in Miami. → It lives in Miami.
Sandra and I live in Miami. → We live in Miami.
Rebecca and Maya live in Miami. → They live in Miami.

More Examples
Kim and Jason watched the movie. They enjoyed it.
George is sick. He isn‟t at work today.
Kelly and I are hungry. We want lunch.

Personal Pronouns: Objects

Summary:

Used to replace some nouns as the object of a sentence

132
Example:

Where is my computer? I don't see it.

Explanation:

The personal pronoun it is used instead of the word „computer‟.

Beginner

Use
Personal pronouns can be used instead of specific names. We only use
personal pronouns when we already know who or what someone is talking
about. We use pronouns so we don‟t have to say the name again.
I work with Paula. I see her every day.
Her is used in place of the name Paula.

Form
The personal pronouns that can be used as objects
are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them. These pronouns come after the verb.
Joe sees me.
Joe sees you.
The personal pronouns him, her, it, them, and us replace the specific name of
the object.
Joe sees Bob. → Joe sees him.
Joe sees Maria. → Joe sees her.
Joe sees the cat. → Joe sees it.
Joe sees Jane and Alex. → Joe sees them.
Joe sees Kate and I. → Joe sees us.

More Examples
Please give me the coffee.
I want to speak to her.
I made this hat for him.

Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives

Summary:

Used to specify and indicate the proximity of an object

Example:

This coffee is delicious.

Explanation:

The demonstrative adjective this indicates a specific coffee that is near the speaker.

133
 High Beginner

Use
We use this and these to talk about objects that are near the speaker. We
use that and those for objects that are further away from the speaker.

Form
The demonstrative pronouns and adjectives are this, that, these, and those.

Each demonstrative pronoun tells us about the number of the object (singular or
plural) and the proximity of the object (near or far).

Demonstrative pronouns replace a noun.

My pen doesn‟t work → This doesn‟t work.

Demonstrative adjectives are placed before the noun.

My pen doesn‟t work. → This pen doesn‟t work.

More Examples
What is that?
This meeting is too long.
These are the best bagels in New York.
I don‟t like that idea.
Give me those dishes; I‟ll wash them.

Possessive Pronouns
Summary:

Used to show that something belongs to someone or something

Example:

The cars is yours.

Explanation:

The possessive pronoun yours is used to show that the car belongs to you.

134
 High Beginner

Use
We use possessive pronouns to show ownership. Instead of using two
words, possessive determiner + noun, we use one word, a possessive
pronoun. Possessive pronouns help us avoid repetition.

Form
The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs.

We use a different possessive pronoun to replace each possessive adjective.

This is my phone. → This phone is mine.
This is your phone. → This phone is yours.
This is his phone. → This phone is his.
This is her phone. → This phone is hers.
This is our phone. → This phone is ours.
This is their phone. → This phone is theirs.

There is no possessive pronoun for „it‟.

More Examples
The big car that is over there is mine.
Yours is the box on the left.
Our website is better than theirs.

We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things without specifying

exactly who or what they are.

Form
We use the indefinite pronouns anyone, anywhere, and anything with
questions or negative sentences.
Does anyone like that restaurant?
I don‟t know anything about her.

We use the indefinite pronouns someone, somewhere, and something for an

unspecified person, place or thing.
Someone is looking at us.

We use the indefinite pronouns no one, nobody, nowhere, and nothing to

indicate that there is no person, place or thing.
Nothing is in the box. It‟s empty.

135
We use the indefinite pronouns everyone, everybody, everywhere,
and everything to refer to all of the things in a group.
I got everything that I wanted for Christmas.

More Examples
I know someone who loves The Beatles.
Has anyone seen a black cat?
Nobody knows who broke the photocopier.
Everyone likes chocolate!

Reflexive pronouns are used to show that the object of a sentence and the
subject of a sentence are the same person or the same thing.
She cut herself with the knife.
'She' is the subject of the sentence, and she cut herself with a knife. The same
person who did the cutting was also cut.
He accidentally hit himself on the head.
'He' is the subject and he was also the person who was hit, so we say that he
hit himself.
Can you please prepare yourself for the test?
'You' is the subject of the question and will also be the person to prepare for the
test.

Form
The reflexive pronouns are:
Myself
Yourself
Himself
Herself
Itself
Yourselves
Themselves

More Examples
She amused herself by playing video games.
You should congratulate yourself.
The children did the entire science project by themselves.
The machine can repair itself.

Note: Reflexive pronouns are never used as subjects.

136
Questions
Words and phrases used to ask for information
Yes/No Questions with 'To Be'
Summary:

Used with the verb „to be‟ to ask for information when the answer can be „yes‟ or „no‟
Example:

Is Mary a student?
Explanation:

The verb is is placed before the subject, Mary, to form a question. The person wants to know if
Mary is a student.

Beginner

Use
We use yes/no questions to ask for information and check for understanding.
We generally answer „yes‟ or „no‟.

Form
To form a yes/no question with the present tense of the verb 'to be', we use this
structure:
present tense of the verb „to be‟ + subject (I/you/he/she/it/they/we)

137
* In spoken English, we usually just say 'yes' or 'no'.

More Examples
Are they at home?
Is he rich?
Are you interested?

Yes/No Questions with 'Do', 'Does', and 'Did'

Summary:

Used to ask for information when the answer can be 'yes' or 'no'
Example:

Does John study English?

Explanation:

The verb do is used to form a question. The speaker wants to know if John studies English.

High Beginner

Use
We use yes/no questions to ask for information and check for understanding.
We generally answer „yes‟ or „no‟.

138
Form
To form a yes/no question with most present simple verbs, we use this
structure:
Do/Does + subject (you/he/she/it/they) + base form of the verb

* In spoken English, we usually just say 'Yes' or 'No'.

To form a yes/no question in the past simple tense, we use this structure:
Did + subject + base form of the verb

More Examples
Question: Do they live near us? / Answer: Yes, they do.
Question: Does he work with you? / Answer: No, he doesn‟t.
Question: Did she like the movie? / Answer: No, she didn‟t.
139
 Question: Did you leave the milk on the counter? / Answer: No, I didn‟t.
Question: Does he have a shirt to wear tonight? / Answer: Yes, he does.

Wh- Questions in the Simple Present Tense

Summary:

Used to ask for specific types of information in the present tense

Example:

When does she leave?

Explanation:

The word when asks what time or what day she leaves. We use the auxiliary verb does for wh-
questions with he/she/it (third person singular).

High Beginner

Use
Each wh- question word is used to ask for different kinds of information.

Form
The wh- question words with
are what, when, where, why, whom, who, which, and how. There are two
main ways we make wh- questions in the simple present tense.
1. To ask wh- questions in the simple present tense, we generally use this
structure:
Wh- word + do/does + subject + the base form of the verb
What do you like?
What does she like?
When the wh- words who and what ask about the subject of the question,
we don‟t need the auxiliary verbs do/does.
Who plays soccer?
What helps you relax?
2. To ask a wh- question with the simple present tense of the verb „to be‟, we
generally use this structure:
Wh- word + simple present tense of the verb to be + subject
Where are my keys?
When is the concert?

140
More Examples
Who cuts your hair?
How do you bake a cake?
When is your birthday?

141
Note: There are some exceptions to these wh- question structures.

Questions: Compound Tenses

Summary:

Used to ask questions with compound tenses

Example:

Is she looking for an apartment?

Explanation:

The progressive question Is she looking? asks about an action in progress.

Low Intermediate

Use
These question forms are used to ask for more information using compound
tenses. Compound tenses have two verbs, an auxiliary verb and a main verb.
Compound tenses include: the present continuous, the present perfect,
and modals.

Form
There are two ways to make questions using compound tenses. We can make
yes/no questions and wh- questions.

To make a yes/no question using a compound tense, we follow this structure:

auxiliary verb + subject + verb + (object) + question mark (?)
Should he go?
Should he go to the park?

To make a Wh- question using verbs in compound tenses, we follow this

structure:
wh- question word + auxiliary verb + subject + (object) + question mark (?)
When should he go?
When should he go to the park?

142
* Questions using these verb forms do not need the words 'do' or 'does'.

More Examples
When should they buy a new car?
Have you seen her Facebook photos?
Can I help you?
How are you doing?
Where are we going?

Wh- Questions in the Simple Past Tense

Summary:

Used to ask for specific types of information in the past tense

Example:

Where did she go?

Explanation:

143
The word where asks what place she went to. The auxiliary verb did with wh- questions in the
simple past tense.

Low Intermediate

Use
Each Wh- question word is used to ask for different kinds of information.

Form
The Wh- question words with
are what, when, where, why, whom, who, which, and how. There are two
main ways we make wh- questions in the simple past tense.
1. To ask wh- questions in the simple past tense, we use this structure:
Wh- word + did + subject + the base form of verb
What did you study?
When did she finish?
When the wh- words who and what ask about the subject of the question,
we don‟t need the auxiliary verbs do/does.
Who helped you?
What happened?
2. To ask a wh- question with the simple past tense of the verb „to be‟, we use
this structure:
Wh- word + simple past tense of the verb to be + subject
Where were you yesterday?
When was the concert?

144
More Examples
Why did you leave so early?
Where did you buy your sweater?
When did you graduate?

Tag Questions
Summary:

Used to check understanding and agreement

145
Example:

We are leaving at 2pm, aren't we?

Explanation:

The tag question aren’t we is added to the sentence to ask for confirmation. The speaker thinks
that they are leaving at 2pm, and is checking to see if the information is true.

Intermediate

Use
Tag questions are used to check for information.

Positive statements are followed by negative tag questions.

She is here, isn’t she?

Negative statements are followed by positive tag questions.

He can‟t go, can he?

Form
Tag questions are added at the end of sentences, and come after a comma (,).

To make a tag question for a sentence with present simple tense or past
simple tensewe use:
do/does/did + the subject of the sentence.
He likes it, doesn’t he?
He liked it, didn’t he?

To make a tag question for a sentence with the verb „to be‟ we use:
am/is/are + the subject of the sentence.
You are ready, aren’t you?

To make a tag question for a sentence with modal verbs (will, can, should etc.)
we use:
modal verb + the subject of the sentence.
You won‟t forget, will you?
He can drive us, can’t he?

More Examples
She is coming, isn’t she?
You have the tickets, don’t you?
You don‟t believe him, do you?

Negative Questions

146
Summary:

Used to ask for confirmation or agreement from a listener

Example:

Don't you think it's a great idea?

Explanation:

The negative question 'don’t you think' shows that the speaker wants the listener to agree that
„it‟s a great idea‟.

High Intermediate

Use
Negative questions show a speaker's opinion about a topic and are used when
the speaker wants the listener to agree.

Form
To form a negative question, use the negative form of the auxiliary verb.
Why didn’t you talk to her?
Isn’t it a beautiful day?

The answers to negative questions are the same as answers to regular

questions.
Question: Can’t you fix it? / Answer: Yes, (I can).
Question: Can’t you fix it? / Answer: No, (I can‟t).

More Examples
Didn’t you see her when she was visiting New York?
Why don’t you buy a new car?
Won’t you join us for drinks tonight?

Indirect Questions
Summary:

Used to ask for information politely

Example:

Could you tell me what time the show starts?

Explanation:

The phrase could you tell makes this question more formal and polite.

High Intermediate

147
Use
We often use this form to make polite requests. Indirect questions often include
the word „please‟.

Form
To form indirect questions, we use this structure:
Can/Could/Would + subject + (please) + base form of the verb + object +
question mark (?)
Can you please help me move these boxes?
Could you help me move these boxes?
Would you help me move these boxes?

We can also form indirect questions with this structure:

Do you mind + present participle (base form of the verb + ing) + object +
question mark (?)
Do you mind helping me move these boxes?

More Examples
Can you tell me where the subway is?
Could you please tell me what time the museum closes?
Would you please turn off your phone?

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Verbs: Continuous
Used to describe ongoing actions
Present Continuous
Summary:

Used to talk about actions occurring at that moment

Example:

I am cooking dinner.
Explanation:

The present continuous am cooking is used to indicate that the action is happening right now.

Beginner

Use
The present continuous is one of the most frequently used tenses in the English
language. We use it to express something that is happening at the moment of
speaking.

Form
To form the present continuous, we follow this structure:
present simple of the verb ‘to be’ + present participle of main verb
main verb: look → I am looking for a book to read.

When spoken, the present continuous is usually contracted.

I am looking for a book to read. → I’m looking for a book to read.
We are learning to drive. → We’re learning to drive.

More Examples
He’s reading the newspaper.
They’re planning a summer vacation.
We’re singing a Christmas song.

149
 Manchester United is playing right now.

Note: There are several other uses for the present continuous, including to
speak about the near future.
I’m visiting my aunt on Saturday.

Past Continuous
Summary:

Used to talk about actions that were in progress in the past

Example:

In 1999, I was living in Brazil.

Explanation:

The past continuous form was living describes an action that was happening over a period of
time in the past.

Low Intermediate

Use
The past continuous describes actions that were in progress in the past.
Last year, I was working in London.
The past continuous also describes a past action that was interrupted by
another past action.
I was watching a movie when you called.
While we were running in the park, it started to rain.

Form
To form the past continuous, we follow this structure:
past simple of the verb „to be‟ + present participle (base verb + ing)
I was sleeping when the phone rang.
You were sleeping when the phone rang.
He was sleeping when the phone rang.
She was sleeping when the phone rang.
The dog was sleeping when the phone rang.
We were sleeping when the phone rang.
They were sleeping when the phone rang.

More Examples
We were wondering where you went.
I was looking for you yesterday.
When I was studying, I spent a lot of time at the library.
While I was driving, I saw a bear.

150
Note: There are some verbs that are never used in the continuous because
they describe general states and not actions that can occur over a period of
time. Some common non-continuous verbs are like, hate, agree, believe, know,
and want.

Present Perfect Continuous

Summary:

Used to talk about something that started in the past and has continued into the present
Example:

I have been working all night long.

Explanation:

We use present perfect continuous because I started working last night and am still working.

Intermediate

Use
We use present perfect continuous when referring to actions or events that
began in the past and have continued to the present time.

Form
In the present perfect continuous tense, only the third person singular form is
different from the rest.
have/has been + the present participle
I have been studying since last night.
The baby has been crying all morning.
You’ve been talking about it all day.

More Examples
I’ve been waiting for this day.
She’s been training for the marathon for three months.
They have been dating for five years.

Past Perfect Continuous

Summary:

Used to describe events that were in progress before another past event
Example:

We had been waiting for three hours when the show finally started.
Explanation:

151
The past perfect continuous had been waiting tells us that an action was in progress before
another past action ('the show finally started').

Low Advanced

Use
The past perfect continuous is used to show that actions that were ongoing
before another past action.

Form
To form the past perfect continuous, we follow this structure:
past perfect of the verb „to be‟ + present participle (base verb + ing)
My car had been making strange noises, so I took it to the mechanic yesterday.

To clarify the duration of the action in progress, the past perfect continuous is
often followed by time phrases using „for‟ and „since‟.
Joan had been running for two hours when she hurt her knee.
My grandma had been living in Florida since 1998, but she moved to California
last month.

More Examples
My car had been making strange noises, so I took it to the mechanic yesterday.
They had been driving all morning before they realized that they were going the
wrong way.
By the time Carlos found a job, he’d been looking for six months.

Verbs: Perfect
Used to talk about completed actions
Present Perfect
Summary:

Used to talk about things that happened at an indefinite time in the past
Example:

He has given her some important information.

Explanation:

Has given describes something that happened at an unspecified time in the past. We don‟t
know when he gave her the information, but we do know that it happened in the past.

Low Intermediate

Use

152
We use the present perfect to talk about things that happened at some point in
the past. We also use the present perfect when the exact time of past events is
not important.
I have been to this park before.
We do not know exactly when the speaker was at the park.
He has baked this kind of cake.
We know he has baked this cake, but when he baked it is not important.
We use the present perfect to talk about things that have happened many times
in the past.
My brother has read twelve books this summer.
My brother read many times.
We have been to the post office every day this week.
We went to the post office many times.
We use the present perfect to talk about things that started in the past but have
not yet finished.
They have worked here for ten years.
They started working here ten years ago, and they still work here.
The students have been at this school since March.
They started attending the school in March and they still attend the school.

Form
The present perfect tense is formed by have/has (not) + the past participle.
I've studied for many years.
The baby has cried every night for the past three weeks.
I have not studied for many years.
The baby has not cried every night for the past three weeks.

More Examples
I’ve seen the movie already.
She’s been to New York.
He’s applied for several jobs.
They have wanted a car for a long time.
We have not been waiting for a table for very long.
It has been a very long day.
I have not opened this bag of chips. Can you do it for me?

Past Perfect
Summary:

Used to describe actions or events that happened before another action or event in the past
Example:

I had seen that movie before you told me about it.

Explanation:

153
We use the past perfect because I saw the movie first and then you told me about it.

Intermediate

Use
We use past perfect when describing actions or events that something occurred
before another action or event in the past. It can also show that something
happened before a specific time in the past.

Form
The past perfect tense form stays the same no matter who is speaking.
had (not) + past participle
He had studied English before moving to the United States.
Before the storm hit yesterday, we had gone shopping for supplies.
I had not read the book before taking the test last week.

More Examples
Oh! I hadn't thought of that before you said it.
I thought I had met you in New York before I realized I was wrong.
We thought we had found the perfect restaurant, but then we saw a rat in the
kitchen.

Verbs: Simple
Used to show actions or states of being at point in time which is either specific
or non-specific
Regular Simple Past
Summary:

Used to describe things that already happened

Example:

I walked to work yesterday.

Explanation:

We use the simple past here because I did this yesterday. Walked is the past tense of the verb
„walk.‟

Beginner

Use
The simple past is used when you talk about actions that happened at a time
before now.

154
Form
We add -ed to the end of the base form of a verb. If the verb ends with -e, we
add -d to the end.
Base verb + -ed
join + -ed → joined
yell + -ed → yelled
jump + -ed → jumped
cook + -ed → cooked
help + -ed → helped
Base verb + -d
share + -d → shared
guide + -d → guided
lie + -d → lied
rinse + -d → rinsed
wave + -d → waved

More Examples
She moved to New York last year.
I cleaned the house this morning.
He washed the car.

Note: Some verbs are irregular in the simple past tense.

There are some words and phrases that are used to describe past time. You
commonly use simple past verbs with these words and phrases.
Yesterday
Last night
Five years ago

The verb 'be'

Summary:

Used to define or describe the state of a subject

Example:

My sister is happy.
Explanation:

We use is here to say that my sister feels happy.

Beginner

Use
The verb be gives the idea of existence, of state, and "of being." We use the
verb be to:

155
 State where someone comes from.
→ Where is Jenny from? She is from Canada.

State that something takes place, happens, or occurs.

→ When is the graduation? It's this week.

State that something/someone occupies a place or position.

→ Where are the books? They're on the table.

State someone's profession.

→ What's your profession? I'm a doctor.

State that something/someone belongs.

→ Mexico is in North America.

Describe, identify or amplify the subject.

→ Martha is tall.

Form
The verb be has the following conjugation and the following contractions--
contractions are rather common in spoken English:
I am → I'm
You are → You're
He is → He's
She is → She's
It is → It's
We are → We're
They are → They're
I am not → I'm not
You are not → You aren't
He is not → He isn't
She is not → She isn't
It is not → It isn't
We are not → We aren't
They are not → They aren't

More Examples
156
 I'm not Carmen. My name is Jenny.
You're in Room G; You're not in Room B.
He's not at work, because he's on vacation.
It's hot in summer.
Where are you from? We're from Florida.
Are you a doctor? No, I'm not. I'm an architect.

Imperative
Summary:

Used to direct a person

Example:

Eat your vegetables!

Explanation:

Eat is a command that directly requests an action from someone else.

High Beginner

Rules & Use

We use the imperative in order to request an action from someone else. We
form the imperative by using the infinitive. Imperatives are sentences that start
with a verb, and no subject is needed. We form the negative by starting the
command with don't.

Here are some examples:

Give me the salt.
Don't listen to him.
Tell Joe that I called.
Don't forget to go to the supermarket.

Using the imperative can sound very direct. If you are worried about being
impolite, you can add the word please.
Please wait a minute.
Please tell her I'm here.

Regular Simple Present

Summary:

Used to describe facts, general truths, routines, and other frequent activities
Example:

I bike to work.

157
Explanation:

We use the simple present here because I regularly ride my bike when I go to work.

High Beginner

Use
The simple present is used when talking about facts and actions that are
repeated, such as a habit or a daily event.

Form
In the simple present tense, regular verbs stay the same except in the third
person singular form.

Add -s to the end of a verb for the third person singular form.
rides + -s → rides
run + -s → runs
open + -s → opens
Add -es to the end of a verb for the third person singular form if it ends with
these letters: sh, ch, s, x, and z
push + -es → pushes
watch + -es → watches
pass + -es → passes
fix + -es → fixes
buzz + -es → buzzes
If a verb ends with a consonant and a -y, then omit -y and add -ies.

158
 carry → carr + -ies → carries
marry → marr + -ies → marries
worry → worry + -ies → worries

More Examples
The cafe opens early in the morning.
You always find great sales.
She cooks all of her food.

Note: The simple present is not used to describe actions happening now. That
is called present continuous.
There are also many irregular verb conjugations of the simple present.

Simple Past of 'be'

Summary:
The verb to be* is irregular in the past simple tense
Example:
I was at the restaurant last night.
We were in the same class last year.
Explanation:
Was and were are used in these sentences to describe events in the past.

High Beginner
Rules & Use
The verb to be is irregular in the simple past and follows the forms outlined
below.

Form
I am late → I was late
You are late → You were late
He is late → He was late
She is late → She was late
It is late → It was late
We are late → We were late
They are late → They were late

Simple Future
Summary:

Used to talk about events that happen in the future

Example:

I will go to the store now because I think it‟s going to rain later.
Explanation:

159
Will go and going to rain are simple future tense verbs because they talk about things that
happen in a time after now.

Low Intermediate

Use
We use the simple future to talk about events that happen at a time after now.

Form
We can form the simple future by saying will (not) + bare infinitive.
He will make an appointment
Complaining won’t help you.
We can also talk about the future by saying „is‟/‟are‟/‟am‟ + going to + bare
infinitive.
She is going to go to the gym tonight.
I am going to buy a new shirt for the interview

More Examples
We’ll never go to that restaurant again.
The dentist said, “It won’t hurt.”
It looks like we’re going to win the game.

Note: In spoken American English, going to is often shortened and

pronounced as „gonna‟.
He is going to run. → He is gonna run.
Are you going to buy the dress? → Are you gonna buy the dress?

Irregular Simple Past

Summary:

Used to describe things that already happened; not conjugated regularly

Example:

I went to the store last week.

Explanation:

We use the simple past because I did this last week. Went is the irregular past tense of the verb
„to go‟.

Low Intermediate

Use
The simple past is used when you talk about actions that happened at a time
before now.

160
Form
The irregular past simple is constituted of verbs that have different endings than
the regular past simple (-ed endings). There are many irregular verbs in
English, including the following:

More Examples
I saw that movie last night! I loved it.
My boyfriend came with me to Minnesota last month.
David said he came to my party.
I ran to the store.

Irregular Simple Present

Summary:

Used to describe facts, general truths, routines, and other frequent activities; not conjugated
regularly
Example:

She has three cats.

Explanation:

We use the simple present here because it is a fact that she is the owner of three cats. Has is
conjugated from the irregular verb „to have‟, so it looks different from regular verb conjugations.

161
 Low Intermediate

Use
The simple present is used when talking about facts and actions that are
repeated, such as a habit or a daily event. Irregular verbs are not conjugated
differently from regular verbs.

Form
„To have‟ and „to be‟ are irregular simple present verbs. „To have‟ is different
only in the third person singular form, but „to be‟ is different in the first person
singular and third person singular forms.

More Examples
We have a lot of time left.
The dog has fleas.
I am tired.
You are a good friend.

Note: The simple present is not used to describe actions happening now. That
is called the present continuous.

Used to
Summary:

Used to describes a past habit or state

Example:

I used to run marathons

162
 Low Intermediate

Use
When used with an infinitive verb, used to means that a habitual action took
place in the past, but no longer does, or to say that something was true in the
past, but no longer is.

Form
The most common form is used to + infinitive verb. For the negative and
questions, we use the form use to
She didn‟t use to swim in the afternoons.
Did you use to collect baseball cards?

More Examples
I used to smoke three packs of cigarettes a day.
She used to live a block away from me.
Didn‟t you use to have longer hair?

Simple Future with 'going to'

Summary:

Used to talk about the future.

Example:

I'm going to call my parents.

Explanation:

'Going to', also called 'idiomatic future', is used to talk about personal plans, intentions, and
predictions of events.

Low Intermediate

Use
'Going to' is one of the most common ways used to talk about the future.
'Be going to' is used to talk about personal plans and intentions, especially
when a person has already made a decision to do something.
I'm going to buy Mom something special.

'Be going to' is used to make predictions about future actions or events,
especially when the person has reasons or evidence to predict them.
She's going to be a great lawyer.
It's going to rain.

163
Form
Statements
subject + be + 'going to' + verb.
Example: We're going to go out for dinner.
Yes-No Questions
be + subject + 'going to' + verb?
Example: Are you going to have a big wedding?
Information Questions
question word + be + subject + 'going to' + verb?
Example: What are you going to do on your birthday?

More Examples
I'm not going to buy something special.
You're going to get a present.
She's going to be 50.
It's going to snow tomorrow.
It's going to be fun.
I'm going to send some flowers.
What are you going to do tonight? I'm not going to do anything special.
Are you going to have a party? Yes, we're going to invite all our friends.

Verbs: Phrasal
Verbs that use more than one word to describe one action
Phrasal Verb Basics
Summary:

Some verbs use two or three words to give one idea.

Example:

Please look up the definition in your dictionary.

Explanation:

The phrasal verb look up means find.

High Beginner

Use
Phrasal verbs are very common in English and they describe many different
actions.
Many phrasal verbs describe physical actions that you can see:
Please stand up.
I fell down and hurt my ankle.
Please throw away your plates when you finish eating.
Be careful because many phrasal verbs have several different meanings:

164
 You must check out of the hotel before 11am → You need to tell reception you are
leaving.
Check out this website. They have great sales! → Visit the website.
Please present your discount card when you check out. → Show your card when
you pay for things at a store.

Form
Phrasal verbs are formed with a verb + preposition. Be careful - these words
used together often have a meaning that you could not predict from the direct
meaning of the verb or preposition.
Take + up → start something new
Give + up → stop doing something
Set + off → start a trip or journey

More Examples
Here are some of the most common phrasal verbs:
Turn on/turn off → start or stop using a machine
Turn on the TV, I want to watch football.
Turn off the music so I can listen to the TV.
Put on/take off → place clothes on your body or remove them from your body
Put on your hat - it‟s cold outside!
Take off your shoes when you enter, please.
Find out → learn a new piece of information
Do you know where he is? Ok, please call me when you find out.
Give up → stop doing something
You need to give up smoking! It‟s so bad for your health.
Put away → places things where they should go when they are not being used
Please put away your clothes. Your room is mess!
Throw away → put something in the trash or rubbish
I threw away that apple because it was too old to eat.
Fill in → enter information, for example, on a form
Please fill in your complete name as it is on your passport.
Get along with → have a good relationship with someone
Do you get along with your sister?

Separable and Inseparable Phrasal Verbs

Summary:

When you use phrasal verbs with a direct object pronoun, sometimes you need to change the
order of words.
Example:

Separable → Can you please pick up the kids from school today? BUT Can you
please pick them up today?

165
Inseparable → We will go over your homework at the beginning of class on
Tuesday. AND We will go over it at the beginning of class on Tuesday.
Explanation:

In separable phrasal verbs, the direct object pronoun can go between the phrasal verb and the
preposition. In inseparable phrasal verbs, it must go after the preposition.

Intermediate

Use
Some phrasal verbs can take a direct object. This means that you can do this
action to something. Sometimes we can separate these verbs, but sometimes
we cannot. This is not connected to the meaning of the verb, so you just have to
remember it when you learn new phrasal verbs.

Form
When you use separable phrasal verbs with a direct object, you have two
correct options:
Verb + preposition + object → Please call back your mother after dinner.
Verb + object + preposition → Please call your mother back after dinner.
When you use a separable phrasal verb with a direct object pronoun, you
have only one correct option:
Verb + object pronoun + preposition → Please call her back after dinner.
(NOTPlease call back her after dinner.)
When you use an inseparable phrasal verb, you always put the direct object
after the preposition and never in between the verb and preposition.
It takes a long time to get over the flu. → It takes a long time to get over it.
(NOT It takes a long time to get it over.)
We will look into the problem and email you shortly. → We will look into it and
email you shortly. (NOT We will look it into and email you shortly.)
Three-word phrasal verbs are always inseparable.
It is difficult to put up with my coworker. He is always late! → It is difficult to put
up with him. He is always late!
I need to catch up on that TV show - I missed the last season! → I need to catch
up on it - I missed the last season!

More Examples
Common separable phrasal verbs:
ask out → invite someone to go out on a date
call back → return someone's telephone call
call off → cancel
clean up → tidy, make clean
cut out → remove something or stop doing something annoying
do over → repeat
drop off → leave something somewhere

166
 figure out → Understand
fill out → complete a form
give back → return
hand in → give an assignment or project to a teacher
look over → Review
look up → try to find information
pick out → choose
put off → delay

Common inseparable phrasal verbs:

check in → register at a hotel or receptionist
check out of → leave a hotel
come across → find
drop by → visit unexpectedly
get off → leave a bus, train, airplane
get on → enter a bus, train, airplane
get over → recover
get through → survive
go over → review
keep up with → stay at the same level
look into → investigate
pass away → die
put up with → tolerate
run into → find or meet
take after → be like someone
take up → begin

167